A SCHOOL GEOMETRY

PARTS I., II. AND III.

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 A
SCHOOL GEOMETRY
PARTS I., II., AND III.
Part I. Li1WJ and Angles. Rectilineal Figurea
Pm-t 11. .A:reas of Rectilineal Figures
Part III. Circles
(Containing the substance of Euclid Book I., Book III. 1-34,
and part of Book IV.)

BY
H. S. HALL. M.A.
.AND

F. H. STEVENS, M.A.

SECOND EDITION REVISED

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED.

ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
1910
 fllrst Edition, J11ly 1903,
Uoprlntcd October 1903 (twice),
ijccoud Edltlo11, revised, )farcb lOOJ.
lloprlntod 1005 (twice), 1000, 1007 (twice), 1908, 1900, 1910.

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 PREFACE.
TeE present work provides a course of Elementary Geomett-y
based on the recommendations of the Mathematical Allllociation
and on the schedule recently proposed and adopted at Cambridge.
The principles which governed these pl'oposals have been
confirmed by the illllue of revised schedules for all the more
important Examinations, and they are now so genemlly accepte<l
by teachers that they need no diseUllllion hel'e. It is enough to
note the following points :
(i) We agree that a pupil should gain his fi1·11t geometrical !dens
from a short preliminary com-se of a pmctfoal ancl experimental
character. A suitable intl'oduction to the present book would
consist of Easy Exercises in Drawing to illustrate the subject
matter of the Definitions; Mensm·ements of Lines and Angles ;
Use of Compasses and Protractot•; Problems on Bisection, Per­
pendiculars, and Parall:;ls; Use of Set Squares; The Construction
of Triangles and Quadrilatemls. These p1-oblems should be
accompanied by informal explanation, and tbe results verified
by measurement. Concurrently, there should be a series of ex­
ercises in Drawing and Meast11'8ment designed to lead inductively
to the more important Theorems of Part I. [Euc. I. 1-34].* While
strongly advocating some such introductory lell80ns, we may point
out that our book, as far as it goes, is complete in itself, and from
the first is illustrated by numerical and graphical examples of the
easiest types. Thus, throughout the whole work, a graphical
and experimental course is provided side by side with the usual
deductive exercises.
(ii) Theorems and Problems a1·e arranged in stlpamte but parallel
courses, intended to be studied pari pa88U. This nrr-Jngeruent is
made pollllible by the use, now generally sanctioned, of H9potli.eti'cal
Constructions. These, before being employed in the text, are care­
fully specified, and referred to the Axioms on which they depend.
*Suchan introductory course is now furnished by our Le11ons in E�tri­
tiumtal and Prmtt'cal Geomdry.
vi PREFACE,

