COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CSE-407
(Fundamental + Satellite + VSAT)

CSE 8th BATCH

Effat Tazmil Dity
Lecture-01
Introduction

Definition of Communication Engineering

Communication Engineering is the branch of engineering dealing with the development and operation of
communications technology, including telecommunications and computer programming.
Communication is the process of exchange of information between two entities. It involves sending,
receiving and processing of information. Thus there is a transmission of information from a source at one
place to a receiver located at another place.
The communication system is a device or setup used in the transmission of the information from one
place to another.
Basics of Communication
 Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the
message source.
 "External" devices are generally thought of as being independently powered circuitry that exists
beyond the chassis of a computer or other digital message source.
 As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to
signal power, and inversely proportional to channel noise.
 It is the aim of any communications system to provide the highest possible transmission rate at
the lowest possible power and with the least possible noise.
Communication System Components
The communication system basically deals with the transmission of information from one point to
another using the well-defined steps which are carried out in sequential manner. The system for data
transmission makes use of the sender and destination address, In this other so many elements are also
there that allows it to transfer data from one set of point to another set of point after dividing
the elements of communication system in groups and these interface elements acts as the
main component for data communication and all these interface elements are given below-
Source: It is the transmitter of data. Examples are:
• Terminal,
• Computer,
• Mainframe
Medium: The communications stream through which the data is being transmitted. Examples are:
Cabling,
Microwave,
Fiber optics,
Radio Frequencies (RF),
Infrared Wireless
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Receiver: The receiver of the data transmitted. Examples are:
Printer,
Terminal,
Mainframe,
Computer,

DCE: The interface between the Source & the Medium, and the Medium & the Receiver is called the DCE
(Data Communication Equipment) and is a physical piece of equipment.
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment is the Telecommunication name given to the Source and Receiver's
equipment.

Information source
The communication system which we are using is act as the main communication source for data
transmission between two machines. Firstly, the source of data code is generated either in numeric form or
in character form such that it should be in encrypted manner that does not provide information access to
unknown or unauthorized user, this unit uses the specialized tools and utilities for the generation of
messages which is to be transmitted over the communication channel such that the signal can either be
analog or digital in nature and it is converted from one form to another according to the compatibility of
transmission medium that represents the signal nature.
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Transmitter
The source generated electrical signals are then used by the transmitter after refining them and removes
the noise and distortion there in it and makes signal in form that can be easily amplified, for the purpose
of amplification in transmitter circuit we uses the digital modulator that converts sequence into electrical
signals so that it can be easily transmitted over long distance.
Communication channel
The physical medium which is used for the transmission of communication data signals from sender to
receiver is referred as communication channel and we can also say that it is the platform that allows the
sending and receiving of the data packets using the well-established path between two machines that can
either be wire oriented or wireless such that both types of connections are supported by the point to
point and broadcast channel, the various communication channels are used in it for the data
transmission that depends on the type of the network topology and circuit which we are using. Instead of
this, the optical media is the best communication channel that provides fast and safe data transmission
because tracing of the signals in it is impossible.
Receiver
The receiver machine work is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the noised and
distorted signal such that digital demodulator is used that process the waveform signals into the
sequence of numbers that represents the discrete values which is in form of zeros and ones and then
these discrete signals are used for the reconstruction of information code from the attenuated signal.
Communication Process
The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the sender who
then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in the form
of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus, there are major elements of communication
process:

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Communication Process

1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.
2. Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-
verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a
message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message.
3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey.
The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs,
sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.
4. Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his
message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal
relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being
sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication
mediums.
5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject
matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message
in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.
7. Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the
message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases the
effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message.
The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

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Shannon Capacity
 Shannon Theory
– It establishes that given a noisy channel with information capacity C and information
transmitted at a rate R, then if R<C, there exists a coding technique which allows the
probability of error at the receiver to be made arbitrarily small. This means that
theoretically, it is possible to transmit information without error up to a limit, C.
– The converse is also important. If R>C, the probability of error at the receiver increases
without bound as the rate is increased. So no useful information can be transmitted beyond
the channel capacity. The theorem does not address the rare situation in which rate and
capacity are equal.
 Shannon Capacity

C = B log2(1+SNR) bit/s

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Power, Channel, Noise
 Transmit power
– Constrained by device, battery, health issue, etc.
 Channel responses to different frequency and different time
– Satellite: almost flat over frequency, change slightly over time
– Cable or line: response very different over frequency, change slightly over time.
– Fiber: perfect
– Wireless: worst. Multipath reflection causes fluctuation in frequency response. Doppler
shift causes fluctuation over time
 Noise and interference
– AWGN: Additive White Gaussian noise
– Interferences: power line, microwave, other users (CDMA phone)
Telecommunication
 Telegraph
 Fixed line telephone
 Cable
 Wired networks
 Internet
 Fiber communications
 Communication bus inside computers to communicate between CPU and memory

A telegraph is a communications system in which information is transmitted over a wire through a

series of electrical current pulses, usually in the form of Morse code. The basic components include a
source of direct current, a length of wire or cable, and a current-indicating device such as a relay, buzzer,
or light bulb. The term comes from the Greek words "tele," meaning "at a distance" and "graphien,"
meaning "to write."
A fixed line telephone (a line that is not a mobile phone line) can be hard-wired or cordless and
typically refers to the operation of wireless devices or systems in fixed locations such as homes. Fixed
wireless devices usually derive their electrical power from the utility mains electricity, unlike mobile
wireless or portable wireless, which tend to be battery-powered.
A cable is one or more wires covered in a plastic covering that allows for the transmission
of power or data between devices.
A wired network uses cables to connect devices, such as laptop or desktop computers, to the Internet or
another network. A wired network has some disadvantages when compared to a wireless network. The
biggest disadvantage is that your device is tethered to a router. The most common wired networks use
cables connected at one end to an Ethernet port on the network router and at the other end to a
computer or other device.

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The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks - a
network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information
from any other computer.
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by
sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that
is modulated to carry information.[1] Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long
distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference are required.
Communication bus inside computers to communicate between CPU and memory
Wireless communications
Wireless communications is a type of data communication that is performed and delivered wirelessly.
This is a broad term that incorporates all procedures and forms of connecting and communicating
between two or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless communication technologies and
devices.
 Satellite
 TV
 Cordless phone
 Cellular phone
 Wireless LAN, WIFI
 Wireless MAN, WIMAX
 Bluetooth
 Ultra Wide Band
 Wireless Laser
 Microwave
 GPS
 Ad hoc/Sensor Networks

Satellite
Satellite communication is one of the wireless technologies, which is widely spread all over the world
allowing users to stay connected virtually anywhere on the Earth. The Satellites used in this mode of
communication, communicate directly with the orbiting satellites via radio signals. Wireless Networking
Wireless Networking technologies connect multiple computers, systems and devices together without
requiring wires or cables: a wireless local area network or WLAN comes under Wi-Fi.
WiMAX
There are wireless broadband systems that offer fast Web surfing without being getting connected through
cable or DSL (Example of wireless broadband is WiMAX). Although WiMAX can potentially deliver data
rates of more than 30 Megabits per second, yet the providers offer average 0 data rates of 6 Mbps and often
deliver less, making the service significantly slower than the hard-wired broadband. The actual cost of the
data available using WiMAX widely varies with the distance from the transmitter.

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Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a form of low-power wireless communication used by many electronic devices such as laptops,
systems, smart phones, etc. In a Wi-Fi setup, a wireless router serves as the communication hub. These
networks are extremely limited in range due to low power of transmissions allowing users to connect only
within close proximity to a router or signal repeater. Wi-Fi is common in home networking applications
which provides portability without any need of cables. Wi-Fi networks need to be secured with passwords
for security purposes in order not to be accessed by others.
Bluetooth Technology
Bluetooth technology allows you to connect a variety of different electronic devices wirelessly to a system
for the transfer and sharing of data and this is the main function of Bluetooth. Cell phones are connected to
hands-free earpieces, wireless keyboard, mouse and mike to laptops with the help of Bluetooth as it
transmits information from one device to other device. Bluetooth technology has many functions, and it is
used most commonly in wireless communications’ market.
ZigBee
ZigBee is a wireless communication standard designed to address the unique needs of low-power, low-cost
wireless sensor, and control networks. ZigBee can be used almost anywhere, as it is easy to implement and
requires little power to operate. Zigbee has been developed looking into the needs of the communication
of data with a simple structure like the data from the sensors.
Features
 ZigBee devices are designed for low-power consumption.
 ZigBee is used in Commercial Applications like sensing and monitoring applications.
 ZigBee uses very low power and extremely long device battery life.
 ZigBee gives flexibility to do more with the reliable wireless performance and battery operation.
Types of Wireless Data Transmission
Wireless technology defines the electronic devices that communicate in air without cables using radio
frequency signals. Wireless technology is used in a variety of modern device and provides greater mobility.
Wireless devices play an important role in voice and Internet communications.
Wireless Router
Wireless routers accepts an incoming Internet connection and sendsthe data as RF signals to other wireless
devices that are near to the router. A network set up with a wireless router is called as a Wireless Local
Area Network (WLAN).Many routers have built-in security features such as firewalls that help protect
devices connected to the router against malicious data such as computer viruses.A wireless router is used
in many houses to connect their computers to the Internet.
Wireless Adapters
Wireless adapters are hardware devices that are installed inside computers which enables wireless
connectivity. If a computer does not have a wireless adapter, it will not be able to connect to a router in
order to access the Internet. Some computers have wireless adapters built directly into the motherboard,
while it is also possible to install stand-alone wireless adapters to add wireless capability to a computer
that doesn’t have a built-in facility.

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Wireless Repeater
A wireless repeater is a wireless networking device that is used to extend the range of a wireless router. A
repeater receives wireless signals and amplifies the strength of the signals, and then re-emits them. The
strength of the signal can be increased by placing a repeater between the router and the computer
connected to the router.
Microwave
Microwave is an effective type of wireless data transmission that transfers information using two separate
methods. One method which is used to transmit data through the wireless media of a microwave is the
satellite method that transmits information via a satellite that orbits 22,300 miles above the Earth. Stations
on the ground send and receive data signals to and from the satellite with a frequency ranging from 11 GHz
to 14 GHz and with a transmission speed of 1 Mbps to 10 Mbps.
Infrared (IR)
Infrared is a media transmission system that transmits data signals through light emitting diodes (LEDs)
or Lasers. Infrared is an electromagnetic energy at a wavelength which is longer than that of the red light.
The information cannot be travelled through obstacles in an infrared system, but can be inhibited by light.
One type of infrared is the point to point system in which transmission is possible between two points
limited to a range and line of sight.
Radio
The radio system is one type of wireless data transmission, and it is a wireless media that transfers data
by carrying electromagnetic waves with low frequencies to distant locations through an electrical
conductor and an antenna. Ham radio enthusiasts share information and serve as emergency
communication aids during disasters with their powerful amateur broadcasting equipment and can even
communicate digital data over the radio spectrum.
Wireless Phones
The evolution of cellular networks is enumerated by generations. Many different users communicate
across a single frequency band through Cellular and cordless phones. Cellular and cordless phones are two
more examples of devices that make use of wireless signals.

