CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The need for rural development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a

broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentives for agricultural

development or resource based businesses. Education as well as physical and social

infrastructure therefore, plays an important role in developing rural regions. Rural

development emerged as a distinct focus of policy and research in the 1960s and gained

full momentum in the 1970s, as observers increasingly realised that, whilst economic

growth and industrialisation were important, and rural development also have different

roles to play in a country’s development.

World Bank and UN (2002) in this regards sees the term Rural Development as distinct

approach to interventions by the state in the economies of underdeveloped countries, and

one which is at once broader and more specific than ‘agricultural development’. It is

broader because it entails much more than the development of agricultural production for

it is in fact a distinct approach to the development of the economy as a whole. It is more

specific in the sense that it focuses (in its rhetoric, and in principle) particularly on

poverty and inequality (p. 32).

Rural regions will play a central role in meeting the major global opportunities and

challenges of the 21st century. This is why a number of global policies have shifted their

focus to strategies that are likely to influence how rural areas are developed. In the same

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vein, leaders of the developing countries in Africa have also come to accept the

development of rural communities as a sine qua non for national development, it is on

this basis that Nzimiro (2013, p. 5-81), stressed thus:

Any attempt to bring about development in developing nations will have

to commence from rural development. … That, more than 70% of
developing and underdeveloped nations live in the rural areas, hence there
is a need for the government to take the issue of rural development
seriously (p. 1-3,).

Therefore, in order to secure the future well-being of rural communities, institutions such

as organization for OECD, Comila project – The first comprehensive rural development

project in developing countries, Englan Rural Development Programme by DEFRA,

Agricultural Development and Training Society, India, District Rural Agencies (India),

International Funds for Agricultural Development, etc. that have been enthusiastic to

usher-in development in rural communities (Harriss 1982, p. 14-15).

In Nigeria, since we gained independence, rural development has been declared a priority

by the successive governments, be it civilian or military. In this regard, several

organizations, institutions and agencies have been set up to undertake and monitor the

complicated process of nation-building, development and integration. A cursory look at

the National Development plans of Nigeria from 1975-1985 and other rural development

programmes like Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructures (DFRRI)

Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Green Revolution, Agricultural development projects

(ADPs), River Basin Development Authorities, Agricultural Development Projects and

many others have emphasized the need to tackle the problem of rural under-development.

On the part of government therefore there is the realization that there is need to bring the

neglected rural areas into the mainstream of national development (Egbe, 2014, p. 3).

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In Plateau State to be specific, because of the rural neglect, poverty and backwardness in

the rural communities of the state. Several agencies with direct bearing on rural

development were created to improve the living conditions of rural people (i.e. rural

development) e.g. Plateau Agricultural Development Programme, Rural Infrastructure

Development Programme (RIDP), Plateau Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency

and Direct Labour Agency.

Direct Labour Agency (study agency) created in 2001 with the following objectives

among others the provision of community-based health care for health education,

voluntary health works, traditional birth attendants, HIV/AIDS prevention awareness

campaigns, VIP toilets construction; provision and development of infrastructural needs

in the areas of transport, water, energy and communication especially in rural areas of the

state; improvement of water supply and sanitation coverage in the rural communities in

Plateau State etc. (DLA Document, 20014). Notwithstanding the rural development

efforts in the state, there still exist pervasive rural neglect, low education and inadequate

water supply as well as dilapidated infrastructural facilities in the rural communities of

Plateau State. Needless to say, that several factors have been identified as causing the

issue. The main factor is none other than infrastructure development. Rural communities

of the State are hampered with inadequate infrastructural facilities. This is in consonance

with the argument of Olufemi, Olatunbosun, Olasode & Adeniran, (2013) as they argued

thus: ‘Basic infrastructural facilities such as rural feeder roads, transportation and rural

electrification are the main keys to the wellbeing of a communities, notably those in the

rural communities’ (p. 12).

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Most important of the needed necessity in Nigeria and Plateau State is clean water supply

as it is one of the world’s most pressing issues of the 21st century and its scarcity and

consequent stress is now the single greatest threat to human health. This position captures

the assertion of Agnew and Woodhouse (2011) as they stated thus: “Water is central to

human’s social and economic existence” (p. 34). It is on the basis that UNDP (2006)

wrote; “Not having access to safe water therefore, is a form of deprivation that threatens

life, destroys opportunity and undermines human dignity (p. 22).

Another important factor capable of hindering rural development is educational facilities.

Adeyanju (2010) noted that no development can occur at all without education. To him,

at personal level of development, education is one of the strongest weapons for escaping

from poverty because it improves the quality and chances of the individual’s progress.

However, education is not only for escaping poverty. It also influences an individual’s

moral, spiritual, physical and intellectual-self leading to development. It is against this

backdrop that the study assessed the contribution of Direct Labour Agency to rural

development of selected rural communities of Plateau State.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

In the face of poor standard of education, scarcity of potable drinking water and

unfortunate infrastructural facilities in rural areas of Plateau State in particular and

Nigeria in general, the prospect of dodging the aforementioned life threatening situations

and enhancing rural transformation of providing social and economic services is therefore

linked to the establishment of Direct Labour Agency by Plateau State Government.

Statistics have it that about 70-80% of Nigeria’s population live in the rural areas. In

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other words, large percentage of Nigerians live and work in rural surroundings engage in

either farm or non-farm occupations with a rural base. It also means that, in spite of the

rate and incidence of urbanization, much of the face of Nigeria still remains rural

indicating the necessity of rural development in Nigeria. According to Idachaba (2016),

there is a number of reasons why rural development is usually considered to be of overall

national importance. These include: Rural people constitute the vast majority of Nigerian

population. This is so despite the migration of people from rural to urban centres; most of

the food which Nigerians eat is produced by rural dwellers; inequalities exist in social

(including water and health facilities) and educational amenities between urban and rural

areas; inequalities exist in the living standards among rural dwellers, two of the five

national objectives as stated in the national policy on education are the building of: a just

and egalitarian society and a united strong and self-reliant nation and lastly, most rural

dwellers live below poverty level which calls for urgent attention.

Consequent upon the above, if we must achieve a just and self-reliant economy e.g.

egalitarianism and full employment for all, it is important to examine what prevails in the

rural communities where a majority of our country men reside. It is important to find out

what factors impede the development of their areas. In most case, statements are made by

government to transform the rural areas, yet you find the rural areas with bad roads, ill-

equipped hospitals, no good drinking water, insufficient schools, etc.

In Plateau State in particular, despite the stated objective of one of the major agency for

rural development Direct Labour Agency (DLA) mandated to enhance rural

transformation by providing social services to the rural people of the State has not been

fulfilled (achieved) as the rural dwellers in the communities of Plateau State live in

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deprived condition. This is evidenced from the report of World Health Organization

(2018), where life expectancy in the state has dropped from 52.6/53.8 years for male and

females in 2012 to 46.8/40.2 years in 2018 respectively. In addition to this, the maternal

mortality rate (MMR) of 800 per 100,000 live births is one of the highest in the world.

Majority of these victims were from rural areas of the state. This is an indication of poor

health state of rural population in Plateau State.

The system of education in Plateau State has been inconsistent and marred by fall in

standard, infrastructure decay, and poor learning environment for both teachers and

students UNDP (2016). The survey jointly conducted by World Bank (IBRD) and United

Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) indicated degenerating educational system in

mostly rural areas of Plateau State and that the sanctity of education process has been

affected by malpractice resulting from lack of instructional materials, poor learning

atmosphere, dilapidated structures etc. (p. 22).

Access to safe water which is one of the indicators of quality of life of the people is in

short supply. Over 70% of households in rural communities do not have access to safe

drinking water. They rely solely on self-water supply (free source) such as rivers,

perennial streams, water ponds and unprotected wells which is susceptible to water borne

diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, malaria parasites. Provision of potable

water shows that 37% was allocated to state capital, 30% to other urban settlements,

while 20% was to the semi-urban and the remaining 13% to be shared among rural

communities (WHO, 2018).

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 Furthermore, the dwindling level of rural infrastructure in the State have strong

explanatory power for ineffective and inefficient delivery of needed service by Direct

labour Agency for rural development as echoed by Deaville, (2011) that: most of the

rural communities in the state live in total darkness, dilapidated roads and bridges that

make it difficult to transport farm produce which is their source of sustenance thereby

compounding to the poor condition (p. 17). This has a serious nexus with the argument of

Deaville, (2011, p. 19) where he stressed that “The impact of high quality rural

infrastructure on the quality of life of the rural population can be substantial.

Infrastructure contributes to inclusive rural development”. It is against these stated

problems that the study asked thus:

1.3 Research Questions

From the above research problem, the following research questions are pertinent

i. To what extent has the provision of water supply by Direct Labour Agency contributed to

rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau State?

ii. To what extent has the provision of educational facilities by Direct Labour Agency

contributed to rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau State?

iii. To what extent has the provision of infrastructural facilities by Direct Labour Agency

contributed to rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau State?

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1.4 Research Objectives

The main objective of the study is to assess the contribution of Direct Labour Agency to rural

development of selected rural communities of Plateau State. The specific objectives of the

study are:

i. To examine the extent to which the provision of water supply by Direct Labour

Agency contributed to rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau

State.

ii. To determine the extent to which the provision of educational facilities by Direct

Labour Agency contributed to rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

iii. To ascertain the extent to which the provision of infrastructural facilities by Direct

Labour Agency contributed to rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The study was guided by the following research hypotheses.

Ho1 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of water supply by Direct

Labour Agency and rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau

State.

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Ho2 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of educational facilities by

Direct Labour Agency and rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

Ho3 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of infrastructural facilities

by Direct Labour Agency and rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

There are numerous studies that have been carried out on the contribution of Direct Labour

Agency and/or similar agencies to rural development either at state level or federal level

which we considered relevant (though with gaps) because they shed more light on the issues

under review; the studies reviewed has also helped us in showing different methods employed to

achieve the aim of this study. Examples of such studies include: Ezeh and Nwachukwu (2014);

Eboh (2007), Onibukun (2018), Turakpe (2014), Idiaye & Omonona (2014) etc. however,

the indicators of rural development in these studies embraces infrastructural provision, self-

employment, rural income generation, sustained availability of farm outputs, credit facilities,

inputs etc. The current study viewed rural development as water supply, educational facilities

and infrastructural facilities (rural feeder roads, rural electrification and transport network).

Furthermore, there is also gap in context as the aforementioned studies were conducted in

different geographical regions specifically in Abia, Oyo, Ekiti and other southern and eastern

parts of the country or in Nigeria as a whole. The current study was carried out in selected

communities, of Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang Local Governments, Plateau State.

9
The findings of the study are expected to contribute to the ongoing discussion on how to

improve the rural communities as it is being addressed by African Heads of State through the

New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD 2014) policy/framework, and the

Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations Organization. The study is also

expected to contribute to the literature on rural development, and development

administration in particular since a critical analysis of the Agency and policies under study in

Plateau State’s rural development efforts will enable us proffer some solutions to the

development problematic and thus a contribution to development administration, in general

and public Administration in particular.

More so, the study is expected to benefit government/policy makers from its findings and

recommendations which can help influence the strategies of rural development programmes

in Plateau State and Nigeria in general. The study provides academics with empirical data on

rural development in Plateau State. Also, the general public can benefit when new strategies

are adopted to change the conditions of the rural people in Plateau State.

1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study assessed the contribution of Direct Labour Agency to rural development of

selected rural communities of Plateau State. The study covered the period between 2011 and

2018; this is because 2011-2018 was the period of rural transformation by the successive

governments in Plateau State. The study covers three Local Governments and Sixteen

communities namely Bassa LGA (Jengre, Saya, Mayango, Zallaki, Mista Ali and Fuskan

Mata communities), Bokkos LGA (Daffo, Tarongol, Forof, Kuba/Maiyanga and Richa

cimmunities) and Mikang LGA (Gingim, Rotha, Montol, Nwoop and Garkawa communities)

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of Plateau State, one from each of the senatorial district, all of which are rural Local

Governments in terms of infrastructure provision, and spatial distribution of population.

They are all agro-based rural areas in terms of economic activities. The study is limited by

the fact that not all the 17 Local Governments in the state are covered.

However, the three Local Governments of Baasa, Bokkos and Mikang are representatives of

the 17 local of the state. Perhaps the most debilitating limitation of this study is the

inadequacy of data. Vital documents like financial reports and records of Direct Labour

Agency so as to be able to assess the Agency’s spending and achievements in the state were

mostly beyond the reach of the researcher, the researcher made use of available records. The

study covers the periods 2011-2018, however in an attempt to reach out to the rural

communities at the study areas of the State, the study is limited with the current security

situation of the state, there was also the limitation of the inability to reach-out to some

traditional leaders for more information about the performance of the Agency in the state.

There was also lack of cooperation by respondents, as well as difficulties in reaching out to

the State coordinator of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State.

1.8 Operational Definition of Key Concept

The following section focused on the explanation of concepts that are uses within the context

of this research working definitions. These concepts are: water supply, education and

infrastructural facilities rural development and rural communities.

1.8.1 Water Supply: To this study water supply means the provision of portable and safe

drinking water to the members of the communities by providing Borehole, well, tap for

stable drinking water.

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1.8.2 Educational Facilities: Educational facilities to this work include buildings,

restrooms, libraries fixtures, and equipment necessary for the effective and efficient

operation of the programme of public education.

1.8.3 Infrastructural Facilities: Infrastructural facilities means transportation,

communication, and electricity, feeder road, for the betterment of the members of a

communities and also to enhance economic activities.

1.8.4 Rural Development: For the purpose of this study, rural development means, a

deliberate effort of government agencies in conjunction with non-governmental

organization to change the well-being of the rural people for better that is from an

undesirable to a desirable state which is aim of improving their socioeconomic status or

living condition in order to achieve a balance between the local and national sectors of

the economy.

1.8.5 Rural Communities: For the purpose of this study rural communities means a

group of people living in a particular geographical area with agricultural activities as the

main economic activates of the people with low of access to water supply, dilapidated

educational facilities lack of good road and other basic social amenities.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction

This chapter covers conceptual clarifications of the concepts used in the research work,

this is to avoid confusion or misapplication of terms and definitions as the reader

proceeds to the other chapters. The chapter explains the of concept of rural development,

concept of water supply and its effect on rural development, concept of education, and its

effect on rural development and lastly, concept of infrastructure including its effect on

rural development. The chapter also contains the review of empirical studies, as well as

theoretical framework that provided credence to the study.

2.2 Literature Review

2.2.1 Concept of Rural Development

Rural development must be targeted at the people as the beneficiaries of development.

Chinsman (2012) asked the question, why put people first? In his view, development is a

process of economic and social advancement which enables people to realize their

potential, build self-confidence, and live lives of dignity and fulfillment. It is a process

which, if sincerely implemented, frees people from evils of want, ignorance, squalor and

exploitation. Meaningful developments in general and rural development in particular

require the full utilization of the nation’s own resources, both human and material. The

work by Chinsman (2012) is based on his experience in Nigeria as the UNDP

Representative, where he agrees that development is about people and not objects or

things. The people must come first in the process of planning for their development. He

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identifies the benefits of development to include economic and social advancement,

building peoples’ potentials, self-confidence, dignity, freedom from evils of want and

deprivation, ignorance, etc. In all of these, the people must be involved from the

beginning to the end of the programme and policies of government. On the overall, the

above agreement focused on the quality of life in rural areas. This is echoed by Onah

(2010 p.53) when he asserted that;

the Federal government, for instance, in its Third National Development- Plan
1975 -80 concerned with enhancing the quality of life in rural areas through the
provision of basic social amenities such as health centers, pipe borne water,
feeder roads, and electricity etc. and that the combined effect of these measures
(strategies) should help narrow the disparity in living standard between the
urban and rural population.

Ayobola (2013) argues that Rural Development is the improvement of living standards of

the mass of the low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of

development self-sustaining. In this definition three important features are reflected, and

these are;

i. The improvement of the living standard of the target groups which means that the

allocation and mobilization of resources should be within the reach of the people.

ii. There has to be mass participation in the programme.

iii. There has to be development of appropriate skills to make sustenance possible.

Rural development is taken as a strategy by the World Bank (2011) in designed to

improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people the rural poor. It

involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a

livelihood in the rural areas. This group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the

14
landless. This is mainly to increase productivity and employment much that the levels of

food, shelter, education and health are improved.

According to Akeredolu (2014) there are two conceptions of rural development, namely:

A Remedial Conception and, A More Dynamic or Even Transformational Conception.

By the remedial conception, rural development is seen as an initiative whose primary

objective is the alleviation of poverty. In this case, rural development is arrived at

identifiable target groups among the rural poor, most notably small cultivators,

subsistence farmers, tenants and the landless, who are presumed to make up the bulk of

the rural poor. In fact, this was the World Bank’s owns official working definition; the

definition on which the bank’s assistance to developing countries was based throughout

the 1970s. In terms of programme orientation under this remedial conception, rural

development typically entails interventions aimed at improve productivity, increased

employment/incomes for the target groups, as well as minimum acceptable levels of food,

shelter, education, health and housing.

By the more dynamic/transformational conception, rural development is perceived,

according to Akeredolu (2014) as a more comprehensive concern, both in terms of its

target and in terms of its programme orientation. In this regard, rural development is

aimed at the entire rural sector, even if it entails consistent programmes aimed at

particular target groups. In this case, rural development is intended to correct not just the

poverty of selected target groups but rural poverty as a structural phenomenon. In

addition, it aims at rural and urban sectors of the economy. Typically, in the words of

According to Akeredolu (2014) rural development under this conception, entails

interventions undertaken sequentially or simultaneously, in a wide range of sectors such

15
as construction and provision of infrastructures (e.g. roads, irrigation works, water,

electricity); the introduction and dissemination of new production technologies; the

strengthening of existing rural development institutions and organizations and the

creation of new types; the promotion of improvements in economic production and

productivity and in rural education, health and housing. The objectives of rural

development are.

a. To improve the standard of living of the Nigerian population through sustainable

development strategies;

b. To work for food security and poverty alleviation among the population through the

provision of agricultural and rural development programmes;

c. Facilitate and execute programmes on youth development, women empowerment,

community health and nutrition as well as education /literacy and other sustainable

development programmes;

d. To promote the establishment of small scale enterprise as well other economic

facilities such as electricity road as for self-reliance;

e. To provide service on rural institutions development, rural savings mobilization and

credit administration;

f. To provide service on project development and management as well as extension

service. (Kanbur 2005).

