SMA RT GRID IN ETHIOPIA

Abstract:
Unreliable power distribution reduces user power consumption, affects
daily activity and drags modern life style. It impacts societal development
and individuals’ income. Basically, Power Distribution Reliability has been a
major challenge in Addis Ababa city. It has incurred cost on customers and
lowered product quality. In Addis, Customers have faced frequent
interruption and utility has taken long time to alleviate it. Hence, it has to
get amicable solution. Thus, the objective of the study is to assess the
reliability of the current distribution system and suggest solutions of
reliability improvement in smart grid environment. Bella substation of Addis
Ababa district, which has high rate of interruption, is selected as case study
area. Bella substation’s reliability is assessed based on data of two and half
years from Ethiopian electric power corporation. To limit the scope of the
study, feeder-02 of Bella substation is chosen for reliability improvement
measures. Feeder-02 has SAIDI of 163.3 Hr./cust./yr and SAIFI of 184.9
Int./cust./yr. The reliability index values of feeder-02 are not within the
ranges of bench marks of best practices and Ethiopia’s reliability
requirement. Bella substation also has SAIDI of 146.5 Hr./cust./yr. and
SAIFI of 128.53 Int./cust./yr. Reliability indices of Bella substation show the
substation is unreliable as compared to standard practices and Ethiopia’s
reliability requirement. Distribution network reconfiguration capacity is
enhanced by designing laterals using genetic algorithm optimization
technique that can supply the feeder during contingencies. It’s simulated in
Mat Lab 2012. The design has considered energy serving capability and
maximum customer reconnection possibility. An optimized lateral design
solution is obtained that can supply 14550kVA out of 16085kVA and
reconnects 10440 customers out of 11235 after reconfiguration, i.e. 90.46
% of the supply capacity and 92.92% of the total customers. The same
optimization algorithm is used to improve automation, reclosing and
switching capacity of the feeder. A switch with automating equipment, a
recloser, and three sectionalizing switches are integrated in the new
design. SAIDI value of 98.33 hr. /cust. Tesfay Gebreegziabher, AAIT,
Master’s Thesis, 2014 v | P a g e /yr. and SAIFI of 56.025 int./cust./yr for
the feeder-02 have been achieved. Reliability improvement by each new
device is also calculated. Power restoration is boosted by integrating these
devices. By integrating the sectionalizing /tie switches in the feeder, a
minimum spanning tree (MST) for rapid restoration is attained using prim’s
algorithm in Mat Lab. For different fault points in the feeder, optimized kVA
Use of modern energy, like electricity, is a key factor to economic
development, poverty reduction, improved health and cleaner environment for
a society. Moreover, if the electricity is generated with Renewable Energy
(RE) resources the benefit will be profound. Unlike the developed countries
though, developing countries have little access to electricity. The African
continent for example covers 15% of the world land and has a population of
about 13.4% of the total world population and is rapidly growing. But it has
only 2% of the world's industrial capacity. This fact is closely tied to a limited
access to modern energy, like electricity. When it comes to Ethiopia, the
population who has access to electricity is less than 10% and of this figure 1%
of it accounts for the rural areas where the majority of its population live.
Hence it is critical to devise a method that can increase access to electricity
especially in rural areas where the national grid does not reach. Therefore, in
this paper, we propose a method of Distributed Generation (DG) of electrical
power units operated entirely by RE sources and a typical micro grid structure
for a local village network. The DG and Local Micro Grid (LMG) layout allows
reaching out for remote locations and efficient distribution in island mode. In
effect, the electricity would be made available locally instead of being
transported such a long distance with inevitable loss and huge capital
investment. Then different village's LMGs are interconnected in ring and form
a Micro Grid (MG) to increase the reliability and efficiency of electric power
delivery. This MG network will be capable of interconnecting to the national
grid as well as work in the ring system or autonomously at the local
distribution level with a concept of Smarter Micro Grid Controller (SMGC). The
longer term benefit of this system also supports the main national grid with a
power network in distributed villages in order to lessen the peak hour demand
sur- e. This essential set of investment will change the current distribution
problem of electrical energy in Ethiopia and permit access to electricity more
efficiently, reliably and affordably to by all sectors of the society. capacity
is achieved and power loss is minimized. In average, SAIDI of 11.452
Hr./cust./yr., SAIFI of 12.966 int./cust./yr. and ASAI of 0.9986 have been
achieved for network reconfiguration at various fault points. Key words:
Distribution Reliability, Smart Grid, Network Reconfiguration, GA
optimization, Power Restoration, Prim’s Algorithm
Show full item record
Introduction
Urbanization, living standards and advancement in
technology has increase the demand of energy requirement.
This made electricity consumption rises to levels that may no
longer be manageable if left unattended. This is an alarming
situation not only for providing sustainable energy but also
preservation of environment worldwide. Almost 75–80% of
total energy consumption is consumed in cities which is
responsible for 80% greenhouse gas emission [1], [2].
Traditional and centrally-controlled system for the
distribution of electrical energy is being used for a long day.
This is commonly name as power grid. Since the use of
electricity, globally electric grids have similar structure,
dynamics and principles even with the advancement of
technology. These traditional power grids are focused on only
some of the basic functions like generation, distribution and
control of electricity [3]. The electricity grid in present form is
unreliable, has high transmission losses, poor power quality,
prone to brownouts and blackouts, supplying inadequate
electricity, discouraging to integration of distributed energy
sources. There is a lack of monitoring and real time control in
the traditional non-smart systems, which creates a
challenging opportunity for smart grids to act as a real-time
solution. Countering these issues requires a complete
overhauling of power delivery structure. Electrical benefits are
not only the encouraging force for the introduction of ‘smart
grid’ concept, but environmental aspects too. Efficient usage
of energy and dependency on renewable resources will also
help to reduce the carbon foot print of human.
Smart Grid technology has a way for a solution for better generation of electric power and
an efficient way for transmission and distribution of this power. Due to its versatility it can be
more easily installed and required less space as compared to traditional grids. Concept of Smart
Grid design is aimed for grid observability, create controllability of assets, enhance performance
and security of power system and specially the economic aspects of operations, maintenance and
planning [4]. That’s why it is also consider that smart grid technology can be used to micro-grid
level which eventually connect to all other micro-grids to form a large network of Smart Grid.
These smart grids have a huge potential and could be a solution of reliability of power
transmission and distribution in developing countries which lack infrastructure. In US only 20%
of the all carbon dioxide is been emitted by transportation while generation of electricity has
40% of the carbon dioxide emitting share in it. This is due to the high demand rise of electricity.
Smart Grids are been considering as a key role to address this problem by distributing electric
power in an efficient way and ultimately reduce greenhouse gasses and pollutants like NOx and
SOx [5]. It will also help the customer to forecast its demand and the best economical utilization
of energy.
Smart Grid research has a long history with the start of its first concept implementation in 1997.
This article will discuss an overview of the Smart Grid, its features and functions which includes
reliability, security, energy management, self-healing. It will also discuss that how smart grid is
changing the concept of grid technology and how much potential to revolutionized in modern
electrical power grid. Some implemented technologies related to smart grids and pilot projects in
different countries of the world are also part of this article.

2. Smart grid concept

There is no specific start of Smart Grid. This concept was start evolving with the start of
distribution system of electrical networks. By the time different requirements were needed like
control, monitor, prices and services of transmission and distribution of electrical power.
Normally, Smart Grid implementation is associated with the installation of smart meter. In 1970s
and 80s they were used to send the information of consumer back to the grid [6]. But the most
important and fundamental need which is still under consideration even with latest advancement
is reliability and efficiency of energy transmission and distribution via electric power grid. But in
the latest advancement research is undergo that grids and network systems should not limit to
transmission and distribution but also play a vital role in generating clean and sustainable energy
in order to reduce greenhouse gases and carbon foot print.