Analog and Digital communication systems

Analog Communication System

Analog communication is that types of communication in which the message or information signal i.e
transmitted is analog in nature. This means that in analog communication the modulating signal (i.e base-
band signal) is an analog signal. This analog message signal may be obtained from sources such as speech,
video shooting etc.

Digital Communication System

In digital communication, the message signal to be transmitted is digital in nature. This means that digital
communication involves the transmission of information in digital form.

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Advantage of digital communication over analog communication system are

Increased immunity to channel noise and external interference.

Flexible operation of the system.
A common format for the transmission of different kinds of message signal (e.g voice signal, video signal ,
computer data ).
Improved security of communication through the use of encryption.

 Common Misunderstanding: Any transmitted signals are ANALOG. NO DIGITAL SIGNAL CAN BE
TRANSMITTED
 Analog Message: continuous in amplitude and over time
– AM, FM for voice sound
– Traditional TV for analog video
– First generation cellular phone (analog mode)
– Record player
 Digital message: 0 or 1, or discrete value
– VCD, DVD
– 2G/3G cellular phone
– Data on your disk
– Your grade
 Digital age: why digital communication will prevail

Modulation

Modulation is a process through which audio, video, image or text information is added to an electrical or
optical carrier signal to be transmitted over a telecommunication or electronic medium. Modulation
enables the transfer of information on an electrical signal to a receiving device that demodulates the signal
to extract the blended information.

Modulation has three different types:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude of the carrier is modulated.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency of the carrier is modulated.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase of the carrier is modulated.

A modem is a common example/implementation of a modulation technique in which the data is modulated

with electrical signals and transmitted over telephone lines. It is later demodulated to receive the data.

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  Process of varying a carrier signal in order to use that signal to convey information
– Carrier signal can transmit far away, but information cannot
– Modem: amplitude, phase, and frequency
– Analog: AM, amplitude, FM, frequency, Vestigial sideband modulation, TV
– Digital: mapping digital information to different constellation: Frequency-shift key (FSK)

Channel Coding

 Purpose
– Deliberately add redundancy to the transmitted information, so that if the error occurs, the
receiver can either detect or correct it.
 Source-channel separation theorem
– If the delay is not an issue, the source coder and channel coder can be designed separately,
i.e. the source coder tries to pack the information as hard as possible and the channel coder
tries to protect the packet information.
 Popular coder
– Linear block code
– Cyclic codes (CRC)
– Convolutional code (Viterbi, Qualcom)
– LDPC codes, Turbo code, 0.1 dB to Channel Capacity

The noise present in a channel creates unwanted errors between the input and the output sequences of a
digital communication system. The error probability should be very low, nearly ≤ 10-6 for a reliable
communication.

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The channel coding in a communication system, introduces redundancy with a control, so as to improve
the reliability of the system. The source coding reduces redundancy to improve the efficiency of the
system.

Channel coding consists of two parts of action.

 Mapping incoming data sequence into a channel input sequence.

 Inverse Mapping the channel output sequence into an output data sequence.

The final target is that the overall effect of the channel noise should be minimized.

The mapping is done by the transmitter, with the help of an encoder, whereas the inverse mapping is done
by the decoder in the receiver.

Channel Coding
Let us consider a discrete memoryless channel (δ) with Entropy H (δ). Ts indicates the symbols that δ
gives per second Channel capacity is indicated by C .Channel can be used for every Tc secs
Hence, the maximum capability of the channel is C/Tc
The data sent = H(δ)/ Ts
If H(δ)/Ts ≤ C / Tc , it means the transmission is good and can be reproduced with a small probability of
error.
In this, C / Tc is the critical rate of channel capacity.
If H(δ) / Ts = C / Tc then the system is said to be signaling at a critical rate.
Conversely, if H(δ) / Ts > C / Tc then the transmission is not possible.
Hence, the maximum rate of the transmission is equal to the critical rate of the channel capacity, for
reliable error-free messages, which can take place, over a discrete memory less channel. This is called
as Channel coding theorem.

Linear Block Codes

In the linear block codes, the parity bits and message bits have a linear combination, which means that
the resultant code word is the linear combination of any two code words.
Let us consider some blocks of data, which contains k bits in each block. These bits are mapped with the
blocks which has n bits in each block. Here nis greater than k. The transmitter adds redundant bits which
are (n-k) bits. The ratio k/n is the code rate. It is denoted by r and the value of r is r < 1.
The (n-k) bits added here, are parity bits. Parity bits help in error detection and error correction, and
also in locating the data. In the data being transmitted, the left most bits of the code word correspond to
the message bits, and the right most bits of the code word correspond to the parity bits.

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Cyclic Codes
The cyclic property of code words is that any cyclic-shift of a code word is also a code word. Cyclic codes
follow this cyclic property.
For a linear code C, if every code word i.e., C = (C1, C2, ...... Cn) from C has a cyclic right shift of
components, it becomes a code word. This shift of right is equal to n-1 cyclic left shifts. Hence, it is
invariant under any shift. So, the linear code C, as it is invariant under any shift, can be called as a Cyclic
code.
Cyclic codes are used for error correction. They are mainly used to correct double errors and burst
errors.
Hence, these are a few error correcting codes, which are to be detected at the receiver. These codes
prevent the errors from getting introduced and disturb the communication. They also prevent the signal
from getting tapped by unwanted receivers. There is a class of signaling techniques to achieve this, which
are discussed in the next chapter.

Convolution Codes

So far, in the linear codes, we have discussed that systematic unaltered code is preferred. Here, the data
of total n bits if transmitted, k bits are message bits and (n-k) bits are parity bits.
In the process of encoding, the parity bits are subtracted from the whole data and the message bits are
encoded. Now, the parity bits are again added and the whole data is again encoded.
The following figure quotes an example for blocks of data and stream of data, used for transmission of
information.

The whole process, stated above is tedious which has drawbacks. The allotment of buffer is a main
problem here, when the system is busy.
This drawback is cleared in convolution codes. Where the whole stream of data is assigned symbols and
then transmitted. As the data is a stream of bits, there is no need of buffer for storage.

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Communication Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless
5. Inter Network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory.
LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations are
connected to each other through LANs. We can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are
Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.

LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other
while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.

LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN

 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are
Ethernet, Token ring.
 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.

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Applications of LAN

 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called
clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.
 Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each other locally
without any internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN

 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard disks
can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead of
purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over networked
computers.
 Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server computer.
This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data. Because data is not
stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage data at
only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing system keeps the internet
expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer resources, but
the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of each and
every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use history of the LAN
user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorized users can access important data of an organization if
centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there are
problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local Area
Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one building or a
group of nearby buildings.

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar
technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private
company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN
 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre optic
cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying) graphical
regions.

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the network that
covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication
medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.

Characteristics of WAN
 It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by
routers.
Advantages of WAN
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have picture,
sounds or data included with them(called attachments).
 Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the computers
on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users may have
older information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the more
expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from other
computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

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Wireless Network

Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to implement wireless
networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea is the same.

Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:

1. System interconnection
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless WANs

System Interconnection

System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-range
radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect
various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without wires.
Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by
merely being brought within range.

In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit is
normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

Wireless LANs

These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can
communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small offices and
homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There is a standard for wireless LANs
called IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and which is becoming very widespread.

Wireless WANs

The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth wireless WAN. This
system has already gone through three generations.
 The first generation was analog and for voice only.
 The second generation was digital and for voice only.
 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.

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Inter Network

Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be formed by
joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as routers, gateways and
bridges.

THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths of countries in the world are
represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Physical layer
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
❑ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media. The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission media. It also defines the type of transmission media.

❑ Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with
no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals—electrical or optical. The physical
layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).

❑ Data rate. The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second—is also defined by the physical
layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
❑ Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver must not only use the same bit rate but must also be
synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
❑ Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a
point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected together through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared between several devices.
❑ Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
Devices can be connected using a mesh topology (every device connected to every other device), a star

19
topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected to
the next, forming a ring), or a bus topology (every device on a common link).
❑ Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In the simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only
receive. The simplex mode is a oneway communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send
and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and
receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes
the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer). Other responsibilities of the data
link layer include the following:
❑ Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units called frames.
❑ Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link
layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended
for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of the connecting device that
connects the network to the next one.
❑ Flow control. If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced at
the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
❑ Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
❑ Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
multiple networks (links). If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a
network layer.
❑ Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming
from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
❑ Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create internetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.

20
❑ Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization points) into
a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2,000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that
need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an
application program running on the host.
❑ Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point address (or port
address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire
message to the correct process on that computer.
❑ Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
❑ Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
❑ Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
❑ Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However,
error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

Session Layer
The services provided by the first four layers (physical, data link, network and transport) are not sufficient
for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems. Specific responsibilities of the session layer
include the following:
❑ Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.

21
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
❑ Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information should be changed to bit streams before
being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the
sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The
presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent
format.
❑ Encryption. To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the
resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
❑ Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.

Application Layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides
user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed information services. Specific services provided by
the application layer include the following:

❑ Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal and
allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal
at the remote host. The user’s computer talks to the software terminal, which, in turn, talks to the host, and
vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows you to
log on.

❑ File transfer, access, and management (FTAM). This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.

❑ E-mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

❑ Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

22
TCP/IP Architecture

• TCP/IP is the de facto global data communications standard.

• It has a lean 3-layer protocol stack that can be mapped to five of the seven in the OSI model.
• TCP/IP can be used with any type of network, even different types of networks within a single
session.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

23
Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:

 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination
machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is

called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently
by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
24
Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of
them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and
run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over
a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which
handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not
want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Transmission modes

A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several different
ways. The transmission is characterized by:

 the direction of the exchanges

 the transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 synchronization between the transmitter and receiver

25
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over
a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information.
There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode

In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in
Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.

Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier,
but not at the same time.

For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one
workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same
direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line
(one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.

Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in
both the directions.

26
FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same time in other
words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by
a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

Serial and parallel transmission

The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be
simultaneously translated by the communications channel.
In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process (in the case of recent processors)
a single bit at a time; generally they are able to process several (most of the time it is 8: one byte), and for
this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.
Parallel connection
 Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits.
 These bits are sent simultaneously over N different channels (a channel being, for example, a wire,
a cable or any other physical medium).
 The parallel connection on PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires.

27
Serial connection

 In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission channel.
 However, since most processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform
incoming parallel data into serial data and the receiver needs to do the opposite.
 These operations are performed by a communications controller (normally a UART (Universal
Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) chip).

Serial connection

The communications controller works in the following manner:

 The parallel-serial transformation

 The serial-parallel transformation

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

An asynchronous connection:

In asynchronous connection, each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user
sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time).

So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted during a long period of silence... the receiver will
not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...
To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character
transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-
transmission information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).

28
Synchronous connection:

In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock.

The receiver continuously receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate
the transmitter send it.

This is why the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary
information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors during transmission.

Data Transmission

• Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of data
(a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point to-multipoint communication channel.
• Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication channels, and
storage media.
• The data is represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radio wave,
microwave, or infrared signal.