(iii) The subject is placed on the basis of Commensurable Jlag­

nitudes. By this means, certain difficulties which are wholly
beyond the gm.sp of a young learner are postponed, and a wide
field of graphical and numerical illustration is opened Moreover
the fundamental Theol'ems on Areas (hal'dly less than those on
Proportion) may thus be reduced in number, greatly simplified,
and brought into line with practical applications.
(iv) An attempt has been made to curtail the excessive body of
text which the demands of Examinations have hitherto forced as
"bookwork" on a beginner's memory. Even of the Theorems
here given a certain numbet· (which we have distinguished with
an asterisk) might be omitted or postponed at the discretion of the
teacher. And the formal propositions for which-as such-teacher
and pupil are held responsible, might perhaps be still further
limited to those which make the landmarks of Elementary Geo­
metry. Time so gained should be used in getting the· pupil to
appl,_IJ bis knowledge ; and the working of examples should be
. made as important a part of a lesson in Geometry as it is so
considered in Arithmetic and .Algebra,
Though we have not ahmys followed Euclid's order of Proposi­
tions, we think it desirable for the present, in regard to the
subject-matter of Euclid Book I. to preserve the essentials of his
logical sequence. Our departure from Euclid's treatment of Areas
has already been mentioned ; the only other important divergence
in this section of the work is the position of I. 26 (Theorem 17),
which we place after I. 32 (Theorem 16), thus getting rid of the
tedious and uninstructive Second Cme. In subsequent Parts n freer
treatment in respect of logical order has been followed.
As regards the presentment of the propositions, we have con­
stantly kept in mind the needs of that large class of students, who,
"'.ithout special aptitude for mathematical study, and under no
necessity for acquiring technical knowledge, may and. do derive
real intellectual advantage from lessons in pure deductive 1·easoning.
Nothing has as yet been devised as effective for this purpose as the
Euclidean form of proof ; and in our opinion no excuse is needed
for treating the earlier proofs with that fulness which we have
always found necessary in our experience as teachers.
 PREFACE. vii
The examples are numerous and for the most part easy. They
have been very carefully arranged, and are distl'ibuted throughout
the text in immediate connection with the propositions on which
tl1ey depend. A special feature is the large number of examples
involving g1-aphical or numerical work. Tl1e answers to thei.e
have been printed on perforated pages, so that they may easily be
removed if it is found that access to numerical results is a source
of temptation in examples involving measurement.
We are indebted to several Mends for advice and suggestions:
In particular we wish to express our thanks to l\lr. H. C. Playne
and Mr. H. C. Bea,•en of Clifton College fot• the valuable assist­
ance they have rendered in reading the proof sheets and checking
the answers to some of the numeril:al exercises.
H. S. HALL.
F. H. STEVENS.
November, 1003.

PREFATORY NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

IN the present edition some further steps have been taken tow1u-ds
the curtailment of bookw:ork by reducing certain less important
propositions (e.g. Euclid I. 22, 43, 44) to the rank of exercises.
Room has thus been found for more numerical and gmphical
exercises, and experimental work such as tbat leading to the
Theorem of Pythagoras.
Theorem 22 (page 62), in the shape recommended in the Cam­
bridge · Schedule, replaces the equivalent proposition given as
.ldditional Theorem A (page 60) in previous editions.
In the case of a few problems (e.g. Problems 23, 28, 29) it bas
been thought more instructive to justify the construction by a pre­
liminary anal9Bia than by the usual formal pt-oof
H. S. HALL.
F. H. STEVENS.
Feb., 190-l.
 CONTENTS.

PART I.
PAOII

Axioms. Definitions. Postulates. I

HYPOTHETICAL CoNSTRUCTIONS 6
INTRODUCTORY • 8
8YMBOI.S AND ABBREVIATIONS • 0

Lines and Angles.

THEOREM I. [Euc. I. 13.] The adjacent angles which one
straight line mnkcs with nnother straight line on one side
of it are together equal to two right angles. 10
CoR. I. If two straight lines out one another, the four
angles so fo,·med are together equal to four right angles. 11
CoB. 2. 'When any number of straight lines meet at a
point, tho sum of the consecutive angles so formed is equal
to four right angles. 11
CoR. 3. (i) Sup lements of the same angle are equal
(ii) Complements o rthe same angle are equal. 11
TllEORElll 2. [Euo, I. 14.] If, nt a point in a straight line,
two other straight lines, on OJ>posito sides of it, make the
adjacent angles to�ether equal to two right angles, then
these two straight lines are in one and the same straight line. 12
TnEORBll 3. [Euo. I. 15.] If two straight lines cut one
another, the vertically opposite angles are equal 14

Tria.ngles.
DBFINITIONS 16
TUE COMPARISON OF Two TRIANOLEd 17
THEOREM 4. [Euo. I. 4.] If two triangles have two sides
of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to eaoh, and
the angles included by those sides equal, then tho triangles
are equal in all respects. 18
X CONTENTS.

