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Lab Manual

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
(BT-1004)
 LAB PLAN
S. No. Lab Content P. No.

1 Identification of circuit components.

Breadboard, Register, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor

To verify
2 (i) kirchoff’s current law
(ii) kirchoff’s voltage law
To verify Thevenin’s theorem and to find the current flowing through the load
3
resistance

4 To verify the superposition theorem and determine the current following

through the load resistance.

1. Name plate rating of single phase transformer

5
2. Determination of transformation ration.

6 To study and verify the truth table of logic gates.

7 Study the different parts of D.C. machine.

 Objectives – Identification of circuit components.
1
Breadboards:
In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to build it, we must
have some sort of a platform that will both hold the components in place and provide the needed
electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters were amateur radio
operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden breadboards. Although more sophisticated
techniques and devices have been developed to make the assembly and testing of electronic circuits
easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in assembling components on a temporary platform.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1: (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details

A real breadboard is shown in Fig. 1(a) and the connection details on its rear side are shown in Fig.
1(b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are electrically
connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In addition to the main
columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along the top and bottom. Each of
these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25 holes. These groups of 25 holes
are all connected together on either side of the dotted line indicated on Fig.1 (a) and needs an external
connection if one wishes the entire row to be connected. These breadboard sockets are sturdy and
rugged, and can take quite a bit of handling. However, there are a few rules you need to observe, in
order to extend the useful life of the electrical contacts and to avoid damage to components. These
rules are:

Always make sure power is disconnected when constructing or modifying your experimental circuit. It
is possible to damage components or incur an electrical shock if you leave power connected when
making changes.

Never use larger wire as jumpers. #24 wire (used for normal telephone wiring) is an excellent choice for
this application. Observe the same limitation with respect to the size of component leads. Whenever
possible, use ¼ watt resistors in your circuits. ½ watt resistors may be used when necessary; resistors of
higher power ratings should never be inserted directly into a breadboard socket. Never force component
leads into contact holes on the breadboard socket. Doing so can damage the contact and make it useless.
Do not insert stranded wire or soldered wire into the breadboard socket. If you must have stranded wire
(as with an inductor or transformer lead), solder (or use a wire nut to connect) the stranded wire to a
short length of solid hookup wire, and insert only the solid wire into the breadboard.

If you follow these basic rules, your breadboard will last indefinitely, and your experimental
components will last a long time.

Resistors
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. A 4 band identification is the
most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are
painted around the body of the resistor. Resistor values are always coded in ohms (Ω). The color codes
are given in the following table in Fig. 1.

Capacitors:
Fig. 1: Color codes of Resistor
You will mostly use electrolytic and ceramic capacitors for your experiments.
 Fig. 2: capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic conducting liquid, as one of its
plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are used in relatively high- current
and low-frequency electrical circuits. However, the voltage applied to these capacitors must be polarized; one
specified terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. These are of two types, axial
and radial capacitors as shown in adjacent figure. The arrowed stripe indicates the polarity, with the arrows
pointing towards the negative pin.

Warning:
Connecting electrolytic capacitors in reverse polarity can easily damage or destroy the capacitor. Most
large electrolytic capacitors have the voltage, capacitance, temperature ratings, and company name
written on them without having any special color coding schemes. Axial electrolytic capacitors have
connections on both ends. These are most frequently used in devices where there is no space for
vertically mounted capacitors. Radial electrolytic capacitors are like axial electrolytic ones, except both
pins come out the same end. Usually that end (the "bottom end") is mounted flat against the PCB and
the capacitor rises perpendicular to the PCB it is mounted on. This type of capacitor probably accounts
for at least 70% of capacitors in consumer electronics.

Ceramic capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are generally non-polarized and almost as common as radial electrolytic
capacitors. Generally, they use an alphanumeric marking system. The number part is the same as for
SMT resistors, except that the value represented is in pF. They may also be written out directly, for
instance, 2n2 = 2.2 nF.

Diodes:
A standard specification sheet usually has a brief description of the diode. Included in this description
is the type of diode, the major area of application, and any special features. Of particular interest is the
specific application for which the diode is suited. The manufacturer also provides a drawing of the
diode which gives dimension, weight, and, if appropriate, any identification marks. In addition to the
above data, the following information is also provided: a static operating table (giving spot values of
parameters under fixed conditions), sometimes a characteristic curve (showing how parameters vary
over the full operating range), and diode ratings (which are the limiting values of operating conditions
outside which could cause diode damage). Manufacturers specify these various diode operating
parameters and characteristics with "letter symbols" in accordance with fixed definitions. The
following is a list, by letter symbol, of the major electrical characteristics for the rectifier and signal
diodes.

