1MFG Function 1-6

1MFG // FUNCTION -1 // NAVIGATION
CHIEF MATE (FG) ORALS NOTE

FUNCTION – I
NAVIGATION
1|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

A. BRIDGE MANAGEMENT:
1. Voyage Planning and Navigation for Various Conditions such as in Restricted
Water / Meteorological Conditions / Ice / TSS / Restricted Visibility / Gross of
Extensive Tidal Effect / Ship Routing and Reporting System Criteria.
2. Position determination in all conditions by celestial, terrestrial observations.
Various Publication of modern electronic aids with knowledge of
principles/error/corrections etc. Knowledge of principles of
Magnetic/Gyro/Compass and Master Gyro systems and care of all other
navigation equipment.
B: TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
3. Through Knowledge And Addition Of Collision Regulations / Buoyage
System.
4. Through Knowledge And Application Of The Principles To Be Observed In
Keeping An Effective Navigation Watch (Senior Officer Duties).
5. Assist Master With Command Decision Making Situations On Bridge.
C: WEATHER MANAGEMENT
6. Ability to understand and interpret synoptic chart to forecast area weather
taking into account local weather conditions and information received by
weather fay and weather routing
7. knowledge of characterizes of various weather systems incluiding TRS
avoiding actions in storm centers / dangerous quadrants.
8. knowledge of ocean current systems / tidal calculations / publications
relating to this.
D: CRISIS MANAGEMENT
9. Handling Of Various Emergencies: Beaching, Grounding, Collision /
Assesment Of Damage Control / Emergency Steering / Emergency Towing
Arrangements And Towing Procedures.

Q. PASSAGE PLANNING AS A CHIEF OFFICER?

Ans.
IMO Resolution A.893(21) (See ANNEX 25), “Guidelines for Voyage Planning”, should be
followed. / / SOLAS CH V, Annex 24, “Voyage Planning”.
As a Chief officer, main concern on voyage planning are: -
- Waste management.
- MARPOL Special areas.
- Load Line Zones.
- Cargo Care.
- Expected Navigation.
- Ice accretion / Winter precautions.
- Weather conditions.
- Ocean Currents.
- Safety of crew.
- Management of hours of work and rest period for crew.
- Congestion of traffic areas, for planning of extra manning level on Bridge as per
company SMS.
- Maintenance as per PMS.
- Ballast water management as required.
- Stability of vessel throughout the voyage.
- Security of vessel in piracy prone areas.
Q. ICE NAVIGATION. PLANNING, PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED?

Ans.
The main principle of Ice-Navigation is – “Freedom of Movement of vessel”
- Master and Bridge Team to be well versed with the POLAR Code and ship specific Polar
Water Operational Manual.
- Follow the route recommended by the Ice Superintendent via the Marine Communications
and Traffic Services Centre (MCTS), through the appropriate reporting system i.e. ECAREG
(Eastern Canada Vessel Traffic Services Zone Regulations) or NORDREG (Northern Canada
Vessel Traffic Services). This route is based on the latest available information, Masters are
encouraged to adjust their courses accordingly.
- Mark Ice limits on appropriate charts.

- Plot all floating icebergs position and their direction of drifting and speed.
- Extra look outs must be posted and the bridge watch may be increased, depending upon
the visibility.
- Do not enter Ice if an alternative, although longer, open water route is available.
- Enter the ice at low speed to receive the initial impact, once into the pack, increase speed
gradually to maintain headway and control of the ship.
- The vessel should be at right angles to the edge of the pack ice at entry to avoid glancing
blows.
Figure : Correct Approach to Ice Field: Reduced Speed and Perpendicular to Edge
- Be prepared to go “Full Astern” at any time.
- The point of entering the ice must be chosen carefully, preferably in an area of lower ice
concentration.
- Navigation in pack ice after dark should not be attempted without high-power searchlights
which can be controlled easily from the bridge, If poor visibility encounters, heave to in the
ice and keep the propeller turning slowly as it is less susceptible to ice damage than if it
were completely stopped.