Mathematical Models for Communication Channels

The Additive Noise Channel. The simplest mathematical model for a communication channel is the
additive noise channel, illustrated in Figure 1.8. In this model the transmitted signal set) is corrupted by
an additive random noise process net). Physically, the additive noise process may arise from electronic
components and amplifiers at the, receiver of the communication system, or form interference
encountered in transmission, as in the case of radio signal transmission.

If the noise is introduced primarily by electronic components and amplifiers at the receiver, it may be
characterized as thermal noise. This type .of noise is characterized statistically as a Gaussian noise
process. Hence, the resulting mathematical model for the channel is usually called the additive Gaussian
noise channel. Because this channel model applies to a broad class of physical communication channels
and because of its mathematical tractability, this is the predominant channel model used m our
communication system analysis and design. Channel attenuation is easily incorporated into the model.
When the signal undergoes attenuation in transmission through the channel, the received signal is

r(t) = as(t) + n(t)

where a represents the attenuation factor.

29
The Linear Filter Channel. In some physical channels such as wire line telephone channels, filters are
used.to ensure that the transmitted signals do not exceed specified bandwidth limitations and, thus, do
not interfere With one another such channels are generally characterized mathematically as linear filter
channels With additive noise, as illustrated in Figure. Hence, if the channel input is the signal s(t), the
channel output is the signal


r (t )  s(t )  h(t )  n(t )   h( )s(t   )d  n(t )


30
Multipath channel

 It’s a special case of LTV

 Widely used in wireless communications

Lecture 1+2

31
Lecture 03

Fundamentals of Communication

Why you use high frequency carrier wave in modulation?

• For the effective transmission of an EM wave the length of the antenna should be comparable with
the wavelength of the wave.

• The minimum length required for the antenna is l = wavelength/4.

• For a small frequency signal we need to use a very high antenna which is impractical.

Why high frequency carrier is required for a communication system?

 It requires small antennas.

 It uses the bandwidth more efficiently.
 Flexible to carry Different types of Data.

Explain why high frequency carrier waves are needed for effective transmission of signals?

@ IMPRACTICAL LENGHT OF ANTENNA:

 For the effective transmission of an EM wave the length of the antenna should be comparable with
the wavelength of the wave. The minimum length required for the antenna is l = wavelength/4.
For a small frequency signal we need to use a very high antenna which is impractical.

@ LOW OPERATING RANGE:

 For low frequency signals the energy of radiation is low. [Power radiated is proportional to
(l/wavelength) raised to 2] So it is attenuated with in short distance.

Radio Frequency - RF Spectrum

• Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic waves, also called radio waves, in radio
communication system.
• The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a few ten kilo Hertz (kHz) to several
thousand Mega Hertz (MHz).
• This wide range frequencies is called the radio spectrum or RF spectrum

32
Classification of the Radio Frequency Spectrum

RF Spectrum

 The RF spectrum is divided into several ranges, or bands.

 With the exception of the lowest-frequency segment, each band represents an increase of
frequency corresponding to an order of magnitude (power of 10).
 The table depicts the eight bands in the RF spectrum, showing frequency and bandwidth ranges.
 The SHF and EHF bands are often referred to as the microwave spectrum.

33
Elements of Radio Communication System

What is modulated carrier wave?

• The electrical signals bearing the information which describes sound cannot be transmitted by
themselves.
• They must be carried by the radio waves generated by the oscillator, hence, the name radio
carrier wave.
• Transfer is done in the modulation process.

Why is modulation necessary?

• Modulation is the process by which the carrier wave is changed or varied in relation to the
original sound’s loudness and pitch.
• Loudness and intensity are related to the amplitude of a wave; pitch is related to frequency.
• Thus, the two basic ways of modulating radio waves are amplitude modulation (AM) and
frequency modulation (FM).

Amplitude Modulation

• A wave’s amplitude is its maximum displacement from equilibrium position. In amplitude

modulation, the oscillator emits a fixed frequency, the carrier frequency.
• The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to the intensity (loudness) and frequency
(pitch) of the source wave and the fixed frequency of the source sound wave.
• A wave’s amplitude is its maximum displacement from equilibrium position. In amplitude
modulation, the oscillator emits a fixed frequency, the carrier frequency.
• The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to the intensity (loudness) and frequency
(pitch) of the source wave and the fixed frequency of the source sound wave.

34
Frequency Modulation

 Frequency is the number of waves passing a point per unit time.

 Frequency modulation achieves the same effect as amplitude modulation.
 But this time, the carrier wave has fixed amplitude.
 The transmitted radio waves frequency varies with the sour4ce sound waves.

Bandwidth

• The amount of information in a signal determines the maximum frequencies that it contains. This
is called the bandwidth of the signal.
• Morse code sent by hand has a comparatively low bandwidth of only a few hertz.
• To give an acceptable reproduction of speech, telephone signal needs bandwidth of about 4000
Hz, while hi-hi music needs about 20000 Hz.
• Video signals however, which contain information on the shape, color, and movement in a
continuously changing scene often occupy a bandwidth of more than 5 MHz.
• In radio transmission, stations are allocated different frequencies so that a receiver can tune into
a particular station and exclude all others.
• To avoid interference, transmissions frequencies must be spaced apart at least by the bandwidth
of the modulating signal.
• The amount of information in a signal determines the maximum frequencies that it contains. This
is called the bandwidth of the signal.
• Morse code sent by hand has a comparatively low bandwidth of only a few hertz.
• To give an acceptable reproduction of speech, telephone signal needs bandwidth of about 4000
Hz, while hi-hi music needs about 20000 Hz.
• Video signals however, which contain information on the shape, color, and movement in a
continuously changing scene often occupy a bandwidth of more than 5 MHz.
• In radio transmission, stations are allocated different frequencies so that a receiver can tune into
a particular station and exclude all others.
• To avoid interference, transmissions frequencies must be spaced apart at least by the bandwidth
of the modulating signal.

Radio Waves

• We cannot hear radio waves. A receiver intercepts the waves given off by the transmitter and
transforms them into audible sounds.
• Radio stations broadcast at different frequencies. The antenna of radio wave receivers, like that of
a radio set, picks up all frequencies. But the radio’s turner circuit selects the frequency received.
• The turner circuit of a radio receiver consists of a coil of a wire called an inductor and a variable
capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor changes when the tuner knob is turned. A certain
combination of inductance and capacitance is related to the frequency of the received signals.
• Radio waves from the transmitting antenna of all radio stations reach your radio and set up
changing currents in the radio antenna. When the radio is not properly tuned in, signals from
more than one radio stations are received.
• A tuner circuits selects the frequency of the station desired. When the radio is properly tuned in,
the frequency of the tuning circuit resonates and therefore gives preference to the stations
frequency. Moving the tuner knob changes the resonant frequency of the tuner circuit and station
heard.
35
Noise
• In communication studies and information theory, anything that interferes in the communication
process between a speaker and an audience.
• Noise can be external or internal, and it can disrupt the communication process at any point.
• Noise Types:

Types of Noise in Satellite Communication

In satellite communication applications, there are three major types of noise, and all of them are
produced at the receiving ends (or ground stations).

1. Thermal Noise

 Thermal noise (aka white noise or Nyquist noise) is a major category of electronic noise that
occurs because of thermal excitation, or heating up, of electrical charges within a conducting wire,
equipment, or link, causing satellite signals to develop unwanted energy characteristics.
 This type of noise usually results from external environmental heat or increasing device
temperature because a satellite receiver over a dish antenna is usually placed on a rooftop or in an
open environment

2. Shot Noise

 Shot noise is occasionally observed within satellite communication channels, and is usually linked
with the abnormal reactions of electric current within the satellite receiving device.
 This type of noise is not related to device temperature variations; its major cause is the random
fluctuation of a power supplying source working at the back end of receiving equipment.

3. Flicker Noise

 Noise induction caused by a satellite signal's interference with higher frequency signals in the
surrounding environment is called flicker or 1/f noise.
 Frequency is a rate of oscillations that a signal (or wave) completes within one second, and is
measured in Hertz.
 A normal satellite signal has a frequency of around 3 GHz (or 3,000,000,000 Hz) to 5 GHz and for
this reason, its chances of interference within surrounding environment, which already contains
different electromagnetic energies and waves of higher and lower frequencies, increase.

36
Noise Removal Techniques in Satellite Communication

 Thermal, shot, and 1/f categories of noise are unavoidable in the process of satellite
communication, so they can never be completely excluded from a satellite signal.
 However, satellite communication receivers normally have advanced circuits integrated within
their architecture, called LNB (low noise block-down converter) or LNA (low noise amplifier).
 These circuits receive low-power satellite signals, amplify them, increase their power, and thus
significantly reduce these categories of noise present within the received data signals.
What Are the Noise Factors That Affect Communication?
 Noise factors that affect communication are more than simply loud noises.
 The term refers to many kinds of roadblocks or types of interference that prevent people from
effectively exchanging messages.
 Some noise factors are easily managed, but others are difficult to overcome.
 More challenging types of communication noise, or interference, may prompt companies to offer
training and support systems that help people learn to reduce or remove these noise factors.
Noise Types
Communication scholars classify four types of noise:
1. Physical
2. Psychological
3. Physiological and
4. Semantic.
1. Physical Noise
• Physical noise is external to the speaker and listener.
• It includes things such as the sounds of road construction outside your window that make
it difficult to hear what is being said.
2. Psychological Noise
• Psychological noise is mental interference that prevents you from listening.
• If your mind is wandering when someone is speaking to you, the noise in your head is
preventing communication.
3. Physiological Noise
• Physiological noise is any physiological issue that interferes with communication.
• For example, if you have a migraine, it may be difficult to speak to others or listen to them
when they speak to you.
4. Semantic Noise
• Semantic noise occurs when there is no shared meaning in a communication.
• This often occurs when someone is dealing with medical professionals, lawyers, scientists
or others who use terminology that lay people may not understand.
37
How noise affects communication?

 Noise affects communication by somehow altering the message.

 In a very basic model of communication, a message has to pass from the receiver to the recipient
through a channel (like the air, television, a printed page, etc.).

Noise is something that interferes with the transmission of the message through the channel.
 An easy way to think of this is to picture static on a TV.
 The static is the noise that interferes with the transmission of the TV program through the
channel of your cable box or satellite dish.
 This makes it difficult to understand the message sent by the TV program; you may not hear what
someone on TV says correctly, and so misinterpret what they say, for example.

Signal to Noise ratio Definition

Signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the power ratio between a signal (meaningful information) and the
background noise (unwanted signal):

where P is average power. Both signal and noise power must be measured at the same and equivalent
points in a system, and within the same system bandwidth.

If the signal and the noise are measured across the same impedance, then the SNR can be obtained by
calculating the square of the amplitude ratio:

where A is root mean square (RMS) amplitude (for example, RMS voltage).

Signal to Noise ratio Definition

Because many signals have a very wide dynamic range , SNRs are often expressed using the logarithmic
decibel scale. In decibels, the SNR is defined as:

which may equivalently be written using amplitude ratios as

38
Noise figure basics

 In fact, the noise figure is simply the comparison of the SNR at the input and the output of the
circuit.