Fig. 3: Diodes
Transistors:
Transistors are identified by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed directly on the case of the
transistor. If in doubt about a transistor's markings, always replace a transistor with one having
identical markings, or consult an equipment or transistor manual to ensure that an identical
replacement or substitute is used.

Fig. 4: Transistors
Objectives – To verify
2
(iii) kirchoff’s current law
(iv) kirchoff’s voltage law

(I) KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Breadboard, connecting wires, resistances, dc supply, digital multi-meter.

THEORY:
The algebraic sum of the currents entering in any node is Zero. The law represents the mathematical
statement of the fact change cannot accumulate at a node. A node is not a circuit element and it
certainly cannot store destroy (or) generate charge. Hence the current must sum to zero. A hydraulic
analog sum is zero. For example consider three water pipes joined pn the shape of Y. we defined free
currents as following into each of 3 pipes. If we insists that what is always

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Vary the regulated supply.
4. Measure the current using ammeter.
5. Note the readings in the tabulation.
6. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT:

TABULATION:

Voltage Total current I1(mA) I2(mA)

I(mA)

(II) KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE

LAW APPARATUS REQUIRED:

NET-08

THEORY:
The algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path is zero.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Vary the regulated supply.
4. Measure the voltage using voltmeter.
5. Note the readings in the tabulation.
6. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT:

TABULATION:

Voltage V1 V2 V3
(V) (volts) (volts) (volts)

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
 3
Objectives – To verify Thevenin’s theorem and to find the current flowing through the load resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Model no. TVS NET -01

THEORY:
Thevenin`s theorem:
Any linear active network with output terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source V th in series
with a single impedance Zth. Vth is the Thevenin`s voltage. It is the voltage between the terminals on
open circuit condition, Hence it is called open circuit voltage denoted by V oc.The is called Thevennin`s
impedance. It is the driving point impedance at the terminals when all internal sources are set to zero
too.
If a load impedance ZL is connected across output terminals, we can find the current through it
IL = Vth/ (Zth + ZL).
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Find the Thevenin’s voltage (or) open circuit voltage.
4. Replace voltage source by internal resistor.
5. Determine the Thevenin’s resistance.
6. Find IL by using Thevenin’s formula.
7. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
8. switch off the supply
9. Disconnect the circuit.

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM
To find Rth
To find Vth

To find IL

TABULATION

Vth Rth IL(mA)

theoretical practical Theoretical practical theoretical practical

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus the Thevenin’s theorem was verified.

Theoretical:
Vth =
Rth =
IL =
Practical:
Vth =
Rth =
IL =
 4
Objectives – To verify the superposition theorem and determine the current following through the load
resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
MODEL NO. NET- 02

THEORY:
Superposition theorem
In a linear circuit containing more than one source, the current that flows at any point or the voltage
that exists between any two points is the algebraic sum of the currents or the voltages that would have
been produced by each source taken separately with all other sources removed.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Determine the current through the load resistance.
4. Now one of the sources is shorted and the current flowing through the resistance IL
measured by ammeter.
5. Similarly, the other source is shorted and the current flowing through the resistance IL
measured by ammeter.
6. Compare the value obtained with the sum of I1&I2 should equal to I
7. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
8. switch off the supply
9. Disconnect the circuit.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Superposition To find I1 when 12V source is acting alone

TO find I2 When 10V source is acting alone To find I when two sources are acting
TABULATION:

V
(volt) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I (mA)

V1 V2 theoretical practical theoretical practical theoretical practical

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Objectives –
5
1. Name plate rating of single phase transformer
2. Determination of transformation ration.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. Name of equipment Quantity Range Type

1. 1- Transformer 1 230/115V,1KVA Shell type
2. Auto Transformer 1 0-270,10A Variac type
3. Voltmeter 1 0-300 V Moving iron
4. Voltmeter 1 0-150 V Moving iron

THEORY:

Study & construction of single phase transformer: The main elements of a transformer are two copper
coils & laminated silicon steel core. A transformer is a static device or a machine that transforms
electrical energy from one circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium magnetic flux and
without a change in frequency. The electrical circuit which receive energy from the supply mains is
called primary winding and the other circuit which ,which delivers electrical energy to the load ,is
called secondary winding .Theoretically it may seem that transformers may be built to handle any
voltage or current. But in reality there are limits to both the voltage & current.
The name plate rating of a power transformer:
The name plate rating of a power transformer usually contains

Volt –ampere rating of transformer in KVA ……….

Voltage ratio or turn ratio in V1/V2 ……....
Frequency of 1- or 3- ……….
Equivalent impedance of a transformers in % ……….