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2.2.2 Concept of Water Supply

Water is most fundamental in shaping the land and regulating the climate. It is one of the

most important resources that profoundly influence life. Water quality is the most

fundamental controlling factor when it comes to health and the state of diseases in both

humans and animals. According to WHO (2013) report about 80% of all the human

diseases in human beings are caused by water. Depending on the purpose of water quality

analysis, water quality can be defined based on a set of biological, physical and chemical

variable, which are closely linked to the water’s intended use.

Water is connected to every form of life on earth. As a criteria, an adequate, reliable,

clean, accessible acceptable and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various

users. The UN and other countries declared access to safe drinking water as a

fundamental human right, and an essential step towards improving living standards.

Access to water was one of the main goal of millennium development goals (UN-MDGs)

and it is also one of the main goal of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The UN-

SDG goal 6 state that ‘water sustains life, but safe clean drinking water defines

civilization’. Despite these fact, there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in

the world. In Nigeria, sufficient fresh water is not available (physical scarcity).

World Bank (2016) estimated that an average 20 - 50 litres of safe water is needed by an

individual for daily metabolic and hygiene. This figure is slightly above the national

water requirements for Nigeria which pegs it at 23l/p/d for rural areas and 60l/p/ d for

urban areas. In the same vein, estimates that 12% of the world’s population consumes

80% of the available water, leaving 1.1 billion people (1/6th of world population) without

access to adequate water supplies. This is aggravated by the fact that 2.4 billion people

17
lack access to adequate sanitation facilities. It is estimated that by 2025 water shortages

could affect two out of three persons globally, with developing nations most vulnerable.

As young people make up higher population of developing countries relative to

developed countries, they are disproportionately at risk.

2.2.2.1 Effect of Water Supply to Rural Development

WHO (2014) indicated that a cholera epidemic was emergent, with about 350 deaths

reported, in the Northern region of the country. Since the outbreak was reported across

the nation with recent emergence in the South West, it was appealed to all the governors

of the 36 states on the need for increased funding to combat the epidemic, yet the scourge

seems to be raging unabated. The cholera death toll has rose to 431 in 11 states, as

Bauchi, Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Kano, Jigawa, and Plateau Others are Katsina, Rivers,

Ogun, Cross River, and Osun, while no fewer than 4,665 cases had been recorded.

Cholera remains a global threat and is one of the key indicators of social development.

While the disease no longer poses a threat to countries with minimum standards of

hygiene, it remains a challenge to countries where access to safe drinking water and

adequate sanitation cannot be guaranteed. Unprecedented heavy rains and flooding across

the country have further accentuated this scourge in states where safe drinking water and

sanitary facilities are scarce. Seasonal factors such as the rainy season with flooding, as

well as poor hygiene conditions and population movements in the area contribute

certainly to this unusually higher incidence of cholera. It should be noted however, that

cholera can easily be eradicated if we can provide clean water and maintain a good

hygiene, but in the absence of that which prevails across the country the abundant water

resources can be captured in form of rainwater for use.

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The above scenarios point to the facts that public water supply systems in Nigeria are

characterized by insufficient supplies and chronic deficits. The private water supply

meanwhile has remained financially solvent and fostered a rapid growth in capacity

through informal sector but characterized by high cost because of the private sector’s

perceived profit motives. Their studies revealed that the rural areas have benefited

relatively little from water supply intervention compared to their urban counterparts. The

reason why the rural communities are often ignored is because of their perceived low

income level as peasant farmers who cannot afford the prices of such improved water

facilities.

Accordingly, the nation water policy the components of the proposed National Rural

Water Supply will be implemented at community, local, state and federal levels, with

each having clearly defined responsibilities. Over time it is expected that state level

support for the Local Government will decrease as Local Government personnel gain

experience and their capacity to implement water supply programmes independently

grows stronger. To ensure that substantial funds are available to implement a nationwide

rural water supply investment program, the Federal Government will take the lead in

mobilizing domestic funds and external assistance for the implementation of the

programme (Buhari 2016). Financing operations and maintenance will be the

responsibility of individual communities. The technology chosen should give the

community the highest service that it is willing and able to pay for, will benefit from and

has the institutional capacity to sustain. As in most government policies regarding rural

development, rural water supply has lagged behind its urban counterpart. This situation

forces the households in the rural areas to adopt a coping strategy and rely on the free

19
sources which are precursors to water related diseases reported that about 80% of the

health problems in developing countries can be linked to in- adequate water and

sanitation, claiming the lives of nearly 1.8 million children every year and leading to the

loss of an estimated 443 million school days for the children who suffer from water

related ailments. It was reported by WHO in 2012 that another cholera outbreak had been

recorded in northern Nigeria, claiming over 80 lives including the most recent one in

Yobe state. In Plateau State alone it claimed the lives of 27 persons and with over 120

families affected in Bassa Local Government Council in 2012. It was reported that

cholera has killed more than 1,500 people in Nigeria. This report further stated that the

death toll is four times more than what was revealed in August of the 2012. The Ministry

of Health had in August warned of a possible nationwide outbreak of the disease when

about 350 deaths were reported in the Northern part of the country.

The World Health Organisation (WHO), in its 2016 global report on the global outbreak

of the disease around the world, claimed that 29,115 cases, including 1,191 deaths, have

been reported be- tween January 4 and October 3 2016, in 144 Local Government areas

in 15 states, including the Federal Capital Territory. “The outbreak is still ongoing and

spreading to new geographical areas. Severe flooding and displacement of large numbers

of people have occurred, aggravating the situation,” the report added. Cholera remains a

global threat and is one of the key indicators of social development. While the disease no

longer poses a threat to countries with minimum standards of hygiene, it remains a

challenge to countries where access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation cannot

be guaranteed. Unprecedented heavy rains and flooding across the country have further

accentuated this scourge in states where safe drinking water and sanitary facilities are

20
scarce. Seasonal factors such as the rainy season with flooding, as well as poor hygiene

conditions and population movements in the area contribute certainly to this unusually

higher incidence of cholera.

From the aforementioned, it is clear that the public water supply has not been able to

manage the water sector in Nigeria effectively. The result has not been successful in

meeting more than a small portion of demand by residential and commercial users.

Services are in critically short supply. Many households, often the poorest, end up

purchasing water from private vendors at much higher prices than from public supply.

Water service where they exists are unreliable and of low quality and not sustainable

because of difficulties in management, operation, pricing and failure to recover cost.

Many public water supply systems show extensive deterioration and poor utilization of

existing capacities due to under maintenance and lack of funds for operation. It was also

reported by Buhari in 2013 that Bassa and Bokkos Local Government Councils of

Plateau State has recorded cholera outbreaks and the state government have approved the

sum of N100 million ($625,000) for the control of the epidemic in the affected villages.

This amount that could have been used to provide the rural people with clean, safe water

supply and good environmental sanitation would have averted this outbreak of killer

disease if only water supply was set in the broader context of health objectives. A

situation regarded as “putting the last first” in our rural development programmes

(Buhari, 2013).

21
2.2.3 Concept of Education

Education is the conscious effort to prepare people through mentoring, teaching and

training for their role in the future by providing the structure and other necessary facilities

that are conducive for learning which may occur in a deliberate and institutionalized to

generate social sustainability. This process involves the oversight and development of

minors and the group in which they lived (John, 2011).

According to Veli (2014) Education in every sense is one of the fundamental factors of

development. No country can achieve sustainable economic development without

substantial investment in human capital. Education enriches people’s understanding of

themselves and world. It improves the quality of their lives and leads to broad social

benefits to individuals and society. Education raises people’s productivity and creativity

and promotes entrepreneurship and technological advances. In addition it plays a very

crucial role in securing economic and social progress and improving income distribution.

2.2.3.1 Effect of Education to Rural Development

Education provides a foundation for development, the groundwork on which much of our

economic and social well-being is built. It is the key to increasing economic efficiency

and social consistency. By increasing the value and efficiency of their labour, it helps to

raise the poor from poverty. It increases the overall productivity and intellectual

flexibility of the labour force. It helps to ensure that a country is competitive in world

markets now characterized by changing technologies and production methods. By

increasing a child’s integration with dissimilar social or ethnic groups early in life,

22
education contributes significantly to nation building and interpersonal tolerance. (Bektaş

2015).

Clearly the educational provisions within any given country represent one of the main

determinants of the composition and growth of that country’s output and exports and

constitute an important ingredient in a system’s capacity to borrow foreign technology

effectively. For example: health and nutrition, and primary and secondary education all

raise the productivity of workers, rural and urban; secondary education, including

vocational, facilitates the acquisition of skills and managerial capacity; tertiary education

supports the development of basic science, the appropriate selection of technology

imports and the domestic adaptation and development of technologies; secondary and

tertiary education also represent critical elements in the development of key institutions,

of government, the law, and the financial system, among others, all essential for

economic growth. Empirical evidence at both micro and macro levels further illuminates

these relationships. At a micro level, numerous studies indicate that increases in earnings

are associated with additional years of education, with the rate of return varying with

high level of education. The returns to primary schooling tend to be greater than returns

to secondary and tertiary education (Psacharopoulos, 2011).

There is little dispute that basic education often characterized as the reading, math, and

other skills and knowledge taught in the first four years of primary school is critical to

economic and social development. Without basic skills, according to one observation, a

person cannot comprehend the instructions on a bottle of medicine or a bag of fertilizer or

read a government notice. Neither can the person compute a bill or write a letter. Without

23
basic skills, it is impossible to develop one’s potential or to contribute to anything more

than a rudimentary manner to society (Greaney, 2017).

Why should a rural development programme be concerned with basic education and

primary schools? The importance of basic education to improving individual lives has

been argued from various perspectives. From a narrow perspective of agricultural

improvements, basic education improves farmer productivity. From a somewhat broader

perspective of rural development, it facilitates off-farm employment and the economic

development of rural areas.

That universal or widespread basic education is a key factor in national development can

be seen in comparisons between the rate of primary education in countries that have had

high economic growth rates (mainly in East Asia) and those that have not (mainly in

South Asia and Africa). World Bank economists and others have argued that economic

data demonstrate higher returns on investments in primary education than in secondary or

tertiary education.

Psacharopoulos (2015). Basic education is also a factor in alleviating poverty. There are

various explanations of why schooling contributes to economic productivity Carnoy,

(2014). These include the following:

a. Individuals acquire skills in school that enable them to be more productive;

b. What individuals learn in school makes them more likely to adopt new technologies

and practices;

24
c. Schooling helps individuals function more effectively in modern production

organizations;

d. Schools socialize people into functioning effectively in modern society;

e. The discipline of learning taught in school helps individuals learn new skills outside

of school.

2.2.4 Concept of Infrastructure

Torrance (2009) splits infrastructure in three different categories: “(1) transport

infrastructure, such as roads, rail tracks, and airports with users fees; (2) regulated

infrastructure, such as water-, electricity- and gas distribution networks with regulated

service contracts with availability fees; and (3) social infrastructure, such as schools and

hospitals, for which governments pay an availability fee over a 20- to 30-year term”

Torrance (2009). Thus Torrance explicitly includes services and even specific contract

types as well as social infrastructure in his definition. He therefor see infrastructure as the

sum of material, institutional and personal facilities and data which are available to the

economic agents and which contribute to realizing the equalization of the remuneration of

comparable inputs in the case of a suitable allocation of resources, that is complete

integration and maximum level of economic activities

2.2.4.1 Effect of Infrastructure to Rural Development

Recently many studies on issues of infrastructure have been published and the reason for

this is the intensive investments of governments on infrastructure. Effective infrastructure

supply supports economic growth, enhances quality of life and it is important for national

security (Baldwin, Dixon, 2017). Researchers analyse the effect of infrastructure on

25
various aspects: regional competitiveness, economic growth, income inequality, output,

labour productivity and welfare. Bristow and Nellthorp (2014) define three main impacts

of infrastructure, describing, that infrastructure has not only a visible effect on

environment but also directly impacts on welfare (by time and cost savings, increasing

safety, information network development) and the economy (employment, economic

growth). Public infrastructure enables geographic concentration of economic resources

and provides wider and deeper markets for output and employment (Gu and Macdonald,

2012). It affects input and output markets, helps determine spatial development patterns

and provides a large network to individual users at low cost. Public infrastructure can be

generally understood as the foundation upon which the economy is built (Macdonald,

2016).

Nijkamp (2016) argues that infrastructure is one of the instruments to improve

development of a region, though it can influence in a direct or an indirect way the socio-

economic activities and other regional potentiality as well as production factors.

Infrastructure policy is conditional policy for regional development: it does not guarantee

regional competiveness but it creates necessary conditions for the achievement of

regional development goals. Snieska and Draksaite (2017) argue that economy

competitiveness of a country is determined by a set of different factors, and indicators of

infrastructure are one of them.

Hanci (2012) identified infrastructure as one of the indicators of regional competitiveness

within the country. They refer to physical infrastructure (consisting of transport

infrastructure, ITT, newly built estate, outer reach of a region by land, air and water) as

an indicator of factors of production that promotes regional competitiveness. Martinkus

26
and Lukasevicius (2018) argue that infrastructure services and physical infrastructure are

factors which influence investment environment on the local level and increase its

attractiveness. Grundey (2018), Burinskiene and Rudzkiene (2009) analyse the

implementation process of sustainable development policy and distinguish development

of infrastructure as one of the most important dimensions in strategic planning in order to

assure sustainable territorial and socioeconomic development of a country. Aschauer

(2017) argues that public infrastructure underpins the quality of life: better roads reduce

accidents and improve public safety, water systems reduce the level of diseases, and

waste management improves health and aesthetics of environment. Agénor and Moreno-

Dodson (2016) study the link between infrastructure availability and health as well as

education of society that proves that infrastructure services are crucial for health and

education quality and availability which to a big extent effects welfare.

According to the world statistical analysis, households use approximately one third and

one half of infrastructure services as final consumption. The other half of infrastructure

services correspond to intermediate consumption, mostly by companies (Foster, 2005).

Another important thing is that basic services such as water and electricity often occupy a

significant fraction of poor households’ budgets.

The findings of Demetriades and Mamuneas (2000) suggest that public infrastructure

capital has significant positive effects on profit in 12 OECD countries. Macdonald (2008)

analysed the impact of public infrastructure on private production level that has been

overlooked in other researches and found out that a private infrastructure provided a vital

input for private sector production. The analysis of recent empirical literature has

confirmed the significant contribution of infrastructure to socio-economic development.

27
But the results are not consistent as they are dependent on technique used in the analysis.

Theoretical researchers do not agree about infrastructure’s effect on the growth of a

country: they use various methods and models for evaluation. The analysis of scientific

literature allows summarizing that there is variation in empirical results testing the

relationship between infrastructure and socio-economic development.

Not all studies find growth-enhancing effect of infrastructure; in some sources there is

evidence of reverse causation found. For example, Aschauer (2000) finds that the stock

of public infrastructure capital is a significant determinant of aggregate total factor of

productivity and that investments in public sector not only improve quality of life but also

increase economic growth and returns for private investments; Calderón and Servén

(2004) estimated that indicators of telecommunication and energy infrastructure have a

positive and significant effect on growth. The results of Seethepalli et al (2008) study

also prove that that infrastructure is important for promoting growth. Li and Li (2008)

argue that infrastructure investment is very important to boost national economic growth

and prove this with the results of infrastructure investment and the GDP in China from

1997 to 2006.

2.2.5 The Roles of Infrastructure in Rural Development

The fundamental importance of infrastructure in rural development cannot be

overestimated (Cook, 2005). There are clear cross-country differences in the level and

quality of rural development between those that developed rural infrastructure and those

that neglected to do so. Similar differences in rural development also exist within

countries. People in areas with better rural infrastructure have been able to participate in

28
and share the benefits of growth widely. Jalan and Ravallion (2002) noted that the

differences in rural infrastructure across counties have strong explanatory power for

subsequent consumption growth at the farm household level in rural China. The impact of

high quality rural infrastructure on the quality of life of the rural population can be

substantial. Infrastructure contributes to inclusive rural development in many different

ways.

First, rural infrastructure provides rural people with access to the markets and basic

services that they need. Second, it influences rural economic growth and employment

opportunities and thereby incomes and social development. For example, good feeder

roads can allow the supply of perishable foods to high-value urban markets, and the

income generated can be invested in health and education to improve the productivity of

eventual migrants to the cities (Sharma, 2005).

2.2.6 The Needs and Impact of Infrastructural Development in Rural Communities

The rapid growth in the rural economies is determined by the accessibility and the

delivery of essential infrastructures such as fine roads. The importance of road

infrastructure to thrive the economy in certain areas has been emphasised specifically in

the rapidly developing areas Han & Yoon (2013) who examines the impact of land

transport infrastructure development on Malaysia’s economy growth found that the

investments in the land transport infrastructure give a significant impact on the country’s

long term economic growth. The study also emphasized the importance of the

development in infrastructure in thriving several important sectors in the country such as

manufacturing, service, international trade, production and agriculture sectors. This

29
shows that the development of basic infrastructures like road infrastructure is essential in

order to increase the rural communities’ life well-being through the provision on

amenities for the community use (Simkova, 2008; Zivelova & Jensky, 2008; Hlavsa,

2010; Rozema & Martens, 2010; Mascarenhas. Coelho, Subtil & Ramos, 2010 & Yilmaz,

Dasdemir, Admis & Lise, 2010). Nonetheless, the importance of the infrastructure

development for the rural communities is more focused on the growth of agriculture

sectors which is synonymous with the rural community’s major economic resources

(Ndulu, 2006; Calderon & Serve, 2008; Egbetokun, 2009; United Nation, 2011). The

advancement in the aspect of basic infrastructure for rural communities is seen as an

accelerator for the growth of the rural communities’ economy which in turn will give a

positive impact for the quality of life for the community as a whole (Ale, Abisuwa,

Olagunagba & Ijarotimi, 2011). At the same time, the development of the infrastructure

such as road infrastructure is seen as the key for the development in the rural areas

because by having these developments, basic amenities such as clean water, electricity

and communication network will be brought into the rural areas as well (Straka &

Tuzova, 2016). The Malaysian government is committed to develop the rural areas by

establishing various relevant ministries such as the Malaysian Public Works Department

and the Ministry of Rural and Regional Development. This shows that the government is

aware of the importance of developing the infrastructure, utilities and basic amenities to

enhance the well-being of the rural communities (Portal Rasmi KKLBW, 2017).