 A figure known as the noise factor can be derived simply by taking the SNR at the input and
dividing it by the SNR at the output.
 As the SNR at the output will always be worse, i.e. lower, this means that the noise factor is always
greater than one.
 The noise factor is rarely seen in specifications. Instead the noise figure is always seen. This is
simply the noise factor expressed in decibels.

Lecture 03

39
Lecture 04

Satellite Communication

What is Satellite?

 A satellite is an object that goes around, or orbits, a larger object, such as a planet.
 While there are natural satellites, like the Moon, hundreds of man-made satellites also orbit
the Earth.
 A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star. For example, Earth is a
satellite because it orbits the sun. Likewise, the moon is a satellite because it orbits Earth.
 Usually, the word "satellite" refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around
Earth or another body in space.
 Earth and the moon are examples of natural satellites. Thousands of artificial, or man-made,
satellites orbit Earth.
 Some take pictures of the planet that help meteorologists predict weather and track
hurricanes. Some take pictures of other planets, the sun, black holes, dark matter or faraway
galaxies. These pictures help scientists better understand the solar system and universe.
Still other satellites are used mainly for communications, such as beaming TV signals and
phone calls around the world.
 A group of more than 20 satellites make up the Global Positioning System, or GPS. If you have a
GPS receiver, these satellites can help figure out your exact location.

What Was the First Satellite in Space?

 Sputnik 1 was the first satellite in space. The Soviet Union launched it in 1957.
 The Sputnik satellite was about the size of a basketball and weighed 183 pounds.

What Is the History of NASA Satellites?

 NASA has launched dozens of satellites into space, starting with the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958.
 Explorer 1 was America's first man-made satellite. The main instrument aboard was a sensor that
measured high-energy particles in space called cosmic rays.
 The first satellite picture of Earth came from NASA's Explorer 6 in 1959. TIROS-1 followed in 1960
with the first TV picture of Earth from space.
 These pictures did not show much detail. But they did show the potential satellites had to change
how people view Earth and space.

How Does NASA Use Satellites Today?

 NASA satellites help scientists study Earth and space.
 Satellites looking toward Earth provide information about clouds, oceans, land and ice. They
also measure gases in the atmosphere, such as ozone and carbon dioxide, and the amount of
energy that Earth absorbs and emits.
 And satellites monitor wildfires, volcanoes and their smoke.

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  All this information helps scientists predict weather and climate. The information also helps
public health officials track disease and famine; it helps farmers know what crops to plant; and
it helps emergency workers respond to natural disasters.
 Satellites that face toward space have a variety of jobs. Some watch for dangerous rays coming
from the sun. Others explore asteroids and comets, the history of stars, and the origin of
planets.
 Some satellites fly near or orbit other planets. These spacecraft may look for evidence of water
on Mars or capture close-up pictures of Saturn's rings.

Why Are Satellites Important?

1. The bird's-eye view that satellites have allows them to see large areas of Earth at one time. This
ability means satellites can collect more data, more quickly, than instruments on the ground.

2. Satellites also can see into space better than telescopes at Earth's surface. That's because satellites
fly above the clouds, dust and molecules in the atmosphere that can block the view from ground level.

3. Before satellites, TV signals didn't go very far. TV signals only travel in straight lines. So they would
quickly trail off into space instead of following Earth's curve. Sometimes mountains or tall buildings
would block them. Phone calls to faraway places were also a problem. Setting up telephone wires over
long distances or underwater is difficult and costs a lot.
4. With satellites, TV signals and phone calls are sent upward to a satellite. Then, almost instantly,
the satellite can send them back down to different locations on Earth.
5. The Jason-2 satellite orbits Earth. It carries tools and sensors to help scientists study the oceans.

Components of a satellite

 Communication capabilities with earth

 A power source
 A control system to accomplish its mission
 While some of the images on the computer screen look like photographs, some don't.
 Bright colors (false colors) are often added to enhance the contrast to make details stand out or to
allow us to see what was recorded in the infrared wavelength, beyond our visual range.
 False colors do not correspond to the colors we normally see. For example, a field of wheat might
look pink; clear water may appear black.

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How Do Satellites Orbit Earth?
 Most satellites are launched into space on rockets. A satellite orbits Earth when its speed is
balanced by the pull of Earth's gravity. Without this balance, the satellite would fly in a straight
line off into space or fall back to Earth. Satellites orbit Earth at different heights, different
speeds and along different paths.
 The two most common types of orbit are "geostationary“ and "polar.“
 A geostationary satellite travels from west to east over the equator. It moves in the same
direction and at the same rate Earth is spinning. From Earth, a geostationary satellite looks like
it is standing still since it is always above the same location.
 Polar-orbiting satellites travel in a north-south direction from pole to pole. As Earth spins
underneath, these satellites can scan the entire globe, one strip at a time.

Why Don't Satellites Crash Into Each Other?

 Actually, they can. NASA and other U.S. and international organizations keep track of satellites
in space.
 Collisions are rare because when a satellite is launched, it is placed into an orbit designed to
avoid other satellites.
 But orbits can change over time. And the chances of a crash increase as more and more
satellites are launched into space.
 In February 2009, two communications satellites -- one American and one Russian -- collided
in space. This, however, is believed to be the first time two man-made satellites have collided
accidentally.
 Actually, they can. NASA and other U.S. and international organizations keep track of satellites
in space.
 Collisions are rare because when a satellite is launched, it is placed into an orbit designed to
avoid other satellites.
 But orbits can change over time. And the chances of a crash increase as more and more
satellites are launched into space.
 In February 2009, two communications satellites -- one American and one Russian -- collided
in space. This, however, is believed to be the first time two man-made satellites have collided
accidentally.

What is Satellite Communication?

 In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with
the help of satellite.
 In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards
the satellite.
 Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna present on the
earth’s surface.
 So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type of communication is known
as space communication.
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Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive satellites.

Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects the
coming microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part.

This is also known as passive sphere. Our earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon.

Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming.

In active satellites an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. These satellites
are also called as transponders.

The transmitters fitted on the earth generate the microwaves. These rays are received by the
transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals are transmitted back to earth.

This sending can be done at the same time or after some delay. These amplified signals are stored in the
memory of the satellites, when earth properly faces the satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the
signals to earth.

Some active satellites also have programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily
played and watched. The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957.

The signals coming from the satellite when reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification
is done by the receivers themselves. After amplification these become available for further use.

Block Diagram of Satellite Communication:

Geostationary Satellite

 Microwave communication is possible only if the position of satellite becomes stationary with
respect to the position of earth.
 So, these types of satellites are known as geostationary satellites.

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What are the requirements for a satellite to be geostationary?

1. Its revolutionary direction must be same as that of the earth, i.e. from west to east.

2. The time period of satellite’s revolution must be same to the time period of the rotation of earth along
its polar axis, which is equal to 24 hours.

3. The equatorial plane of earth must be coplanar with the orbital plane of the satellites revolution.

 These orbits are capable of giving a successful communication link between two stations present
on the earth.
 These satellites can handle communication up to large distances. But it is impossible for a single
geo-stationary satellite to cover the whole earth and provide a communication link.
 Due to curvature of earth the stations will be out of sight after covering some distance. If we want
to cover the whole earth then we have to put three satellites onto the geosynchronous orbit. These
satellites can cover the earth if all are inclined at an angle of 120o to each other.

TYPES OF SATELLITES

Satellites are usually classified according to the type of orbit they are in. There are four types of orbit
associated with satellites, and the type of orbit dictates a satellite's use.

1. Low Earth Orbits

2. Sun Synchronous Orbits
3. Geosynchronous satellites
4. Geostationary satellites

Low Earth Orbits

 Satellites in low Earth orbits are normally military reconnaissance satellites that can pick out
tanks from 160 km above the Earth.
 They orbit the earth very quickly, one complete orbit normally taking 90 minutes. However, these
orbits have very short lifetimes in the order of weeks compared with decades for geostationary
satellites.
 Simple launch vehicles can be used to place these satellites of large masses into orbit.

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Sun-Synchronous orbits

 Meteorological satellites are often placed in a sun-synchronous or heliosynchronous orbit.

 These satellites are in polar orbits. The orbits are designed so that the satellite's orientation is
fixed relative to the Sun throughout the year, allowing very accurate weather predictions to be
made.
 Most meteorological satellites orbit the Earth 15 to 16 times per day.

Geosynchronous satellites

 Earth-synchronous or geosynchronous satellites are placed into orbit so that their period of
rotation exactly matches the Earth's rotation.
 They take 24 hours to make one rotation. However, the plane of orbit for these satellites is
generally not the equatorial plane.
 Apart from geostationary satellites (see below), the satellites are used for communications at
high latitudes, particularly in Russia and Canada. The orbits are called Molniya orbits.
 The satellites are placed in highly elliptical orbits which enable them to appear to hover above
one point on the Earth for most of the day.
 In twenty four hours they move over the Earth in a figure of eight pattern centered on a fixed
longitude, moving slowly where they can be useful and quickly where they are of little use.
 Earth-synchronous or geosynchronous satellites are placed into orbit so that their period of
rotation exactly matches the Earth's rotation.
 They take 24 hours to make one rotation. However, the plane of orbit for these satellites is
generally not the equatorial plane.
 Apart from geostationary satellites (see below), the satellites are used for communications at
high latitudes, particularly in Russia and Canada. The orbits are called Molniya orbits.
 The satellites are placed in highly elliptical orbits which enable them to appear to hover above
one point on the Earth for most of the day.
 In twenty four hours they move over the Earth in a figure of eight pattern centered on a fixed
longitude, moving slowly where they can be useful and quickly where they are of little use.

Geostationary satellites

 The majority of communications satellites are in fact geostationary satellites. Geostationary

satellites like geosynchronous satellites take 24 hours to complete a rotation.
 However, geostationary satellites are positioned directly over the equator and their path follows
the equatorial plane of the Earth. As a result geostationary satellites don't move North or South
during the day and are permanently fixed above one point on the equator of the Earth.
 Most video or T.V. communications systems use geostationary satellites. Geosynchronous and
geostationary satellites are typically orbiting at 35,788 km (22,238 miles) above the surface of the
planet (42,000 km from its center).
 Modern satellites have a mass of several thousand kilograms, compared with just 180 kilograms
for Sputnik. Modern satellites are placed in space using launch vehicles like the Arianne Rocket or
the Space Shuttle.
 Once in space, most satellites obtain their power from the Sun using solar panels. Satellites
travelling deep into space often carry additional nuclear power supplies.
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Different types of Satellites based on the functions:

 Communications Satellites
 Earth Observation Satellites
 Weather Satellites
 Navigation satellites
 Military Satellites
 Special Satellites

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Lecture 05

Satellite facts and information

 There are many satellites in orbit fulfilling a huge variety of functions.

 Satellite technology has now become a part of everyday life, enabling worldwide communications,
global navigation, surveying and monitor as well as gathering data for weather forecasting, and
many more applications.