PAOB
THEORE3I 5, [Euo. I. 5.) Tho angles at the ho.so of an isosceles
trio.ngle are equal. 20
Co&. I. If the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are pro-
duced, tho exterior angles at the base are equal. 21
Co&. 2. If a triangle is equilateral, it is also equiangular. 21
THEOREM 6. [Eue. I. 6.) If two angles of a triangle are equ,il
to one another, then the sides which are opposite to tho equal
angles aro equal to one another. 22
THEOREM 7. [Eue. I. 8.] If two triangles havo the three sides
of the one equal to the three sides of the othor, each to each,
they arc equal in all respects. 24
THEOREM 8. [F.ue. L 16.) If one side of a triangle is pro­
duced, then the exterior angle is greater than either of the
interior opposite angles. · 28
Co&. 1. Any two angles of a triangle arc together less
than two right angles, 29
Co&. 2. Every trio.ngle mUBt have at least two acute
angles. 29
Co&. 3. Only one perpcndienlar can bo drawn to a
straight line from a given point outside it. 29
THEOREM O. [Euo. I. 18,) If one side of a triangle is �tor
than another, then tho anglo opposite to tho greater side is
greater than the anglo opposite to the less. 30
TBEORBl\. 10. [Euc. I. 10.) If one angle of a triangle is
greater than another, then the side opposite to the greater
angle is greater than the sido opposite to tho less. 31
THEOREM 11. [Eue. I. 20.] Any two sides of a triangle arc
together grooter than the third side. 32
THEORBil 12. Of all straight lines from a givon point to a.
given straight line the perpendicular is the least. 33
Con. 1. If 00 is the shortest straight lino from O to the
straight line AB, then 00 is perpendicular to AB. 33
Co&. 2. Two obliques OP, OQ, whioh out AB at equal
distances from O the foot of tho perpendicular, are equal. 33
Co&. 3. Of two obli9.ues OQ, OR, if OR outs AB at the
�tor distance from C tho foot of the perpendioular, thon
OR is greater than OQ. 33

Parallels.
l'LAYFAm's Ax10111 36
THEOREM 13. [Enc. I. 27 and 28.) If a straight lino outs two
other straight lines so as to make (i) the alternate angles
 CONTENTS, xiii
PAOii:
. PRoBLEM 12. To construct a parallelogram ha,;ng given two
adjacent sides and the includt.'«l angle. 8i
PRoBLEM 13. To construct a square on a gh·en side. 88

Loci.
PRoBLEM 14. To find tho locus of a point P which moves so
that ita distances from two fixed pomts A and B arc always
e<1ual to one another. 91
PRonLEJII 15. To find the locus of a point P which mo,·cs so
that ita perpendicular distances from two gh-cn straight
· lines
AB, CD are equal to one another. 92
lllTERSECTION OF LOOI 93
THE CoNCORm:Nc�: OFSTRAIGHT LINES IN A TRIANGLE.
I. 'l'he perpendiculars drawn to the sides of a triangle from
their middle points arc concurrent. 96
II. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle a.re concurrent. 06
ill. The mediaDB of a triangle are concurrent. 97
Colt. The three medians of a triangle cut one another at a
point of trisection, the greater segment in each being towards
the angular point. 07

PART II.
Areas.
DunnTIONS 99
.THEOREM 23. AREA OFA RECTANGLE. 100
THEOREM 24. [Euc. I. 3.'i. l Parallelograms on the snme base
and between the snme parallels are equal in area. IOI
AREA OFA PARALLELOGRAM • 105
THEOREal 25. AREA OFA TRIANGLE. 106
THEOREM 26. [Euc. I. 37.) Triangles on the same base aud
between the same parallels (hence, of the same altitude) are
equal in area. 108
TnEOREll 27, [Euc. I. 39.) If two triangles are equal in area,
and stand on the same base and on the same side of it, they
are between the same parallels. 108
THEOREM 28. AREA OF (i) A TRAPEZIUM. 112
(ii) ANY QUADRILATERAL, 112
AREA OF ANY RECTILINEAL FIGURE • 114-
THEOREM 29. [Euc. I. 47. PYTIIAGORAS'S TIIEOREll.] In a
right-angfod triangle the square described on the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two
sidet1. 118
xiv CONTENTS.

PAOii:
ExPERWENTAL PBooFS OF PYTHAOORAS's THEOREM 120
TuEOREM 30. [Euc. I. 48.] If the square described on one side
of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on
the other two sides, then the angle contained by these two
sides is a right angle. 122
PROBLEM 16. To draw squares whoso areas shall be respectively
twice, three-times, four-times, ... , that of a given square. 124
Problems on Areas.
PRonLEll 17. To describe a po.mllelogrnm equal to a giYen
triangle, and having one of its angles equal to a given angle. 126
PROBLE�I 18. To draw a triangle equal in area to a given
quadrilateral 128
PBonLEM 19. To draw a parallelogram equal in area to a given
reetilineal figure, and having an angle equal to a given angle. 129
Axes of Reference. Coordinates.
ExEBCISES FOR SQUARED PAPER • 132

PART III.
The Circle. Definitions and First Principles. • 139
SYMMETRY. SYMMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF CIRCLES 141
Chords.
THEOREM 31. [Euc. m. 3.] If a straightt line drawn from
the centre of a circle biscets a ehord which does not po.as
through the centre, it outs the chord at right angles.
Conversely, if it cuts the chord at right angles, it bisects it. 144
Con. I. The straight lino which bisects a chord at right
angles po.sses through the centre. 145
Con. 2. A straight line cannot meet a circle at more than
two points. 145
Con. 3. A chord of a eirclo lies wholly within it. 145
THEOREM 32. One circle, and onl;r one, con pass through any
three points not in the same straight line. 146
Co&. 1. The size and position of a oirelo are fully deter-
mined if it is known to pn.ss through three given points. 147
Con. 2. Two circles cannot cut one another in more than
two points without coinciding entirely. 147
HYPOTIIETICAL Co:.,rmucr1os • 147
xvi CONTENTS.

PAOB
TuEOREll 42. [Euc. III. 26.J In equal circles, arcs which eub•
tend equal angles, either at the centres or at the circum•
fcrcnccs, arc equal. 166
CoR. In equal circles sectors which have equal angles are
eq� 166
TuEOREll 43. [Enc. Ill. 27.J In equal circles angles, either at
the centres or nt the circumferences, which stand on equal
arcs are equal. 167
Tm:omm 44. [l�uc. III. 28.] In equal circles, arcs which aro
cut otr by equal chords are equal, the major are equal to tho
major arc, and the minor to the minor. 168
Tmmm:�1 45. [Enc. III. 20.J In equal circles chords which
cut off equal arcs nrc equal. 169

Tangency.'
DEFINITIONS AND FmsT PRINCIPLES • 172
T1rnomm 46. The tangent at any point of a circle is pcrpendi•
cular to tho radius drawn to the point of contact, 174
Con. l. One and only one tangent can ho dmwn to a
circle at a given }X>int on the circumference. 174
CoR. 2. 1'ho perpcmticnlar to a tangent at its point of
contact passes through the centre. 174
Coa. 3. The radius drawn perpendicular to the tangent
passes through the point of contact. I 74
TnEOREll 47. Two tangents con ho drawn to a circle from an
external point. 176
Coa. Tho two tangents to a circle from an external point
are equal, and subtend equal angles at the centre. 176
TnEOREll 48. If two circles touch one another, the centres and
the point of contact aro in one straight line. 178
CoR. I. If two circles touch externally tho distance be-
tween their centres is equal to the sum of their radii. 178
Con. 2. If two circles touch internally, the distance be-
tween their centres is equal to the difference of their radii. 178
TuEomm 49. [Euo. III. 32.) The angles made hv a tangent
to a circle with a chord drawn from the point of contact are
respectively equal to the angles in the alternate segments of
the circle. 180

Problems.
GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS 182
PROBLElll 20. Given a circle, or an are of a circle, to find its
centre. 183
PROBLElll 21. 1'0 bisect a gi,•cn arc. 183
 DEFINITIONS. i
11. An angle which is greater
than two right angles, but less than
4
<�l- 0·\
f(fUr right angles, is said to be ·
relex. � (n>
�
Tho.t is, o. reflex angle lies between B
180° o.nd 860°.
NOT& When two straight lines meet, two angles are formed, one
greater, and one lees than two right angles. The first arises by
auppc:,sing 08 to have revolved from the position OA the longer way
round, marked (i); the other by 811pposing 08 to have revolved the
aborter way round, marked (ii). Unless the contrary is stated, the
angle between two straight lines will be considered to be Uiat which ia
less than two right angles.

12. Any portion of a plane surface bounded by one or

more lines is called a plane figure.

13. A circle is a plane figure contained

by a line traced out by a point which moves
so that its distance from a certain fixed
point is always the same.
Here the point P moves so tho.t its distance P
from the fixed point O is alwo.ys the 1111.me..

The fixed point is called the centre, and the bounding line
is called the circumference.

14. A radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the

centre to the circumference. It follows that all radii of a
circle are equal.

15. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through

the centre, and terminated both ways by the circumference.

16. An arc of a circle is any part of the circumference.

 6 GEOMETRY.

17. A semi-circle is the figure bounded

by a diameter of a circle and the part of the
c1rcumference cut off by ·the diameter.
0
18. To bisect means to divide into two equal parts.

Ax10�1S. (i) If a point O moves

from A to B o1muJ the straight line A o a
AB, it must pass through one posi-
tio1& in whick it divules AB into tUJO equal part&
That is to say :
EM'!J finits slraighl line has a point of biseditm. B
(ii) If a liM OP, revolving about O turns p
from OA to OB, it must pass through one � _. /
position in whim it divides the angle AOB .- ---
into two equal parts. •• -
That is to say : 0 A
E'llery angle may be supposed to ha'Ue a line of bisect-ion.

liYPOTIIETICAL CoNSTRUCTIONS.

From the Axioms attached to Definitions 7 and 18, it

follows that we may suppose
(i) A straight line f,o be drawn perye,ulicular f,o a given,
straight line from any point in it.
(ii) A finite straight line to be bisected at a point.
(iii) An angle to be bisected by a line.

SUPERPOSITION AND EQUALITY.

Ax1m1. Magnitudes whicl,, can be made to coincide with one

another are equal.
This axiom implies that any line, angle, or figure, may be taken up
from its position, and without change in size or form, laid down upon a
second line, angle, or figure, for the purpose of comparison, and it
states that two such magnitudes are equal when one can be exactly
placed over the other without overlapping.
This process is called auperpoaltion, and the first magnitude is said to
be applled to the other.

---
 .... ',.

CONGRUENT TRIANGLES. 19
Obs. In this Theorem we must carefully observe what is
!Jft1ffi and what is provea.
AB=DE,
GiM!. that { AC=DF,
and the l.. BAO= the l.. EDF.
From t�ese data we prove that the triangles coincide on
.
mperpomtion.
BC==EF,
Hence we r.onclude that { the l.. ABO=the l.. DEF,
and the l.. ACB=the l.. DFE;
also that the triangles are equal in area.
Notice Ow the angle, which are prMJwJ. equal in the lwo mangks
af'd oppome to sidu which were git11m �.
-,.- D\

. Nor& The adjoining diagram ahews

that in order to make two congruent
triangles coincide, it JD!l,y bi, ueeeasary
to reverse, that is, tum. over one of them
before superposition.

BXBROISES.
1. Skew tJuu lltc bisector of_ tAt t>erti«&l angle of cm iBoSCtlu �
(i) bi4uta tM Mae (ii)"' �ictwr to tAt 6cue.
2. Let O be tlw middle_ Pf!.int
of a 8lrtfl(lhl lim AB, and let 00 6o
pe,pmdicular to it. 1'mm
if P ia -, point Ul 00, prove that PA:;::"PB.
3. Aasuming that the four sidea of a square are equal. and tha.t ita
angles are all right augles, prove that in the square ABOD, tb&
cliagonala AC, BD are equal.
4. ABCD is a square, aud L, M,.and N are the middle point.a of AB,
BO, and CD : prove that . ·,
· (i) LM=MN. (ii) AM=DM.
(iii) AN=AM. (iv) BN=DM.
[Dmw a separate figure in eaoh ease.]

e\,U:�
5. ABO is an isosceles triangle: from the equal sides AB, AC two
AX, AV are cut ot', and BY and CX a.re Joined. Prove thal
'24 GEOMETRY.

Tmrorum 7. [Euclid I. 8.]

1/ two triangles hatill tll6 tkru sides of tll6 one equal to the thru
riles of 0re· other, eacl,, to ea,cl,,, they are equal in all respects.

B C E F ·

G
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles in which
AB=DE,
AC=DF,
BC=EF.
It is required to prove that tl'6 triangles are equal in all respect&

Proof. Apply the AABC to the ADEF,

so that B falls on E, and BC along EF, and .
so that A is on the side of EF opposite to. D.
Then because BC=EF, C must fall on F.
Let GEF be the new position of the �ABC.
Join DG.
Beca.�e ED= EG,
•·• the LEDG.= the LEGO. TMor. 5•
Again, because FD= FG,
.·. the L.FDG=the LFGD.
Hence the whole L.EDF= the whole LEGF,
that is, the LEDF= the L. BAC.
Then in the A" BAC, EDF;
BA=ED,
because AC= DF,

• •• the triangles are equal in all respect.a. Tht. .\ \.

Q. D.\
iv GEOll[ETRY.

Exercises. Page 127.

1. i·l cm. 4. 4·0cm. · 5. 1 ·6". 6. 3·1 cm. ; 15·6 sq. cm.

Exercises. Page 130.

1. 23·00 sq. cm. 2. 8·•IO sq. in.
3. 27·52 sq. cm. 4. 129800 sq. m.

Exercises. Page 134.

3. (i) (8, 5); ( ii) (10, 10) .
4. (i) (4, 5); (ii) (4, 5); (iii) (-4,.-5); (iv) (-4, -5).
5. (6, 5), (12, 10). 6. (5, 8 ).
7. Ii) 17; (ii) I 7; (iii) 2·5''; 2·5".
8. (i) and (ii) 5; (iii) and (iv) 17 ; (v) and (vii 37. 9. 10.
14. (0, 0 ). (7, 5). 15. 13; (9, 6).
16. A straight line passing through the points (4, 0), (0, -4).
17. 117 units of area in eachcnsc. 18. A square. 2 sq. in. 1 sq. in.
19. Each=iO units of area. 20. 9 units of area. 31°, 71°, i!l0•
21. (i) 96; (ii) 80; (iii) 120; (iv) ICH.
22. (i) 50; (ii) 60; (iii) 120; (h·) 132.
23. Sides 5, 13; area 6.'l. 94. (i) 27; (ii) 21 ; (iii) 30; (iv) 27·5.
25. (i) 00; (ii) 65•5; (iii) 21 : (h•) 83·5.
26. Each side 13; are:i. 120. 27. 13, JO, 15, 8'24, -12, 30.
28. AB=lO, BC=O, CD=l7, DA=12·7. Area=l30•f>.
29. JO, 13, 5, 5, 3. Area=60. 30. 160,000s4. yds. IOOOyds. 320yds.
31. Side=15·2.'l; area=232 units of a1·ea.

Exercises. Page 145.

1. 5cm. 2. 24". 3. Oil", O·S". 4. �=2·6cm.
5. 1ft. 6. 0·6 sq. in. 7. 0·8''.

Exercises. Page 149.

1. I ·7" 2. !h/2=4"2cm.
4. 17". 6. 5cm.

Exercises. Page 161.

6. 4cm. 7. 1 ·3".

Exercises. Page 163.

2. l ·85". 3. 1 ·62". 5. 0·85''; (2-1", 2·1"); 2·07".
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