- Follow open water patches and lighter ice areas even if initially it involves large deviation of
course.
- Avoid turning in heavy ice, seek lighter ice or open water pools.
- Backing in ice is a dangerous manoeuvre as it exposes the most vulnerable parts of the
ship, the rudder and propeller, to the ice. It should only be attempted when absolutely
necessary.
Figure : Backing onto Ice: Rudder Amidships. Dead Slow Astern.
- Berthing: Flushing out ice with wash while bow is fixed with a spring line

Once the ship is secured, all efforts must be made to keep the ship alongside and not to allow
ice to force its way between the ship and the dock.
- Keep the engines on standby at river berths or strong tidal areas where ice is in motion.
- Mariners are advised not to rely solely on Radar for the detection of icebergs, as it is not
certain that Radar will detect all types and sizes of ice and it will not differentiate old ice from
first year ice.
- Full rudder is used in emergency only. Violent rudder movement may swing the stern into
ice and damage the propeller.
- On deck, all the pipelines are drained and isolated.
- Keep the damage control gear ready – cement, collision mats etc.
- Check heating systems of machinery and accommodation regularly.
- Ship stopped in ice inshore, must always point seaward.
- Ship should monitor the updated routing instructions from the Canadian Coast Guard Ice
Operations Centers.
Q. SIGN OF ICE IN THE VICINITY?

Ans.
When steaming through open water, it may be possible to detect the approach of ice by the
following signs:
1. Ice blink: this is a fairly reliable sign and may be the first indication that an ice field is in
the vicinity. It can usually be seen for some time before the ice itself is visible and
appears as a luminous reflection on the underside of the clouds above the ice. Its
clarity is increased after a fresh snowfall. On clear days, ice blink is less apparent but
may appear as a light or yellowish haze which would indicate the presence of ice. Ice
blink can sometimes be detected at night, either from the reflection of moonlight, or
from the ambient starlight in clear weather.
2. The sighting of small fragments of ice often indicates that larger quantities are not far
away.
3. Abrupt moderation of the sea and swell occur when approaching an ice field from
leeward.
4. In northern areas, and in Labrador and Newfoundland, the onset of fog often indicates
the presence of ice in the vicinity.
Q. WHAT ARE THE EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR HIGH LATTITUDE

NAVIGATION, AS PER SOLAS / POLAR CODE?
Ans.
- Two Radars.
- Two Gyro compass.
- Two echo sounders, each with an independent transducer, OR,
One echo sounder with two separate independent transducers.
- As per SOLAS CH V/22, a clear view astern.
- Two search lights with two spare lamps.
- A weather facsimile receiver and a spare antenna.
- One GNSS compass.
Q. WHAT IS POLAR CODE AND POLAR WATER OPERATION MANUAL?

Ans.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted the International Code for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code), and related amendments to the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) chapter XIV “Safety measures for ships
operating in polar waters” to make it mandatory, Because it contains both safety and
environment related provisions, the Polar Code will be mandatory under both SOLAS and the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
entry into force of the SOLAS amendments is 1 January 2017.
The Polar Code highlights the potential hazards of operating in polar regions, including ice,
remoteness and rapidly changing and severe weather conditions, and provides goals and
functional requirements in relation to ship design, construction, equipment, operations,
training, and search and rescue, relevant to ships operating in Arctic and Antarctic waters.
The code required a POLAR WATER OPERATION MANUAL (PWOM), to provide the owner,
operator, master and crew with sufficient information regarding the ship's operational
capabilities and limitations in order to support their decision-making process.

Q. What is egg diagram?

Ans. Egg diagram is used in the ice charts to represent the amount of ice in the area, types
of ice and age of the ice in the area covered by the ice chart. It is called egg diagram
because of the oval shape in which the diagram is represented.
Q. HOW WILL A MAGNETIC COMPASS BEHAVE AT THE NORTH POLE?

Ans.
The magnetic compass depends on the horizontal component of the magnetic field of the
earth. As the north magnetic pole is approached, the horizontal component becomes
progressively weaker, making the compass unusable and behave erratic. The magnetic
compass will not settle unless the ship remains on the same heading for a prolonged period.
A magnetic compass needle tries to align itself with the magnetic field lines. However, at
(and near) the magnetic poles, the fields of force are vertically converging on the region (the
inclination (I) is near 90 degrees and the horizontal intensity (H) is weak). The strength and
direction tend to "tilt" the compass needle up or down into the Earth. This causes the needle
to "point" in the direction where the compass is tilted regardless of the compass direction,
rendering the compass useless.

Q. EFFECT ON GYRO COMPASS IN HIGHER LATTITUDE?

Ans.
Speed error is an error generated when a vessel in which gyrocompass is installed transits a
course other than east or west. Its value is determined, depending on the ship’s speed,
course and latitude. The north seeking tendency of a gyro compass is based on the earth’s
rotation. When a ship sails, the resultant motion of the ship’s motion and the earth’s rotation
acts on the north seeking tendency of the gyro. If the course of the ship deviates towards the
north or south, the direction of the resultant motion deviates north or south and thus an error
occurs because, the north seeking force of the gyro acts perpendicular to this resultant
motion.
Lat adjust become critical speed error increase due to decrease of rotational speed of earth.
Ballastic deflection increase compass is slow to response to corrective forces gyro become
use less after 85° lat damping error is equal to tan lat. Gyro continuously loose her horizontal
force after 85°.
Q. TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS / STREAMS? VARIOUS DEFINATIONS ON

TIDES?
Ans.
TIDES are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea due to differences in the attractive
forces of the Moon and Sun, upon different parts of the rotating earth.
TIDAL CURRENTS are the periodic horizontal flow of water accompanying the rise and fall of
the tide.
Tide rises and falls. Tidal current floods and ebbs.
EBB CURRENT: -The horizontal movement of water away from shore following a high tide
or downstream.
FLOOD CURRENT: - The horizontal movement of water toward shore following low tide or
upstream.
RANGE OF TIDE: - The difference in height between consecutive high and low water.
SPRING TIDES: - Tides that occur at times of New and Full Moon (Sun and Moon are in
Conjunction and at Opposition with the earth).
NEAP TIDES: - Tides that occur at times of First and Last Quarters (Sun and Moon are in
Quadrature with the earth).
PERIGIAN TIDE: - Occurs when the moon is at the point in its orbit nearest the earth.The
lunar semidiurnal range is increased.
APOGEAN TIDE: - Occurs when the moon is at the point in its orbit farthest the earth.
The lunar semidiurnal range is decreased.
BORE TIDE: - The "bore" is a tidal phenomenon in which the leading edge of the
incoming tide clashes with the flow of the outgoing tide to form a wave that travels up a river
or narrow bay. The bore can only occur in long, narrow channels.
A tidal bore occurs along a coast where a river empties into an ocean or sea. A tidal bore is a
strong tide that pushes up the river, against the current. A tidal bore is a true tidal wave.
A tidal bore is a surge. A surge is a sudden change in depth. When a channel suddenly gets
deeper, it experiences a positive surge. When a channel suddenly gets shallower, it
experiences a negative surge. Tidal bores are positive surges.
Tidal window: - A tidal window is the time span in which the tidal elevation is high enough
for a vessel to pass.
MEAN HIGH WATER SPRINGS (MHWS): - Average level of high waters that occur at the
times of spring tides.
MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW): - The average height of all high waters over a 19-year period.
MEAN HIGH WATER NEAPS (MHWN): - Average height of the high waters of the neap
tides.
MEAN LOW WATER NEAPS (MLWN): - Average height of the low waters of the neap tides.
MEAN LOW WATER (MLW): - The average height of all low waters at a given place.
MEAN LOW WATER SPRINGS (MLWS): - Average level of low waters that occur at the
times of spring tides.
10 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. WHAT IS SHIP ROUTING SYSTEM / CRITERIA?

Ans.
SOLAS CH V / REG.10 // IMO Resoln. 572(14).
- Ship routing system contributes to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation
and/or protection of marine environment. Ship routing systems are recommended to use by,
or may be made mandatory for all ships, certain category of ships or ships carrying certain
cargoes, when adopted and implemented in accordance with the guidelines and criteria
developed by the organization.
- The organization is recognized as the only international body for developing guidelines,
regulations and criteria on an international level for ship routing system.
- All adopted ship routing system shall be consistent with international law, including the
relevant provisions of United Nation Convention on the Laws of the sea (UNCLOS).
CRITERIA / PURPOSE / OBJECTIVES: -
- The purpose of the ship routing system is to improve the safety of navigation in converging
areas and in areas where the density of traffic is great or where the freedom of movement of
shipping is inhibited by restricted sea room, the existence of obstruction to navigation,
limited depths or unfavorable meteorological conditions.
- The precise objectives of any routing system are: -
- the separation of opposing stream of traffic so as to reduce the incidence of head on

encounters.
- the reduction of dangers of collision between crossing traffic and shipping in established
traffic lane.
- the simplication of pattern of traffic flow in converging areas.
- the organization of safe traffic flow in areas of concentrated offshore exploration or

exploitation.
- the organization of traffic flow so as to avoid areas where navigation by all ships or
certain classes of ships is dangerous or undesirable.
- the reduction of risk of grounding by providing special guidance to deep draught vessels
in areas where water depths are uncertain or critical.
- the guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or the organization of traffic through
fishing grounds.
Q. WHAT IS WEATHER ROUTING SYSTEM?

Ans.
Weather conditions can also affect ship’s navigation. In 1983 IMO adopted Resoln.
A.528(13), recommendation on weather routing, in which ships are provided with optimum
routes to avoid bad weather.
Ship weather routing develops an optimum track for ocean voyages based on forecasts of
weather, sea conditions, and a ship’s individual characteristics for a particular transit.
Within specified limits of weather and sea conditions, the term optimum is used to mean
maximum safety and crew comfort, minimum fuel consumption, minimum time underway, or
any desired combination of these factors.
The benefits of ship weather routing services are primarily in time and cost reductions and
increased safety
Weather routeing has been classified into 3 types: -
Climatological Routeing: is following the standard route recommended for a particular

season. Such routes are described in the Ocean Passages of the World, Admiralty Sailing
Directions and Routeing Charts.
For this type of routeing the best value obtained is some trade wind areas and in the Indian
Ocean and South China sea when the occurrence and behavior of the monsoon are very
regular. For most other regions, weather over short periods does not always confirm to the
seasonal pattern which after all is only an average.
Strategic Routeing: is planned for one particular voyage. It is based on the latest weather
analysis; 3 to 5 day forecast chart. Some idea of the further outlook and seasonal
probabilities are also taken into consideration.
An important consideration in route selection is the location of the track along which the
storm tracks, rather than the displacement of the storm along the track.
Tactical Routeing: is described as making temporary departure from the route planned and
is made according to developments in the synoptic situation. It is based on weather maps,
wave height analysis and prognosis, 12 to 24 hours forecast, gale warnings etc.

Q. WORLD ROUTIENG CHARTS AND CONTENTS OF SHIP ROUTINE GUIDE?

Ans.
ROUTEING CHARTS: -
These charts are essential for use in passage planning for ocean voyages. They include
routes and distances between major ports, ocean currents, load line zones, ice limits and
wind roses with expected meteorological and oceanographic conditions for each month of
the year.
9 areas with 12 charts each, total of 108 charts.
- North Atlantic Ocean

- South Atlantic Ocean
- North Pacific Ocean
- South Pacific Ocean
- Arabian & Red Sea
- Gulf of Mexico & Caribbean Sea
- Mediterranean & Black Sea
- Malacca to Marshal Islands
- Indian Ocean
CONTENTS OF SHIP ROUTING GUIDE: -
PART A – General, Design criteria and Symbols.

PART B – Traffic Separation Scheme.
PART C – Deep Water Routes.
PART D – Areas to Be Avoided.
PART E – Other Routing measures.
PART F – Associated Rules & Recommendations.

Q. WHAT IS A WIND ROSE?
Ans.
Wind rose is graphical depiction of wind data as regard to direction and force of wind likely
to be encountered in an area, in a particular period of month.
With the help of the wind rose, it can be known at a glance the likelihood of encountering
wind from a particular direction at a given force.
Wind roses are shown in red on routeing charts, in the form a circle having arrows pointing
radially towards center. The arrows fly with the wind, and this fact provides the direction.
The length of the arrow indicates the percentage frequency of occurrence on the scale
provided on the chart.
The thickness of the arrow indicates the wind force.

The circle also encloses 3 figures, place one above the other.
The top figure represents the total number of observations. Middle figure represents the
%age frequency of variable winds encountered. And the bottom figure is indicative of %age
frequency of calms.
Q. Use of Admiralty Sailing Directions?
Ans.
Published in 75 volumes, are published every two, three or five years’ interval. (R2, R3 & R5
can be obtained from admiralty catalogue.).
covering all the navigable waters of the world and complementary to ADMIRALTY charts and
other nautical publications. The pilot provides comprehensive information on navigational
hazards, buoyage systems, pilotage, regulations, general notes on the countries, port
facilities, seasonal currents, ice and climatic conditions.

Q. WHAT IS SHIP REPORTING SYSTEM / CRITERIA?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / REGLN 11 // IMO Resoln. A.851 (20) // Special edition of Indian Notice to
Mariner No.8
- Ship Reporting Systems, contributes to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation and/or protection of marine environment. A ship reporting system, when adopted
and implemented in accordance with the guidelines and criteria developed by the
organization, shall be used by all ships or ships carrying certain cargoes.
- The organization is recognized as the only international body for developing, guidelines,
criteria and regulations on an international level for ship reporting system.
- All adopted ship reporting system shall be in consistent with international law, including
relevant provisions of the UNCLOS.
- The Master of a ship shall comply with the requirements of adopted Ship reporting system
and report to the appropriate authority, all information required in accordance with the
provisions of each such system.
CRITERIA: -
a. Report could contain only information essential to achieve the objective of the system.
b. Report should be simple and use the standard international ships reporting format and
procedures as prescribed in IMO Resoln. A.851(20) and Special edition of Indian Notice to
Mariner No.8.
c. The number of reports should kept to a minimum.
d. No charge should be made for communication of reports.
e. Safety or pollution related reports should be made without delay, however, the time and
place of making non-urgent reports should be sufficiently flexible to avoid interference with
essential navigational duties.
f. Information obtained from the system should be made available to other systems when
required for distress, safety and pollution purposes.

g. Basic information – ship particulars, on board facilities and equipment, etc should be
reported once, be retained in the system and updated by the ship when changes occur in the
basic information reported.
h. The purpose of the system should be clearly defined.
i. Government should ensure that shore establishments responsible for operation of the
system are manned by properly trained persons.
Q. WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT INDIAN SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS?
Ans.
MS Notice No. 07/2010: - Ship Reporting System in Indian Waters.
INDSAR: -
-INDSAR is a supplementary and an advanced computerized ship reporting system,

designed to contribute to the safety of life and timely SAR operation at sea.
-This system is operated and maintained by Indian Coast Guard through their Maritime
Rescue Coordination System (MRCC) at Mumbai.
-All Indian ships of 100 GRT and above entering into or transiting through the Indian Search
and Rescue Region (ISRR) shall participate in the INDSAR reporting system.
-All ships other than Indian ships of 300 GRT and above are encouraged to participate in this
reporting system.
-The format of the report or reports shall confirm to the ship reporting guidelines as
prescribed in IMO Resoln. A.851(20) and special Notice to Mariner No.8.
INSPIRES (Indian Ship Position & Information System: -
-In order to exercise effective open ocean vessel management, to provide security to all
vessels, weather forecast to enhance safety of navigation and monitor incident of pollution
from ships engaged in carriage of hazardous cargoes, The Indian Navy in coordination with
DG Shipping established an Indian Ship Position & Information System (INSPIRES).