Facts about numbers of satellites in orbit

Fact Details

Number of satellites Over 2 500 in orbit around the Earth

First rockets that entered outer space The German V2 rocket in mid 1940s

Number of man-made objects orbiting the In excess of 10 000

Earth

Facts about satellite orbits

Fact
Geostationary orbit
Geostationary orbit altitude
Details
An orbit in which the satellite has the same angular velocity as
the Earth so it appears above the same position above the Earth
at all times. These orbits can only be directly above the equator.
Approximately 35 786 km, 22 236 mile

Geostationary orbital velocity Approximately 3.07 km/s, 1.91 miles/s

Geostationary orbital period 1 sidereal day, 23.934461223 hours, 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds, 1 436 minutes 4 seconds.
Geostationary orbit distance The distance around the path of a complete geostationary orbit is
approximately 265 000 km or 165 000 miles
Low Earth Orbit, LEO altitude 200 - 1200 km
range
Medium Earth Orbit, MEO altitude 1200 - 35790 km
range
High Earth Orbit, HEO altitudes Above 35790 km

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Facts about the satellite navigation

Fact Details
Most widely used SatNav GPS - Global Position System

GPS official Name Navstar

GPS operator
Navstar constellation
Navstar satellite expected
life-time
Navstar typical size
Navstar typical weight
Navstar transmit power
US Department of Defense
24 satellites + orbiting spares
10 years
Dependent upon the satellite series and build date, but typically 17 feet
across with antennas extended
Dependent upon the satellite series and build date, but can be around
1860 pounds.
~ 50 watts

Navstar solar panel
capability
Navstar orbits
Navstar satellite speed
Solar panels generate about 700 watts of electricity
The satellites are in one of six orbits. These are in planes that are
inclined at approximately 55 degrees to the equatorial plane and there
are four satellites in each orbit. The orbits that are roughly 20200 km
above the surface of the Earth.
Approximately 14000 km / hour, 8500 mph

Navstar orbit time Approximately 12 hours

Direct broadcast satellite facts

Fact Details

Name Although commonly called Direct Broadcast Satellite, DBS, it is officially

known by the International Telecommunication Union, ITU, as
Broadcasting Satellite Service, or BS. It is a direct to home, DTH service

Frequency bands  ITU Region 1 (Europe, Russia, Asia): 10.7 - 12.75 GHz
 ITU Region 2 (North & South America): 12.2 - 12.7 GHz
 ITU Region 3 (Asia, Australasia): 11.7 - 12.2 GHz

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Satellite applications
 There are many applications for satellites in today's world. Ever since the first satellite, Sputnik 1,
was launched in 1957, large numbers of satellites have been launched into space to meet a variety
of needs.
 As satellite technology has developed over the years, so ahs the number of applications to which
they can be put.
 Whatever the type of satellite it is necessary to be able to communicate with them, and in view of
the large distances, the only feasible technology is radio.
 As such radio communication is an integral part of any satellite system, whatever its application.
Satellite applications
 Astronomical satellites
 Communications satellites
 Earth observation satellites
 Navigation satellites
 Reconnaissance satellites
 Weather satellites
Satellite orbit
There are a number of definitions associated with various different types of satellite orbits:
Geocentre : When satellites orbit the Earth, either in a circular or elliptical orbit, the satellite orbit forms
a plane that passes through the centre of gravity or geocentre of the Earth.
Direction of rotation around the Earth: There are two ways in which a satellite orbit may be
categorized:
Posigrade: The rotation around the earth is said to be posigrade when it rotates in the same direction as
the rotation of the Earth.
Retrograde: The rotation around the earth is said to be retrograde when it rotates in the opposite
direction to the rotation of the Earth

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Ground track: The ground track of a satellite is point on the Earth's surface where the satellite is
directly overhead as it moves around the globe.
 This forms a circle which has the geocentre at its centre. It is worth noting that geostationary
satellites are a special case as they appear directly over the same point of the Earth all the time.
 This means that their ground track consists of a single point on the Earth's equator. Also for
satellites with equatorial orbits the ground track is along the equator.

For these orbits it is usually found that the ground-track shifts towards the west for each orbit
because the Earth is rotating towards the east underneath the satellite.
Orbital nodes: These are the points where the ground track passes from one hemisphere to another.
There are two for any non-equatorial orbit:
Ascending node: This is the node where the ground-track passes from the southern hemisphere
to the northern hemisphere.
Descending node: This is the node where the ground-track passes from the northern to the
southern hemisphere.
Satellite height: For many orbit calculations it is necessary to consider the height of the satellite above
the geocentric.
This is the height above the Earth plus the radius of the Earth. This is generally taken to be 3960 miles or
6370 km.
Orbit velocity: For a circular orbit it is always the same. However in the case of an elliptical one this is
not the case as the speed changes dependent upon the position in the orbit.
It reaches a maximum when it is closest to the Earth and it has to combat the greatest gravitational pull,
and it is at its lowest speed when it is furthest away.
Angle of elevation: The angle of elevation is the angle at which the satellite appears above the
horizontal.
If the angle is too small then signals may be obstructed by nearby objects if the antenna is not very high.
For those antennas that have an unobstructed view there are still problems with small angles of
elevation.
The reason is that signals have to travel through more of the Earth's atmosphere and are subjected to
higher levels of attenuation as a result. An angle of five degrees is generally accepted as the minimum
angle for satisfactory operation.

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Angle of inclination: Not all satellite orbits follow the equator - in fact most Low Earth Orbits do not. It
is therefore necessary to define the angle of inclination of the satellite orbit.

The diagram below defines this

Angle of inclination of a satellite orbit:

Satellite design and construction

 Satellite design and construction is a particularly specialized business.
 The requirements for satellites are very stringent and satellites must be capable of operating in
extreme conditions whilst still maintaining the highest standards of reliability because they
cannot be retrieved for maintenance or repair.
 Apart from the general factors relating to satellite design, the circuitry required for their operation
such as the transmitters and receivers, satellites also contain a number of systems used for what is
called station keeping.
 All of these functions whether for performing the primary role of the satellite or for ensuring that
it reliably maintains its position and function are all important and must be included in the design
of the satellite.
Satellite position maintenance
 Satellites need to be kept in the correct position. Although they may be placed in exactly the
correct orbit after they are launched, the variations in the Earth's gravitational field and other
factors may cause them to drift out of their correct position. As a result it is necessary to
reposition them periodically.
 Small thrusters are used to perform this operation. Often they consist of canisters of a gas which
when released with a catalyst gives a form of rocket propulsion to move the satellite back on
station.
 Often the service life of a satellite is determined by the amount of fuel for repositioning the
satellite rather than the reliability of the electronics.
 The other problem with a satellite is that its attitude will change.
 This is of great importance because directive antennas or cameras are often used, and the satellite
needs to be orientated in the correct direction for them.
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  The basic method of gaining the correct orientation is to use the thrusters.
 However the attitude will change comparatively quickly. The most common method to overcome
this is to use the gyroscopic effect.
 Sometimes a large flywheel may be made to spin inside the satellite. This can be inefficient in its
use of the weight of the satellite.
 To overcome this other cylindrical satellites actually rotate a portion of the body, often an inner
cylindrical section so that the antennas mounted on the outer section do not revolve.

Satellite power
Electrical power is also required by the satellite for its electronic circuitry and other electrical systems.
Although the power requirements for some satellites may be relatively modest, this is certainly not the
case for satellites such as direct broadcast (DBS) or satellite television broadcasting satellites. Although
they do not transmit the same levels of power that are used for terrestrial broadcasting, they still
consume considerable amounts of power.
The power is supplied by the large arrays of photo or solar cells. Some cylindrical satellites have them
positioned around the outer area on the cylinder so that some part of the body is always exposed to
sunlight. Others have large extending panels that are orientated to collect the maximum amount of light.
Today these panels are capable of producing the many kilowatts of power required for the high power
output stages used in many transponders.

Batteries are also needed for the periods when the satellite is in darkness. These need to charged by the
solar cells so that when the satellite passes out of the sunlight it can still remain operational. This
naturally places an additional burden on the solar cells because they need to be able to power not only
the satellite itself, but also charge the batteries. This may double the power they have to supply during
periods of sunlight.

Satellite antennas
 The antennas used on satellites are particularly important. They are the only means through
which communication can take place with the ground.
 For geostationary satellites directional antennas are generally used. These are used because
power consumption on the satellite has to be minimized wherever possible.
 Directional antennas provide gain and enable the best use to be made of the available transmitted
power. Additionally they enable the signals from the earth to be received with the best signal to
noise ratio.
 In view of the long path lengths required for geostationary satellites, there is a considerable path
loss and the antenna gain is used to improve the received signal strength.

52
  It also helps reduce the reception of solar and cosmic noise that would further degrade the
received signal. In a geostationary orbit the earth subtends only 18 degrees of arc. Any power not
falling into this area is wasted.
 As a result, parabolic reflector or "dish" antennas are widely used.
 Horn antennas are also popular and in some cases phased arrays may be employed, especially
where coverage of a specific area of the globe is required.
 However the use of directional antennas does mean that the orientation of the antenna is crucial,
and any perturbation of the alignment of the satellite can have a major effect on its operation, both
in reception and transmission.

Environmental
 The environment in which satellites operate is particularly harsh.
 Combined with the need for exceedingly high levels of reliability resulting from the near
impossible task of repair, this means that every detail of the design and operation under these
conditions must be carefully considered.
 In the first instance the temperatures range over very wide extremes. The surfaces exposed to the
sun are heated by solar radiation and will rise to very high temperatures, whereas the other side
that is not heated will be exceedingly cold.
 Only conduction will give any heating effect under these circumstances. The temperature of the
whole of the satellite will also fall when it is in darkness.

Ground stations
 Ground stations also need an effective antenna system.
 For communication with satellites in geostationary orbit the antenna remains fixed, except if there
is a need to change to another satellite.
 Accordingly parabolic reflectors are often used. This can be seen from the number of satellite TV
antennas that are in use. These are a form of parabolic reflector. This type of antenna is widely
sued for example with direct broadcast satellite TV.
 The antennas seen on the sides of houses are almost exclusively parabolic reflectors. However it is
possible to use other types such as arrays of Yagi antennas. Here they are stacked (one on top of
the other) and bayed (side bay side) to give additional gain.
 For some low earth orbit satellites the ground station antenna systems are designed to be able to
track the satellite in azimuth and elevation.
 This is typically achieved by automatically tracking the satellite as it moves across the sky. This is
normally achieved by taking a signal level output from the receiver.

53
  By ensuring that it is maintained at its peak level the satellite will be tracked. Many low earth orbit
satellites are required for systems such as positioning or even telephone style communications.
 Here directional antennas are not used as the user will not want to re-orientate the antenna all the
time.
 Instead almost non-directional antennas are used and the transmitter powers and receiver
sensitivities designed to give a sufficient level of signal to noise ratio.
 This is the case for GPS where several satellites need to be received at the same time. Accordingly
receivers are designed to accommodate the very low signal levels.

Communications satellite advantages & disadvantages

Satellites are able to provide communications in many instances where other forms of communications
technology may not provide a feasible alternative.
Communications satellites provide a number of advantages:
Flexibility: Satellite systems are able to provide communications in a variety of ways without the need to
install fixed assets.
Mobility: Satellite communications are able to reach all areas of the globe dependent upon the type of
satellite system in use, and the ground stations do not need to be in any one given location. For this
reason, many ships use satellite communications.
Speedy deployment: Deployment of a satellite communications system can be very speedy. No ground
infrastructure may be required as terrestrial lines, or wireless base stations are not needed. Therefore
many remote areas, satellite communications systems provide an ideal solution.
Provides coverage over the globe: Dependent upon the type of satellite communications system, and
the orbits used, it is possible to provide complete global coverage. As a result, satellite communications
systems are sued for providing communications capabilities in many remote areas where other
technologies would not be viable.
When considering the use of a satellite some disadvantages also need to be taken into consideration:
Cost: Satellites are not cheap to build, place in orbit and then maintain. This means that the operational
costs are high, and therefore the cost of renting or buying space on the satellite will also not be cheap.
Propagation delay: As distances are very much greater than those involved with terrestrial systems,
propagation delay can be an issue, especially for satellites using geostationary orbits. Here the round trip
from the ground to the satellite and back can be of the order of a quarter of a second.
Specialized satellite terminals required: Even though the operator will operate all the required
infrastructure, the user will still need a specialized terminal that will communicate with the satellite. This
is likely to be reasonably costly, and it will only be able to be used with one provider.

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Telecommunications satellite links
 Communications satellites are ideally placed to provide telecommunications links between
different places across the globe.
 Traditional telecommunications links used direct "cables" linking different areas. As a result of the
cost of installation and maintenance of these cables, satellites were seen as an ideal alternative.
While still expensive to put in place, they provided a high bandwidth and were able to operate for
many years.
 In recent years the bandwidth that can be offered by cables has increased considerably, and this
has negated some of the gains of satellites.
 Additionally the geostationary satellites used for telecommunications links introduce a significant
time delay in view of the very large distances involved. This can be a problem for normal
telephone calls.
 However satellite communications systems provide significant levels of flexibility and mobility
provide the opportunities for many satellite communications systems.
 Although the initial infrastructure costs are high, often new remote stations can be added
relatively cheaply as new lines do not need to be installed to provide communication to the new
remote station, unlike wire based telecommunications systems or many terrestrial wireless links
were repeater stations may be needed.

Communications satellite applications
There are many different ways in which communications satellites can be used:
Telecommunications: Satellite systems have been able to provide data communications links over
large distances. They were often used in place of intercontinental submarine cables which were
expensive and unreliable in their early days. Nowadays cable technology has significantly improved to
provide much higher levels of capacity especially as a result of fiber optic technology and their
reliability has also greatly improved. As a result satellites are less frequently used to replace
terrestrial cables, although in some instances this remains the case.

Satellite phones: The concept of using a mobile phone from anywhere on the globe is one that has
many applications. Although the terrestrial cellular network is widely available, there are still very
many areas where coverage is not available. In these situations satellite phones are of great use. As an
example satellite phones are widely used by the emergency services for situations when they are in
remote areas, even of countries that might have a good cellular network, but not in remote areas.
They may also be for communications in rural areas where no cellular coverage may be available.
They also find uses at sea, and in developing countries, or in uninhabited areas of the globe.

55
What is a Satellite VSAT network?
VSAT stands for "Very Small Aperture Terminal", which is a very small satellite transmitting and
receiving station that is installed at each Local Agency and each WIC clinic to replace the modem for
data transfer.
In addition, the VSAT is able to reliably transfer data, video, and voice via satellite.
Because the VSAT can transfer video and voice, it can also support Interactive Distance Learning
(IDL), which will be used to train WIC clinic staff in the near future.
The VSAT consists of:
(1) the OutDoor Unit (ODU) and (2) and an InDoor Unit (IDU)
 ODU: An OutDoor Unit (ODU) is composed of a dish-shaped antenna that is typically 3 to 5 feet in
diameter and electronic components which receives or transmits data, video, or voice signal to
and from the satellite.
 This VSAT dish typically weighs no more than 150 pounds. This ODU is mounted outdoors,
typically on top of the building roof, with a non-penetrating mount. Should this mounting option
not be available, the dish can be mounted on the wall or on a pole away from the building.
 This ODU is connected to the IDU (inside the building) by a coaxial cable similar to a cable TV
connection.

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The following comparison table shows some significant benefits of the Satellite VSAT system as
compared to the modem dialup network :
Current Modem Dialup Network:
Data transfer window = 2 to 10 minutes
Reliability: there is no guarantee for data transfer over analog voice lines
Low bandwidth: < 28.8 Kbps
Security = none
Can't handle distance learning (IDL)
Cannot cost-effectively increase bandwidth
Hard to manage, many invisible components and vendors
Cannot multicast with the analog modem
Optimized for voice only
Helpdesk support for only one computer

 The Satellite VSAT network is the only technology that can meet all WIC data transfer requirement
and Interactive Distance Learning (IDL) requirements for the next decade.
 The Satellite VSAT network will be installed and managed by a single vendor and will involve
minimal change for both the WIN system and the clinic staff. All installation costs, VSAT and IDL
service costs will be paid by TDH. The IDL installation will occur at the same time as the VSATs.
IDL will provide you better quality in training and more efficiency.
 You will not have to travel to remote training sites, rather you can put on a headset and look into
your office computer's monitor for a live, interactive, and instructor-led training session without
disturbing other workers, or WIC customers. When you want to ask questions, you'll be able to ask
the instructor verbally with your microphone, or send an real-time e-mail. The instructor will
respond to your question verbally via your computer speaker (or headset) and you can see the
instructor via your computer's monitor.
 Many different types of exams or certification can be done via IDL with a live instructor sitting in
front of a camera inside a studio in Austin. IDL helps make training fun and economical. A Satellite
VSAT network makes IDL possible.

What is link budget?

As the name implies, a link budget is an accounting of all the gains and losses in a transmission system.
The link budget looks at the elements that will determine the signal strength arriving at the receiver.

The link budget may include the following items:

1. Transmitter power.
2. Antenna gains (receiver and transmitter).
3. Antenna feeder losses (receiver and transmitter).
4. Path losses.
Receiver sensitivity (although this is not part of the actual link budget, it is necessary to know this to
enable any pass fail criteria to be applied.
In essence the link budget will take the form of the equation below:
57
Received power (dBm) = Transmitted power (dBm) + gains (db) - losses (dB)
The basic calculation to determine the link budget is quite straightforward.
It is mainly a matter of accounting for all the different losses and gains between the transmitter and the
receiver.

Link budget equation

 In order to devise a link budget equation, it is necessary to investigate all the areas where gains
and losses may occur between the transmitter and the receiver.
 Although guidelines and suggestions can be made regarding the possible areas for losses and
gains, each link has to be analyzed on its own merits..
 A typical link budget equation for a radio communications system may look like the following:

PRX = PTX + PTX + GTX + GRX - LTX - LFS - LP - LRX

Where:
PRX = received power (dBm)
PTX = transmitter output power (dBm)
GTX = transmitter antenna gain (dBi)
GRX = receiver antenna gain (dBi)
LTX = transmit feeder and associated losses (feeder, connectors, etc.) (dB)
LFS = free space loss or path loss (dB)
LP = miscellaneous signal propagation losses (these include fading margin, polarization mismatch,
losses associated with medium through which signal is travelling, other losses...) (dB)
LRX = receiver feeder and associated losses (feeder, connectors, etc.) (d)B
NB for the sake of showing losses in the link budget equation is "minus" actual loss figures, e.g. LTX or
LFS, etc should be taken as the modulus of the loss.

Leture 4+5 Dity CSE 8th Batch

58
Lecture 07
Mathematics of Satellite Motion
The motion of objects is governed by Newton's laws. The same simple laws that govern the motion of
objects on earth also extend to the heavens to govern the motion of planets, moons, and other satellites.
The mathematics that describes a satellite's motion is the same mathematics presented for circular motion
in Lesson 1. In this part of Lesson 4, we will be concerned with the variety of mathematical equations that
describe the motion of satellites.

Consider a satellite with mass Msat orbiting a central body with a mass of mass MCentral. The central body
could be a planet, the sun or some other large mass capable of causing sufficient acceleration on a less
massive nearby object. If the satellite moves in circular motion, then the net centripetal force acting upon
this orbiting satellite is given by the relationship

Fnet = ( Msat • v2 ) / R

This net centripetal force is the result of the gravitational force that attracts the satellite towards the
central body and can be represented as

Fgrav = ( G • Msat • MCentral ) / R2

Since Fgrav = Fnet, the above expressions for centripetal force and gravitational force can be set equal to each
other. Thus,

(Msat • v2) / R = (G • Msat • MCentral ) / R2

Observe that the mass of the satellite is present on both sides of the equation; thus it can be canceled by
dividing through by Msat. Then both sides of the equation can be multiplied by R, leaving the following
equation.

v2 = (G • MCentral ) / R

Taking the square root of each side, leaves the following equation for the velocity of a satellite moving
about a central body in circular motion

where G is 6.673 x 10-11 N•m2/kg2, Mcentral is the mass of the central body about which the satellite orbits,
and R is the radius of orbit for the satellite.

Similar reasoning can be used to determine an equation for the acceleration of our satellite that is
expressed in terms of masses and radius of orbit. The acceleration value of a satellite is equal to the
acceleration of gravity of the satellite at whatever location that it is orbiting. In Lesson 3, the equation for
the acceleration of gravity was given as

59
 g = (G • Mcentral)/R2

Thus, the acceleration of a satellite in circular motion about some central body is given by the following
equation

where G is 6.673 x 10-11 N•m2/kg2, Mcentral is the mass of the central body about which the satellite orbits,
and R is the average radius of orbit for the satellite.

The final equation that is useful in describing the motion of satellites is Newton's form of Kepler's third
law. Since the logic behind the development of the equation has been presented elsewhere, only the
equation will be presented here. The period of a satellite (T) and the mean distance from the central body
(R) are related by the following equation:

where T is the period of the satellite, R is the average radius of orbit for the satellite (distance from center
of central planet), and G is 6.673 x 10-11 N•m2/kg2.

There is an important concept evident in all three of these equations - the period, speed and the
acceleration of an orbiting satellite are not dependent upon the mass of the satellite.

None of these three equations has the variable Msatellite in them. The period, speed and acceleration of a
satellite are only dependent upon the radius of orbit and the mass of the central body that the satellite is
orbiting. Just as in the case of the motion of projectiles on earth, the mass of the projectile has no affect
upon the acceleration towards the earth and the speed at any instant. When air resistance is negligible and
only gravity is present, the mass of the moving object becomes a non-factor. Such is the case of orbiting
satellites.

Example Problems

To illustrate the usefulness of the above equations, consider the following practice problems.

Practice Problem #1
A satellite wishes to orbit the earth at a height of 100 km (approximately 60
miles) above the surface of the earth. Determine the speed, acceleration and
orbital period of the satellite. (Given: Mearth = 5.98 x 1024 kg, Rearth = 6.37 x
106 m)
60
Like most problems in physics, this problem begins by identifying known and unknown information and selecting
the appropriate equation capable of solving for the unknown. For this problem, the knowns and unknowns are listed
below.

Given/Known: Unknown:

R = Rearth + height = 6.47 x 106 m v = ???

Mearth = 5.98x1024 kg a = ???

G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2 T = ???

Note that the radius of a satellite's orbit can be found from the
knowledge of the earth's radius and the height of the satellite
above the earth. As shown in the diagram at the right, the radius of
orbit for a satellite is equal to the sum of the earth's radius and
the height above the earth. These two quantities can be added to
yield the orbital radius. In this problem, the 100 km must first be
converted to 100 000 m before being added to the radius of the
earth. The equations needed to determine the unknown are listed above. We will begin by determining
the orbital speed of the satellite using the following equation:

v = SQRT [ (G•MCentral ) / R ]

The substitution and solution are as follows:

v = SQRT [ (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2) • (5.98 x 1024 kg) / (6.47 x 106 m) ]

v = 7.85 x 103 m/s

The acceleration can be found from either one of the following equations:

(1) a = (G • Mcentral)/R2 (2) a = v2/R

Equation (1) was derived above. Equation (2) is a general equation for circular motion. Either equation
can be used to calculate the acceleration. The use of equation (1) will be demonstrated here.

a = (G •Mcentral)/R2

a = (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2) • (5.98 x 1024 kg) / (6.47 x 106 m)2

a = 9.53 m/s2

Observe that this acceleration is slightly less than the 9.8 m/s2 value expected on earth's surface. As
discussed in Lesson 3, the increased distance from the center of the earth lowers the value of g.

61
Finally, the period can be calculated using the following equation:

The equation can be rearranged to the following form

T = SQRT [(4 • pi2 • R3) / (G*Mcentral)]

The substitution and solution are as follows:

T = SQRT [(4 • (3.1415)2 • (6.47 x 106 m)3) / (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2) • (5.98x1024 kg) ]

T = 5176 s = 1.44 hrs

Practice Problem #2
The period of the moon is approximately 27.2 days (2.35 x 106 s). Determine
the radius of the moon's orbit and the orbital speed of the moon. (Given:
Mearth = 5.98 x 1024 kg, Rearth = 6.37 x 106 m)

Like Practice Problem #2, this problem begins by identifying known and unknown values. These are shown below.

Given/Known: Unknown:

T = 2.35 x 106 s R = ???

Mearth = 5.98 x 1024 kg v = ???

G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

The radius of orbit can be calculated using the following equation:

The equation can be rearranged to the following form

R3 = [ (T2 • G • Mcentral) / (4 • pi2) ]

The substitution and solution are as follows:

R3 = [ ((2.35x106 s)2 • (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2) • (5.98x1024 kg) ) / (4 • (3.1415)2) ]

R3 = 5.58 x 1025 m3

62
By taking the cube root of 5.58 x 1025 m3, the radius can be determined as follows:

R = 3.82 x 108 m

The orbital speed of the satellite can be computed from either of the following equations:

(1) v = SQRT [ (G • MCentral ) / R ] (2) v = (2 • pi • R)/T

Equation (1) was derived above. Equation (2) is a general equation for circular motion. Either equation
can be used to calculate the orbital speed; the use of equation (1) will be demonstrated here. The
substitution of values into this equation and solution are as follows:

v = SQRT [ (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2)*(5.98x1024 kg) / (3.82 x 108 m) ]

v = 1.02 x 103 m/s

Practice Problem #3
A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite that orbits the earth with an orbital
period of 24 hours, thus matching the period of the earth's rotational motion.
A special class of geosynchronous satellites is a geostationary satellite. A
geostationary satellite orbits the earth in 24 hours along an orbital path that
is parallel to an imaginary plane drawn through the Earth's equator. Such a
satellite appears permanently fixed above the same location on the Earth. If a
geostationary satellite wishes to orbit the earth in 24 hours (86400 s), then
how high above the earth's surface must it be located? (Given: Mearth =
5.98x1024 kg, Rearth = 6.37 x 106 m)

Just as in the previous problem, the solution begins by the identification of the known and unknown values. This is
shown below.

Given/Known: Unknown:
h = ???
T = 86400 s

Mearth = 5.98x1024 kg

Rearth = 6.37 x 106 m

G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

63
The unknown in this problem is the height (h) of the satellite
above the surface of the earth. Yet there is no equation with the
variable h. The solution then involves first finding the radius of
orbit and using this R value and the R of the earth to find the height of
the satellite above the earth. As shown in the diagram at the right, the
radius of orbit for a satellite is equal to the sum of the earth's radius
and the height above the earth. The radius of orbit can be found
using the following equation:

The equation can be rearranged to the following form

R3 = [ (T2 * G * Mcentral) / (4*pi2) ]

The substitution and solution are as follows:

R3 = [ ((86400 s)2 • (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2) • (5.98x1024 kg) ) / (4 • (3.1415)2) ]

R3 = 7.54 x 1022 m3

By taking the cube root of 7.54 x 1022 m3, the radius can be determined to be

R = 4.23 x 107 m

The radius of orbit indicates the distance that the satellite is from the center of the earth. Now that the
radius of orbit has been found, the height above the earth can be calculated. Since the earth's surface is
6.37 x 106 m from its center (that's the radius of the earth), the satellite must be a height of

4.23 x 107 m - 6.37 x 106 m = 3.59 x 107 m

above the surface of the earth. So the height of the satellite is 3.59 x 107 m.

Lecturer 7 Dity CSE 8th Batch

64
Lecture 09
Basics of VSAT Technology

VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite communications system that serves home and
business users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user's computer and an outside
antenna with a transceiver. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the
sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station computer that acts as a hub for the
system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite in a star topology. For one
end user to communicate with another, each transmission has to first go to the hub station which
retransmits it via the satellite to the other end user's VSAT. VSAT handles data, voice, and video signals.
What is VSAT?
VSAT is the short form for Very Small Aperture Terminals. In short, there are three main components of
the VSAT Technology – The Satellite, A Central Hub (With a Big Dish Antenna) and a number of smaller
nodes (smaller dish antenna) kept at various remote locations that together form a Star topology (Even
Mesh topologies are possible for small networks) using the satellite network. So essentially, all the nodes
communicate with the central hub through the satellite as the medium for such communications. In case
additional networks (Internet, terrestrial MPLS, etc) need to be integrated with this VSAT network, they
can be done at a NOC (Network Operations Center) at the central hub.

Lately, the Geo-Synchronous satellites are used more for WAN/ broadband Internet connectivity as it can
provide a permanent coverage over a fixed area. After C, Ku bands it is the Ka band which is hogging the
limelight for its high throughput performance capabilities (Excess of 100 Gbps per satellite).

VSAT Networks Planning & Implementation

65
VSAT NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
As illustrated in Figure, VSATs are connected by radio frequency (RF) links via a satellite, with a so-called
uplink from the station to the satellite and a so-called downlink from the satellite to the station. The
overall link from station to station, sometimes called hop, consists of an uplink and a downlink.
A radio frequency link is a modulated carrier conveying information. Basically the satellite receives the
uplinked carriers from the transmitting earth stations within the field of view of its receiving antenna,
amplifies those carriers, translates their frequency to a lower band in order to avoid possible
output/input interference, and transmits the amplified carriers to the stations located within the field of
view of its transmitting antenna.

Present VSAT networks use geostationary satellites, which are satellites orbiting in the equatorial plane
of the earth at an altitude above the earth surface of 35 786 km.

66
Figure Meshed VSAT network. (a) Example with three VSATs (arrows represent information flow as
conveyed by the carriers relayed by the satellite); (b) simplified representation for a larger number of
VSATs (arrows represent bidirectional links made of two carriers travelling in opposite directions)

Figure Two-way star-shaped VSAT network. (a) Example with four VSATs(arrows represent information
flow as conveyed by the carriers relayed by the satellite); (b) simplified representation for a larger
number of VSATs(arrows represent bidirectional links made of two carriers travelling in opposite
directions)

67
Figure One-way star-shaped VSAT network. (a) Example with four VSATs (arrows represent information
flow as conveyed by the outbound carriers relayed by the satellite); (b) simplified representation for a
larger number of VSATs (arrows represent unidirectional links)

USER TERMINAL CONNECTIVITY

User terminals are connected to VSATs and may be expected to communicate with one another thanks to
the VSAT network.
The two-way connectivity between user terminals can be achieved in two ways, depending on the VSAT
network configuration:
– either thanks to direct links from VSAT to VSAT via satellite, should the link performance meet the
requested quality. This applies in particular to the mesh configuration illustrated in Figure 1.6. The user
terminal connectivity is illustrated in Figure 1.9;
– or by double hop links via satellite in a star-shaped network, with a first hop from VSAT to hub and then
a second hop using the hub as a relay to the destination VSAT (as illustrated in Figure 1.10).

68
VSAT
 VSAT networks can be configured as one-way or two-way networks.
 Table 1.1 gives examples of services supported by VSAT networks according to these two classes.
 It can be noted that most of the services supported by two-way VSAT networks deal with
interactive data traffic, where the user terminals are most often personal computers. The most
notable exceptions are voice communications and satellite news gathering.

69
VSAT Network Involved Parties

Which are the involved parties as far as corporate communications are concerned?
– The user is most often a company employee using office communication terminals such as personal
computers, telephone sets or fax machines. On other occasions the terminal is transportable, as with
satellite news gathering (SNG).
Here the user is mostly interested in transmitting video to the company studio. The terminal may be fixed
but not located in an office, as with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) applications.
- The VSAT network operator may be the user’s company itself, if the company owns the network, or it
may be a telecom company (in many countries it is the national public telecom operator) who then leases
the service. The VSAT network operator is then a customer to the network provider and/or the
equipment provider.
– The VSAT network provider has the technical ability to dimension and install the network. It elaborates
the network management system (NMS) and designs the corresponding software. Its inputs are the
customer’s needs, and its customers are network operators. The network provider may be a private
company or a national telecom operator.
– The equipment provider sells the VSATs and/or the hub which it manufactures. It may be the network
provider or a different party.
-For the VSAT network to work, some satellite capacity must be provided.
The satellite may be owned by the user’s company but this is a rare example of ‘vertical integration’, and
most often the satellite is operated by a different party. This party may be a national or international
private satellite operator. The above parties are those involved in the contractual matters. Other parties
are on the regulatory side
70
SATELLITE FREQUENCY BANDS
C Band
uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz
downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
The C band is primarily used for voice and data communications as well as backhauling. Because of its
weaker power it requires a larger antenna, usually above 1.8m (6ft). However, due to the lower
frequency range, it performs better under adverse weather conditions on the ground.

X Band
uplink 7.9- 8.4 GHz
downlink 7.25 – 7.75 GHz
The X band is used mainly for military communications and Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) systems.
With relatively few satellites in orbit in this band, there is a wider separation between adjacent satellites,
making it ideal for Comms-on-the Move (COTM) applications. This band is less susceptible to rain fade
than the Ku Band due to the lower frequency range, resulting in a higher performance level under
adverse weather conditions.