2.1. Definition

For the distribution of electrical power to consumer one need a network of electrical conductor
which is known as grid. If this network is intelligent with automated control and monitor system
than it might be known as Smart Grid. Technically, smart grid is a concept for the conventional
grids with some latest and automated features which make them more reliable and sustainable.
Conventional grids were use just to transmit and distribute the electric power but this modern
concept of smart grid could communicate, store or even decide according to the situation.
Therefore, according to Strategic Deployment Document for Europe’s Electricity Networks of
future, a Smart Grid is an intelligent network of electricity that integrate the actions of all the
stakeholders that are generators, consumers and one who does both in order to supply electricity
with efficiency, sustainability, economically and securely [7]. So Smart Grid is not a single
technology that is to be implemented. Its vastness and dependency increases by its stakeholders
as shown in Fig. 1.
1. Download : Download high-res image (287KB)
2. Download : Download full-size image
Fig. 1. Working concept of Smart Grid.
It provides its stakeholder an opportunity to maximize the efficiency, reliability, economic
performance and security of their electrical network. An overview of its architecture is shown
in Fig. 2.
1. Download : Download high-res image (250KB)
2. Download : Download full-size image
Fig. 2. Overview of Smart Grid architecture.
2.2. Design

To understand the design and concept of smart grid one has to understand its difference with the
traditional power grid. This comparison was done by Yu et al. in 2012 [8]. This comparison is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Difference between Smart and Conventional Grid.
Smart Grid Conventional Grid

Two-way real-time communication One-way communication

Distributed system of power generation Centralized for power generation

Interconnected Network Radial Network

A large number of sensors are involved A small quantity of basic sensors are used

Digital Operation Mechanical Operation

 Smart Grid Conventional Grid

Automatic Control and Monitor Manual Control and Monitor

Wide range of control Limited control

Security and privacy concerns No security or privacy concern

The design of the smart grid is flexible with its use and related objectives. A conceptual model of
smart grid was presented by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) which
describe planning, development requirement, stakeholders that interconnected and equipments
that are required [9]. NIST classifies these stakeholders in seven domains for modeling as shown
in Table 2.
Table 2. Stakeholders of Smart Grid.
Stakeholder Description

Customer Electricity is consumed by consumer. It may be domestic, commercial or industria

Operations Operations related to power systems are performed. It comprises of regulatory au

management responsible for movement of electricity

Markets Grid assets are used by stakeholders. Both operators and consumers are play role

Generation Electricity is generated. Generation companies in bulk quantity of electricity are in

player.

Transmission Electricity is transmitted. Companies or player responsible for transmission of gen

electricity for distribution.

Distribution Electricity is distributed to end consumer and monitored. They include distributor
form and to customers.

Service Provide support services to all the stakeholders involved in generation, transmissi
Provider distribution of electric power.
2.3. Characteristics of smart grid

For the modernization of the electric grid, Energy Independence and Security Act 2007 (EISA)
developed a platform [10]. Features and functionalities of Smart Grid have a promise to full fill
these requirements set by EISA.
2.3.1. Reliability
Success of the grid system depends upon the customer need which is measured as reliability.
This mean as flaw less and error less system with continuous supply of electric power. Smart
Grid has a potential to detect any fault and allow the self-healing of the system [11].
Conventional grids have issues regarding interaction of renewable resources, micro grid and
demand response. With increase the size and complexity of these grids with demand it makes
more difficult to analyze its reliability. But these issues are very well addressed by Smart
Grids [12]. For this, Smart Grids have capability to monitor and store all the data and estimate its
service reliability. It may also possible to monitor remotely for hybrid generation and
management of the grid which enhance its reliability [13]. Technologies like Dynamic Stochastic
Optimal Power Flow (DSOPF) helps in estimating and optimizing the flow of power in Smart
Grid [4]. Therefore, Smart Grids can have better reliability with the advancement in
communication system [14].
2.3.2. Security
Security is one of the challenging issues for the Smart Grid evolution. With the increase of
automation, remote monitoring and controlling of the grid make the grid more vulnerable by
cyber assault. According to Electric Power Research Institute, cyber security of the system is one
of the biggest issue of the Smart Grid [15]. Suleiman et al propose a way to identify the
weaknesses of the smart grids that usually attackers exploit by using Smart Grid Systems Treats
Analysis and by integration of Systems Security Threat Model [16]. Similarly in 2014, Ashok et
al proposed an approach to address cyber-physical security issue of Wide-Area Monitoring and
protection and control from a coordinated cyber-attack perspective which will eventually
enhance the security [17]. For assessing the Smart Grid security, one needs a review for its
methodology. There are different agencies and organizations like IEEE Power & Energy Society
(PES), IEC Smart Grid Standardization, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
are involve and help in standardization and regulation for the smart grid [18]. Some of the
promising ongoing research in different domains of security for smart grids include: Privacy-
preserving smart metering with multiple data consumers, Ortho code privacy mechanism in
Smart Grid using ring communication architecture and Security Threat Model [19], [20], [21].
As security is to be consider one of the biggest barrier for implementation of Smart Grid
technology, so ongoing these researches have promise to resolve this barrier.
2.3.3. Demand side management system
Smart grid provides the demand side or user to interact with the grid by using two ways
communication ability. It provides a chance for the consumer to use the electric power in an
economical way. It will not only help for increasing efficiency at demand side but also at
distribution end. It helps grid to reduce demand and stress during peak period by reducing or
shifting power requirement to alternatives. This gives some financial incentive to consumer
which encourage them to do so. Currently, a lot of investment is being made in this sector of the
smart grids including demand side resources, load management systems and energy efficiency
initiatives in order to address economical, reliability and economic perspectives [22]. Mostly
demand side management systems focus only the communication between utility company and
consumer. A new consumption scheduling technique is on the way to address the future grids in
which each consumer can schedule their own consumption requirements. In this way it helps the
distribution system to schedule itself accordingly to the requirement as peak loads for different
consumers varies [23]. This also encourages the consumer to have financial incentives by
scheduling their needs.
With the evolution of Smart Grid, this definition has also started revolution in the appliances and
utilities to be “Smart” known as smart devices. These have ability to communicate with the grid
which make house more autonomous and facilitate the user to use the electric power effectively
and efficiently. These appliances shift demand of household electricity. Different networking
protocols like ‘ZigBee’ provides a solution to have a wireless control of household appliances.
These protocols have ability to communicate and coordinate with all the stakeholders involved in
home energy management system hence providing the best optimal solution to the user [24].
Therefore, smart grid is changing the trends of conventional household appliances to ‘smart’.
2.3.4. Metering
Automation in distribution system is associated with the smart automatic meter. Metering
provides a channel to enable two-way communication in Smart Grid concept between consumer
and distributer. They not only help distributor for more accurate billing system but also help
consumer to control their use of electrical energy. These meters are equipped with sensors for
automation, power quality monitoring and power outage notifications. There are different drivers
like price increase after electricity market deregulation, consumer dissatisfaction and monthly
metering directives which encourages smart meters [25]. In traditional grid systems, SCADA
was only used for communication purposes which provide a central control unit to monitor and
control with second scan rate. But it’s not much cost effective at different levels of electrical
power distribution especially at utility end [26]. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
provides a real time solution that collects consumer data and provides a communication networks
from grid to utility end. AMI provides opportunity to step forward for the modernization of the
huge grids by combining consumer with the distribution system. It provides an opportunity for
outage management, integration of electrical vehicles and smart devices, transformer and feeder
monitoring and fault isolation [27]. Researchers have design a new system for the automation of
distribution of power through a Substation Automation System (SAS). This system has ability to
solve congestion through locally control actions with a minimum limitation of renewable energy
resources [28].
2.3.5. Micro-grids and integration of renewable resources
Power generation from renewable resources likes, solar, wind, battery storage devices are bean
of high consideration to full fill the increasing demand of electricity and reducing the greenhouse
gasses. They even help to reduce the power stresses from grid during peak hours. Normally sites
for these resources are far or in remote areas. Even sometimes it is not possible to have a
complete functional grid to transmit or distribute electric power. Here micro-grids are used,
which gather to form a big distribution network. So with this large number of micro-grids and
sources will result in large amount of data to be handle. So researches like one by Penya et
al. [29] have a solution for this problem by using an architecture that uses an intelligent system
all over the grid to distribute the power effectively. This system will not be used as centralized
but will handle individually by mean of individual intelligent nodes.
2.3.6. Self-Healing
For a robust Smart Grid, it should not limited diagnose the fault occur in the grid but could also
be able to remove it for a constant supply of electricity. For a grid with a self-healing ability it
uses real-time communication and digital components that are installed throughout the grid to
monitor electrical characteristics of the grid. With this ability, grid is smart enough and capable
to figure out the potential problem that may be caused naturally or by some human error. These
intelligent systems react instantly to any such abnormalities and isolate the problem system
before they snowball into a big problem and cause major blackout and automatically reroute the
transmission of power for continuous services unless the error is removed. There are three main
benefits of a smart grid with self-healing capability [30]: real-time monitoring and reaction,
anticipation of problem, rapid isolation.

3. New technologies and research

A number of on-going research activities are being made for the advancement of the smart grid
to make it more reliable and sustainable for the modern needs. These researches are focused on
different technologies. It is difficult to cover all of these researches and advancement but this
section includes some of the prominent and latest technologies and research activities associated
with smart grid.

3.1. Energy management system

For a reliable grid, it’s essential that all the components involve must be work together from
generation to consumption. There are a lot of complex components involved in the grid. These
components communicate and work together by mean of some computer software. So, planning
and its implementation on grid are done by mean of interoperability. NIST initiated smart grid
interoperability (SGIP) which was responsible to develop and maintain the standards for smart
grids and all the components involve must communicate and operate efficiently. It was also
liable to provide a platform for all the stakeholders of power grid including customer, markets,
service provider, power system, generation, transmission and distribution network to work
together to form a modern, reliable and efficient grid system [9]. For the understanding and
implementation of energy management, both grids and consumer end must play their role.
Technologies like advance metering infrastructure (AMI), communication network for grid and
cyber security enables self-decision capabilities in grid which make energy management system
more realistic for smart grid [31].

3.2. Internet of things (IoT)

Internets of things (IoT) take the internet to next step of evolution. It makes life easier, automate
and handy by squeezing the whole world into one hand by computation and communication
capabilities. With the advancement of smart grid and its components, a technology was needed to
interact these components in an efficient, reliable and in more smart way. IoT has a promise to
full fill all these characteristics taking smart grid into new era. But with this new technology,
some serious security concern emerged which include impersonation, data tampering, overdoing,
authorization, privacy issue and cyber-attack [32]. Researchers are doing study to deal with these
issues. IoT base smart grid must have services like authentication, confidentiality, user’s privacy
and data integrity to avoid any security risk[32]. Connectivity that IoT provides to customer,
 enhance their experience and efficiency. It allows customer a flexible and easy interaction with
the grid in order to reduce cost by diagnostics and neighborhood-wide meter reading
capability [33]. In short, it makes smart grid smarter.

3.3. Smart grids with electric vehicles

As one of the biggest environmental issue is pollution due to vehicles. Use of electrical vehicles
has the solution of this problem. There are several challenges for EVs to interact with the grid
which include infrastructure, communication and control. Mostly it is seen that EVs are charged
at home and even sometime charging take place at public or commercial Charging station [34].
Therefore, it is possible that it directly stresses the electric distribution network. But contrary it is
possible that this EV charging can improve the quality of power and performance of grid if
integration of EVs with the grid is well planned and follow the standards set for it [35].
As Smart Grids have advance technologies in the form of communication, smart meters and
control. So it has a potential to offer electric vehicles not only as a load but can be used as a
flexible energy source [36]. Smart meters play a vital role to address the challenges faced by the
grid due to EV. As these meters have bidirectional communication ability and to monitor real
time data so these smart meters can help in implementing a smart scheduling to optimize the
available power in the grid [37]. An overview of this flow of communication and power was also
describe by F. Mwasilu et al [38] in Fig. 3.

1. Download : Download high-res image (313KB)

2. Download : Download full-size image
 Fig. 3. Flow of communication and power in V2G.
In vehicle to grid technology, one can predict the dynamics of power system. Charging is an
essential part of vehicle to grid technology. A lot of research has been made in the area of this
charging and discharging. A similar study was done in Portugal shows a good communication
between charging of electric vehicle and solar energy [39]. In another study, Ota et
al [40] proposed a way to consider charging request and battery condition for the next drive.
There are very few cases of a weak grid that were reported while using V2G. Similarly
renewable energy sources like solar and wind has a potential to overcome this weak grid
scenario [38]. Understanding of dynamic behavior of the electric grid is essential to predict the
reliability and effectiveness of the grid while operating with V2G.

3.4. Big data

Smart grid is full depended upon the data it receives. It is not just eyes of the grid but work as
back bone for it. For a reliable and efficient working of a smart grid, a huge amount data is
collected from power generation, transmission, transformation and power utilization [41]. All the
decision made by the grid is depended upon it. It also plays a key role in the autonomous
capabilities of the smart grid. There are numerous challenges for big data in smart grid
technologies which include from storage to its visualization and security. Researchers have also
focused on how to combine data into information and beneficial application. An overview of
flow of data within components of the smart grid is shown in Fig. 4 [42].

1. Download : Download high-res image (571KB)

2. Download : Download full-size image
 Fig. 4. Flow of data between components in Smart Grid.
A large amount of data gathered from different sensors, wireless transmission and
communications is accumulated. All the data gather from generation to utilization is used by
different algorithms to forecast and will also help full in recognizing the pattern of power
utilization. This will ultimately useful for achieving a smart energy management system. Energy
big data does not only include the data gather from meters but it has also a huge amount of data
related to weather and environment. Characteristics of this data are incomplete without ‘4Vs’
(volume, velocity, variety and value) and ‘3Es’ (energy, exchange and empathy) [43]. Different
algorithms and models were develop for the analysis of the big data but still there are some
major issues related to big data like: IT infrastructure, Data Collection and governance, data
processing and analysis, data integration and sharing and most importantly security and privacy
which are to be address and are centrally focused by researchers [43].

4. Investment in smart grid

Different countries of the world have step forward in the era of smart grid and accept its reality.
Many of them are working on smart grid pilot project or taking initiatives of this concept for
testing and research in order to test feasibility before execution on full scale development and
change. Government of different countries like Australia, United States, China, Britain, South
Korea and Japan are already considering options like smart grid for reducing carbon emission
and energy security. Some initiatives related to smart grid of different countries are
following [44], [45], [46].

The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art

and Future Trends
Mohamed E. El-hawary

Pages 239-250 | Received 19 Nov 2013, Accepted 19 Nov 2013, Published online: 05 Feb
2014

 Download citation

 https://doi.org/10.1080/15325008.2013.868558

 
 CrossMark

In this article

 Abstract
 1. Introduction
 2. Background and Definitions
 3. The Motivation for Smart Grid (Why Smart Grid?)
 4. Smart Grid Attributes
 5. Some Impediments to Smart Grid
 6. Smart Distribution and Utilization Systems
 7. Smart Grid Initiatives, Developments, Plans, and Example
Technologies
 8. Recent Research on Smart Grid Topics
 9. Sample Future Research Directions
 10. Conclusions
 Acknowledgements
 References








Abstract

This paper introduces Smart Grid and associated technical,

environmental and socio-economic, and other non-tangible benefits to
society, and articulates the need for the concept and the fact that it is
a dynamic interactive, real-time infrastructure that responds to the
challenges of designing and building the power system of the future,
rather than being simply a marketing term. To illustrate the diversity of
terminology, the paper compares an Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) definition with that suggested by a study group of the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Next, a paper
sponsored by the Canadian Electricity Association (CEA) that cites
three example definitions to highlight the diversity of views of Smart
Grid is briefly reviewed. Early misconceptions and characterizations of
Smart Grid are discussed as a prelude to addressing challenging
issues that motivate developing and implementing related innovative
technologies, products and services. The paper then discusses the
potential promise of the Smart Grid, which is embedded in its often-
cited attributes of efficiency, accommodating, quality focus, enabling
and self-healing to name some. The paper then addresses some of
the often-cited impediments to accepting Smart Grid which are based
on concerns and issues confronting its forward progress, adoption and
acceptance. Distribution Automation (DA) and embedded intelligence
are discussed emphasising self-healing, optimizing operation and
facilitating recreation and recovery from abnormal events. Functional
and integration requirements of Distributed Energy Resources (DER,)
are detailed. Smart Consumption Infrastructure elements of
Distribution Management Systems (DMS,) Automated Metering
Infrastructure (AMI,) Smart Homes (SH), and Smart Appliances (SA,)
are discussed. Following the introductory section, this paper
summarizes contributions included in the double issue 42(3–4) of the
Electric Power Components and Systems Journal. To begin, papers
are offered discussing smart grid activities in China, India, and the
development of a Smart Grid roadmap for the US State of Kentucky.
The approaches of each of these cases reflect the diversity of policy
initiatives in these jurisdictions. Two state of the art reviews are given
next. The first considers distribution network active management and
future development trends in technologies and methods, where
centralized and decentralized management frameworks and applying
agent-based coordination are discussed. The second offers a review
of smart home technologies and the goals of an energy management
system (SHEMS). This section is concluded by a letter providing an
overview of recent and expected advances nanotechnology
applications in Smart Grid. Following the state of the art review
section, ten papers offering new and innovative research approaches
and results are included. These papers cover Smart Grid topics such
as real-time energy control approach for smart home energy
management systems, optimal operation of energy- efficient buildings
with Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems, energy management
and control of Electric Vehicle (EV) charging stations, voltage-
frequency control of a voltage source inverter (VSI) in a smart
islanded microgrid, smart generation scheduling for wind-thermal-
pumped storage systems, optimized power system restoration, robust
data transmission upon compressive sensing, data fusion for wide-
area oscillation monitoring, satellite based GPS synchronized
monitoring systems, stability in Smart Grid with emerging renewable
energy techno- logies.
Keywords: 
Adaptive reconfiguration of distribution networksalternative energy sourcesautomated metering
infrastructurebuilding automation and control systemCanadian Electricity Associationdata
fusiondata transmissiondemand side managementDepartment of Energyderegulationdiscrete
wavelet transformdistributed energy sourcesdistributed intelligencedistributed management
systemdistribution and utilization systemsdistribution automationdynamic storage
resourceselectric vehicle charging stationelectric vehiclesembedded intelligenceenergy efficient
buildingenvironmental impact of power generationexternal cyber attacksforecastingfuel
cellsfuzzy logic controllergeneration automationgeneration carbon footprintglobal positioning
systemgreen energygrid of the futureintegrated forecastingintermittent energy
availabilityInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)interoperabilityKentucky Smart Grid
Roadmap Initiativeload prioritizationmicrogridsmodel predictive voltage controlmultistage mixed-
integer stochastic programmingnanotechnologyobservabilityoptimal predictor-corrector resource
dispatchingoptimal sizing and placement of distribution system resourcesplug-in electric
vehiclespower qualitypower system infrastructure agingpower system reliabilitypower system
restorationpredictionpulse width modulationrenewable energy sourcesrural electrificationself-
healing distribution systemssliding mode current controlsmart appliancessmart buildingsmart
gridSmart Grid Forum (India)smart grid roadmapsmart homesmart home energy management
systemsmart metersstate estimationState Grid Corporation of China (SGCC)synchronized
phasor measurementssynchronized smart grids monitoringUS National Academy of
Engineeringvoltage source inverterwide-area monitoring systemwind turbineswind-thermal-
pumped storage systems

Previous articleView issue table of contentsNext article

1. Introduction

The electric power system enterprise has witnessed many recent

developments that not only revived interest in research and
development but also resulted in significant socio-economic and other
non-tangible benefits to the community at large. The increased
awareness of the environmental impact and the carbon footprint of all
energy sources, including electric power production, have given
impetus to the growth and adopting of renewable as well as alternative
energy. The advent of power system deregulation and the move away
from the vertically integrated utility business model is a second
important development that shaped the direction of electric power
technology. The rise of smart grid is a boon not only to society as a
whole but to all who are involved in the electric power industry, its
customers, and its many stakeholders. The intent of this article is
three-fold. First the article discusses the concept of the smart grid and
its various manifestations to allow for an appreciation of the
complexity, potential benefits, and challenges involved in this exciting
field. Next, the article briefly reviews recent initiatives, developments,
technologies, and research described in the manuscripts included in
the current double issue 42(3–4) of Electric Power Components and
Systems. The article then concludes by offering a brief description of
some future research directions.

2. Background and Definitions

Currently available literature on the term “smart grid” shows a vast

array of publications. For example, an IEEE Xplore search returned
9117 results, while in Science Direct, the same search returned 618
results. The smart grid has evolved from the worldwide power
industry's stakeholders’ desire to respond to the challenges of
designing and building the electric power network “the grid” of the
future. The concept was given different names, such as intelligent
grid, grid wise, EPRI's Intelligrid, and others. While defining the term
may initially appear to be illusive, there is almost unanimous
agreement that the smart grid is a dynamically interactive real-time
infrastructure concept that encompasses the many visions of diverse
power system stakeholders.
An IEC document released in May 2010 suggested that “smart grid” is
used as a marketing term rather than a technical definition [1]. It is
notable that the EPRI website offers a succinct definition that states “A
Smart Grid is one that incorporates information and communications
technology into every aspect of electricity generation, delivery and
consumption in order to minimize environmental impact, enhance
markets, improve reliability and service, and reduce costs and improve
efficiency” [2]. The IEC set up the Smart Grid Strategy Study Group 3,
SG3, which completed “IEC Smart Grid Standardization Roadmap
Edition 1.0” in 2010. In that document, SG3 defined smart grids as
“the concept of modernizing the electric grid. The Smart Grid is
integrating the electrical and information technologies in between any
point of generation and any point of consumption” [3].
A paper sponsored by the Canadian Electricity Association [4]
demonstrated the diversity of smart grid definitions by citing three
published examples [5–7] and identified the key themes of
communication, integration, and automation that are sustainable,
economic, and secure. That study offered a concise definition: “the
smart grid is a suite of information-based applications made possible
by increased automation of the electricity grid, as well as the
underlying automation itself; this suite of technologies integrates the
behaviour and actions of all connected supplies and loads through
dispersed communication capabilities to deliver sustainable, economic
and secure power supplies.”
Early negative (and sometimes hostile) reaction to the smart grid
concept can be attributed to the misconception that it is a step forward
to modernize a “dumb network”. This misguided characterization is
evident in the often quoted statement, “If Alexander Graham Bell were
somehow transported to the 21st century, he would not begin to
recognize the components of modern telephony—cell phones, texting,
and cell towers, etc.—while Thomas Edison, one of the grid's key
early architects, would be totally familiar with the grid.” The statement
is taken from a well-cited DOE publication [6] that goes on to state,
“While this thought experiment speaks volumes about appearances, it
is far from the whole story. Edison would be quite familiar with the
grid's basic infrastructure and perhaps even an electromechanical
connection or two, but he would be just as dazzled as Graham Bell
with the technology behind the scenes.” The document goes on to
state, “In celebrating the beginning of the 21st century, the United
States National Academy of Engineering set about identifying the
single most important engineering achievement of the 20th century.
The Academy compiled an estimable list of twenty accomplishments
which have affected virtually everyone in the developed world. The
internet took thirteenth place on this list, and ‘highways’ eleventh.
Sitting at the top of the list was electrification as made possible by the
electric power grid, ‘the most significant engineering achievement of
the 20th Century.’” Indeed, the power industry has been at the
forefront of taking advantage of advanced computer, communication,
and control technologies throughout the 20th century.

3. The Motivation for Smart Grid (Why Smart

Grid?)

The electric power industry stakeholders (utilities, vendors,

manufacturers, regulators, consumers and their advocates, and
governments) recognize the need to address challenging issues that
motivate developing and implementing the smart grid and its
elements. While recognizing that the priority of local drivers and
challenges might differ from one jurisdiction to another, the following is
a partial list of issues concerned.
1. Aging and underinvested infrastructure: Much of the existing power system
 infrastructure dates back to the 1950s or even earlier and is reaching the end of its useful
life.
2. Electricity demand throughout the world is steadily increasing, causing high power
system loading resulting in overstressed system equipment.
3. Public interest groups are putting pressure on politicians to reduce CO2 emissions
through the adoption of alternative energy sources and put in place regulations to
increase energy efficiency.
4. Increasing distance between generation sites and load centers.

5. The changing mix of power generation operating central power plants in parallel with
large numbers of small, decentralized (distributed) generation.
6. Intermittent and fluctuating energy availability of renewable energy sources, such as
wind and solar, are placing additional strains on existing grids. The intermittence must
be counter-balanced with more intelligence in the grid, base load power generation
(hydro, nuclear), and storage.
7. Additional and new consumption models (smart plug-in vehicles, smart homes (SHs),
and smart buildings).
8. Increasing cost and regulatory pressures.

9. Utility unbundling increased energy trading.

10 There is a need for transparent consumption and pricing for the consumer.
.

11 Regulators are pushing for more competitive and lower energy prices.
.

12 There is a need for securing supply and meeting the increase in energy needs.
.

13 Utilities need to adopt information and communication technologies to handle new

. operational scenarios and challenges while maintaining profitability and retaining the
ability to invest in infrastructure
14 Efficient and reliable transmission and distribution of electricity is fundamental to
. maintaining functioning economies and societies.

15 Sustainability.
.

To appreciate the motivations and, hence, objectives of the smart grid,

one may cite the U.S. Department of Energy, which issued a Request
for Information dated 11 May 2010 under the title “Implementing the
National Broadband Plan by Studying the Communications
Requirements of Electric Utilities To Inform Federal Smart Grid Policy”
[8] stating, “A Smart Grid uses information and communications
technologies to improve the reliability, availability, and efficiency of the
electric system. In Smart Grid projects today, these technologies are
being applied to electric grid applications, involving devices at the
consumer level through the transmission level, to make our electric
system more responsive and more flexible.” In addition to economic-
and policy-based motivations, smart grid implementations respond to
the rate of advances in emerging technologies, such as
communications, computing power, energy storage, and renewable
generation. Clearly, a smart grid employs innovative products and
services together with intelligent monitoring, control, communication,
and self-healing technologies to
• allow consumers to play a part in optimizing the operation of the system and

• provide consumers with greater information and choice of supply.

The potential promise of the smart grid includes improved reliability

and power quality, reduction in peak demand, reduction in
transmission congestion costs, potential for increased energy
efficiency, environmental benefits gained by increased asset
utilization, increased security, ability to accommodate more renewable
energy, and increased durability and ease of repair in response to
malicious attacks or adverse natural events.

4. Smart Grid Attributes

Many smart grid advocates cite some or all of its following attributes
as representative of its promise:
• efficient—capable of meeting increased consumer demand without adding infrastructure;

• accommodating—accepting energy from virtually any fuel source, including solar and
wind, as easily and transparently as coal and natural gas; capable of integrating any and all
better ideas and technologies (energy storage technologies, for example) as they are
market-proven and ready to come on-line;
• motivating—enabling real-time communication between the consumer and utility so
consumers can tailor their energy consumption based on individual preferences, such as
price and/or environmental concerns;
• opportunistic—creating new opportunities and markets by means of its ability to
capitalize on plug-and-play innovation wherever and whenever appropriate;
• quality focused—capable of delivering the power quality necessary, free of sags, spikes,
disturbances, and interruptions, to power our increasingly digital economy and the data
centers, computers, and electronics necessary to make it run;
• resilient—increasingly resistant to attack and natural disasters as it becomes more
decentralized and reinforced with smart grid security protocols; and
• green—slowing the advance of global climate change and offering a genuine path toward
significant environmental improvement in the impact of electric power serving humanity.

5. Some Impediments to Smart Grid

As with many new innovative technological developments, care must

be taken to address particular concerns and issues that confront the
forward progress, adoption, and acceptance of this enterprise.
1 Stakeholder Engagement: At the early stages of smart grid implementations,
. stakeholders’ negative perceptions can derail even the most beneficial project, especially
when the proponents fail to pay close attention to the educational aspects. Advocates need
to be able explain and clearly identify the benefits of each component of the smart grid to
the customers that are the potential key to service success.
2 Security: As a cornerstone of smart grids, the prominence of information technology may
. introduce new cyber-security vulnerabilities. Mitigating security risks is among the most
important research and development smart grid activity.
3 High initial costs: High unsustainable costs of pilot programs can act as deterrents to
. acceptance and adoption of smart grids. Cost burden sharing among jurisdictions and
potential beneficiaries can partially alleviate some of these difficulties.
4 Fear of obsolesce: As many technology users (computers, smart phones, etc.) are
. painfully aware, the adoption of new tools can open the door to new and additional costs
that may only be borne by the eventual consumer. This fear can be addressed through the
development of interoperability standards and backward compatibility of technologies.
5 Privacy: Insufficient oversight of how data are used increases the risk of potential
. consumer privacy violations. This concern needs to be addressed appropriately to gain
consumer acceptance and trust.

While much of the conversation concerning the smart grid appears to

be taking place between participants identified as “stakeholders,” the
role of the academy in educating, promoting, and leading needs to be
fully appreciated and nurtured. As custodians to the educational
programs of newer generations of engineers and scientists, academic
programs need to be re-examined and new interdisciplinary
approaches developed to reflect the new paradigm shift away from the
vertically integrated business model to adopt and respond to the
needs and aspirations of the new models embraced by smart grid
thinking.

6. Smart Distribution and Utilization Systems

Given that the origins of many power system issues are typically
based in the electrical distribution system, the point of departure for
grid enhancement and modernization is to be found at the bottom of
the supply chain. While the distribution system is a major part of the
electric power system, it comes as a surprise that there is not a
corresponding appreciable level of embedded intelligence with the
only information available—that from the feeder at the substation. This
makes it difficult to optimize the operation of the distribution system
and to recreate and recover from abnormal events. Distribution
automation (DA) was introduced in the 1970s and allowed more
integration into distribution systems. Adopting DA in operation and
control has been relatively slow because of the large number of
components, in turn requiring high capital investment.
DA allows increased efficiency, reliability, and quality of electric
service. Moreover, it also facilitates more effective utilization and life
extension of existing distribution system infrastructure. Advanced DA
concepts promote automatic self-configuration features, reducing
outage times to a minimum (self-healing grids). Distributed energy
resources (DERs) include demand response (DR), renewable
generation, storage, and distributed generation (DG). DERs are able
to create self-contained cells (microgrids), which can in turn help to
assure energy supply in distribution grids even when the transmission
grid has a blackout [9].
Wakefield [10] discussed integrating DERs and some of their
functional requirements.
• Distributed intelligence: Systems that integrate DERs need to possess high-speed data
processing capability and be able to make decisions locally through distributed
intelligence offered by low-cost embedded computing facility.
• Visualization: This is a high-priority requirement to recognize available and controllable
 resources to maximize economic and reliability benefits. Some visualization capabilities
may be needed at the individual substation, to a feeder, and even down to the individual
resource.
• Forecasting and prediction: The ability to forecast and predict the availability and
performance of resources is acknowledged as a key requirement. Forecasting is a
challenge because of the immaturity and low penetration of DERs, which increases the
uncertainty associated with their performance.
• Interoperability: This requirement refers to the capability of two or more networks,
systems, devices, applications, or components to externally exchange and readily use
information securely and effectively. Integration needs to follow agreed standards to meet
the diverse circumstances and needs of all varying types of resources considered.
• Integration challenging issues include the need for industry consensus and maturity of new
standards and cyber security.

A distribution management system (DMS) is the counterpart to the

energy management system (EMS) and is therefore the control center
for the distribution grid. In systems where outages are a frequent
problem, an outage management system (OMS) is an important
component of the DMS. Other important components are fault location
and interfaces to geographic information systems.
Automated metering infrastructure (AMI) places smart meters in
homes to measure and monitor electricity consumption and production
where appropriate. The goal for homes is to take advantage of smart
meters (electronic meters with a communication link) to monitor
energy consumption, on-site grid-connected solar or wind generation,
battery storage, and electric (plug-in) vehicles. In addition, AMI allows
remote meter configuration, communicating dynamic tariffs, power
quality monitoring, and potential load control. AMI fulfills the promise
of SHs and smart appliances (SAs). SHs are houses equipped with a
home automation system that interconnects a variety of controls,
including lighting, security, appliances, and other devices, in a
common network infrastructure that also allows it to become more
energy efficient. SAs are appliances (i.e., thermostats, pool pumps,
clothes washers/dryers, water heaters, etc.) equipped with devices
that use wireless technology to receive real-time data from the AMI
system to control or modulate their operation. The eventual goal is to
integrate the metering infrastructure with DA.
Building automation and control systems (BACSs) include the
instrumentation, control, and management technology for all building
structures, plant, outdoor facilities, and other equipment capable of
automation. Distribution feeders are to be equipped with advanced
power electronic switching devices that control the system and
sensors to measure flow of real and reactive power, voltage, and
current. The general idea is to implement smart consumption
infrastructure enabling DR, which is located at the interface between
distribution management and building automation.

7. Smart Grid Initiatives, Developments, Plans, and

Example Technologies

7.1. Recent Advancements on Smart Grids in China [11]

Xu, Xue, and Wong from Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China;
State Grid Electric Power System Research Institute, China; and
University of Western Australia, Australia, respectively, discuss
China's 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) that places smart grid
development as a national priority for the energy sector. China has
experienced phenomenal economic growth accompanied with an
impressive increase of total energy use, which is still dominated by
fossil-fuel-based thermal power generation. The need for economic
development and environmental protection require an aggressive
renewable energy policy with a vision to have renewable energy
account for 15% of national primary energy consumption by 2020.
The State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) established the plan to
implement smart power grids in China by 2020. The second phase,
between 2011 and 2015, involves comprehensive construction, where
major breakthroughs in key technology and equipment for the smart
grid should be achieved to subsequently enable extensive application
in the third phase (2016–2020), involving upgrading and enhancing
phase, where the grid is optimized. That article offers an overview of
the Chinese electric power grid and the challenges encountered in
system operation. Subsequently, that article deals with governmental
policy and strategy in support of development and relevant pilot
programs. Remaining gaps and additional research needs for
successfully implementing a strong and smart grid strategy by the
major utility SGCC are discussed in their Section 3. That article
reports on recent advances in smart grids in China and concludes by
discussing future scope of work.

7.2. Smart Grid Initiatives in India [12]

Samantaray from Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India,

reports that Indian smart grid initiatives are an emerging part of the
energy policy of central and state governmental entities. The focus
includes capacity increase to meet the growing electricity demand,
rural electrification, and optimizing electrical usage through load
management and improving operational efficiencies. The article
reviews the jurisdictional aspects of smart grid applications and the
establishment of the Indian smart grid with a fundamental emphasis
on private involvement in energy production/supply and unbundling
the power sector from total government control. High priorities include
advanced metering to reduce aggregate technical and commercial
losses, automation to monitor and control the flow of power to/from the
loads on an almost real-time basis, improvement of system reliability,
and intelligently managed loads, congestion, and power shortfall.
Other organizations, such as the Smart grid Forum, contribute to the
smart grid vision of India on advisory basis, coordinating with the
Smart Grid Task Force. The combined work effort of the two bodies is
divided into the following workgroups: advanced transmission,
advanced distribution, communications, metering, consumption and
load control, policy and regulation, and architecture and design. The
author gives further details of the smart grid plans and activities
including milestones.

7.3. Development of a Smart Grid Roadmap for

Kentucky [13]
This article by Liao, Turner, and Du from University of Kentucky, USA;
Purdue University, USA; and Mid American Energy Company, USA,
respectively, offers results of a recently completed project aimed at
developing a comprehensive smart grid roadmap for the state of
Kentucky (Kentucky smart), including the methods and processes
utilized and the achieved roadmap plan. The authors begin by
emphasizing the need to perform studies to identify characteristics of
the current grid, identify key technologies that are needed, and
propose a plan for technology deployment in both the short and long
term, considering technological, societal, economical, and legislative
aspects of deploying specific technologies.
Their Section 2 discusses the goals and tasks of the Kentucky Smart
Grid Roadmap Initiative (KSGRI). The KSGRI includes six tasks to
achieve the stated goals. Tasks 1 and 2 include evaluating conditions
of electric transmission, and distribution grids in Kentucky and
identifying smart grid technologies applicable to transmission and
distribution sectors, respectively. Task 3 evaluates technologies to
establish smart grid facilities. Task 4 evaluates short-term and long-
term technology compatibility. The estimation of a timeline for smart
grid technology deployment is the focus of Task 5, and Task 6
evaluates the necessary rate structures for smart grid implementation
and legal barriers to smart grid deployment. Questionnaires, face-to-
face meetings, workshops, and other communication means were
utilized to obtain needed information from academic, electric utility,
governmental, and stakeholder representatives to complete the
project.
Their Section 3 describes the current state of the Kentucky power grid,
including transmission and generation limitations and constraints.
Specific concerns regarding the implementation of smart grid
programs include the need for cost recovery and economic
justification of programs, technical obsolescence, and regulatory
mandates. Section 4 presents a summary of the “Kentucky Smart Grid
Workshop Series,” held in 2012, dealing with three topics:
1 technology, market, and policy factors with the greatest impact on the development and
. modernization of the Kentucky's electric power systems;
2 the current state, optimal future state, and gap in between for Kentucky's electric
. infrastructure in areas of smart grid deployments and technology, applications, and
solutions, along with research and development, that enable modernization of KY power
grid; and
3 business models and regulatory approaches available to electric utilities and government
. regulators to encourage grid modernization that will ensure equitable and efficient
regulatory and investment processes.

Barriers to smart grid deployments are discussed in their Section 5.

The roadmap developed for Kentucky smart grid technology
deployment is presented in Section 6, followed by conclusions.

7.4. A Review of Active Management for Distribution

Networks: Current Status and Future Development
Trends [14]

Zhao, Wang, Zhao, Lin, Zhou, and Wang from Wayne State
University, USA; Zhejiang Electric Power Test and Research Institute,
China; and Chongqing University, China, respectively, remind us that
electric power distribution networks (DNs) convey power to end users,
host DG sources and electric vehicles (EVs), and are important in
developing future smart grids. In addition, the emergence of AMI and
SAs has changed DNs from passive to active. Meeting new
challenges, next-generation DNs need active distribution management
(ADM). This article reviews recent development in ADM technologies
and methods. The authors review three management frameworks
beginning with a centralized framework in which the voltage, power
flow, and equipment status measurements at selected locations in the
DN are sent to the DN central controller, which dispatches active and
reactive power from DGs as well as additional operation commands to
enhance the operation efficiency and keep the voltage and frequency
within the prescribed safe range. The distributed nature of the DN
motivates the decentralized management framework, where
equipment can be autonomous. The control decisions of local
controllers are based on local information or in coordination with
neighboring equipment. The potential for applying agent-based
coordination is also discussed. A third framework is that of the hybrid
hierarchical management (HHM), which consists of several
supervisory control layers.
Their Section 3 deals with voltage and energy management
approaches of active distribution networks (ADN) which includes
planning functions for optimal sizing and placement of capacitors and
distributed generators and operational dispatching approaches. A
second category discussed deals with active voltage management via
distributed generators and active DC-link controllers. The concept of
deploying DGs as voltage regulators is also explored. The impact of
plug-in EVs (PEVs) on the DN performance is discussed, noting the
important role an ADM approach would play in enhancing the DN
performance. The section is concluded by a brief discussion of
demand-side management and its potential to improve investment
efficiency in a DN.
In their Section 4, various distribution management technologies, such
as DA, AMI, fault location, automated reconfiguration, and VAR
control, are discussed. Section 5 considers emerging technologies,
such as advanced power electronics, role of communication and
information technology, SAs, and energy storage systems. Section 6
speculates on conceptual future developments, such as community
energy storage using rehabilitated EV batteries, trends in customer
participation, and the idea of a virtual microgrid. The article includes a
highly useful set of references.

7.5. Smart Home Activities: A Literature Review [15]

Al-Sumaiti, Ahmed, and Salama from University of Waterloo, Canada,

review SH technologies, beginning with a discussion of the goals of an
SH EMS (SHEMS) and related definitions. The main objectives of an
SH are to enhance home automation through improved
communications, facilitate energy management by selecting efficient
appliances and better consumer awareness, and reduce
environmental emission by switching from fossil-fueled to renewable
energy sources. The discussion in their Section 1 deals with
alternatives and recent proposals to enable the three aspects of SHs.
SHEMS allows the homeowner, utility, and others to monitor, manage,
and conserve energy, and their Section 2 starts by examining its
definitions and elements. This is followed by a discussion of the goals
of SHEMS from the point of view of a customer, a utility, society, the
environment, and device manufacturers.
Section 3 deals with considerations affecting home energy consumers
and electricity bills, models needed for scheduling an appliance, and
reported studies related to appliance scheduling, including such
approaches as heuristic search, linear and mixed-integer non-linear
programming, as well as neural networks, game theory, and others.
The challenges associated with SHEMSs and possible solutions are
explored, and the energy factors contributing to a customer's
electricity bill are discussed. Price schemes and the load models
needed for solving related scheduling optimization problems are also
presented. In addition, this article includes a review of the literature
related to EMS scheduling with respect to its control, automation, and
communication systems.

7.6. A Brief Overview of Nanotechnology Applications

in Smart Power Grid [16]

In their article, Abdelsalam and Abdelaziz from Kafrelsheikh

University, Egypt; and Ain Shams University, Egypt, respectively,
indicate that application of nanotechnology in electrical energy
production and storage is in the early stages of development and
research. They present a brief overview for the recent and expected
advances in nanotechnology applications and benefits in photovoltaic
(PV) cells, wind turbines (WTs), fuel cells, PEVs, energy storage
batteries and smart sensors, smart grid power electronics, computing,
and communications.
8. Recent Research on Smart Grid Topics

8.1. Real-time Energy Control Approach for Smart

Home Energy Management System [17]

Zhou, Wu, Li, and Zhang from University of Birmingham, UK, report on
a home in which the appliances include an electric water heater
(EWH), air conditioner (AC), clothes dryer (CD), EV, PV cells, critical
loads (CLs), and a battery system. The authors propose a DR
mechanism to allow households to participate in DR services.
The half-hour-ahead control approach combines rolling optimization
(RO) and a real-time control strategy (RTCS) to achieve economic
energy consumption to benefit the household and allow dealing with
complex operating environments. While RO can schedule energy
consumption off the high price periods based on forecast information,
the RTCS can adjust the real-time power for each appliance based on
practical considerations.
A fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is used to determine the
charging/discharging power level of the battery; proper rules are
proposed to ensure the benefits from operating the battery under the
real-time electricity price. Simulation test results indicate that the
proposed control approach can optimize the schedule for home
appliances and charging/discharging behavior of the battery even
when the forecast information is inaccurate. A physical test platform
has also been built and tested in the lab to support the operation of
the whole system. The authors caution that although the SH can
participate in DR services to shift loads off the peak load periods, new
peak load periods might appear. Further studies need to be carried
out about the outcome of different DR mechanisms.
8.2. Multi-stage Stochastic Optimal Operation of
Energy-efficient Building with Combined Heat and
Power System [18]

Liu, Fu, and Kargarian from Mississippi State University, USA contend
that to minimize the cost of energy use under uncertainty, one needs
to determine the building's daily optimal power production of all energy
sources, including the electric grid, battery, and combined heat and
power (CHP) with a boiler unit, considering controllable electric and
thermal loads. They propose a hybrid approach combining multi-stage
mixed-integer stochastic programming and the rolling scheduling
method for the optimization task.
Taking into account the randomness of non-controllable electric and
thermal loads as well as solar power generations through the multi-
stage scenario tree, the operation of energy-efficient buildings will be
more robust against changes in uncertain variables. With information
of uncertainties updated hourly, the rolling scheduling method is
introduced to determine an adaptive power output of electric grid,
charging/discharging status of the battery, and operation of the CHP
with a boiler unit. The concept of scenario reduction is introduced to
take into account the intermittent characteristics of solar power
generation and imprecise forecasting of electric and thermal loads. To
utilize the hourly updated information of uncertainties, a rolling
scheduling scheme is applied in the proposed model. It is shown that
CHP is effective in improving the overall thermal efficiency by
coordinating the electric and thermal power supplies. The numerical
results demonstrate that the multi-stage stochastic model is more
adaptive and practically relevant to the optimal operation of building
systems. The simulation results offer a set of adaptive decision
solutions within the scheduling horizon.

8.3. Energy Management and Control of Electric

Vehicle Charging Stations [19]
Li, Bao, Fu, and Zheng from University of Alabama, USA study energy
management and control aspects of an EV charging station, which
consists of an AC/DC converter to interface with the grid and a
number of DC/DC converters that control EV charging/discharging.
Properly managed, and due to their distributed and mobile nature as
well as their high charge and discharge power demand, EV charging
stations can contribute to efficient use of renewable resources. For the
grid-side AC/DC converter, a direct-current control mechanism is
employed to control reactive power, AC system bus voltage, and DC-
link voltage. This technique has demonstrated superior performance
for grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operations of the
charging station.
On the other hand, for EV-side DC/DC converters, constant-current
and constant-voltage control mechanisms are used for charging and
discharging of simultaneous multiple EVs in a dynamic price
framework. The authors report on real-time simulation results obtained
under both steady and variable charging and discharging conditions to
evaluate how the EV charging station can meet G2V, V2G, and
vehicle-to-vehicle charging and discharging requirements.

8.4. A Dual-loop Model Predictive Voltage

Control/Sliding-mode Current Control for Voltage
Source Inverter Operation in Smart Microgrids [20]

Abo-Al-Ez, Elaiw, and Xia from Mansoura University, Egypt; University

of Pretoria, South Africa; and King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia,
respectively, propose a dual-loop controller for voltage frequency
control of the voltage source inverter (VSI) in islanded microgrid. The
outer loop is a voltage controller designed using the model predictive
control (MPC) strategy to regulate microgrid voltage and frequency
and generate the reference inverter currents for the inner loop. The
inner loop is a fast response current controller designed using a
sliding-mode control strategy and generates the pulse-width
modulation (PWM) voltage commands to regulate the VSI current
under overload conditions. A standard space vector algorithm is used
to realize the PWM voltage commands. The controller is essential for
reliable operation of DERs following islanding conditions. The
proposed control strategy is tested under different operating
conditions.

8.5. A Joint Smart Generation Scheduling Approach for

Wind Thermal Pumped Storage Systems [21]

Yuan, Zhou, Zhang, and Li from North China Electric Power

University, China; and University of Birmingham, UK, respectively,
propose a two-stage generation scheduling approach for minimizing
operating costs of an electric power system with mixed wind power,
pumped storage, and thermal power resources. In addition, the
outcome accommodates uncertain wind power as much as possible
and evens out the output fluctuations encountered thermal units while
making the system operate in a relatively reliable way. At the outset, a
day-ahead optimal thermal unit commitment (UC) and pumped
storage schedule are obtained. Subsequently, a real-time, pumped
storage schedule is updated to compensate for wind power
forecasting error and therefore avoid curtailing wind power generation.
A binary particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to solve the
formulated problem is presented. Case studies are presented on a
ten-generator test system to validate the proposed approach. The
expected operating cost, net load demand, and net load duration
curve are used to evaluate the generation schedule. The impact of
different pumped storage sizes in the system is also investigated.

8.6. Permutation-based Power System Restoration in

Smart Grid Considering Load Prioritization [22]

Hou, Xu, Dong, and Wong from Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
China; University of Sydney, Australia; and University of Western
Australia, Australia, respectively, propose a new model for power
system restoration within an optimized flexible duration considering
available generator capability and load prioritization. The model
formulates the power system restoration problem as a permutation-
based combinatorial optimization problem to maximize the restored
load per unit time; this maximizes the restoration efficiency. A
quantum inspired differential evolutionary algorithm is applied to the
problem due to its fast convergence and enhanced high-population
diversity. The outcome is a flexible system restoration plan that is
needed to improve reliability and efficiency. A flexible action-by-action
time schedule for generator startup and load pickup considering load
prioritization are obtained. The effectiveness of the proposed
restoration approach is tested using IEEE 39- and 57-bus systems,
respectively.

8.7. Robust Data Transmission upon Compressive

Sensing for Smart Grid [23]

Yan and Wu from North China Electric Power University, China

recognize that smart grid implementation requires transmitting large
sets of power system data. Loss of data packets during transmission
will clearly impact the quality of the received data. The article
proposes a robust data transmission method using compressive
sensing (CS), which replaces the least squares method by an L1 norm
and linear programming reconstruct signals. The method is reviewed
in their Section 2. At the sending end, multi-scale discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) translates the data into the wavelet domain. Then
the wavelet coefficients are processed through thresholding, and small
wavelet coefficients are reset to zero. The DWT coefficients are
sampled by the CS algorithm, which are transmitted in the
communication channel. At the receiving end, the CS sampled data
are reconstructed to recover the wavelet domain coefficients, and then
wavelet inverse transforms are applied to recover the power system
signals. The authors report that experiments show that the method
has lower ratio distortion error compared with direct data transmission.
In addition, the method is reported to combat packet transmission
losses.
8.8. A Statistical Data-fusion-based Framework for
Wide-area Oscillation Monitoring [24]

Messina, Reyes, Moreno, and Pérez from the Center for Research
and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav) of the IPN, Mexico; and University
of Colima, Mexico, respectively, treat power swing monitoring via a
proposed multi-sensor multi-temporal data-fusion approach. Data
fusion is the process of combining data from different sources
(sensors or phasor measurement units [PMUs]) to provide a complete
description of an environment or process. The outcome is useful in
analyzing and monitoring wide-area signals obtained using
synchronized PMUs and, hence, in systematic assessment of wide-
area stability. The approach involves four steps: data acquisition and
cleansing, feature extraction, feature-level fusion, and decision
support. The method combines the ability of statistical methods to
identify dominant structures in an ensemble of observations with that
of time frequency techniques to extract temporal features. Exploratory
data analyses demonstrate that the fusion of data from multiple
sensors can substantially increase the accuracy, reliability, and
precision of wide-area measurements. The proposed approach is
computationally simple while generalizing conventional modal
estimation to apply to fusing data collected from multiple sensors.
Methods to quantify the spatial and temporal structure of critical
modes are also described, and key research directions in the area of
data fusion are discussed. To conclude, the authors indicate several
issues that remain for further research.

8.9. Vulnerability Analysis of Satellite-based

Synchronized Smart Grids Monitoring Systems [25]

Vaccaro, Zobaa, and Formato from Universita degli studi del Sannio,
Benevento, Italy; Brunel University, UK; and Universita degli studi di
Salerno, Fisciano, Italy, respectively, present the results of an
experimental analysis to characterize the potential attack scenarios
and main vulnerabilities of a global positioning system (GPS)-based
wide-area monitoring systems (WAMS) to external cyber-attacks and
external interferences, such as jamming signals. The correct operation
of these synchronized WAMS requires a common and accurate timing
reference usually provided by equipping the remote PMUs by a
satellite-based synchronization system. Although the timing accuracy
easily exceeds the needs of the power industry, they are extremely
vulnerable to radio frequency interference. Jamming signals with
specific combinations of frequency, power, and shape can lead the
PMU to lose its synchronization. In this case, if not properly managed,
the correct operation of the overall WAMS may be compromised.
The article outlines potential strategies to be adopted to protect GPS
receivers from external cyber-attacks and proposes decentralized
defense strategies based on self-organizing sensor networks aimed at
assuring the correct time synchronization in the presence of external
attacks. Deploying decentralized and self-healing synchronization
architectures based on cooperative sensor networks represents one of
the most promising research directions to reduce this vulnerability to
external cyber-attacks. Moreover, to avoid or mitigate this risk, it is
necessary to adopt suitable strategies aimed at raising the power
levels required by the jammer signal to compromise the correct
system operation. This requirement makes the attack too expensive,
unsustainable in terms of the power required, and easily detectable
and thus readily intercepted.

8.10. Stability Concerns in Smart Grid with Emerging

Renewable Energy Technologies [26]

Gopakumar, Bharata Reddy, and Mohanta from National Institute of

Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India; and Birla Institute of Technology,
India, respectively, discuss stability concerns in smart grids with
significant renewable energy DG sources to meet day-to-day load
demand. The diverse characteristics of renewable-energy-based DG
technologies compared to conventional power plants have led to many
technical challenges, including operational stability concerns requiring
real-time coordinated control strategies for both conventional as well
as renewable energy sources. The issues discussed include lower
angular stability due to lower overall system inertia, lower voltage
stability due to lower power sharing support, low-frequency power
oscillations, worsening of smart grid transient profile during microgrid
islanding, and the inability to serve as system reserve.

9. Sample Future Research Directions

To successfully implement the smart grid requires careful attention to

the multitude of new needs for applied research. A few examples are
now given.

 Optimal sizing and placement of distribution system

resources. There is a wealth of literature dealing with optimal
sizing and placement of capacitors, compensators, DG, and
harmonic filters treated separately. The smart grid requires
integrated solutions to well-formulated problems that reflect facts
on the ground where all such devices are to coexist to achieve
smart grid goals of efficiency through loss minimization and high-
quality power delivered to the ultimate user.

 Optimal predictor-corrector resource dispatching. Handling

distributed resources, stochastic demand, and optimal response to
smart loads is at the core of smart grid goals. Most current
literature decouples the forecasting functions from the resource
optimization. There is a school of thought that recognizes that for
the smart grid to gain acceptance, realistic dispatching results are
needed. In this regard, the need exists for new formulations that
combine the prediction and optimization functions while looking for
optimal modes of operation.

 Integrated forecasting suites. Load and generation forecasts

are intricately entwined to varying degrees of complexity.
Formulations and solutions are required to allow for new realistic
decision making.
 Optimal adaptive reconfiguration of DNs. The current
literature formulates reconfiguration problems in isolation from the
potential undesirable consequences. Here again, there is a need
for a post-reconfiguration module (or add-on module) to ensure
acceptable results.

 DN state estimation and observability. Measuring and

monitoring of the vital variables throughout the electric power
network is enabled by sensors that are strategically placed
throughout the various levels of system. These tools are a
prerequisite for a smart grid capable of assessing its health in real
time, predicting its behavior, and adapting to new situations and
environments. The placement of instrumentation throughout the
grid must be done to allow observability to support advances in
system operation and control. Practical affordable sensing and
monitoring at the distribution level requires careful attention to
network observability and high-speed state predictors so as to
initiate new defensive strategies.

 Integrating static and dynamic storage resources in

dispatch. Conventional static storage facilities are familiar to the
power system specialist. New territories are opened through the
advent of customer-based storage capabilities. This is true
because of the stochastic nature and intermittency of the utilization
patterns of EVs, residential thermal storage, and cooling

10. Conclusions

This article offers commentaries on the smart grid and some of its
aspects before summarizing the articles included in this special
publication, followed by a non-exhaustive sample of new research
directions as perceived by this author.
 Acknowledgments

The author would like to offer special thanks to Editor-in-Chief Dan M.

Ionel for organizing this issue and to all our contributing editors for
their efforts.
The author is the consulting editor of Electric Power Components and
Systems.
Previous articleView issue table of contentsNext article

References
1. IEC. IEC, Smart Grid: Optimal electricity delivery: What is a
Smart Grid. available
at: http://www.iec.ch/smartgrid/background/explained.htm [Google
Scholar]
2. IEC. IEC smart grid standardization roadmap edition 1.0.
available
at: http://www.iec.ch/smartgrid/downloads/sg3_roadmap.pdf [Google
Scholar]
3. Anonymous, EPRI Smart Grid Resource Center, June 2012.
available at: http://smartgrid.epri.com/ [Google Scholar]
4. Canadian Electricity Association. The smart grid. available
at: www.electricity.ca/media/SmartGrid/SmartGridpaperEN.pdf [Googl
e Scholar]
5. Murphy, P., Angemeer, M., Collie, D., Fraser, N., Haines, A., Mc
Fadden, D., Major, K., Nathwani, J., Shervill, P. and Smith, W. Septem
ber 2010. Enabling tomorrow's electricity system: Report of the
Ontario Smart Grid Forum. available
at: http://www.ieso.ca/imoweb/pubs/smart_grid/Smart_Grid_Forum-
Report.pdf [Google Scholar]
6. DOE. Exploring the imperative of revitalizing America's electric
infrastructure, the Smart Grid: an introduction,” 2010. available
at: http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/oeprod/DocumentsandMedia/DOE
_SG_Book_Single_Pages(1).pdf [Google Scholar]
7. Keogh, M. June 2010. The smart grid: Frequently asked
questions for state commissions,” The National Association of
Regulatory Utility Commissioners. 2 available
at: http://www.naruc.org/Publications/NARUC%20Smart%20Grid
%20Factsheet%205_09.pdf [Google Scholar]
8. DOE. Request for information. available at: accessed
at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-05-11/html/2010-11129.htm 
[Google Scholar]
9. Pahwa, A. and Venkata, S. S. 2011. Preparing the workforce for
smart distribution systems. IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies Asia (ISGT), doi:10.1109/ISGT-
Asia.2011.6167152 [Crossref], [Google Scholar]
10. Wakefield, M. P. 2011. Smart distribution system research in
EPRI's smart grid demonstration initiative. IEEE Power and Energy
Society General Meeting, : 1–4.
doi:10.1109/PES.2011.6039386 [Crossref], [Google Scholar]
11. Xu, Z., Xue, Y. and Wong, K. P. 2014. Recent advancements on
smart grids in China. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 251–
261.  [Google Scholar]
12. Samantaray, S. 2014. Letter to the Editor: Smart grid initiatives in
India. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 262–266.  [Google
Scholar]
13. Liao, Y, Turner, M. and Du, Y. 2014. Development of a smart
grid roadmap for Kentucky. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–
4. 267–279.  [Google Scholar]
14. Zhao, J., Wang, C., Zhao, B., Lin, F., Zhou, Q. and Wang, Y. 201
4. A review of active management for distribution networks: Current
status and future development trends. Elect. Power Compon. Syst.,
42: 3–4. 280–293.  [Google Scholar]
15. Al-Sumaiti, A. S., Ahmed, M. H. and Salama, M. M.
A. 2014. Smart home activities: A literature review. Elect. Power
Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 294–305.  [Google Scholar]
16. Abdelsalam, H. A. and Abdelaziz, A. Y. 2014. Letter to the
Editor: A brief overview of nanotechnology applications in smart power
grid. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 306–314.  [Google
Scholar]
17. Zhou, S., Wu, Z., Li, J. and Zhang, X.-P. 2014. Real-time energy
control approach for smart home energy management system. Elect.
Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 315–326.  [Google Scholar]
18. Liu, P., Fu, Y. and Kargarian Marvasti, A. 2014. Multistage
stochastic optimal operation of energy-efficiency building with CHP
system. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 327–338.  [Google
Scholar]
19. Li, S., Ke, B., Fu, X. and Zheng, H. 2014. Energy management
and control of electric vehicle charging stations. Elect. Power
Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 339–347.  [Google Scholar]
20. Abo-Al-Ez, K. M., Elaiw, A. and Xia, X. 2014. A dual-loop model
predictive voltage control/sliding mode current control for VSI
operation in smart microgrids. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–
4. 348–360.  [Google Scholar]
21. Yuan, B., Zhou, M., Zhang, X.-P. and Li, G. 2014. A joint smart
generation scheduling approach for wind thermal pumped storage
systems. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 372–385.  [Google
Scholar]
22. Hou, J., Xu, Z., Dong, Z. and Wong, K. P. 2014. Permutation-
based power system restoration in smart grid considering load
prioritization. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 361–371.  [Google
Scholar]
23. Yan, G. and Wu, P. 2014. Robust data transmission upon
compressive sensing for smart grid. Elect. Power Compon. Syst.,
42: 3–4. 386–395.  [Google Scholar]
24. Messina, A. R., Reyes, N., Moreno, I. and Pérez, G. M.
A. 2014. A statistical data fusion-based framework for wide-area
oscillation monitoring. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 396–
407.  [Google Scholar]
25. Vaccaro, A., Zobaa, A. F. and Formato, G. 2014. Vulnerability
analysis of satellite based synchronized smart grids monitoring
systems. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 408–417.  [Google
Scholar]
26. Pathirikkat, G., Reddy, M. J. B. and Mohanta, D. 2014. stability
concerns in smart grid with emerging renewable energy
technologies. Elect. Power Compon. Syst., 42: 3–4. 418–
425.  [Google Scholar]
     More Share Options

Related research 
 People also read

 Recommended articles

 Cited by
174
Smart Home Activities: A Literature Review
Ameena Saad al-sumaiti et al.
Electric Power Components and Systems

Published online: 5 Feb 2014

A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change

mitigation

Phebe Asantewaa Owusu et al.

Cogent Engineering

Published online: 4 Apr 2016

A Review of Active Management for Distribution Networks: Current Status and

Future Development Trends

Junhui Zhao et al.

Electric Power Components and Systems

Published online: 5 Feb 2014

View more

Browse journals by subject

Back to top 

 Area Studies
 Arts
 Behavioral Sciences
 Bioscience
 Built Environment
 Communication Studies
 Computer Science
 Earth Sciences
 Economics, Finance, Business & Industry
 Education
 Engineering & Technology
 Environment & Agriculture
 Environment and Sustainability
 Food Science & Technology
 Geography
 Global Development
 Health and Social Care
 Humanities
 Information Science
 Language & Literature
 Law
 Mathematics & Statistics
 Medicine, Dentistry, Nursing & Allied Health
 Museum and Heritage Studies
 Physical Sciences
 Politics & International Relations
 Social Sciences
 Sports and Leisure
 Tourism, Hospitality and Events
 Urban Studies

Information for

 Authors
 Corporate partners
 Editors
 Librarians
 Societies

Open access

 Overview
 Open journals
 Open Select
 Dove Medical Press
 F1000Research

Opportunities

 Reprints and e-prints

 Advertising solutions
 Accelerated publication
 Corporate access solutions

Help and information

 Help and contact

 Newsroom
 All journals
 Books

Keep up to date
Register to receive personalised research and resources by email

Sign me up
Taylor and Francis Group Facebook
page
Taylor and Francis Group Twitter
page
Taylor and Francis Group Linkedin
page
Taylor and Francis Group Youtube
page
Taylor and Francis Group Weibo
page
Copyright © 2021 Informa UK Limited Privacy policy Cookies Terms &
conditions Accessibility

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067

5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG

Accept
We use cookies to improve your website experience. To learn about our
use of coo