A typical name plate of a 1- transformer is as follows:

230 Volts/115Volts, 50 Hz, 1KVA, Shell type, 10 Amp. Here 1 KVA is the rated output at output
terminals.230/115means when 230V. is the applied to the primary ,the secondary voltage on full load
at specified power factor is 115volts.The ratio of V 1& V2 is not exactly equal to N1/N2,because of
voltage drop in primary & secondary. Rated primary & secondary current can be calculated from the
rated KVA and corresponding rated voltage thus
Rated (Full load) primary current = KVA /V1 = 1000/230 = 4.35 Amps
Rated (Full load) secondary current = KVA /V2 = 1000/115 = 4.35 Amps
Rated frequency is the frequency for which the transformer is designed to operate.

TRANSFORMATION RATIO:

The turn ratio of the single phase transformer can be found by measuring the primary & secondary
voltage. Let V1&V2 is the primary and secondary voltage at on load.

1/K = V1/ V2 = N1/N2 = I2/I1 = Turn Ratio

Induced E.M.F. in primary winding, Induced E.M.F. in secondary winding, for ideal transformer
Hence, Transformation Ratio
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per figure & set up auto transformer to zero position.
2. Switch on A .C. supply and adjust the Auto transformer till a suitable voltage.
3. Record voltage, V1 across the primary and V2 across the secondary winding.
4. Vary the Auto transformer and repeat above step, take at least 3 readings.
5. Switch off the supply.
OBSERVATION:

S.NO. Primary Voltage V1 Secondary Voltage V2 K = V2/ V1

1.

2.

3.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PRECAUTION:
1. Connection should be tight.
2. Do not touch on live wire.
3. Load on the transfer should not increase beyond its capacity.

RESULT:
Objectives – To study and verify the truth table of logic gates.
6
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Logic gates (IC) trainer kit.

2. Connecting patch chords.
3. IC 7400, IC 7408, IC 7432, IC 7406, IC 7402, IC 7404, IC 7486

THEORY:
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates perform
the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-
NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, and truth. It is seen from the Fig that
each gate has one or two binary inputs, A and B, and one binary output, C. The small circle on the
output of the circuit symbols designates the logic complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates
can be extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the
binary operation it represents is commutative and associative.

These basic logic gates are implemented as small-scale integrated circuits (SSICs) or as part of more
complex medium scale (MSI) or very large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Digital IC gates are
classified not only by their logic operation, but also the specific logic-circuit family to which they
belong. Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon which more complex digital circuits
and functions are developed. The following logic families are the most frequently used.

TTL Transistor-transistor logic

ECL Emitter-coupled logic
MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor
CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

TTL and ECL are based upon bipolar transistors. TTL has a well established popularity among logic
families. ECL is used only in systems requiring high-speed operation. MOS and CMOS are based on
field effect transistors. They are widely used in large scale integrated circuits because of their high
component density and relatively low power consumption. CMOS logic consumes far less power than
MOS logic. There are various commercial integrated circuit chips available. TTL ICs are usually
distinguished by numerical designation as the 5400 and 7400 series.
PROCEDURE:

1. Check the components for their working.

2. Insert the appropriate IC into the IC base.
3. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output on output LEDs

CONCLUSION:
Objectives – To study different parts of D.C. machine.
7
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Cross-sectional view of D.C. machine.

THEORY: The dc generators and dc motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a d.c. generator or motor.
Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa.

All d.c. machines have five principal components

(i) field system

(ii) armature core
(iii) armature winding
(iv) commutator
(v) brushes
The diagram given below represents the various parts of a DC machine.
Field system:- The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates.

 It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number) bolted to the inside of circular
frame (generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made of solid cast steel whereas the pole
pieces are composed of stacked laminations.
 Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are
connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.

 The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the pole
pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging
from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
 Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability, most
of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air
gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).

Armature core:- The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.

 It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked

to form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig. The laminations (See Fig.) are individually coated
with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other.

 The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are
slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give
shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

Armature winding:- The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner. This is known as armature winding.

 This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are
connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
 The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being
connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.
Commutator:- A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.

 The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and
mounted on the shaft of the machine . The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator
segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.
 Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator
segments, there are two types ofarmature winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b)
wave winding.

Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and
27arbonize the commutator.

Brushes:-The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator
and stationary external load circuit.

 The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by
means of adjustable springs (See Fig).
 If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may
produce sparking.

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole machine has 4
brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have positive and negative polarities.
Brushes having the same polarity are connected together so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve
terminal and the -ve terminal.

CONCLUSION: