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A. THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS, RULES OF SCIENTIFIC

WRITING AND RESEARCH PRINCIPLES.
A research proposal is a document proposing a research project, generally in the
sciences or academia, and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that
research. Proposals are evaluated on the cost and potential impact of the proposed
research, and on the soundness of the proposed plan for carrying it out. Research
proposals generally address several key points:
1. What research question(s) will be addressed, and how they will be addressed
2. How much time and expense will be required for the research
3. What prior research has been done on the topic
4. How the results of the research will be evaluated
5. How the research will benefit the sponsoring organization and other parties
Qualitative research in the health sciences has had to overcome many prejudices and a
number of misunderstandings, but today qualitative research is as acceptable as
quantitative research designs and is widely funded and published. Writing the
proposal of a qualitative study, however, can be a challenging feat, due to the
emergent nature of the qualitative research design and the description of the
methodology as a process. Even today, many sub-standard proposals at post-graduate
evaluation committees and application proposals to be considered for funding are still
seen. This problem has led the researcher to develop a framework to guide the
qualitative researcher in writing the proposal of a qualitative study based on the
following research questions: (i) What is the process of writing a qualitative research
proposal? and (ii) What does the structure and layout of a qualitative proposal look
like? The purpose of this article is to discuss the process of writing the qualitative
research proposal, as well as describe the structure and layout of a qualitative research
proposal. The process of writing a qualitative research proposal is discussed with
regards to the most important questions that need to be answered in your research
proposal with consideration of the guidelines of being practical, being persuasive,
making broader links, aiming for crystal clarity and planning before you write. While
the structure of the qualitative research proposal is discussed with regards to the key
sections of the proposal, namely the cover page, abstract, introduction, review of the
literature, research problem and research questions, research purpose and objectives,
research paradigm, research design, research method, ethical considerations,
dissemination plan, budget and appendices.
Scientific works are written works whose contents try to explain a scientific
discussion carried out by a writer or researcher. To tell the reader something logically
 and systematically. Scientific papers are usually written to find answers about
something and to prove the truth about something contained in the object of writing.
The term scientific work here refers to written works that prepare their presentation
based on scientific study and scientific work. Judging from the length or depth of the
description, scientific papers are divided into papers and research reports.

General Principles Underlying the Writing of a Scientific Work :

1. Objective, meaning that every scientific statement in his work must be based on
data and facts. This activity is called an empirical study. Objective and empirical
are two related things.
2. The procedure or the conclusion of the discovery through inductive and deductive
reasoning.
3. Rational in the discussion of data. A writer of scientific papers in analyzing data
must use experience and thoughts logically.

B. SCIENTIFIC AND ETHICAL RESEARCH REPORTS

Data analysis is an effort or way to process data into information so that the
characteristics of the data can be understood and are useful for solving problems,
especially problems related to research.
 Prosedur Analisis Data
a. Data collection stage.
b. The editing stage, at this stage, is checking the clarity and completeness of filling
out the data collection instruments.
c. The coding stage means that at this stage the identification process and the
classification process of each statement contained in the data collection instrument
are based on the variables being studied.
d. The tabulation stage involves recording or data entry into master tables in the
study.
e. The testing phase, at this stage the quality of the data will be tested, namely
testing the validity and reliability of the instruments from data collection.
f. The stage of describing the data, presenting in the form of a frequency table or
diagram and in various sizes of central tendency and dispersion measures, with the
aim of understanding the characteristics of the sample data from the study.
g. Hypothesis testing stage, this stage is the stage of testing the proposition whether
it is rejected or acceptable and has meaning or not on the basis of this hypothesis,
later decisions will be made.
 Forms of research data analysis
1. Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative analysis is an analysis that uses quantitative analytical tools, namely
analysis that uses models, such as mathematical models (for example, multivariate
functions), statistical models, and econometrics. The analysis results are presented in
the form of numbers which are then explained and interpreted in a description. In
 quantitative research, data analysis is an activity after data from all respondents or
other data sources have been collected. Data analysis activities include:
a. classify data based on the variables of the type of respondent,
b. tabulate data based on variables from all respondents,
c. presents data for each variable studied,
d. perform calculations to answer the problem formulation and
e. perform calculations to test the hypothesis that has been proposed
Data analysis techniques in quantitative research use statistics. There are two kinds of
statistics used for data analysis in research, namely descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
a. Descriptive Data Analysis Techniques
Descriptive data analysis technique is an analysis technique used to analyze data
by describing or describing the data that has been collected improperly without
any intention of making generalizations from the research results. Included in
descriptive statistical data analysis techniques include the presentation of data in
the form of graphs, tables, percentages, frequencies, diagrams, graphs, mean,
mode etc.
b. Inferential Data Analysis Techniques
Inferencing data analysis techniques are statistics used to perform data analysis by
making generally accepted conclusions. The characteristics of inferential data
analysis are the use of certain statistical formulas, then the results of the
calculations that have been carried out will later become the basis for making
generalizations that come from sources for the population.
2. Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is an inductive process in organizing data into several
categories and identifying patterns (relationships) among many categories (Mc.Milla
& Schumacher, 2001). Qualitative data analysis is the process of systematically
searching for and processing various data from interviews, field observations, and
document studies (literature) to produce a report on research findings.
Qualitative data analysis is analysis that does not use mathematical models, statistical
and econometric models or other specific models. In this case, just reading the
available tables, graphs, or figures, then doing the description and interpretation.
In qualitative research, data is obtained from various sources, using various data
collection techniques (triangulation), and is carried out continuously.
Data analysis in qualitative research is the process of systematically searching and
arranging data obtained from interviews, field notes, and documentation by
organizing data into categories, describing them into units, synthesizing, arranging
into patterns, choosing which ones. important and what will be studied, and make
conclusions so that they are easily understood by oneself and others.

Purpose of Qualitative Data Analysis

 Finding meaning, how someone gives meaning to something, whether in the form of
activities, concepts, statements, or others.
 Describing and explaining the context surrounding a condition or event, to explain
that an action cannot be separated from the existing environmental conditions.
 Describe or describe how a process occurs or takes place, what actions occur, and
how these actions are carried out.
 Explain the reasons or rationale, why someone does something in a certain way.

C. COMPILE PLANNING DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS PROCESSING

Planning data collection activities and the aspects contained therein need to be well
understood. Each collection of evidence must be planned according to its purpose in
an orderly manner. However, in reality it is inevitable that there are overlaps and
interrelationships between the activity stages. The existence of interdependence
between one activity and another, demands that these activities be carried out
simultaneously Planning for how to collect data should be based on “WHAT” is done,
“HOW” how to do it, “WHO” will carry out every aspect of the work, “WHEN”
activities are carried out, and “WHERE” will be performed.
In other words, gathering audit evidence includes the following steps:
1. Determine the purpose of activities which consist of activities (APA):
a. Purpose of data collection
b. Scope of data collection
c. Create a narrative and table that summarizes the planning of activities.
d. In the Performance Audit Activity, the planning stages above are defined in
the program audit work.
2. Carry out evidence gathering in accordance with the established audit procedures.
3. Analyze the evidence collected and compare it with other available information
(HOW).
4. Decide whether it is necessary to gather more evidence, whether evidence is
sufficient and adequate to measure performance (WHEN AND WHERE).

D. RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection
component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social
sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis
on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
 The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative,
qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of
research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing,
modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use
reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
 Consequences from improperly collected data include
inability to answer research questions accuratelyinability to repeat and validate the
studydistorted findings resulting in wasted resourcesmisleading other researchers to
 pursue fruitless avenues of investigationcompromising decisions for public
policycausing harm to human participants and animal subjects.
While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the
nature of investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when
these research results are used to support public policy recommendations.

 Issues related to maintaining integrity of data collection:

The primary rationale for preserving data integrity is to support the detection of errors
in the data collection process, whether they are made intentionally (deliberate
falsifications) or not (systematic or random errors).
Most, Craddick, Crawford, Redican, Rhodes, Rukenbrod, and Laws (2003) describe
‘quality assurance’ and ‘quality control’ as two approaches that can preserve data
integrity and ensure the scientific validity of study results. Each approach is
implemented at different points in the research timeline (Whitney, Lind, Wahl, 1998):
Quality assurance - activities that take place before data collection beginsQuality
control - activities that take place during and after data collection
1. Quality Assurance
Since quality assurance precedes data collection, its main focus
is 'prevention' (i.e., forestalling problems with data collection). Prevention is the
most cost-effective activity to ensure the integrity of data collection. This
proactive measure is best demonstrated by the standardization of
protocol developed in a comprehensive and detailed procedures manual for data
collection. Poorly written manuals increase the risk of failing to identify problems
and errors early in the research endeavor. These failures may be demonstrated in a
number of ways:
Uncertainty about the timing, methods, and identify of person(s) responsible for
reviewing dataPartial listing of items to be collectedVague description of data
collection instruments to be used in lieu of rigorous step-by-step instructions on
administering testsFailure to identify specific content and strategies for training or
retraining staff members responsible for data collectionObscure instructions for
using, making adjustments to, and calibrating data collection equipment (if
appropriate)No identified mechanism to document changes in procedures that may
evolve over the course of the investigation .
An important component of quality assurance is developing a rigorous and
detailed recruitment and training plan. Implicit in training is the need to
effectively communicate the value of accurate data collection to trainees
(Knatterud, Rockhold, George, Barton, Davis, Fairweather, Honohan, Mowery,
O'Neill, 1998). The training aspect is particularly important to address the
potential problem of staff who may unintentionally deviate from the original
protocol. This phenomenon, known as ‘drift’, should be corrected with additional
training, a provision that should be specified in the procedures manual.
Given the range of qualitative research strategies (non-participant/ participant
observation, interview, archival, field study, ethnography, content analysis, oral
history, biography, unobtrusive research) it is difficult to make generalized
statements about how one should establish a research protocol in order to facilitate
 quality assurance. Certainly, researchers conducting non-participant/participant
observation may have only the broadest research questions to guide the initial
research efforts. Since the researcher is the main measurement device in a study,
many times there are little or no other data collecting instruments. Indeed,
instruments may need to be developed on the spot to accommodate unanticipated
findings.
2. Quality Control
While quality control activities (detection/monitoring and action) occur during and
after data collection, the details should be carefully documented in the procedures
manual. A clearly defined communication structure is a necessary pre-condition
for establishing monitoring systems. There should not be any uncertainty about
the flow of information between principal investigators and staff members
following the detection of errors in data collection. A poorly developed
communication structure encourages lax monitoring and limits opportunities for
detecting errors.
Detection or monitoring can take the form of direct staff observation during site
visits, conference calls, or regular and frequent reviews of data reports to identify
inconsistencies, extreme values or invalid codes. While site visits may not be
appropriate for all disciplines, failure to regularly audit records, whether
quantitative or quantitative, will make it difficult for investigators to verify that
data collection is proceeding according to procedures established in the manual. In
addition, if the structure of communication is not clearly delineated in the
procedures manual, transmission of any change in procedures to staff members
can be compromised.
Quality control also identifies the required responses, or ‘actions’ necessary to
correct faulty data collection practices and also minimize future occurrences.
These actions are less likely to occur if data collection procedures are vaguely
written and the necessary steps to minimize recurrence are not implemented
through feedback and education (Knatterud, et al, 1998)
Examples of data collection problems that require prompt action include:
errors in individual data itemssystematic errorsviolation of protocolproblems with
individual staff or site performancefraud or scientific misconduct
In the social/behavioral sciences where primary data collection involves human
subjects, researchers are taught to incorporate one or more secondary measures
that can be used to verify the quality of information being collected from the
human subject. For example, a researcher conducting a survey might be interested
in gaining a better insight into the occurrence of risky behaviors among young
adult as well as the social conditions that increase the likelihood and frequency of
these risky behaviors.
To verify data quality, respondents might be queried about the same information
but asked at different points of the survey and in a number of different ways.
Measures of ‘ Social Desirability’ might also be used to get a measure of the
honesty of responses. There are two points that need to be raised here, 1) cross-
checks within the data collection process and 2) data quality being as much an
observation-level issue as it is a complete data set issue. Thus, data quality should
be addressed for each individual measurement, for each individual observation,
and for the entire data set.
Each field of study has its preferred set of data collection instruments. The
hallmark of laboratory sciences is the meticulous documentation of the lab
notebook while social sciences such as sociology and cultural anthropology may
prefer the use of detailed field notes. Regardless of the discipline, comprehensive
documentation of the collection process before, during and after the activity is
essential to preserving data integrity.
Data collection Also referred to as data gathering or fact finding ,it involves
looking for crucial facts needed for processing.
A. Methods of data collection
Include interviews; use of questionnaires, observation, etc.in most cases the
data is collected after sampling.Sampling is the process of selecting
representative elements (e.g. people, organizations) from an entire group
(population) of interest. Some of the tools that help in the data collection
include source documents such as forms, data capture devices such as digital
camera etc.
B. Stages of data collection
The process of data collection may involve a number of stages depending on
the method used. These include:Data creation: this is the process of
identification and putting together facts in an organized format. This may be in
the form of manually prepared document or captured from the source using a
data capture device such as a barcode reader and be inputted easily in a
computer.Data preparation: this is the transcription (conversion) of data from
source document to machine readable form. This may not be the case for all
input devices. Data collected using devices that directly capture data in digital
form do not require transcription.Data transmission: this will depend on
whether data need to be transmitted via communication media to the central
office.Data input:Refers to the process where the collected data is converted
from human readable from to machine readable form (binary form). The
conversion takes place in the input device.Media conversion: data may need to
be transmitted from one medium to another e.g. from a floppy disk to a
computer's hard disk for faster input.Input validation: data entered into the
computer is subjected to validity checks by a computer program before being
processed to reduce errors as the input.Sorting: in case the data needs to be
arranged in a predefined order, it is first sorted before
processing.ProcessingThis is the transformation of the input data by the CPU
to a more meaningful output (information).Some of the operations performed
on the data include calculations, comparing values and sorting.OutputThe final
activity in the data processing cycle is producing the desired output also
referred to as information. This information can be distributed to the target
group or stored for future use. Distribution is making information available to
those who need it and is sometimes called information dissemination. This
process of dissemination may involve electronic presentation over the radio or
television, distribution of hard copies, broadcasting messages over the internet
or mobile phones etc.
 E. COMPILE AN INTRO THESIS WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Research into intro thesis writing has difficulty in understanding reading text, finding
key ideas, getting information from text, finding details, finding synonyms or
antonyms with specific words, getting answers to questions based on text and making
conclusions from text. Based on Pre-Observation, in the learning process, research
only applies the same technique to all types of reading text. not aware of appropriate
teaching techniques or methods especially related to active learning that need to be
applied in different types of interaction text. The focus of the research is on
understanding reading teaching using Jigsaw techniques. The decision was taken
taking into account the importance of Jigsaw techniques as one of cooperative
learning strategies that are useful to improve students' reading comprehension
achievement. The paper assumes that there should be some suitable techniques in
teaching reading that can motivate to read all the text so that they can understand the
information. The process of writing a research report, To facilitate the implementation
of the writing of research reports, the following will be outlined the systemic writing
which includes :
 The initial section of the research report includes cover pages, title pages, approval
pages, endorsement pages, table of contents, lists of symbols and abbreviations,
tables, attachment lists, and digests/ abstracts.
 Main Section, The main material is generally sided about the foundation of the
theory, research methodology, analysis of field research results, may add a chapter
about the description of the diman area of the study is carried out.
 Closing Section,Closing section (closing chapter) of a research report as a single
research report, contains two things that are included in the subsection namely,
conclusions and suggestions.
 End Section, The end contains a library list of attachments.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA
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Most, .M.M., Craddick, S., Crawford, S., Redican, S., Rhodes, D., Rukenbrod, F., Laws, R.
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