Ku Band
uplink 14 GHz
downlink 10.9-12.75 GHz
Ku (K band Under) band is used typically for consumer direct-to-home access, distance learning
applications, retail and enterprise connectivity. The antenna sizes, ranging from 0.9m -1.8m (~6ft), are
much smaller than C band because the higher frequency means that higher gain can be achieved with
small antenna sizes than C-band. Networks in this band are more susceptible to rain fade, especially in
tropical areas and ACM is used to prevent these outages.

Ka Band
uplink 26.5-40GHz
downlink 18-20 GHZ
The Ka band (K band Above) is primarily used for two-way consumer broadband and military networks.
Ka band dishes can be much smaller and typically range from 60cm-1.2m (2′ to 4′) in diameter.
Transmission power is much greater compared to the C, X or Ku band beams. Due to the higher
frequencies of this band, it can be more vulnerable to signal quality problems caused by rain fade,
again ACM is used to help rain fade. O3b Network satellite service uses Ka Band for its connectivity.
C Band Ku Band Ka Band
Cost of High Medium Low
Equipment
Cost of Medium Medium Low
Bandwidth
Size of Generally 1.8- Generally 1.2m Generally .98m
Equipment 2.4m Reflectors
Auto-Pointing High Cost Medium Cost Medium Cost
Technology
Rain Attenuation Least susceptible Low susceptibility Medium
to rain fade to rain fade susceptibility to
rain fade

71
VSAT network architecture
VSAT network architecture is the way Hub station and/or VSATs are interfaced with satellite to provide
the service. There are five main topologies exist, viz. broadcast,point to point, point to
multipoint(star),mesh,hybrid.Let us understand each of this VSAT topology.

In Broadcast type, there is a single broadcasting station interfaced with satellite and satellite will relay
signals to all the VSATs. Here broadcasting station-satellite-all VSATs link exist.

In point to point type of topology, two VSATs communicate via satellite using dedicated assigned channel.
So here VSAT1-Satellite-VSAT2 dedicated link exist.

In Star topology, there are three entities hub station(usually with larger antenna), VSATs and Satellite. All
the communications between VSATs happen through Hub station. hence here if VSAT1 and VSAT2 need
to communicate then,link is VSAT1-satellite-Hub-Satellite-VSAT2. Hence two hop communication is
needed to communicate between any two VSATs in the network.

In Mesh type of topology, VSATs can communicate with one another directly and no Hub station is
needed . But each VSAT need to be complex owing to more functionalities required similar to the Hub
station. Also antenna specifications need to be different than star type of topology.

In Hybrid type is the combination of both star and mesh type. Here few of the VSATs communicate via
Hub and few can communicate directly with one another.

72
Advantages of VSAT
Following are the advantages of VSAT:
➨Installation: VSAT services are deployed in hours or minutes.
➨Coverage: It can be available anywhere with clear line of sight between VSAT antenna disc and satellite
over the earth. It is popular in hilly areas where other mode of communication is either not available or
difficult to install.
➨Price: VSAT terminals are cheaper.
➨Upgradaion: It is flexible to add a VSAT site and increase the bandwidth as per future requirements.
➨Service charges: It depends on the bandwidth allocated as per user requirements.
➨Most modern VSAT systems use TCP/HTTP and other acceleration protocols to have superior
performance inspite of latency limitation as outlined below.
➨VSAT provides same quality of service and speed at all the locations across the entire VSAT network.
➨VSAT services are independant of other wired and wireless mediums used as transmission network
service provider. Hence it is a great backup system which is available during disaster and emergency
situations.
➨VSAT terminals and indoor/outdoor hardwares can be installed on truck or van and can be used even
in mobility conditions.
➨There are no last mile issues in VSAT operation.

Disadvantages of VSAT
Following are the disadvantages of VSAT:
➨As mentioned it requires clear Line of Sight between VSAT dish and satellite in the space.
➨The malfunctioning of satellite and Hub station (in case of star topology) will lead to disruption of
VSAT services. To avoid this situation, redundant systems and switch over units are needed to have
backup systems available for hot switching in faulty situations. But this increases overall cost of the VSAT
system as a whole.
➨Latency for packet transmission from source to destination is higher due to distance of satellite from
earth is about 36000 Km. Latency further increases in star topology of VSAT, as it requires two hops to
reach at final destination.
➨VSAT services get affected in bad weather conditions.
➨As information transmitted by VSAT goes over the air till it reaches destination, it is prone to intrusion
by hackers. Hence encryption-decryption units are needed to have secure communication. This increases
the overall VSAT terminal cost

73
VSAT Characteristics
The principal characteristics of an interactive VSAT network are:
Remote user sites have several low bit rate data terminal equipments (DTEs) operating ,at 1.2 to 9.6
kb/s. These are connected through the VSAT network to a centralized host processor. The DTEs are
connected to the host through an X.25 Packet Assembler/ Dissembler (PAD) or through a conventional or
statistical multiplexer which concentrates the traffic.
The amount of data transferred in each transaction is relatively small, typically between 300 and 105
bits. Interactive VSATs are not usually used for batch file transfer (107 to 1011bits per transaction)
unless the transmission plan is specifically designed to carry large files.
Each VSAT terminal only operates with a low duty cycle, i.e. with only a relatively small number of
transactions in the peak busy hour compared to the total available capacity.
A large number of VSAT terminals (10 to 10000) share the same communications link using random
access.
Connections between remote VSAT terminals require a double hop through the hub and are rarely used.
VSAT networks are designed to be flexible and to evolve with user needs. VSAT terminals are controlled
by microprocessors and can generally be reprogrammed remotely using downloaded software from the
hub. If additional interfaces or capacity are required this can usually be provided by adding or replacing
cards in the VSAT terminal.

Limitations of VSAT Technology:

Extremely high initial cost needed for building and launching satellites in the Geo-Synchronous orbit,
higher initial cost
Recurring monthly costs for terminal equipment’s needed for providing Internet over broadband when
compared to terrestrial DSL networks,
Bit Error Rate is common for satellite based technologies,
Rain Attenuation might affect the performance of VSAT communications under rainy conditions,
latencies (>200 ms) are still higher than their terrestrial equivalent technologies (<100 ms),
Careful direction of subscriber side terminals and dish antennas are critical for proper working,
Trained man power is required for installation and maintenance.
competitive technologies (Internet Leased Lines, 3G/HSDPA/4G Cellular technologies etc) offer much
higher bandwidth at a lower cost than what is possible by VSAT based networks, the antennas need to
be fixed outside the offices or homes hence making them susceptible to damage or theft, the cost of VSAT
modules for Network Routers/ Video Conferencing systems are quite high, etc.

VSAT Station Equipment

 Figure illustrates the architecture of a VSAT station. As shown in the figure, a VSAT station is made
of two separate sets of equipment: the outdoor unit (ODU) and the indoor unit (IDU).
 The outdoor unit is the VSAT interface to the satellite, while the IDU is the interface to the
customer’s terminals or local area network (LAN).

74
For a proper specification of the ODU, as an interface to the satellite, the following parameters are of
importance:
– the transmit and receive frequency bands;
– the transmit and receive step size for adjusting the frequency of the transmitted carrier or for tuning to
the received carrier frequency;
- the equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP), which determines the performance of the radio
frequency uplink. The EIRP depends on the value of the antenna gain, and hence its size and
transmit frequency, and on the transmitting amplifier output power.
– the figure of merit G/T, which determines the performance of the radio frequency downlink. The G/T
ratio depends on the value of the antenna gain, and hence its size and receive frequency, and on the noise
temperature of the receiver.
– the antenna sidelobe gain variation with off-axis angle which controls the off-axis EIRP and G/T, hence
determining the levels of produced and received interference.

For a proper specification of the IDU, as an interface to the user’s terminals or to a local area network
(LAN), the following parameters are of importance:
– number of ports;
– type of ports: mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural interface. This is often specified by
reference to a standard.
– port speed: this is the maximum bit rate at which data can be exchanged between the user terminal and
the VSAT indoor unit on a given port. The actual data rate can be lower.
75
VSAT Technology:

76
 A Typical VSAT System
The characteristics of a typical VSAT system are:
1. The satellite communications system consists of a single hub station, a geostationary satellite
operating with a linear transponder, and a number of VSAT stations.

2. The system uses two Ku-band transponders on the GEO satellite.

3. Each VSAT station sends and receives a 64 kbits/sec data stream to and from the hub.

4. Digital data are sent to the hub from the VSATs by the inbound link via one transponder at a
message bit rate of 64 kbit/sec using binary phase shift keying (BPSK) and half rate forward error
correction (FEC) coding, giving a transmitted bit rate of 128 kbph.

5. The occupied RF bandwidth of each VSAT channel is 160 khz, corresponding to ideal RRC filters
with α =.25

6. Multiple accesses for the inbound link is by SCPC-FDMA with RF channels speed 200 khz apart to
allow a 40-kHz guard band between channels.

7. Data from the hub station to the VSATs are sent as a continuous TDM stream of packets using a
second transponder and BPSK with half rate FEC.

8. The VSAT antenna has a diameter of 1 m and 2 saturated out power of 2 w.

Satellite Link Component

77
Remote Site Equipment

What are the applications of VSAT?

VSAT is an ideal satellite network that provides communications support for a wide range of applications:

Retail Networks High-speed Internet access

• Point-of-Sale (PoS) • Browsing
• Banking, inventory • E-mail
• Lottery/Gaming • Internet trucking
• Reservations • E-commerce
Video Applications Distance Learning
Requires High BER Performance in the Link
Corporate Networks
• Internet/Intranet access (1x10-10)
• Corporate voice
• File transfers Data Rates Range
• Video-conferencing • 384 kb/s (video conferencing) to 8.448 mb/s (TV
station quality)
Rural Telephony and Network Extensions
• PSTN extensions Traffic Planning
• Payphones • Application
• WLL interconnections
• SNG (large carrier requires large HPA)
• Receive-only antenna (reduced capital cost)

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Characteristics and Applications of VSAT Satellite Communication

VSAT satellite communication system has very evident characteristics, which mainly includes the
following aspects:

1. Ground (remote) station antenna has small diameter which is generally 2 meters below.
Now it mostly adopts 1.2~1.8m diameter. Climbers sometimes use flyaway personal earth
station with 0.3m diameter.

2. Transmission power is low which is generally between 1 and 3w.

3. Weight is light. It is always dozens of kilograms and some are a few kilograms. And they
are easy to carry.

4. Price is low and it is economical and practical. This system has low price and its economic
efficiency is greater than equipment price.

5. Construction cycle is short. It is simpler than traditional ground communication means.

Cable and optical cable are not needed to set up. It doesn’t need a relay station setting up
every 50km, unlike microwave communication. In VSAT satellite communication system,
just install necessary device at both ends of communication and equipment assembly is
simpler.

6. Communication cost is irreverent to communication cost. As for common communication

system, the longer the distance is, the higher is the cost. But VSAT satellite communication
is not related to distance. The longer the distance is, the more adaptable is VSAT
communication.

7. VSAT satellite communication is not affected by terrain and climate because it is not
needed to set up ground facilities and it is little interfered by ground.

8. The biggest advantage of VSAT satellite communication technology is flexible in network

combination, convenient maintenance and easy to expand, for it doesn’t have complex
ground equipment.

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Dity CSE 8th Batch
79