The impact of the infrastructure development is also related to the quality of social

services especially in the aspect of education, health and the quality of life of rural

communities in general. This is in line with the study carried out in Nigeria by Calderon

30
(2009) and Egbetokun (2009) who found that the basic infrastructure is an integral part of

the rural development strategies because the infrastructure development is integrated with

all other aspects, including agriculture, education, health, nutrition, electricity and clean

water, which subsequently be developed as well. The development of the basic

infrastructure in the rural areas is seen as a holistic approach where it could be the

solution for the problems of inequality and social justice for rural areas in general. The

importance of infrastructure for rural areas has also been discussed by Adeyoye, Yusuf,

Balogun & Carim-sanni, (2011). The lack of basic amenities is the main factor that can

affect the quality of life of rural communities as well as the factor that can undermine the

effort in enhancing the rural communities’ economic transformation which generally rely

on the agricultural resources. Aziz (2015) who did a study on the relationship between

the infrastructure and the economic growth in India revealed that the basic infrastructure

is essential for a good quality of life especially in the socioeconomic aspect. The lack of

basic amenities in the rural areas has direct negative impacts on the village residents such

as increasing the rate of poverty, declining the agricultural products and hindering the

ability to continue living a good life. All these negative impacts will definitely affect

health services and halt access to education for the village communities.

The need to develop the basic amenities for rural areas should be considered as a part of

an overall development which needs to include the economic growth, the increase in the

health services, access to education and the community development itself. The

provisions of sufficient and good quality of infrastructure can maintain the balance in the

quality of life between rural and urban areas (Bulus & Adefila, 2014). The provision of

sufficient and efficient basic infrastructure is the basis of a good quality of life among

31
rural communities. The development of basic infrastructure in the rural areas such as

roads can be considered as the medium of communication between the rural communities

with the outside communities (Sangwan, 2010). The development of efficient basic

infrastructure will enhance the access for social communication devices, the growth in

economy and the environment sustainability (Lokesha & Mahesha, 2016). Authors also

emphasize the importance of the infrastructure development towards the village

communities which is to change the policy of isolation and seclusion. This can be

realised with the availability of road network that allows contact to other people. Access

to communication devices such as telephones which will enhance the rural community’s

communication with the outside world, including borderless world. This view is in

tandem with Anderson & Taylor’s (2013) definition of globalization as a process that

increases the network and inter-dependency between communities.

The World Economic Forum (2014) emphasized on the importance of enhancing the

basic infrastructure as the advancement in this aspect will reduce the isolation among

different areas and it can also integrate the local market and the local economy with

minimal cost incurred unlike in the past. The supply of treated clean water is one of the

necessary facilities for rural communities. An observation study conducted by Taylor,

Kahawita, Cairncross & Hensick, (2015) revealed that the provision of basic amenities

such as clean water supply is essential as it will determine the communities’ health level.

The consumption of untreated water can cause users to be infected with cholera which is

an infectious disease that is brought by a bacterium called Vibrio choler. This is

supported by studies done by Huq, Yunus, Sohel, Bhuiya, Emch & Luby (2010);

Lantagne & Lasen (2012); Patrick, Berendes, Murphy, Bertrand, Husain, & Handzel.

32
(2013); Etienne, Tappero, Marston, Frieden Kenyon & Andros. (2013) who also found

that water that are untreated, unfiltered and not chlorinated, can cause users to be infected

with diseases than are brought by water such as cholera and usually the infected are from

the rural areas with the absence of basic amenities and treated clean water resources.

Apart from this, electricity supply is also vital in ensuring the quality of life among rural

communities. This is in line with previous studies done in this area, for example a study

by Bose, Uddin & Mondal (2013), who examined the impact of the development of

electric facilities for rural communities in Bangladesh. They found that the villages that

are selected to be supplied with electricity demonstrated positive results in the aspects of

production, profit margin, development and business modernisation, women

empowerment, quality of life and human capital development. On the other hand, Waeli

& Mahdi (2017) felt that the use of alternative power resources that is environmental

friendly such as solar power is a good and effective way to help the rural communities in

Malaysia to have access to the electricity supplies in substitute with the use of electric

generators that are costly and could cause air pollution. The use of environmental-

friendly solar power is more beneficial as the resource is renewable. Through his report

in the Global Energy Network Institute 2014 explained that most of the rural

communities that do not have access to electricity supplies are among those in the

developing countries. The rural communities with no access to electricity supplies is seen

as having a low quality of life compared to their counterparts in the urban areas because

electricity supply is a necessity for everyday life. Fong also stated that there are several

negative implications caused by the absence of electricity supplies in rural areas such as

the inability to store materials in the cold storage especially food and medicines, low

33
exposure of lightings which can impact the education sector and economic productivity,

the hindering of modernisation process and the limitation of communication network and

its effects during emergencies. The development of basic amenities is essential for a

better quality of life. The inefficiencies in the provision of basic infrastructures such as

roads, clean water supply, electricity supply and communication systems can affect the

quality of life of the rural communities. It is pertinent to develop the network of basic

amenities in the rural areas in order to reduce the gap between rural and urban areas

community. Furthermore, it is necessary to reduce this gap in order to maintain the

quality of life in general.

2.2.7 Rural Development as a Model for Rural Resource Utilization

There are many factors that affect the level and pace of rural development such as

physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural institutional, organizational and

political factors. These factors operate at all levels – from household to the nation and the

world as a whole depends on how they are managed. When we talk about rural resources;

man, animal power, natural resources like mineral ores, forest products etc. are abundant

in rural areas. The availability of resources, its management systems and the factors

affecting the resource management process is to be taken care, as these factors that can

·have both favourable and adverse effects on development. In fact, proper use of local

natural as well as human resources is a main dimension of rural development. There are

many studies on human resource planning through which the proper nutrition, health care

(medical facilities) and education (school-facilities) of the people are interpreted.

Similarly, the studies on natural resource use are equally important for rural development.

Lassey (2000) stated that the focus of rural development should be on preservation of

34
ecological integrity with a view to providing a continuous supply of life supporting

resources. He further adds that appropriate land use, healthy living conditions and

pleasing environment are to be taken care of beside socio-economic welfare measures.

Singh (2001) states that if the human resources of a country are not properly developed

by proper nutrition, health care, education and training and are not productively utilized,

these resources become a liability and an obstacle to development. But, if they are

properly developed and utilized, they become a great asset and a major factor

contributing to development. 'People are the most important and valuable resource of any

nation' was the theme of the International Conference on Population and Development in

Cairo, Egypt, September 5 to 13, 1994. Population resource needs planning at proper

time otherwise these resources would add more problems and would raise the demands

without productivity. Both renewable and non-renewable natural resources constitute the

bedrock of a nations' economy, if they are properly utilized.

The quantity and quality of available natural resources along with the intensity and

efficiency of their use determine to a considerable extent the level and pace of economic

development of a nation. Maheshwari (1985) holds the view that rural areas have their

own natural resources, and science could suggest ways and means of exploiting them

with a view to giving additional and fuller employment to the local population. Singh

(2011) classified resources into three main categories (i) natural resources (ii) human

resource and (iii) land. He has further recommended the importance of integrated

development planning for balanced utilization of local resources. Pradhan (1999) and

Uphoff (1999), both emphasized on the importance of local institutions in mobilizing the

rural resources. Vimal (2000) presented the problems and prospects of watershed

35
development in India, and recommended the importance of mass involvement in both

water and land resource management. Bekele (1998) shared an Ethiopian experience

about the Village Level Resource Management Project. The project started to alleviate

the accelerated resource degradation and stabilized the living conditions of the

population. Similarly, Morse, et al. (2001) discusses the integration of sustainability

indicators by draining upon the result of a 6 years’ research project based in African

villages. The project looked at the issue that comprises livelihood sustainability, and in

particular how the villagers themselves view this concept and what they deem to be

important within it. Local visions of sustainability were recorded and sustainability

indicators metrics applied to the villages. It is concluded that an element of qualitative

integration incorporating value judgments and subjectivity is inevitable with a concept

such as sustainability.

The centrally conceived package of the programmes like the IRDP depends crucially on

the latitude that they allow for the local level variation as enduldhar (1982) asserts. It

must be understood that in order to have a successful development, IRDP cannot be

based on single model only, since conditions differs from area to area, it should be

location-specific for each area. IRDP being the single largest anti-poverty programme in

India, the consent of the beneficiaries' skills and their potentialities is very important.

Ruben (2000) presented the importance and issues of real markets and its role in rural

development, based on an experience in Central America. Lou Hichi (1999) also

presented an experience from the implementation of IRDP in Tunisia and concluded that

the project must be based on viability at individual and local levels with transversal

development approach. Copp (2003) stated that the process is through collective efforts

36
aimed to improve the wellbeing and self-realization of people. He further contends that

target should be on people rather than infrastructure and should widen people's range of

choice. Taking into account the local resources should draw up the developmental

programmes and the felt needs of the people having growth potentials. Thus from the

above statements, it may be concluded that it is essential to have a proper management

and utilization of the available resources in rural areas for the development and

sustainability of rural people.

2.3 Empirical Studies

Ezeh and Nwachukwu (2014) wrote on “Impact of Selected Rural Development

Programmes on quality of living of rural communities of Ikwuano Local Government

Area, Abia State, survey method was use and chi-square statistical tool was used to test

the relationship between rural development programmes and rural development in the

state, therefore the study adopted top down approach to rural development, it was

revealed that beneficiaries farmer’s performance are not better off in terms of income and

output therefore, the project was not statistically significant.

Eboh (2007) in his article entitled improved cassava varieties introduced to farmers in

Nigeria on economic development of rural communities the result revealed significantly

more yield with more stem cuttings than old local varieties planted in control farms at

Ijapo and Ado north, survey method and chi-square statistical tool was used to look at the

extend of relationship between the variables, the findings reveal that the programme

actually succeeded, because bottom up approach was adopted, but the bottom up

37
approach does not enable us see the extent to which the beneficiaries involve especially at

the implementation stage.

Onibukun (2018) in his article entitled assessment of the impact Direct Labour Agency

to rural development in Benue, and Delta State, the study used regression analysis to

analysed the quantitative data and content analysis to analysed the qualitative data and

the result revealed that poor agricultural sector performance was resulted from lack of

provision of rural infrastructure, this is because of the fact that top-down approach was

used in the state, simple high mean score as a statistical tool was used which did not

actually provide the researcher with accuracy of the data, the findings showed that due to

lack of the beneficiaries participation especially at the project initiation monitoring and as

well implementation that lead to it failure.

Turakpe (2014) in his work using Z-statistics analyzed data on self-employment from

National Programme for Food Security on rural development of rural communities of

Rivers State. The findings of the study revealed that lack of self-reliance of beneficiary

farmers to the programme. This was attributed to poor participation by farmers due to

inadequate credit facilities, inputs and retraining of beneficiaries after the programme

ended in 2013.the study lacks a clear model to enable us evaluate the extent of the

beneficiaries’ involvement and that lead to its failure.

Idiaye & Omonona (2014) assessed the contribution of Rural Infrastructural

Development Programme on Agricultural Development Project in Oyo State. The study

makes use of regression analysis on alleviation of poverty among participated farmers on

socio-economic development of NPFS in Oyo State the study showed marginal poverty

38
reduction among beneficiaries of the programme. Be it as it may, benefits of agriculture

embraces infrastructural provision, self-employment, rural income generation, and

sustained availability of farm outputs as rural development indicators. The studies

reviewed so far have exposed us to the contributions of agriculture as an approach to

rural development.

Kolawole (1993) in his work entitled evaluation of the contribution of Agricultural

development projects (ADPS) and Directorate of Food Road and Rural Infrastructure

(DFRRI) to rural development in Kaduna State, the researcher adopted the evaluative

approach through the use of questionnaire and interviews on selected Local Governments

and communities in Kaduna State. The study examines different models of rural

development particularly the integrative approach.

The study also examines the experiences of Tanzania, and Nigeria’s rural development

policies from 1900 particularly Nigeria’s experiences from 1960 -70, 1970 - 80- to the

1990’s and concludes that, there was no evidence that: there was widespread consultation

and involvement of the people in the conception, priorities, objectives, and aspirations

which went into the formulation of the policies neither was there popular discussion and

evaluation of the policies (Kolawale1993).

The study concluded that the Kaduna state government did not succeed in its rural

development effort through ADP and DFRRI, because the projects were not properly

funded, though the level of mobilization and enlightenment of the people was high. The

work is detailed enough on the methodology and theories of rural development

particularly the integrated approach via DFRRI and the ADP in Kaduna State. The work

39
benefits from his methodology but differs a little from his work, because he was

interested in the funding of these projects and the views of traditional institutions and

farmers. He argues for the involvement of the traditional institution in the decision

making process. This work however is interested in both funding and the impact of the

agencies to rural development in the State, The variable employed towards this end was

the improvement of agriculture and social welfare in the rural areas. The study also

examined the commitment of the government and the involvement of traditional

institutions in the attainment of the objectives of these rural development programmes.

The study’s results showed that both the ADP and DFRRI have not satisfactorily

improved agriculture and social welfare in Kaduna State. Neither crops output nor have

the levels of income of the people improved. The study also found that, overall; the

government has not been committed to rural development as seen from the cases of the

ADP and DFRRI. Government was only committed to the area of educational institutions

and health facilities in the rural areas. The findings also indicated that funding for the

programmes are not adequate. The study also found out that traditional institutions that

are crucial to the success of the programme were sidelined. “In spite of the fact that the

village heads and the paramount chiefs demonstrated interest in participating in

community development projects in their communities” (Kolawole, 1993: viii). The study

recommends an alternative form of rural development, that is, the Integrated Grassroots

Development Bureau (IGDB), with the traditional institutions as part and parcel of the

model from the grassroots to the national level’.

40
The loopholes in this study is the absence of a clear participatory model for the people

who ought to benefit from these ADP and DFRRI programmes in Kaduna State. Little

wonder the programmes did not succeed.

Mabogunje (1992) in an article “Integrated Rural Development on rural communities, the

article discusses the integrated approach to rural development. He sees integration to

include multidimensional approach to rural development. It includes: land reform,

infrastructure development, agrarian reform, institutional reform, rural modernization,

mass mobilization for decision making, and distributive justice between the urban and

rural areas.

The focus of his paper was on the Directorate for Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure,

of rural communities which he cited as an example of the integrated rural development.

To him, the success of integrated rural development is in the ability of the state to

mobilize the people, their resources, create appropriate institutions and agencies,

establish agro- allied industries, and plan for the entire country (Mabogunje, 1992)

This model is fantastic in theory but at the level of practice, particularly with regards to

DFFRI, it was a failure. This is so because the people have always been taken for

granted. Government pays lip service to their involvement. The approach by Mabogunje

in this work did not point-out clearly how the people are to be mobilized? And by who?

The Integrated participatory model is expected to take care of the shortcomings of

Mabogunje’s integrated rural development approach.

Okoye (2014) an article titled, “social clubs, resource management and rural development

a lessons from Anambra State” Which attempted to discuss the role of groups such as

41
social clubs in rural development. The study is on the role of social clubs as a vehicle for

rural development in Anambra State particularly in Ihiala Local Government Area. The

study analyzed 25 projects embarked upon by 50% of the social clubs in the area in terms

of resources appraisal, utilization, management and environmental harmony (Okoye2014)

The author argues that of all the resources for development, the human resource is the

most vital, but little has been done on human resource appraisal and management, and

their use in the development of the rural areas. He concludes, thus: consequently, rural

development programmes in Nigeria have usually been designed along the lines of the

project, approach that is provision of social and industrial projects in the rural areas by

urban- based experts’ policy makers and elite groups. Little or no attempt has been made

at tapping the huge reservoirs of human resources locked up in the rural areas for the

benefit of developing such areas. The data for the study were derived from interviews

with principal officers of the social clubs and visits to the project sites. In all, 42 social

clubs were studied. The interviews covered the objectives of the club, membership,

methods of funding, projects embarked upon, stage of execution, and the organization’s

conception of rural development.

The researcher found out that membership was mainly of rich traders from nearby urban

centers, who because of their newly acquired status, spent most of their week end at

home in the village. Most of them have little formal education, but have managed to

succeed in business. The analysis shows that most of the projects completed or ongoing,

or plots of land were for recreational facilities to cater for the comfort of members during

their home visits, but were not relevant to the over all- wellbeing of the rural

42
communities argues that: the complete absence of social services infrastructures such as

roads, schools, health facilities, water project etc.

The author opines that the wastage of financial resources and land that could have been

put for better economic use e.g. agriculture by these social clubs could have been

avoided, if the government were to plan and control the activities of the organizations

(clubs) to ensure rational resource use and environmental harmony. The author concludes

that: if these resources had been invested in agro- based and cottage industries in the rural

areas, they would have helped a great deal in bettering the lot of the rural population and

transforming the rural landscape in a well-planned fashion. The author is of the opinion

that as a matter of policy, the government should evolve machinery for supervising the

activities of these organizations in order to ensure they do not deviate from approved

guidelines.

Franklin (2006) investigated the Impact of National Poverty Eradication Programme

(NAPEP) on rural development of rural area in delta north LGA. The study assessed the

extend to which (NAPEP) has impacted on the rural development wellbeing or progress

of the rural area of Delta North LGA, questionnaire and interview method were used to

collect data from respondent, pie and bar chart were used in analyzing data obtained from

the field. The study found that (NAPEP) has not made significant impact on the socio-

economic wellbeing of the rural dwellers under study, with regard to the provision of

social infrastructure; such as healthcare delivery, potable water, and rural feeder road it

was reveal by the study that the progamme performance is doleful potable water is still

foreign to the rural communities while healthcare and feeder road are equally deplorable.

Based on the findings, the study recommended that the poor, who are claimed to be the

43
beneficiaries of the programme are not properly identified, targeted and be coordinated

especially in the project initiation and implementation. The study actually fails because of

the approach adopted which is the top-down approach to rural development because the

people are not properly involved.

2.4 Theoretical Framework

The adoption of a theoretical framework is very important to every research. This is

because it gives viable and operational implications within the framework of analysis

which the research set out to unravel. Theories are in themselves the bedrock of research

and a suitable theory gives the level to which the empiricism of such study could be

weighed. Thus, in analysing the phenomenon of Direct Labour Agency to rural

development and it effect on the quality of lives of the rural communities in Plateau State,

we adopted the Theory of Change as a framework for analysis in this research. Other

theories may explain this phenomenon but the theory of change appears the most suitable

and hence the desire to adopt it. However, effort shall be made to justify the adoption of

this theory and the link created intermittently.

The theory of change was propounded by Connell and Kubisch (1998), and the theory

was used by Torero (2014) and Julian. (2015), titled ‘assessment of the role of rural solar

home system in poverty alleviation: Case study of Rukungiri district in western Ugamda.

The “Theory of change” is a theoretical framework/tool often used to analyze and

evaluate activities, policies, initiatives, or interventions. Connell and Kubisch(1998)

define the theory of change as “a theory of how and why an initiative works.” A theory of

change consists of all the building blocks that are necessary to achieve a long-term goal

44
(The Centre for Theory of Change, 2013). While developing a theory of change, it is

imperative that the objectives of the initiative are defined from the onset (Organisational

Research Services, 2004). Theories of change are believed to provide solutions to a

number of complex socio-economic problems and they have been widely used in a

number of initiatives to solve community problems (INSP, 2005).

Two components make up the theory of change framework:

a) First we need to conceptualise and operationalize the three core frames. The three

core frames include the input; interventions that will be carried out to produce the

output; and lastly the impact (INSP, 2005).

b) The second component encompasses an understanding of how the three core

components inter-relate with each other. This relationship is shown diagrammatically.

(INSP, 2005).

2.4.2 Steps in the Theory of Change

Anderson (2005) identifies the following key steps in the community developer’s

approach to the theory of change;

a) Identify the Long-Term Impact

The project/initiative’s intended long-term impact must be clearly defined from the start

to avoid any confusion. By identifying the long-term impact, appraisal of the initiative

can be done to assess whether the intended objectives have been achieved. Additionally

45
the intended impact should be unpacked and simply stated (Anderson, 2005; Obeng&

Evers, 2009).

b) Develop a Pathway of Change

This following stage is very time consuming and also an important stage in developing

the theory of change as it forms the main mantle of the theory. Under this stage, all the

preconditions that are necessary to achieve the initiative’s impact are identified. Once the

preconditions have been identified, a linear relationship between the pre-conditions and

impact is developed. The relationship is then illustrated in the form of a “pathway of

change map”

(Anderson, 2005). It is important to note that developing the pathway of change map

takes a backward process, in other words the map is developed from the final stage to the

first step (Anderson, 2005; Obeng& Evers, 2009).

c) Operationalize Impact

The operationalization process entails the testing of the pre-conditions by treating them to

the question; “what evidence will we use to show that this has been

achieved?”(Anderson, 2005). The answer forms a basis for measuring project progress.

Operationalization of the impact at all the stages of the pathway of change will lead to the

identification of various assumptions; which will be dealt with at the final stage

(Anderson, 2005; Obeng& Evers, 2009).

46
d) Define Interventions

Interventions in this case are regarded as strategies or initiatives or policies or actions that

need to be implemented so as to achieve the provision of water facilities, educational

facilities as well as infrastructural facilities in the state which are the desired impact that

have been illustrated on the map. At this point, it is important that the researcher knows

that some impact will be generated as a result of the “domino effect”. Hence, there is not

necessarily the need to develop an individual strategy for each particular outcome

(Anderson, 2005; Obeng& Evers, 2009). However, Anderson (2005).

e) Articulate Assumptions

This is the final stage under the community builder’s approach to the theory of change.

Under this stage, the researcher lays down all the assumptions that will be used in the

process of using the theory of change to come up with the desired impact. These

assumptions include but are not limited to; assumptions underlying the environment, in

which the theory is applied, assumptions about the connection between an initiative and

its resultant outcome in a particular context (Anderson, 2005; Obeng& Evers, 2009).

Even though articulating assumptions has been defined as a step on its own, assumptions

are developed along the entire process but more articulated at this stage.

2.4.3 Relevance of the Theory to the Study

The relevance of this theory ‘‘Theory of Change’’ as a theoretical framework for this

development process is essential because it will provide a more detail analysis of the

contribution of the Direct Labour Agency to rural development in the study area. Based

47
on Torero (2014) and Julian (2015), the theory presents a pathway of change, from the

inputs to the final expected impact of development. This pathway of change can be

separated into an implementation side and a results side. The former groups the inputs

(including financial and human resources) and the activities (such water supply,

educational facilities as well as infrastructural facilities to rural development programmes

in the rural communities) aimed at delivering the target output. The output is water

supply, educational facilities and infrastructural facilities. Access and usage of these

facilities is expected to produce impacts. The major impact is the increased access to

modern water supply system, standard educational facilities and infrastructural facilities

the expected impacts will lead to improvement in standard of living of people in rural

communities of Plateau State.

48
 2.4.4 The Pathway of Change to rural Development

Input- Financial Resources

Technical/Human Resources

Output-water supply, educational

facilities and infrastructural facilities

Impact-better standard of living of

people in the rural communities.

Impact on water supply Impact on Education Impact on infrastructure

Access to safe water supply has
great influence on the health,
economic productivity and quality
of life of the people. Which aid
domestic activities such as
drinking, washing and essential
household activities.
It improves the quality of people’s Effective infrastructure supply
lives and leads to broad social supports economic growth,
benefits to individuals and society. enhances quality of life and it is
Education raises people’s important for national security,
productivity and creativity and infrastructure underpins the
promotes entrepreneurship and quality of life: better roads reduce
technological advancement. accidents and improve public
safety.

Rural Development

Source: Adapted from Julian (2015).

From the above pathway of change to rural development, it is glaring that the Plateau

State government through Direct Labour Agency intervene to improved rural

communities of the State by injecting financial resources along site, technical and human

resources in form of Input to development of rural communities of the State; the input

are then transformed in to water supply, educational facilities and infrastructural facilities

which are the output. The provision of these outputs are translated to better standard of

living of the people in the rural communities of Plateau State – Impact. In addition, by

49
 improving access to safe water supply, provision of quality educational facilities and in

consequence, increased people’s productivity and creativity which help to promote

entrepreneurship and technological advancement of the State with the provision of

efficient and effectives Infrastructural facilities to help boost economic activities and

enhances quality of lives by extension rural development.

2.4.5 Criticism of Theory of Change.

i. The theory is a top bottom approach to rural development, this is because it sees

people as a subject of development rather than object of development.

ii. The lack of an explicit strategy of change which articulates how the specific activities

and inputs would lead to the desired outcomes.

iii. The pathway of change have not shown clear relationship between the different

outcomes and the beneficiaries of the interventions.

Despite the weakness of the theory of change, the theory appears the most suitable to the

study. This is because its element (assumptions) explained the objectives of Direct

Labour Agency which are the independent variables of the study. Hence, it suitability to

give credence to the study.

50
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter covered the research methodology for the study. It comprises the

introduction, research design, population, sample and sampling techniques, and

administration of questionnaire, validity and reliability of the instrument, sources of data

collection, and method of data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The study adopted sequential explanatory design. In this method, two phase design were

used where the quantitative data are collected first followed by qualitative data collection

(Cresswell, 2009). The purpose is to use the qualitative result to further explain and

interpret the findings from the quantitative phase. For example a survey may be used to

collect quantitative data from a large group, and then select some members within the

sample for interview where they can explain and offer insights into their survey answers.

Quantitative data shall be generated through questionnaire while qualitative data will be

generated through Key Informants Interview.

3.3 The Area of Study

The area of study is Plateau State, which has a population of about 3.2 million people

(2006 population projection in 2010). The state comprises of 17 Local Government areas,

And the study also covers three Local Governments and Sixteen communities namely

Bassa LGA (Jengre, Saya, Mayango, Zallaki, Mista Ali and Fuskan Mata communities),

51
Bokkos LGA(Daffo, Tarongol, Forof, Kuba/Maiyanga and Richa cimmunities) and

Mikang LGA(Gingim, Rotha, Montol, Nwoop and Garkawa communities) of Plateau

State, one from each senatorial district, all of which are rural Local Governments in terms

of infrastructure provision, and spatial distribution of population. They are all agro-based

rural areas in terms of economic activities.

3.4 Population and sample size of the Study

The population of each Local Government and the sample size is presented on table 1

below.

Table 3.1 Population of the Selected Local Government Area of the study

Local Government Population Sample Size

1
Bassa 189,834 157

2 Bokkos 179,550 148

3 Mikang 96,388 79

Total 465,772 384

Source: Federal Republic of Nigeria official Gazette No. 2 Feb, 2009 Vol. 96.

3.5 Sampling Technique

The sample size of the study therefore was 384 respondents using Krejcie and Morgan's

sample size determination table (see appendix VI). Krejcie and Morgan's sample size

determination table is already calculated and prepared population and corresponding

sample size for easy determination of sample size out of the total population of 465,772

for the three Local Governments under study in addition to 4 persons that were

52
interviewed one manager of the Agency and three district head of the three Local

Government under study making it 388. The 388 respondents were picked from the three

identified Local Governments where the research was conducted, because of the

difficulties of getting the exert population of the sixteen communities the population of

the three selected LGA’s are used instead. .

This study adopted purposive sampling technique for the selection of the Local

Government areas. Specifically, questionnaire respondents were drawn using the

stratified sampling after which the questionnaire were randomly administered to the

strata, This is because the population were divided into different strata or groups to

represent different social and economic characteristic, which is only apply in a

heterogeneous population such as farmers, artisans, civil servants, teachers etc. whereby

the questionnaire were randomly administered to the sixteen communities in the three

Local Governments selected namely, Bassa Local Government, Bokkos Local

Government and Mikang Local Government given every subject in the population equal

and independent chance of being included in the sample.

3.6 Sources of Data Collection

The study sourced data from both primary and secondary sources.

3.6.1 Primary Sources of Data

Under the primary sources of data we have the questionnaire and the interview. A

questionnaire was administered to obtain information from the rural dwellers who are the

beneficiaries of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State. The second source of primary

53
data, is the interview which was conducted with the Manager of the Direct Labour

Agency and traditional leaders of those communities in order to get their views on how

their programme are managed, sources of funding, extent of the involvement of the

beneficiaries in programmes conception, implementation, and evaluation, traditional

leaders.

3.6.2 Secondary Sources of Data

These are second hand data already generated and stored in texts, files or even in

published form. The secondary sources of data that were used in this study include

official documents of direct labour agency such as the mandate establishing the agencies,

records of projects executed, ongoing or abandoned projects etc. The data obtained from

the secondary source is critical to this study because most of these documents will

provide source of evidence to support data from the questionnaire and interview.

3.7 Administration of the Instruments

Copies of the questionnaire were administered by research assistants picked from the

selected Local Government areas. The assistants were briefed on the research instrument

(the questionnaire), and how to administer it on the target population of the communities.

Three Hundred and eighty four (384) copies questionnaire for the communities were

administered on the selected respondents. The respondents that was consider as the target

group were the farmers, artisans, civil servants, and teachers.

The questionnaires were structured in line with the research objectives and research

hypotheses. The respondents was given the chance to assess the performance of Direct

54
Labour Agency of the government within the selected Local Governments to find out the

extent to which the agency provides services such as water supply, education as well as

infrastructural facilities in their communities.

The second source of primary data for the study was Face-to-Face Interview. Face-to-

face interview was necessary because of the nature of the research. There is need for

interface between the researcher and some designated respondents (manager of Direct

Labour Agency, the District Head of Jere, District Head of Daffo and District Head of

Gingim). In the course of conducting Face-to-Face Interview, the question were

structured in line with the research objectives and research hypotheses.

The focal point of the interview was to assess official information on the contribution of

Direct Labour Agency put in place in other to bring about rural development in the

selected rural communities of Plateau State. The use of interview was to compliment the

data gotten from questionnaire.

3.8 Validity of the Instrument

In order to ensure that the instrument measures what it intends to measure, the instrument

was subjected to content validity. Babbie (2008) stated that validity describes a measure

that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure. It is equally important that

the items and questions cover the full range of the issue or attitude being measured,

assessment of the items of an instrument in this respect is called content validity (Kumar,

2011). In order to ensure content validity of the instrument, the questionnaire were given

to experts to validate the content of the instruments to ensure that the instrument

measures what it supposed to measure.

55
3.9 Reliability of the Instrument.

Reliability is concerned whether the procedures of data collection and analysis generate

the same results on other occasions or other observers make similar observations and

arrive at conclusions from the raw data.

In order to measure the consistency of the questionnaires and the overall reliability of

constructs that it is measuring, a reliability test was carried out based on Cronbach’s

Alpha coefficient. Cronbach’s Alpha can be interpreted as like a correlation coefficient;

its coefficient range lay on the value from 0 to 1. A reliability coefficient (alpha) is higher

than or equal to 0.7 considered as acceptable reliability. That means the targeted

questions raised in the questionnaires are capable to answer the objective of the study.

Therefore, the reliability test accomplished that all the items of the pilot questionnaire has

been reliable since the scores of the test was higher than 0.7 as in the table below. Hence,

the responses generated for all of the variables‟ used in this research were reliable

enough for the data analysis.

Table 3.2: reliability statistics

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha N of Items

.819 18

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT.

56
3.10 Methods of Data Analysis

The study adopted multiple regression technique of data analysis. Creswell (2009) stated

that, researcher has to provide a rationale for the choice of statistical test and mention the

assumptions associated with the statistic. For multiple regression to be used, it must

satisfy the following assumptions: the hypotheses should be stated in a way to measure

the relationship between variables; where two or more independent variables are involved

against one dependent variable; it has to involve continuous data or measurement

(Interval and ratio scale); and lastly, the data has to be normally distributed. In agreement

with Creswell (2009), Barnes and Lewin (2005) stated that in order to be able to use

parametric statistics, the data must be normally distributed and interval level data (some

form of counting rather than categorical or a ranked response). Therefore, the choice of

multiple regression analysis are justified on this ground.

The interview responses on the other hand were analyzed using thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data.

According to Braun and Clarke (2006). Thematic analysis is a method used for

‘identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (themes) within the data’. The goal of a

thematic analysis is to identify themes, i.e. patterns in the data that are important or

interesting, and use these themes to address the research or say something about the

interview response. This is much more than simply summarising the interview response;

a good thematic analysis interprets and makes sense of it interview response. A common

pitfall is to use the main interview questions as the themes (Clarke & Braun, 2013). The

reason I chose this method was that ‘rigorous thematic approach can produce an

insightful analysis that answers and summaries particular interview response.

57
 CHAPTER FOUR
AN OVERVIEW OF PLATEAU STATE DIRECT LABOUR AGENCY

4.1 Introduction

This chapter covered an overview of Plateau State. Local Government and rural

development in Plateau State, the overview of Direct Labour Agency, the mandate and

Mission Statement of the Direct Labour Agency, the social service welfare scheme of the

Agency, the budgetary allocation of the agency between2011-2018, Achievement/Project

Executed by Direct Labour Agency 2011-2018.

4.2 An Overview of Plateau State

For the purpose of this study, Plateau State is our area of focus, particularly the

institutions that are central to bringing about rural development. Such institutions are

Direct Labour Agency (DLA), the Plateau Agriculture and Development Agency

(PADP), and Plateau State Agency for Water Supply and Sanitation (PRUWASA). These

institutions are more rural targeted. That is why we chose the Direct Labour Agency

(DLA), as our primary units of focus.

Plateau derived its name from the Jos Plateau. The state is a multi-cultural, linguistic and

religious state. It was carved out of Bauchi province in 1926, after the great re-

organization which affected the whole of Northern Nigeria (Nengel, 2001). The people of

Plateau State have lived in their present abode many centuries before the advent of

colonialism. Mwangvwat (1984) has argued that history of the Plateau can be traced to

several phases; first phase C 200 BC to C 1000 AD, as the prehistoric phase; the second

phase CI100 to C 1700AD; and the third phase, C 1600 to 1800AD. All these phases

58
were products of developments in other polities like the Kanem Borno Empire, Jukun

Kwararafa kingdom and the Sokoto Caliphate during Jihad which were responsible for

migration of people running away from areas of political and religious upheavals

(Mwangvwat, 1984:4). Plateau State is a land of diverse geographical features. In the

North, it is very rocky, and hilly, with a height ranging from 500 metres to 1,500 metres

above sea level and it is endowed with a cool semi temperate weather. In the central area,

it is made up of highlands, hills and flat land especially the Dengi/Kanam area, and in the

south it is mainly flat fadama land. The state, because of its geographical features and

good weather, has earned the name a “Home of Peace and Tourism” (Ngobak, 2005).

The state has a population of 3,178,712 million as per 2006 census estimate, and grows at

about 2.8% (National population commission, 2006). ‘Between’ 1976 - 1996, the state

had been split twice. First, as Plateau State carved from Benue- Plateau and second as

Plateau State when Nassarawa State was created on 1st October 1996.

The Plateau people are mainly agrarian and supplement farming with hunting, and

breeding of livestock such as cows, goats, sheep, chicken, dogs and donkey. Land is an

asset to the people because of their agrarian nature, and it is held in trust for the whole

family by the elders of the family or clan.

Communal labour is the most important source of labour on the farm. Until very recently,

commerce was relatively alien to the people. Commerce is seen as a second occupation to

farming. Most of the Plateau communities live in districts and villages with their chiefs as

their political leaders. The elders play advisory role to the chiefs. The polities are mostly

semi- autonomous republics (Nengel, 2001)

59
The physical environment which is rocky, hilly, and made up of deep gullies and rivers

especially in the Northern and Central parts of the state, poses a big challenge to

development because it is difficult to farm and its rocky terrain makes roads construction

very difficult and costly. The area had also suffered from mining activities which had

deprived the land of its fertile top soil good for agriculture, and deep mining ponds are

widely scattered thereby constituting a threat to human beings and animals in the

Northern and Central zones of the state.

In the southern zone, the land is mainly flat with dotted rivers and fadama land which is

good for rice, cassava and yam cultivation. Fishing activities are also carried out here

especially around Qua’an-Pan- Shendam axis. The state is inhabited by different ethnic

groups, but the dominant ones are the Berom in the northern zone, Mwaghavul and Ngas

in the Central Zone, and the Taroh and Goemai in the southern zone. There are settlers

such as the Hausa, Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba, etc. The state has great potentials for tourism

and agriculture especially of temperate crops such as tomatoes, potatoes, and vegetables,

coffee, tea, apples, etc. The state however has a great challenge of infrastructure and

social amenities provision. That is why it has attracted our attention to examine the

quality of rural development as provided by the government.

4.3 Local Governments and Rural Development in Plateau State

Local Governments are units of government created by law to provide for the wellbeing

and welfare of the rural populace. Nigeria has 774 Local Governments recognized by the

1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria out of which Plateau State has 17

(1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria). The 1999 Constitution also

60
recognizes the Local Governments as third tier of government, with residual powers

created for amongst other reasons to;

Promote social and economic development from below. This includes infrastructure

provision, promote political integration and nation building, promote local freedom of

action/autonomy; and enhance grassroots democracy (Iman, 2011).

Also, contributing on the subject matter, Ngu (1994) opines that: the importance of Local

Government in the process of socio-economic transformation of societies cannot be

contested or disputed by any political system worldwide. This is so because there is

hardly any modern political system that dispenses with Local Government as a second or

third tier of government, as the case may be. In fact, a big chunk of the social services

and infrastructures are provided by Local Governments in the various countries including

Nigeria.

Local Government as an institution for rural development in Plateau State does so by

carrying out its functions, some of which include the provision of primary education,

primary health care, construction of roads, culverts and bridges, and management of

market stores, parks and gardens, recreational facilities, libraries, maintenance of

cemeteries, collection of rates/taxes, control of liquor production/consumption through

relevant edicts, etc. But due to lack of autonomy the Local Government function is

limited to only management of market stores, parks and gardens, recreational facilities,

libraries, maintenance of cemeteries, collection of rates/taxes. That is why the state

government has to create agency charge with the responsibility of developing the rural

61
 area of the state. It is believed that through participatory democracy, the grass-roots can

be effectively can have a meaningful development they deserve.

Participation which is one of the approaches of rural development from the bottom-up

approach must be encouraged if any meaningful development is to take place. However,

participation is not that easy. Cohen and Uphoff (2011) argued that in considering

participation, the following questions should be asked: Participation by who? (The local

people, the leaders, government personnel and foreign personnel? The second is how to

participate. There are seven possible factors of analysis

i. Source of initiative: from above or from below

ii. Nature of inducement for participation: voluntary or coerced?

iii. Structure of participation: individual or group?

iv. Channels of Participation: formal or informal?

v. Duration of participation: once and for all or combination of both?

vi. Scope of participation: intermittent or continuous?

vii. Empowerment of participation: how involved are the people? If these

questions are properly addressed, the issue of grassroots development may be a thing of

the past (Cohen & Uphoff, 2012). The concept of participation and grassroots

development according to Egonwan and Ibodje (2010) involve three elements.

i. Consultation with the people who are the supposed beneficiaries;

ii. Access to and participation in decision making process in all those programmes

which affect their lives;

62
iii. Are the people involved in the implementation, costs, and benefits of development?

This is sin line with our philosophy or model of development, which advocates

involvement of the people at the level of implementation and evaluation of policies

and programmes.

Plateau State is the focal point of rural development particularly under the Jang

administration whose ten point agenda include Tourism and Rural development, which

are basically grassroots activities.

4.4 The Direct Labour Agency

Direct labour Agency is a creation of Plateau State government in 2001 with there

activities in the area of health care delivery, construction and renovation primary schools,

rehabilitation and construction feeder road, rural electrification, as well as water Supply

and Sanitation, effective service delivery the agency provide facilities to schools primary

health centre through one of it scheme social welfare service. The agency also maintains

these facilities in conjunction with benefiting communities. In designing, constructing

and maintaining rural roads. The agency embarks on water supply, culverts, bridges,

government building, mechanical equipment, selected installation of plants, and

household equipment to generate funds. However, for now, the agency has concentrated

on the construction and maintenance of rural feeder roads, renovation of schools health

care centres in relation to other infrastructural facilities such as culverts, and bridges rural

electrification, provision of earth dams and boreholes for water.

63
The activities of the agency was operated on a zonal basis namely,

i. Northern Zone, comprising Barkin Ladi, Riyom, Jos South, Jos North and Bassa

LGAs with headquarters in Bukuru;

ii. Central Zone, comprising Kanam, Kanke, Pankshin, Mangu and Bokkos LGA’s

with headquarter at Mangu; and

iii. Southern Zone, comprising Wase, L/North, L/South, Mikang, Shendam and Quan

Pan LGAs with headquarters at Shendam.

Mandate: The Direct Labour Agency is a creation of the Plateau State government with

the mandate of enhancing rural transformation efforts of providing social and economic

services to the rural people of the state.

Mission Statement: The mission of the direct labour agency is to promote sustainable

living conditions through effective community mobilization and capacity building of the

underprivileged communities in the state. The strategy for achieving the mission

statement is capacity building through the provision functional primary education,

rehabilitation and construction of clinic, provision of rural electrification, feeder road as

well as Road reinstatement by, encourage participatory technology development,

formation of community development committees by the people to carry out their

development activities (DLA Document, 20014).

64
 The agency’s major objectives are as follows;

i. To provide Community Based Health care for health Education, voluntary health

works, Traditional Birth attendants, HIV/AIDS prevention awareness campaigns, VIP

toilets construction.

ii. Provision and development of infrastructural needs in the areas of transport, water,

energy and communication especially in rural areas of the state.

iii. To improve water supply and sanitation coverage in the rural communities in Plateau

State.

iv. To build low cost household/schools/clinics and latrines.

v. To provide economic infrastructure by Construction of rural roads and bridges that

will ease movement of good from the farm to the market which will go a long way

to increase income of the rural people.

vi. To promote the establishment of small scale enterprise as well other economic

facilities such as electricity road as for self-reliance.

4.5 Social Welfare Service Scheme (SOWESS)

Social Welfare Service Scheme basically aims at ensuring the provision of basic social

services that includes strengthening the economic power of farmers, providing primary

health care, quality primary and special education among others. This scheme has been

categorised into four programmes capturing all efforts related to the provision of Social

Services. These programmes include:

65
a) Special Education Programme (SEP)

b) Water supply (WS)

c) Farmers Empowerment Programme (FEP)

d) Other Social Services Programme (OSSP) like rehabilitation programmes for

educational facilities, markets, and maintenance of culture for rural infrastructural

facilities, development of rural telecommunication facilities among others.

4.6 Achievement/Project Executed by Direct Labour Agency 2011-2018

Table 4.2. Summary of Projects Executed by Direct Labour Agency between 2011 –
2018 in Basaa, Bokkos and Mikang Local Government Areas, Plateau State (roads
and related projects)

S/N Location Dist.(KM) Year LGA

3 Jengre-Katako-Amo Bisa 14 2011 Bassa

11 Torongol 25 2011 Bokkos

16 Bokkos- Dafo- Sha 30.5 2011 Bokkos

1 Zabollo- Zallaki/ saya 12 2011 Bassa

2 Tanti 10 2012 Bokkos

5 Karfa- Gwande 5 2012 Bokkos

6 Gingim 5 2013 Mikang

7 Rotha 4 2013 Mikang

(Source: Direct Labour Agency Office 2018).

66
Earth Dams and Others

1. Mabudi Dam Rehabilitation Bokkos 2011

2. Sabon Gida Dam Rehabiltiation mikang 2011
3. Mile 4 Dam Rehabiltation Bokkos 2012
4. Airstrip Clearing Bassa 2012
5. Centenary Arena-Bassa 2012
Summary
Roads
Dams
Clearing
Bridges
2011
267.3Km 3 Nos.
2 site 5 Nos.
Table 4.3 Water and Related Project

S/N LOCATION DIST.(KM) YEAR LGA

1 Lahil 1 2012 Mikang
2 Jingir 2 2012 Bassa
3 Mbar 1 2012 Bokkos
4 Richa 3 2012 Bokkos
5 Kuba/ maiyanga 1 2012 Bokkos
6 Zomo 1 2012 Mikang
7 Rukuba Barrack 1 2013 Bassa
8 Horop 1 2013 Bokkos
9 Nkru Miango 1 2013 Bassa
10 Heipang 1 2013 B/Ladi
11 PSU 7 2013 Bokkos
12 Government College Bokkos 2 2013 Bokkos
13 Gwash 1 2014 Mikang
14 Jankassa 1 2014 Mikang
15 Nafan Dredge 1 2014 Bokkos
16 Ramzee D/Dutse 1 2014 Bassa
Source: Direct Labour Agency Office, 2018.

Summary
1. Borehole
2. Motorized Pumps BH - 3 Nos at PSU
3. Hand Pump BH- 4Nos. AT PSU
4. 100,000L surface Reservoir (Steel-1No.at PSU)
5. 75,000L overhead tank (Steel) at PSU
6. Lift Pump Reticulation awaiting electrification/Balance Payment at PSU

67
 7. Construction of 120,000L Steel Ground Tank with submersible and Lift
pumps as well as reticulation at Governor’s office Jos.
(Source: Direct Labour Agency Mid-term report, 2019).
Table 4. 4 Direct Labour Agency Road Projects Executed, 2011-2018

Northern Zone

S/N0 PROJECT----------------
L.G.A------ DATE OF'-DATE
- OF------
SPONSORED---
PROJECT----
TOTAL----- ^UT---------------
REMAKS-----------

COMMEN COMPLE APROVED COST RELEASES STANDING

CEMENT TION BY
MADE BALANCE

AMO-J IN BASSA T000 Turn DLA 741,400 714,400 COPLE T ED

-
1 GER-KA'
TAKO

YELWA BASSA T000 T000 DLA 4,484,760 3,017,228 1,467,532

-
2 ZANGAM-
NEPA

3 MIYANGOBBASSA
KATAKOB 2017 ON- DLA 1,074,745 1,O74,745 Not
GOING completed

4 ZALLAKI- BASSA 2016 ON- DLA "1017839 1,000,000 9,178,398 APPROVED

ZARIA GOING 8 GIVEN,
ROAD FUNDS YET
TO BE
RELEASETE
D

5 MLANUO- BASSA T000 T000 DLA 4,000,103 - 4,000,103 COMPLET

TAEGBE ED
JROAD

9 MISTA ALI BASSA 2012 2013 DLA 2,542,000 2,542,000 COMPLET

ED

Source: Direct Labour Agency Office, 2018.

68
 Central Zone

S/N0 PROJECT------------
L.G.A-------
DATE OF---DATE OF------
SPONSORED- -project---------
TOTAL-- OUT-------------
REMAKS----------
COMMEN COMPLE APROVED BY COST RELEASE S STANDING
CEMENT TION MADE BALANCE
1 RICHA BOKK 2014 2017 DLA 2,792,840 1,792,840 1,000,000, COMPLEX
OS ED
3 “DAFFO- “BOKK ON- DLA COMPLEX
18,000,00
TOFFO- OS 2018 GOING 18,000,000 - ED
0
SIKEN
8 FOROF BOKK 2018 ON- DLA “83^ “re793339 66,764,882 “WORKSTO
(REVIEWED OS GOING PED
2016) DUE TO
LACK OF
FUNDING
12 HOTTOM BOKK T004 ON- DLA 28,814,16 3000,000 25,481,165 WORK
OS UU1NG 5 STOPED
DUE TO
LACK OE
EUNDS
17 PRTVC- BOKK 2013 2014 DLA 259,200 259,200 COMPLET
DANKANG OS ED
SUBSTATIO
N ACCESS
ROAD
18 SUWA- BOKK 2017 ON- DLA 24870570 2,000,000 22,870,570 EUND1NG
KANGER OS UO1NG STOPED
ROAD
19 TASSAKAKE BOKK 2015 2016 DLA 2,000,000 2,000,000 COMPLET
RIDGES OS COMPL ED
ETED
^21- -MBAR- BOKK 2014---------ON- DLA-----------t0udu;uu 10,,000,00 ON-GOING----
MANGAR--------
OS---------- GOING------ 0--------------
0
RICHA

Source: Direct Labour Agency Office, 2018.

69
 Southern Zone
S/N0 PROJECT L.G.A DATE OF DATE OF SPONSORED PROJECT TOTAL OUT REMAKS
COMPLETI APROVED STANDING
COMMEN ON BY COST RELEASES
CEMENT MADE BALANCE

i SABON GIDA- TURAKA- MIKANG 2018 ON- DLA 21,200,00 1,700,000 19,300,000 WORK
KARKASHI GOING 0 STOPED
DUE TO
LACK OF
FUNDS

2 GIDAN ADAMU- MIKANG 2017 ON- DLA 13,349,32 1,800,000 13,349,322 WORK
PLAPUNG GOING 2 STOPED
ON
FUNDING

3 AOEMAK- SHEDAM MIKANG 2013 ON- DLA 12,430,00 1,468,000 19,982,000 LACK OF
BRIDGES GOING 0 FUNDING

-
4 GARKAWA- T UNKUS MIKANG 2013 2012 DLA 300,000 300,000 COMPLET
BRIDGES ED

-
5 WASE-KADARKO MIKANG 2012 2012 DLA 6,000,000 6,000,000 COMPLET
ED

WASE-LAMBA BASSA 2013 “"2013 BASSA LGA 7,793,600 7,793,6000 - COMPLET

6
ED

7 EATH DAM MIKANG 2017 ON- MIKANG 800,000 300,000 19,984,500 WORK S
GOING TOP DUE
CONSTRUCTION(KARK LGA TO LACK
ASHI AND DEMSHIN) OF FUNDS

8 MARARABAN MIKANG 2016 ON- BOKKOS 43,863,93 3,000,000 40,863,938 LGC YET
DEMSHIN- DEMSHIN GOING 8 TO
SHIMANKAR LGA
RELEASE
FUNDS

9 BASSA-MAVO MIKANG ““2016 ON- BASSA LGA “TE3TU 3,310,000 LGC YET
GOING A73 TO

RELEASE
FUNDS

Source: Direct Labour Agency Office, 2018.

70
 The above tables show the achievement of Direct Labour Agency in the area of feeder

roads, water supply in the selected Local Government under study which are selected

according to the senatorial district of the State from Plateau North (Bassa), Plateau

Central (Bokkos) and Plateau South (Mikang) Local Government area of Plateau State

with an effort to making lives comfortable for the rural dwellers in the State and by

extension Nigeria in general.

Table 4. 5 Educational Project Executed by the Agency 2011-2018

S/N LGA NAME OF SCHOOL DESCRIPTION

1. BOKKOS LEA WUMAT construction of three classrooms/office/store and rehabilitation of

dilapidated four classroom block at community LEA.

2. MIKANG L.E.A PRI. SCH. GANG construction of three classrooms/office/store and construction of modern
laboratory

3. MIKANG LEA LONGBIS construction of three classrooms/office/store and rehabilitation of

dilapidated four classroom block at community LEA.

4. MIKANG LEA SOEMDOK construction of three classrooms/office/store and construction of five

classrooms for the purpose of enhancing adult and informal education

5. BASSA LEA BUKAVUK Construction of three classrooms/office/store and procurement of plastic

chairs for every new classrooms.

6. BOKKOS LEA MAHURUM construction of three classrooms/office/store and rehabilitation of

dilapidated five classroom block at community LEA.

7. BOKKOS LEA MARGIF Construction of three classrooms/office/store and upgrading of science

laboratory and rehabilitation of dilapidated four classroom block at
community LEA.

8. MIKANG LEA GANGOEVUEL Construction of three classrooms/office/store and construction of well-

equipped library to ease learning.

9. BASSA GJSS BASSAss construction of three classrooms/office/store and rehabilitation of

dilapidated four classroom block at community LEA.

10. BASSA BASSA renovation of five classrooms/two toilets and 40,000 copies of Jolly
Phonics Pupil Book 1 and 40,000 copies of Pupils Book 2, and 1600
copies of the Teacher’s Book.

11. BASSA GJSS KWALL renovation of four classrooms/office/store and provision of plastic chairs
and also 40,000 copies of Jolly Phonics Pupil Book 1 and 40,000 copies
of Pupils Book 2, and 1600 copies of the Teacher’s Book. To the whole

71
 community.

12. BASSA GJSS FUSKAN MATA Renovation of four classrooms/office/store and The provision of Primary
1 Pupils books and supplementary materials to each Primary 1 teacher to
support teaching their pupils.

13. BASSA LEA PADAMAN SHANU renovation of four classrooms/office/store and provision of

14. BASSA LEA KISHIKA renovation of four classrooms/office/store

15. MIKANG GJSS GARKAWA renovation of six classrooms

16. BASSA ECWA JEBBU BASSA renovation of six classrooms/three offices/stores

17. BOKKOS GJSS SHA renovation of three classrooms/office/store

18 BASSA GJSS RIMI renovation of three classrooms/office/store (mud)

19. BOKKOS BOKKOS CENTRAL MODEL renovation of classrooms/lab/laboratory/office/store

PRY SCH.

20. BOKKOS GJSS MASHARKUT renovation of five classrooms/four offices/two stores

21. BOKKOS LEA MOM TANGUR Renovation of four classrooms and Two-day training for 22 Teachers selected
across the Local Government as Teacher leaders and 12 Officials (SSOs) to
support them.

22. BOKKOS LEA SAT renovation of four classrooms (mud)

23. BASSA LEA IGBAK renovation of four classrooms/office/store

24. BASSA LEA DUTSEN KURA Renovation of four classrooms/office/store and The provision of Primary 1 Pupils
books and supplementary materials to each Primary 1 teacher to support teaching
their pupils.

25 BASSA ARMY CHILDREN SCHOOL Completion of five classrooms/office/store and The provision of Primary 1 Pupils
3 books and supplementary materials to each Primary 1 teacher to support teaching
their pupils.

26. BASSA ARMY CHILDREN SCHOOL Renovation of classrooms/lab/laboratory/office/store and the provision of modern
2 white board across the primary schools in the Local Government.

27. MIKANG T/RCM MODEL SCHOOL Renovation of two classrooms/library/two offices (mud) and construction of
TUNKUS examination hall.

29. BOKKOS LEA KUBA renovation of three classrooms

30. BASSA GJSS JEBBU MIANGO Completion of an examination hall and The provision of Primary 1 Pupils books
and supplementary materials to each Primary 1 teacher to support teaching their
pupils.

Source: (Direct Labour Agency document 2018).

72
The above are achievement of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State between 2011-2018

in the area of water supply, educational facilities as well as infrastructural facilities in the

rural communities of Kokkos, Bassa and Mikang Local Government of Plateau State with

the objectives of making lives conducive for the people of the rural communities. Rural

development must be targeted at the people as the beneficiaries of development.

Chinsman (2009) asked the question, why put people first? In his view, “development is a

process of economic and social advancement which enables people to realize their

potential, build self-confidence, and live lives of dignity and fulfilment through the

provision of basic social and infrastructural facilities which makes lives better for the

entire members of the communities.

73
 CHAPTER FIVE
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the data collected for this study, exhibits the analyses and interprets

the results obtained under the research objectives of the study. The section is divided into

sub-sections, namely: Demographic characteristics of respondents, analysis of the

respondents’ responses based on research questions undertaken, and the hypotheses were

tested using statistical regression tool.

5.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data.

5.2.1 Questionnaire Response Rate

A total of 384 copies of questionnaire were distributed, and 356 (92.7%) were valid out

of 362 (94.3%) retrieved. Thus, the analysis was based on copies of questionnaires duly

filled, returned and valid, which represents (92.7%) of the total questionnaire distributed.

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), a response rate of 50% is adequate for

analysis and reporting; a rate of 60% is reasonable, and a response rate of 70% and over

is excellent. Therefore, based on the assertion, the response rate was excellent as

indicated by Table 5.1.

74
 Table 5.1 Summary of Responses and Percentage

L.G.A Populat Sam Questionn Question Vali Perc

ion ple aire naire d enta
size distribute returned ge
d valid

Bassa 189,834 157 157 146 144 91.7

Bokkos 179,550 148 148 142 141 95.9

Mikang 96,388 79 79 74 71 89.9

Total 465772 384 384 362 356 92.7

Source: Author’s Computation

The response rate and the valid questionnaire for the study is 92.7 percent out of 100

percent; this size is considered adequate for analysis in the current study.

5.2.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents

In this section, the frequency distribution and percentage of participants are presented

based on their demographic characteristics. Particularly, the demographic variables

examined in this study include the gender of the respondents, their educational

qualification and age. However, these frequencies as well as percentages of the

participants based on the aforementioned characteristics are presented below.

Table 5.2 Frequency Distribution of Respondent’s Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 137 38.0 38.0 38.0
Valid
Female 219 62.0 62.0 100.0

75
 Total 356 100.0 100.0
Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

Table 5.2 present the gender distribution of the respondents. A significant portion of the

respondents was female 219 (62.0%), while male constitute (38.0%). This implies that

most of the respondents captured in this study are female. More so, it means that women

are the major beneficiaries of direct labour agency contribution in the selected rural areas.

Table 5.3 Frequency Distribution by Age group and Percentage

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

18-25 86 24.2 24.2 24.2

26-35 112 31.5 31.5 55.7

36-45 104 29.2 29.2 84.9

Valid
46-60 49 13.8 13.8 98.7

61 and above 5 1.3 1.3 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

Table 5.3. Shows the age distribution of respondents, 24.2% (86) falls within 18-25 years,

31.5% (112) within 31-40 years, 29.2% (104) falls within 36-45, 13.8% (49) falls within

46-60 and 1.3% (5) falls within 61 years and above. It can be deduced that the majority of

respondents captured for this study are within 26 to 35 years of age. Which means that

youth are the major beneficiaries of direct labour agency contribution in the selected rural

areas.

76
Table 5.4: Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Marital Status

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Married 238 66.9 66.9 66.9

Single 117 32.9 32.9 99.8

Valid
Widowed 1 0.2 0.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

As indicated from table 5.4. 238 (66.9%) respondents captured in this study were

married, 117 (32.9%) respondents were single and finally 1 (0.2%) respondent was a

widow. Therefore, majority of the respondents of the study were considered married.

This show that married people benefit more from the contribution of direct labour agency

compare to other categories of respondents.

Table 5.5: Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Qualification

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

Bsc/HND 70 19.7 19.7 19.7

WASC/SSCE/Grade
249 69.9 69.9 89.6
Valid II/NECO
None of the Above 37 10.4 10.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

Table 5.5 shows that 70 (19.7%) of the respondent were holders of tertiary school

certificate, 249 (69.9%) respondents were holders of secondary school certificate. Finally,

77
37 (10.4%) of the respondents fall in category not captured in this study. It can be

deduced from the result above that majority of the respondents captured in this study

were holders of secondary school certificate. By implication, it means that despite

majority of the respondents are youth but also only few were able to further beyond

secondary level.

Table5.6: Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Occupation

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Famer 72 20.2 20.2 20.2

Teachers 179 50.3 50.3 70.5

Valid Artisans 87 24.4 24.4 94.9

Civil Servant 18 5.1 5.1 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

Table 5.6 shows that 72 (20.0%) respondents captured in this study were farmers,

179(50.3%) were teachers, 87(24.4%) of the respondents were artisans and 18 (5.1%) of

the respondents were civil servant. It can be deduced from the result above that majority

of the respondents captured in this study were teachers. This indicate that the prevalent

occupation and beneficiaries of direct labour agency contribution are teachers. This is

also shows that the standard of education is very poor in the selected areas as considering

that most of the respondents are teachers and majority are only with secondary school

certificate.

78
Table 5.7 Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Year of Experience

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

1 – 10 190 53.4 53.4 53.4

11 – 20 114 32.0 32.0 85.4

Valid 21 – 30 45 12.6 12.6 98.0

31 years and above 7 2.0 2.0 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix one)

The length of service in terms of the number of years that the respondents have spent in

service was presented in tables 5.7. 190 (53.4%) of the respondent captured in this study

have spent approximately 1- 10 years in service, 114 (32.0%) have spent 11 -20, 45

(12.6%) have spent 21-30, 7 (2.0%) of the respondents have spent 31 years and above.

which implication, the majority of the respondents for this study are not new in the

service.

5.2.3 Analysis of the Respondents’ Responses According to the Study Objectives

Table 5.8 Objective One; Provision of water supply by Direct Labour Agency on

rural development in Plateau State.

Respondents’ opinions ranged from strongly agreed, agreed, strongly disagreed,

disagreed and undecided were measured on a scale of one to five (1-5) respectively. The

aim of the resultant category is to prepare the data in the required form for the test, since

there is the need to compare whether there is a significant difference between those who

agreed and those who do not in order to take decision.

79
 Table 5.8.1 Your community has constant and regular water supply by Direct
Labour Agency

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 339 95.2 95.2 95.2

Valid strongly agree 17 4.8 4.8 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

From table 5.8.1, 339 (95.2%) respondents agreed that their community has constant and

regular water supply by direct labor agency overall evaluation. While 17 (4.8)

respondents strongly agreed. In summary, the majority of the respondents agreed as none

of the respondents disagreed. It shows that the community enjoys constant water supply

due to intervention of direct labour agency.

Table 5.8.2 There are already completed water project by direct labour agency,
while others are ongoing in your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Undecided 4 1.1 1.1 1.1

Agree 276 77.5 77.5 78.6

Valid
strongly agree 76 21.4 21.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.8..2 shows that 4 (1.1%) respondents were undecided as to whether there are

already completed water project by direct labour agency, while others are ongoing in

80
your community, 276 (77.5%) respondents agreed and 76 (21.4%) respondents strongly

agreed. it can be deduced that virtually majority of the respondents. It means that there is

steady water and ongoing water project in the community due to contribution of the

agency.

Table 5.8.3. Direct labour agency involves members of your community at project
implementation of water supply project

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 294 82.6 82.6 82.6

Valid strongly agree 62 17.4 17.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

As it can be seen from Table 5.8.3, 294 (82.6%) respondents agreed that direct labour

agency involves members of their community at project implementation of water supply

project, while 62(17.4%) respondents strongly agreed. This implied that the agency

involve members of the community when embarking on any project to ensure they

participate and understand the kind of project going.

81
 Table 5.8..4; Your community has constant and regular water supply by Direct
Labour Agency

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 217 61.0 61.0 61.0

Valid strongly agree 139 39.0 39.0 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.8.4 shows that 217 (61.0%) respondents agreed that their community has

constant and regular water supply by direct labour agency, while 139(39.0%) respondents

strongly agreed. By implication, none of the respondents objected. By implication, it

means that the community has constant water supply which help to boost economic

activities of the communities.

Table 5.8.5 With the activities and intervention of Direct Labour Agency your
community has no shortage of water supply

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 296 83.1 83.1 83.1

Valid strongly agree 60 16.9 16.9 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 4.4.5 shows that 296 (83.1%) respondents agreed that with the activities and

intervention of direct labour agency in their community, there is no shortage of water

82
supply. While 60(16.9%) respondents strongly agreed. This means, none of the

respondents objected. It means that since the intervention of the agency the community

has not faced shortage of water supply which goes a long way in boosting domestic

activities of the people in the communities of the State.

Objective Two; Provision of educational facilities by Direct Labour Agency on rural

development in Plateau State

Table 5.9.1; Direct Labour Agency construct and rehabilitated primary schools in
your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 227 63.8 63.8 63.8

Valid strongly agree 129 36.2 36.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.9.1 shows that 227 (63.8%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

constructed and rehabilitated primary schools their community, while 129 (36.2%)

respondents strongly agreed. By implication, none of the respondents objected. This

shows that the agency has vehemently contributed to the educational standard of the

community by rehabilitating the old structure and erecting new structure to the

environment conducive for learning.

83
Table 5.9.2; Direct Labour Agency provided educational facilities in your
community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 307 86.2 86.2 86.2

Valid strongly agree 49 13.8 13.8 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.9.2 shows that 307 (86.2%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

provided educational facilities in their community, while 49 (13.8%) respondents

strongly agreed. By implication, none of the respondents objected. It means that the

agency also made provision for other educational facilities that will aid learning in the

community which will make the people creative and better informed.

Table 5.9.3; The educational facilities provided by direct labour agency are in good
condition and up to international standard

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 312 87.6 87.6 87.6

Valid strongly agree 44 12.4 12.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.9.3 shows that 312 (87.6%) respondents agreed that the educational facilities

provided by direct labour agency are in good condition and up to international standard,

84
while 44 (12.4%) respondents strongly agreed. By implication, it means that most of

educational facility provided by the agency were not sub-standard.

Table 5.9.4; Direct labour agency provided adequate educational facilities in your
community.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 235 66.0 66.0 66.0

Valid strongly agree 121 34.0 34.0 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.9.4 shows that 235 (66.0%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

provided adequate educational facilities in your community, while 121 (34.0%)

respondents strongly agreed. This goes to shows that, the provision of educational

facilities by the agency were sufficient enough to a reasonable extent for the community.

Table 5.9.5; Direct labour agency involves members of your community at project
implementation of educational project

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 298 83.7 83.7 83.7

Valid strongly agree 58 16.3 16.3 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

85
Table 5.9.5 shows that 298 (83.7%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

involves members of their community at project implementation of educational project,

while 58 (16.3%) respondents strongly agreed. By implication, none of the respondents

objected which shows that the agency involved members of the community even before

embarking on any educational project, which is considered fair enough.

Objective Three; Provision of infrastructural facilities by Direct Labour Agency on

rural development in Plateau State

Table 5.10.1; Direct labour agency construct and rehabilitated rural feeder road
in your community
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Agree 248 70.0 70.0 70.0
Valid strongly agree 108 30.0 30.0 100.0
Total 356 100.0 100.0
Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.1 shows that 248 (70.0%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

construct and rehabilitated rural feeder road in your community, while 108 (30.0%)

respondents strongly agreed. It means that the agency engaged in road construction and

rehabilitation in the community, which will invariably improve their infrastructural

development.

Table 5.10.2; The rural feeder road constructs and rehabilitated in your
community by direct labour agency are motorable.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 342 96.1 96.1 96.1

Valid strongly agree 14 3.9 3.9 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

86
Table 5.10.2 shows that 342 (96.1%) respondents agreed that the rural feeder road

constructs and rehabilitated in your community by direct labour agency are motorable,

while 14 (3.9%) respondents strongly agreed. It means that the constructed road are

motorable in the community.

Table 5.10,3; Direct labour agency provided rural electrification in your

community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 289 81.2 81.2 81.2

Valid strongly agree 67 18.8 18.8 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.3 shows that 289 (81.2%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

provided rural electrification in their community, while 67 (18.8%) respondents strongly

agreed. By implication, it means that the agency make provision for electricity in the

community, which is one of the veritable and crucial factor for development in the

community.

87
Table 5.10.; All your economic activities in your community require the use of
electricity.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Undecided 42 11.8 11.8 11.8

Agree 228 64.0 64.0 75.8

Valid
strongly agree 86 24.2 24.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.4 shows that 42 (11.8%) respondents were undecided as to whether economic

activities in their community require the use of electricity, 228 (64.0%) agreed and 86

(24.2%) respondents strongly agreed. It can be seen that virtually all the economic

activities in the community involves using of electricity, which they would have been

deprived if without the intervention of the agency.

Table 5.10.5; Direct labour agency involves members of your community at project
implementation of infrastructural project
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Agree 301 84.6 84.6 84.6
strongly agree 55 15.4 15.4 100.0
Total 356 100.0 100.0
Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.5 shows that 301 (84.6%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

involves members of their community at project implementation of infrastructural

project, while 55 (15.4%) respondents strongly agreed.

88
Rural Development
Table 5.10.6; The intervention of direct labour agency has bring about rural

development in your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 323 90.7 90.7 90.7

Valid strongly agree 33 9.3 9.3 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.6 shows that 323 (90.7%) respondents agreed that the intervention of direct

labour agency has bring about rural development in their community and 33 (9.3%)

respondents strongly agreed. Which it means that the contribution of the agency have

positive influence on rural development in their community.

Table 5.10.7; The activities of direct labour agency has influenced all aspects of
human life in your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Undecided 30 8.4 8.4 8.4

Agree 297 83.4 83.4 91.8

Valid
strongly agree 29 8.2 8.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.7 shows that 30 (8.4%) respondents were undecided as to whether the

activities of direct labour agency has influenced all aspects of human life in their

89
community, 297 (83.4%) agreed and 29 (8.2%) respondents strongly agreed. By

implication, it means that the contribution of the agency has influenced on human life in

their community and leads to better living standard.

Table 5.10.8; The social welfare service scheme of direct labour agency has
improve livelihood and solve development problems in your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Agree 285 80.1 80.1 80.1

Valid strongly agree 71 19.9 19.9 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.8 shows that 323 (90.7%) respondents agreed that the social welfare service

scheme of direct labour agency has improve livelihood and solve development problems

in their community and 33 (9.3%) respondents strongly agreed. Which means that social

service scheme by the agency has improved livelihood of the community.

Table 5.10.9; Direct labour agency programme has help to promoting and
establishment of good standard of living in your community

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

90
 Agree 341 95.8 95.8 95.8

Valid strongly agree 15 4.2 4.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.9 shows that 341 (95.8%) respondents agreed that direct labour agency

programme has help to promoting and establishment of good standard of living in their

community, and 15 (4.2%) respondents strongly agreed. It can be seen that the agency

has increased the standard of living in the community.

Table 5.10.10; Direct labour agency has help remove social value and norms that
are anti-development in your community.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Undecided 78 21.9 21.9 21.9

Agree 216 60.7 60.7 82.6

Valid
strongly agree 62 17.4 17.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (Appendix two)

Table 5.10.10 shows that 78 (21.9%) respondents were undecided as to whether direct

labour agency has help remove social value and norms that are anti-development in their

community, 216 (60.7%) agreed and 62 (17.4%) respondents strongly agreed. By

implication, it means that the agency participate jointly with community to remove social

value and norms that may stand as a bane against development in the selected rural areas.

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5.5 Correlation Matrix of Dependent and Independent Variables

The correlation matrix shows the relationship between each two pairs of variable in the

regression model, the level of correlation between the variables is very important because

excessive correlation may distort the standard error of estimation and lead to a wrong

conclusion (Ahmad, 2014).

Table 5.11. Correlation Matrix of Dependent and Independent Variables

Rural provisions Provisions of Provisions of

development of water educational infrastructural
supply facilities facilities
Pearson
Rural 1
Correlation
development
Sig.
Pearson
Provisions of .317*** 1
Correlation
water supply
Sig. .000
Provisions of Pearson
.228*** .266*** 1
educational Correlation
facilities Sig. .000 .000
Provisions of Pearson
.365*** .270*** .443*** 1
infrastructural Correlation
facilities Sig. .000 .000 .000
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix three)

Table 5.11. Shows the relationship between each pair of variables. The relationship

between each independent variable and the dependent variable are expected to be strong

while the relationship between each pair of independent variable is expected to be low.

This is because, according to Gujarati and porter (2009), a correlation coefficient between

two independent variables above ± 0.8 is considered excessive and may indicate the

existence of multicollinearity. However, Table 5.11 shows that all the correlation

92
coefficient between the pairs of the independent variables is less than 0.8, thus,

suggesting that the three independent variables can be well fitted into one regression

model.

Table 5.11. Shows that dependent variable (rural development) has positive relationship

with the explanatory variable (provision of water supply, provision educational facilities

and provision of infrastructural facilities). It implies that increase in provision of water

supply, provision educational facilities and provision of infrastructural facilities will

result to increase in rural development of Plateau State. On the other hand, the

relationship between the independent variables are not found to be significant to the

extent that one can conclude that there is multicollinearity.

5.6 Result of Robustness Tests

Robustness tests are conducted to test the validity of the statistical inference of a

regression model. The robustness tests conducted for this study include normality test and

heteroscedasitity test.

5.6.1 Heteroscedasticity Test

Heteroscedasticity test is conducted to check the homoscedasticity assumption of the

regression model. The presence of heteroscedasticity violates the homoscedasticity

assumption and may lead to a wrong inference. In this study, the null hypothesis for the

test is “constant variance” (presence of homoscedasticity). Thus, if the p-value is more

than or equal to 5%.

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Table 5.12. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

Dependent Variable: rural development

F df1 df2 Sig.

1.694 61 340 .532

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across
groups.

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix four)

The result from Table 5.12. Shows that there is equal variance among the error term and

as they are all insignificant. By implication, it means absolute absence of

heteroscedasticity and presence of homogeneity as the level of significant is above five

percent minimum threshold.

5.6.2 Normality Distribution of the Data

Normality distribution of the data is another paramount assupmtion of linear regression

where it is considered as condition for parametric test analysis. This is because, one of

the parametric test condition is that, the data most be normaly distributed across the

variables for the test to stand for generalization (Park 2008). However, it was argued that

the normality is to be conducted on the residuals of the model and not the data where the

dependent variable determine the parameteric analysis to be conducted (Ghasemi and

Zahediasl 2012). Thus, this study conducted a normility test on the data and residuals of

the model using shapiro-wilk

Table 5.13.1: Normality Test

94
 Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.

rural development .286 356 .693 .828 356 .602

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix four)

Table 5.13.1 shows results of Normality test for education. The Sharpiro-Wilk

approximated test for normality indicated a significant rejection of the normality

assumption for rural development (S-W = 0.828, p = 0.602)

Table 4.13.2: Normality Test

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.

provisions of water
.286 356 .201 .691 356 .214
supply

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix four)

Table 5.13.2 shows results of Normality test for the provisions of water supply. The

Sharpiro-Wilk approximated test for normality indicated a significant rejection of the

normality assumption for provisions of water supply (S-W = 0.691, p = 0.214).

95
Table 5.13.3: Normality Test

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.

Provisions of
.325 356 .193 .722 356 .162
educational facilities

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix four)

Table 5.13.3 shows results of Normality test for the provisions of educational facilities.

The Sharpiro-Wilk approximated test for normality indicated a significant rejection of the

normality assumption for provisions of educational facilities (S-W = 0.722, p = 0.162).

Table 5.13.4: Normality Test

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.

Provisions of
.297 356 .688 .736 356 .673
infrastructural facilities

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix four)

Table 5.13.4 shows results of Normality test for the provisions of infrastructural facilities.

The Sharpiro-Wilk approximated test for normality indicated a significant rejection of the

normality assumption for provisions of infrastructural facilities (S-W = 0.736, p = 0.673).

96
Table 5.13.5; Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality of residual

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.

Unstandardized
.244 356 .442 .801 356 .351
Residual

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix three)

The level of significant for the models is 0.351 as obtained in Table 5.13.5 for the Shapir-

Wilk. Since the value is greater than 0.05 as indicated on the table at 5% level of

significant therefore, the null hypothesis that the data is normally distributed across the

models cannot be rejected. For this reason, this study concludes that, the residuals of the

model is normally distributed.

Table 5.13.6: Multicolinearity

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance VIF

.900 1.111
.781 1.281
.779 1.283

Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix three)

The multicollinearility test from Table 5.13.6 shows that all the VIF values are less than

10. The result shows an evidence absolute absence of multicollinearity among the

explanatory variables as the lowest tolerance value is 0.779.

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5.7 Hypothesis Test

The hypotheses formulated were tested along the lines of the model specified for

empirical verification. Employing data obtained from the respondents, ordinary least

square regression estimation was adopted. Furthermore, as revealed earlier in the

previous chapter, dependent variable of this study is rural development. The hypotheses

were postulated in null form. To this end, all the operation was performed with the aid of

SPSS version 20.0 and the results were analyzed as follows:

Table 5.14.1: Model Summary

Model Summaryb

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Durbin-Watson

Square Estimate

1 .691a .686 .680 1.174 1.656

a. Predictors: (Constant), Provisions of infrastructural facilities , provisions of water

supply, Provisions of educational facilities

b. Dependent Variable: rural development

Source: summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix Five)

As indicated from table 5.14.1 adjusted R square, which is the explanatory power of

independent variables determine the variation on dependent variable with the coefficient

of 0.680. This signifies that about 68.0% of the systematic variation in the selected

sampled rural development area are jointly explained by changes in the level of

provisions of infrastructural facilities, provisions of water supply, and provisions of

educational facilities. On the other hand, other factors not captured in the study explains

the remaining 22.0%.

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Restatement of Hypotheses

Ho1 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of water supply by Direct

Labour Agency on rural development in the selected rural communities of Plateau

State.

Ho2 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of educational facilities by

Direct Labour Agency and rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

Ho3 There is no significant relationship between the provisions of infrastructural facilities

by Direct Labour Agency and rural development in the selected rural communities of

Plateau State.

Table 5.14.2 Regression result

Model Unstandardized Coefficients T Sig.

B Std. Error
(Constant) .369 .103 3.583 .001
provisions of water supply .266 .055 4.838 .000
Provisions of educational
.148 .061 2.426 .015
facilities
Provisions of
.335 .060 5.583 .000
infrastructural facilities
Source: Summary of SPSS OUTPUT (appendix five)

As indicated from Table 5.14.2, there is positives and significant relationship between

provisions of water supply on rural development by the coefficient of 0.266 with p-value

of 0.000, which is significant at 1%. The provides basis for rejecting the null hypothesis,

which states that, there is no significant relationship between the provisions of water

supply by Direct Labour Agency on rural development in Plateau State. The result is

99
consistent with descriptive statistics of 1.48 (appendix two) which reveals that majority

of the respondents agreed that provision of water supply has positive effect on rural

development.

Table 5.14.2 shows that there is positive and significant relationship between provision

educational facilities on rural development as shown by the coefficient of 0.148 with the

p-value of 0.015, which is significant at 5%. The provides empirical evidence to reject

null hypothesis, which states that, there is no significant relationship between the

provisions of educational facilities by Direct Labour Agency on rural development in

Plateau State. The result is consistent with descriptive statistics of 1.97 (appendix two)

which reveals that majority of the respondents agreed that provision of educational

facilities has positive effect on rural development.

Finally, the result from Table 5.14.2 shows that there is positive and significant

relationship between provisions of infrastructural facilities on rural development as

indicated by the coefficient of 0.335 with the p-value of 0.00, which is significant at 1%.

The provide evidence for rejecting the null hypothesis, which state that, there is no

significant relationship between the provisions of infrastructural facilities by Direct

Labour Agency and rural development in Plateau State. The result is consistent with

descriptive statistics of 1.67 (appendix two) which reveals that majority of the

respondents agreed that provision of infrastructural facilities has positive effect on rural

development.

5.8 Discussion of Major Findings

100
There is a positive and significant relationship between provisions of water supply on

rural development by the coefficient of 0.266 with p-value of 0.000, which is significant

at 1% as indicated from Table 5.14.2. It means increase in provision of water supply will

lead to increase on rural development. This is because investment in water supply

typically, generates a number of economic, environmental on rural development benefits.

Access to clean drinking water and sanitation reduces health risks and frees-up time for

other productive activities, as well as increases the productivity of the labour force.

As indicated from Table 5.14.2, that there is positive and significant relationship between

provision of educational facilities on rural development as shown by the coefficient of

0.48 with the p-value of 0.05, which is significant at 1%. This means increase in

educational facilities will lead to increase on rural development. This is due to the fact

that, education enriches people’s understanding of themselves and world. It improves the

quality of their lives and leads to broad social benefits to individuals and society. It also

raises people’s productivity, creativity and promotes entrepreneurship and technological

advances in the rural communities of the state.

Finally, the result from Table 5.14.2 shows that there is positive and significant

relationship between provisions of infrastructural facilities on rural development as

indicated by the coefficient of 0.335 with the p-value of 0.00, which is significant at 1%.

This means that increase in provision of infrastructural facilities will lead to increase on

rural development. This is because availability of infrastructure facilities and services as

well as the efficiency of such services to a large extent determine the success or

otherwise of all other production endeavourers. Investments in infrastructures such as

feeder road, transportation and communication technologies promote rural development

101
and help to alleviate poverty thereby improve living conditions of the people of the rural

areas.

5.9 Presentation of Data from Face-to-Face Interview Data for the Study

5.9.1 Responses from Staff of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State

Theme I: Major Areas of Contribution of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau

State

There is convergence of response from this category of respondents with the traditional

leaders/district heads of the LGAs. Even though exaggerated; the attested (affirmed) to

the responses of the traditional leaders that their focus is on most needed public goods

e.g. provision and maintenance of adequate infrastructural facilities like feeder roads

construction, construction and rehabilitation of water sources, construction and

renovation of primary education facilities, provision of instructional materials to schools,

construction of drainage systems etc. They added that most newly constructed primary

education facilities, water sources and drainage systems are the hand work of the agency.

They further overstated that, without the existence of this agency, the rural communities

would have been in poor state.

Theme II: Methods Explored to Encourage Communities to Participate in the

Initiation, Planning, and Implementation of Government Projects

There is undisputed response among the respondents that so many methods were

explored to lure community (s) members to participate in the initiation, planning and

implementation of government projects by the agency. One of the respondents averred

that “the community members are the ones with a rock in their shoes and that no one

102
 other than them can tell exactly how the rock feels”. As such, they are communicated

through community mobilizers in community development unit in their various Local

Governments to the community members on rural development.

Theme III: Governmental Budgetary Allocation to Direct Labour Agency in

Relation to its Expected Programmes

It is mostly known that human needs are insatiable while the resources to satisfy the

needs are limited. This general principle according to the respondents is applied by

government in allocating resources to the agency. A lot of responsibilities are assigned to

the agency while the resources are so meagre (insufficient) to handle the responsibilities.

Hence, the genesis of one of the major problems confronting the agency –“inadequate

funding”.

Theme IV: Timeliness of Funds’ Release for Utilization (i.e. Projects Execution)
by the Agency

According to the respondents, the inadequacy of funds is accompanied with untimely

release of funds to the agency has been serious impediments to successful projects

execution in recent time. Most funds are achieved at the end of the year (at the

completion schedule of the projects).

Theme V: Challenges of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State

i. Inadequate Funding Compared to the Expected Programmes: As stated earlier,

innumerable responsibilities are assigned to the agency while the resources allocated

to cater for the responsibilities are so meagre (in short supply). Hence, the genesis of

one of the major problems confronting the agency –“inadequate funding”. The

physical environment which is rocky, hilly, and made up of deep gullies and rivers

103
 especially in the Northern and Central parts of the state, poses a big challenge to

development because it is difficult and such a rocky terrain makes roads construction

very difficult and costly

ii. Untimely Release of the Available Funds: Apart from inadequacy of funds,

inconvenient release of funds to the agency is another challenge hindering the timely

execution of projects to rural areas.

5.9.2 Responses from Traditional Rulers and Community Leaders

Theme I: Rural Development Activities of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau

State The following according to the respondents are the activities of Direct Labour

Agency in the rural communities of Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang Local Government of

Plateau State: Provision and maintenance of adequate infrastructural facilities like feeder

roads construction, construction and rehabilitation of water sources, construction and

renovation of primary education facilities, provision of instructional materials to schools,

construction of drainage systems etc. the below table support the claim of the

respondents:

Table 5.8 Physical Achievements of Direct Labour Agency

Project Length / Quantity

Road Reinstatement 978.7km
Road Maintenance 1,020km
Culverts 443km
Hand Pump Installation 241
Borehole Construction 248

Source: Plateau Development Programme Report, 2018.

Theme II: Description of Direct Labour Agency’s Water Supply Activities in

Rural Communities of Plateau State

104
Direct Labour Agency provides urban & rural water supply. It also engages in treatment

plants for recycling. The water supply activities in rural communities of Plateau State is

captured in the below layout for water supply project:

Booster Station
Collector Well
Booster Station

Overhead Tank

General Habitats of Plateau State

Source: Direct Labour Agency Water Layout, 2017.

The above figure depicts the layout for water supply project in Plateau State. Collector

well, booster station and overhead tanks are main locational construction buildings of the

project. The major part of the layout is transmission pipelines. Pipelines play an essential

role in the supply of water. There are various pipelines such as DI K7, HDPE, Mild Steel

used in this project. Every category of pipelines is categorized by the diameter, thickness

and quality.

Theme III: Description of Direct Labour Agency’s Effort towards Provision of

Educational Facilities to Rural Communities in Plateau State

105
As gathered from our field discussions, a lot of effort has been put to ensure educational

facilities are adequate in mostly rural communities of Plateau State. In most cases, the

former facilities are refurbished and restored to its normal condition. The claim of

restoration to ‘normal condition’ drew our attention to of the traditional leaders to

disagree with the conditions of the facilities. However, there was evidence to support the

claim as stated in the traditional leader’s report.

Theme IV: The Activities of Direct Labour Agency in its bid to provide of

Infrastructural Facilities in the Rural Communities of Plateau State

There is unanimous agreement from the interviewees on the efforts of Direct Labour

Agency on of infrastructural facilities in the rural communities. According to the

respondents, the spread of its roads, water sources, and educational facilities projects has

a great potential to impact on rural infrastructure and thus rural development in the state,

while its challenges are the non- release of funds for their statutory responsibilities as

well as to be able to carry out its mandate. Furthermore, the Direct Labour Agency has

provided roads to 17 Local Governments in the state. One from each district in every

Local Government, totalling 267.3 km. It has provided 5 earth Dams in Langtang South,

North and Mikang all in the southern Senatorial District. It has constructed 5 bridges, 112

surface hand pump wells in the 17 Local Governments of the state.

Theme V: Projects Implementation by Direct Labour Agency

106
 The respondent’s opinion on project implementation is as follows: Project

implementation is strictly contractor-based. The estimates were projected by several

contractors, which are handed over to the agency, the agency thereafter decide on the best

contractor to handle or manage the project and as such making the implementation

difficult which leads of uncompleted as well as abandon project in the communities of the

state.

Theme VI: Beneficiaries Involvement in Initiation, Planning and Implementation

of Direct Labour Agency’s Projects

The traditional rulers of the study communities lament on non-involvement of the people

of the communities especially in the process of project implementation. This is because

the agency prefers the use of contractors rather than the beneficiaries. They added that

they are seldom fully involved in initiation of the project. Their occasional involvement is

limited to the political representatives in the communities. Their reason of doing so is

because of the fact that they cannot reach every member of the communities.

Theme VII: Suggestion to Improve the Activities of Direct Labour Agency in

Plateau State

For effective performance of the agency in the nearest future, the following are suggested

by the traditional rulers:

i. CDD Approach in Project Management: Community leaders were of the opinion

that they (traditional rulers) are accountable to the people and there is need for

decisions to flow from the people themselves. In that way, the needs and aspiration of

the broad spectrum of the community (s) will be anchored.

107
 ii. Adequate Provision of Funds: It was felt by the community members that the

agency lack adequate finance compare to huge capital projects they embarked upon.

This has in most cases led to uncompleted, abandoned and delay in project

completion. Hence the need for government to devote much needed funds to the

agency for effective performance.

5.10 Major Findings.

This section discussed the findings of this research in the light of the analysed data above

which reveal the following findings:

i. There is a positive and significant relationship between provisions of water supply

and rural development by the coefficient of 0.266 with p-value of 0.000, which is

significant at 1% as indicated from Table 5.14.2. It means increase in provision of

water supply will lead to increase on rural development in Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang

Local Government of Plateau State.

ii. That, there is positive and significant relationship between provision of educational

facilities and rural development as shown by the coefficient of 0.48 with the p-value

of 0.05, which is significant at 1%. This means increase in educational facilities will

lead to increase on rural development in Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang Local

Government of Plateau State.

iii. The result from table 5.14.2 shows that there is positive and significant relationship

between provisions of infrastructural facilities and rural development as indicated by

the coefficient of 0.335 with the p-value of 0.00, which is significant at 1%. This

means that increase in provision of infrastructural facilities will lead to increase on

rural development in Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang Local Government of Plateau State.

108
 CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Summary

109
This study attempted to assess the contribution of Direct Labour Agency to rural

development of selected rural communities of Plateau State. This was done by assessing

the available water supply facilities, educational facilities as well as infrastructural

facilities provided by the Agency in the State. Access to water is measured by the number

of people who have reasonable means of getting an adequate amount of water that is safe

for drinking, washing and essential household activities expressed as a percentage of the

total population. It reflects the health of a country’s people and the country’s capacity to

collect, clean and distribute water to consumers. Safe water includes treated surface

water, as well as untreated but uncontaminated water from source such as natural springs

and sanitary wells and protected boreholes. The promotion of positive secured academic

environment hinges on availability of safe educational facilities. Good educational

facilities motivate teaching and learning appropriately than in unsafe conditions of

damaged, lack or non-existent educational facilities. Provision of school facilities is

imperative, but maintenance of these facilities is an important condition to improving

good academic environment. These facilities contribute to school safety, quality teaching

and learning, high staff and students academic performances, and behavioural changes

towards school activities. Good educational facilities stimulate active staff and students’

involvement in teaching and learning processes.

Infrastructural facilities refer to those basic services without which primary, secondary

and tertiary productive activities cannot be performed. In its wider sense, rural

development facilities embrace through feeder road and public health to transportation,

communications the categories of rural infrastructure considered in the study are feeder

110
road, and transport. The result of this analysis shows that there is uneven distribution of

rural infrastructure in the study area; the findings show that there are considerable

numbers of water facilities, educational facilities as well as infrastructure in all the wards,

although there are variation and differences in their number. For example, there is an

over-concentration of these facilities in the two major Local Governments Bassa and

Bokkos while Mikang are predominantly neglected. Population size is an important

factor in rural development, when government provides social amenities; communities

with large populations are usually favoured because it is more economical and viable to

establish them in populous communities with large demands for goods and services that

was the reason why the agency concentrated their activities more in Bassa and Bokkos

than in Mikang because of the population size of the two Local Government.

The result for multiple regression shows a positives and significant relationship between

water supply educational facilities as well as infrastructural facilities on rural

development of the state. This implies that, availability of rural water supply, educational

facilities and infrastructural facilities has impact on the level of rural development of the

study area.

The literature relating to the study was critically reviewed. They include the Concept of

Rural Development, concept of water, education and infrastructure, the effect of water,

education as well as infrastructure on rural development, the role of Infrastructure in rural

development, the needs and impact of infrastructure development in rural communities,

empirical studies, as well as theoretical framework of the study.

111
The study adopted sequential explanatory design. In this method two phase design were

used where the quantitative data is collected first followed by qualitative data collection

(Cresswell, 2009). Questionnaire were administered on the beneficiaries of Direct

Laboure Agency in the rural communities of Bassa, Bokkos and Mikang Local

Government of Plateau State. The state coordinator of Direct Labour Agency, one district

head from the Local Government under study were also interviewed. These was analysed

using thematic analysis The purpose is to use the qualitative result to further explain and

interpret the findings from the quantitative phase The sample size for the study therefore

was 384 respondents, plus 4 person that was interviewed one manger of the Agency and

three district head of the three Local Government under study making it 388. This study

adopted cluster sampling technique for the selection of the Local Government area while

random sampling technique was used on the sampled respondents, both primary and

secondary sources of data were explored.

These were presented in tables and frequencies while descriptive and inferential statistics

were used to analyse and test the validity of the hypotheses. The history,

mandates/objectives of Direct Labour Agency was reviewed, the historical background of

Plateau State was captured. The funding of Direct Labour Agency, its operations as well

as the Agency’s achievement 2011-2018 were identified and discussed. The data

obtained from the field representing the views of the respondents were presented in tables

and analysed using frequencies and percentages. The data centred on the questions on the

bio-data of the sample respondents and the variables used in the study. The views of the

respondents were also complemented with interview. From the data presented and

analysed, the study revealed that there is a positive and significant relationship between

112
water supply, educational facilities as well as infrastructural facilities of Direct Labour

Agency in the rural communities of Plateau State on rural development in the state.

Questionnaire administered and interview sources further revealed that poor quality of,

water supply, educational facilities as well as infrastructural facilities in the rural

communities of Plateau State. inadequate/delay of funds characterized with untimely

release, corruption, CDOs participation is adjudged very poor, attitudinal disposition of

rural dwellers toward project maintenance is a major challenge to the Agency which in-

turn affected the programmes of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State. Therefore, the

prevailing incidence of rural neglect among the people of Plateau State poses serious

threat to rural development and wellbeing to the people of the state and the country at

large.

6.2 Conclusion

The study was carried out to assess the contribution of Direct Labour Agency on rural

development of selected rural communities in Plateau State. Rural water supply education

and infrastructural facilities are central to rural development of rural communities.

Improved infrastructure not only expands opportunities for growth but also help ensure

that such growth is more diffused and equitable. Many state in Nigeria especially in

Plateau State, still have woefully inadequate levels of rural infrastructure, and this is a

major constraint to their rural development. The contribution of water supply, educational

facilities as well as infrastructural facilities seem to have positive and significance

relationship in the regression analysis. This in on surprising looking at the fact that there

are adequate water supply schools and infrastructural facilities in the study area, primary

113
schools, boreholes, feeder road in particular. That is why a large number of students have

to travel less distance to getting water for domestic activities and to school.

The study concludes by suggesting that future researches should be carryout to examine

in more detail the role of Direct Labour Agency on rural development of rural

communities of by laying emphasis on the quality of water, educational facilities as well

as infrastructural facilities rather than quantity, so as to be able to figure out the true

dimension of the development in the rural communities of the state. In order to solve the

identified problem of study, data were collected through questionnaire, interview

documented information as well as observation were carryout. These data were analysed

and the conclusion reached, that budgetary allocations to Direct Labour Agency for rural

development in the state is very low or meagre and that in some cases the agency have

zero budgetary released which actually affected the agency’s performance, that the

beneficiaries of the rural development are not involved in decisions and implementation

of programme of the Direct Labour Agency that are to affect their well-being; that the

Agency have done well in impacting positively on the living conditions of the rural

people in Plateau State; that the traditional top-down model which was inherited from the

colonial masters has failed to impact on rural development in the state, therefore an

alternative model is required (paradigm shift).

6.3 Recommendations

The study shows that rural water supply, educational facilities as well as infrastructural

facilities are very crucial to the rural development of rural areas. Access to these facilities

will greatly improve the welfare of rural dwellers. Additionally, the supply of these basic

114
amenities will go a long way in improving the social life of rural areas. This study reveals

that attention to rural infrastructure is highly indispensable for high level of economic

development in the study area and Nigeria as a whole. Based on the findings of this

research, the following recommendations are made:

i. The Agency should also do more in the area of water supply to the rural

communities of the state by trying to see all the uncompleted and abandon water

related project are completed to the fullest, this is because access to clean drinking

water and sanitation reduces health risks and frees-up time for other productive

activities, as well as increases the productivity of the labour force.

ii. The Agency should constructed more school and the existing once should be

rehabilitated by extending their project to reach the villages not only town and

city in order to reduce the distance students have to travel to school, and more

facilities should be provided for qualitative education

iii. The Agency should do more especially with regards to ongoing feeder road

project by making sure that all uncompleted and abandon road project are

completed as this will go a long way in bringing about economic development of

the state. The provision of motorable roads therefore will help not only farmers in

transporting their produce to markets but also, students who have to travel long

distance every day.

iv. The Direct Labour Agency for rural development should be properly funded by

the government, by ensuring timely released of fund and given free hand to

operate in order to avoid the spate of abandoned projects, the agency should be

115
 under first line charge directly from the Governor’s office, considering the

importance of rural development to the overall national development.

v. There is the need for a paradigm shift from the traditional top-down model of

rural development to the Community Driven Development, participatory

approach to rural development in Plateau State.

6.4 Contributions to Knowledge

The findings of this study provides a basis for the provision of alternative strategies for

implementation of subsequent rural development programmes in Plateau State i.e. the

bottom-up or participatory model which has been jettisoned by policy makers and policy

implementers in Plateau State. An alternative paradigm is required if there shall be any

meaningful “engineering or transformation”, in Plateau State. The findings and

suggestions made in this research are modest contributions to knowledge. The study has

established the need for an integrated community driven development approach to rural

development in Plateau State which is the paradigm shift advocated in this work. The

difference between this proposition and others is that no work has under taken a detailed

study of Direct Labour Agency for rural development in the state. In some cases, where

similar works have been done, emphasis is on rural development programme such as

Agricultural development programmes or cooperatives. This work studied Direct Labour

Agency that have direct impact on the rural people. This is much more encompassing

than just one programme. This is the novelty in this work that has contributed to

knowledge, because rural development is much more than agricultural development or

cooperative societies as indicated in works studied before this one. The study of Direct

116
Labour Agency gives this work a broader perspective of rural development than just

programme that focus on one aspect of development, hence its contribution to knowledge

on rural development in Nigeria.

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Appendix One (demographic information)

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 137 38.0 38.0 38.0

Valid Female 219 62.0 62.0 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

122
 Age

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

18-25 86 24.2 24.2 24.2

26-35 112 31.5 31.5 55.7

36-45 104 29.2 29.2 84.9

Valid
46-60 49 13.8 13.8 98.7

61 and above 5 1.3 1.3 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Married 238 66.9 66.9 66.9

Single 117 32.9 32.9 99.8

Valid
Widowed 1 0.2 0.2 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Bsc/HND 70 19.7 19.7 19.7

WASC/SSCE/Grade II/NECO 249 69.9 69.9 89.6

Valid
None of the Above 37 10.4 10.4 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

123
 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

1 – 10 190 53.4 53.4 53.4

11 – 20 114 32.0 32.0 85.4

Valid 21 – 30 45 12.6 12.6 98.0

31 years and above 7 2.0 2.0 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Famer 72 20.2 20.2 20.2

teachers 179 50.3 50.3 70.5

Valid Artisans 87 24.4 24.4 94.9

Civil servant 18 5.1 5.1 100.0

Total 356 100.0 100.0

Appendix Two (Descriptive and frequencies.

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Your community has constant and regular

356 1 5 4.20 1.118
water supply by direct labour agency.

124
With the activities and intervention of
direct labour agency your community has 356 1 5 4.09 1.094
no shortage of water supply.

The source of water supply provided by

the direct labour agency is close to your 356 1 5 4.12 1.100
community.

There are already completed water project

by direct labour agency, while others are 356 1 5 3.67 1.296
ongoing in your community.

Direct labour agency involves members of

your community at project 356 1 5 4.34 .984
implementation of water supply project.

Overall mean

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Direct labour agency construct

and rehabilitated primary 356 1 5 1.43 .848
schools in your community.

Direct labour agency provided

educational facilities in your 356 1 5 2.26 .948
community.

125
The educational facilities
provided by direct labour
356 1 5 4.05 .089
agency are in good condition
and up to international standard.

Direct labour agency provided

adequate educational facilities 356 1 5 4.21 .043
in your community.

Direct labour agency involves

members of your community at
356 1 5 1.14 .235
project implementation of
educational project.

Overall mean

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Direct labour agency construct and

rehabilitated rural feeder road in your 356 1 5 1.95 .429
community

The rural feeder road construct and

rehabilitated in your community by 356 1 5 1.53 .528
direct labour agency are motorable.

Direct labour agency provided rural

356 1 5 2.10 .493
electrification in your community.

126
All your economic activities in your
community require the use of 356 1 5 1.34 .896
electricity.

Direct labour agency involves

members of your community at
356 1 5 1.42 .224
project implementation of
infrastructural project.

Valid N (listwise) 356

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Remark

The intervention of direct

labour agency has bring about
356 1 5 1.38 .098
socio-economic development in
your community
Accepted

The activities of direct labour

agency has influenced all
356 1 5 1.01 .194
aspects of human life in your
community
Accepted

127
 The social welfare service
scheme of direct labour agency
has improve livelihood and 356 1 5 2.26 .168
solve development problems in
your community Accepted

Direct labour agency

programme has help to
promoting and establishment of 356 1 5 1.58 .802
good standard of living in your
community Accepted

Direct labour agency has help

remove social value and norms
356 1 5 1.20 .524
that are anti-development in
your community.
Accepted

Valid N (listwise) 356 1.49 Accepted

Appendix Three (Correlation Matrix)

Correlations

rural development provisions of Provisions of Provisions of

water supply educational infrastructural facilities
facilities

Pearson Correlation 1 .317** .228** .365**

rural development Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 356 356 356

Pearson Correlation .317** 1 .266** .270**

provisions of water supply Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 356 356 356 356

128
 Pearson Correlation .228** .266** 1 .443**

Provisions of educational facilities Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 356 356 356 356

Pearson Correlation .365** .270** .443** 1

Provisions of infrastructural
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
facilities

N 356 356 356 356

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Appendix Four (Post Estimation Test)

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

Dependent Variable: rural development

F df1 df2 Sig.

1.694 61 340 .002

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the

dependent variable is equal across groups.

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

129
 Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

rural development .286 356 .693 .828 356 .602

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

provisions of water supply .286 356 .201 .691 356 .214

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

Provisions of educational
.325 356 .193 .722 356 .162
facilities

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

Provisions of infrastructural

130
 Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.

Unstandardize
.244 356 .442 .801 356 .351
d Residual

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Model Summaryb

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Durbin-Watson

Square Estimate

1 .691a .686 .680 1.174 1.656

a. Predictors: (Constant), Provisions of infrastructural facilities , provisions of water supply,

Provisions of educational facilities

b. Dependent Variable; rural development

131
Appendix five (Regression Result)
Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Collinearity

Coefficients Coefficients Statistics

B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF

(Constant) .369 .103 3.583 .001

provisions of water
.266 .055 .230 4.838 .000 .900 1.111
supply
1
Provisions of
.148 .061 .040 2.426 .015 .781 1.281
educational facilities

Provisions of
.335 .060 .285 5.583 .000 .779 1.283
infrastructural facilities

a. Dependent Variable: socio-economic development

132
 Appendix Six

Krejcie and Morgan Sample Size Table

Source: Krejcie and Morgan (1970).

133
 Appendix Seven

Questionnaire

Department of Public

Administration,

Ahmadu Bello University

Zaria,

Nigeria,

2019.

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE TO RURAL COMMUNITIES IN PLATEAU STATE

Dear Respondent,

The researcher is a postgraduate student of the Department of Public Administration,

Ahmadu Bello University Zaria currently carrying out a research on the topic

Assessment of Direct Labour Agency for rural development on rural development of

rural communities in Plateau State 2011-2018.

The research forms an essential part of my work towards the award of Master‘s Degree in
Public administration (M.Sc). The research questionnaire is drawn mainly to collect data
or information on certain activities of the agency in Plateau State. Information given will
be solely used for the purpose of this research and will be treated confidentially. Please
tick appropriately the options in the Questionnaire and comment where applicable.
Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours faithfully,

SECTION ONE:

Please tick (√ ) as appropriate

BIODATA

134
1 sex

Male ( )

Female ( )

2. Marital status

Married ( )

Single ( )

Divorced ( )

Widow ( )

3. Age

18-25 years ( )

26-35 years ( )

36-45 years ( )

46-60 years ( )

61 and above ( )

4. Highest academic qualification

Doctorate Degree ( )

First Degree/HND ( )

WASC/SSCE/NECO/Grade II ( )

None of the above ( )

6. How long have you lived/stayed in your Local Government area of domicile?

Below 5 years ( )

5-10 years ( )

11-15 years ( )

16-20 years ( )

135
 21-25 years ( )

26-30 years ( )

31.35ears ( )

36 ears and above ( )

7. Occupation

Farmer ( )

Civil servant ( )

Businessman/woman ( )

Student ( )

SECTION TWO; question relating to hypothesis one.

S/ provisions of water supply by Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State S A U D SD
N A

1. Your community has constant and regular water supply by direct labour
agency.

2. With the activities and intervention of direct labour agency your

community has no shortage of water supply.

3. The source of water supply provided by the direct labour agency is close
to your community.

4. There are already completed water project by direct labour agency,

while others are ongoing in your community.

5. Direct labour agency involves members of your community at project

implementation of water supply project

136
 SECTION THREE; Question relating to hypothesis two.
S/NProvisions of educational facilities by Direct Labour SA A U D SD
Agency in Plateau State.

1. Direct labour agency construct and rehabilitated primary

schools in your community.

2. Direct labour agency provided educational facilities in your

community.

3 The educational facilities provided by direct labour agency

are in good condition and up to international standard.

4. Direct labour agency provided adequate educational

facilities in your community.

5. Direct labour agency involves members of your community

at project implementation of educational project.

SECTION FOUR: question relating to hypothesis three

S/N Provisions of infrastructural facilities by Direct Labour SA A U D SD
Agency and in Plateau State.

1. Direct labour agency construct and rehabilitated rural feeder

road in your community

2. The rural feeder road construct and rehabilitated in your

community by direct labour agency are motorable.

3. Direct labour agency provided rural electrification in your

community.

4. All your economic activities in your community require the

use of electricity.

5. Direct labour agency involves members of your community

at project implementation of infrastructural project.

S/N Rural development SA A U D SD

1. The intervention of direct labour agency has bring about

rural development in your community.

137
2. The activities of direct labour agency has influenced all
aspects of human life in your community.

3. The social welfare service scheme of direct labour agency

has improve livelihood and solve development problems in
your community.

4. Direct labour agency programme has help to promoting and

establishment of good standard of living in your community.

5. Direct labour agency has help remove social value and

norms that are anti-development in your community.

Source: (Abubakar, 2012 & Henry, 2016).

138
 Appendix Eight

Interview Schedule

Department of Public
Administration Ahmadu
Bello,

University of Zaria,

Nigeria.

2019.

The following are some specific questions that will guide data gathering from the Direct

Labour Agency of rural development in Plateau State.

Section A:

1. Date of interview.....................................................................................................

2. Place of interview....................................................................................................

3. Name of the interviewee..........................................................................................

4. Office of the interviewee.........................................................................................

Section B:

i. What are the main objectives of Direct labour Agency in Plateau State?

ii. Can you kindly help us with a list of projects executed by Direct Labour Agency
in the past eight years in the rural communities?

iii. What methods have you explored to encourage communities to participate in the
initiation, planning, and implementation of government projects that affect their
lives?

139
 iv. Looking at the budgetary allocation of Direct Labour Agency, do you think the
allocation is enough for the Agency to carryout it programmes?

v. How would you describe the timeliness of release of fund for utilization and
spending execution of the projects by the Agency?

vi. What are the challenges of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State?

The following are some specific questions that will guide data gathering from the
traditional of the three selected Local Government in the state.

Section A:

1. Date of the interview..........................................................................................

2. Name of the interviewee.....................................................................................

3. Office of the interviewee....................................................................................

Section B:

i. What is the name of your community?

ii. What are the activities of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State?

iii. What aspect of rural development are they engage in?

iv. How would you describe Direct Labour Agency’s activities in the area of water
supply in rural communities of Plateau State?

v. Comment on the activities of Direct Labour Agency in Plateau State as it

enhanced the provision of educational facilities to rural communities?

vi. How could you asses the activities of Direct Labour Agency in the provision of
infrastructural facilities in the rural communities of Plateau State?

vii. What can you say about the projects implementation by the Agency?

140
viii. Are the members of your community involved at the level of initiation of projects
or at the level of implementation of projects?

ix. What suggestion will make so as to improve the activities of Direct Labour
Agency in Plateau State?

Thank you,

Source; Adapted from Abubakar, 2012).

141