-This system has wider area of coverage in the Indian Ocean. The main objective of the
system is open ocean vessel management for security of all vessels navigating in the Arabian
sea / Bay of Bengal.
-An Indian Naval Communication Centre at Mumbai & Vishakhapatnam are functioning as the
shore station for receiving INSPIRES messages from all vessels.
-All Indian vessels including coastal / fishing vessels of 300 GRT and above shall participate
in the system.
-All vessels other than Indian ships of 100 GRT and above are encouraged to participate in
the system.
-The format of the report or reports shall confirm to the ship reporting guidelines as
prescribed in IMO Resoln. A.851(20) and special Notice to Mariner No.8.
Q. WHAT IS VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES (VTS) AS PER SOLAS. FUNCTIONS

OF A VTS?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / REGLN 12 // IMO Resoln. A.857(20)
1. Vessel traffic services (VTS) contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation and protection of the marine environment, adjacent shore areas, work sites
and offshore installations from possible adverse effects of maritime traffic.
2. Contracting Governments undertake to arrange for the establishment of VTS where, in

their opinion, the volume of traffic or the degree of risk justifies such services.
3. Contracting Governments planning and implementing VTS shall, wherever possible, follow
the guidelines developed by the Organization. The use of VTS may only be made
mandatory in sea areas within the territorial seas of a coastal State.
4. Contracting Governments shall endeavor to secure the participation in, and compliance
with, the provisions of vessel traffic services by ships entitled to fly their flag.
5. Nothing in this regulation or the guidelines adopted by the Organization shall prejudice
the rights and duties of Governments under international law or the legal regimes of

straits used for international navigation and archipelagic sea lanes.
FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES: -
At its simplest, the main objectives of a VTS are to:

• aid the mariner in the safe use of navigable waterways;
• afford unhindered access to pursue commercial and leisure activities; and
• contribute to keeping the seas and adjacent environment free from pollution.
in a Port or Harbor VTS a navigational assistance service and/or a traffic organization

service is usually provided for, while in a Coastal VTS usually only an information service is
rendered.’
Amongst the most important functions that a VTS may carry out are those related to,
contributing to and thereby enhancing:
• safety of life at sea;
• safety of navigation;
• efficiency of vessel traffic movement;
• protection of the marine environment;
• supporting maritime security;
• supporting law enforcement; and
• protection of adjacent communities and infrastructure.
Q. STEERING GEAR REQUIREMENTS AS PER SOLAS?
Ans.
As per SOLAS CH II-1, Regulation 29:
- Every ship shall be provided with a main and an auxiliary steering gear system and shall be
so arranged that the failure of one of them will not render the other one inoperative.
- The main steering gear shall be:

a. of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at maximum ahead service speed.

b. capable of putting the rudder over from 35° on one side to 35° on the other side with the
ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running ahead at maximum ahead service speed
and under the same conditions, from 35° on either side to 30° on the other side in not more
than 28 s.
- The auxiliary steering shall be:

a. of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at navigable speed and of being
brought speedily into action in an emergency.
b. capable of putting the rudder over from 15° on one side to 15° on the other side in not
more than 60 s with the ship at its deepest sea-going draught and running ahead at one half
of the maximum ahead service speed or 7 knots, whichever is the greater.
- Where the main steering gear comprises two or more identical power units, an auxiliary
steering gear need not be fitted, provided that:
a. In a passenger ship the main steering gear is capable of operating the rudder over from
35° on one side to 35° on the other side with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and
running ahead at maximum ahead service speed and under the same conditions, from 35° on
either side to 30° on the other side in not more than 28 s, while any one of the power unit is
out of operation.
b. Ina cargo ship, the main steering gear is capable of operating the rudder over from 35° on
one side to 35° on the other side with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running
ahead at maximum ahead service speed and under the same conditions, from 35° on either
side to 30° on the other side in not more than 28 s, while operating with all power units.
- A means of communication shall be provided between the navigation bridge and the
steering gear compartment.
- A low level alarm for each hydraulic fluid reservoir, both audio and visual alarms on
navigation bridge and in the machinery spaces.
- The steering gear compartment shall be readily accessible and as far as practicable,
separated from machinery spaces.
- In every tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier od 10,000 GT and upwards and in every
other ship of 70,000 GT and upward, the main steering gear shall comprise two or more
identical power units, failure of any one power units, steering capability shall be regained
within 45 seconds.

Q. WHAT IS THE STEERING GEAR TEST REQUIREMENT AS PER SOLAS?
Ans.
As per SOLAS CH V, Regulation 26:
1. Within 12 hours before departure, the ship's steering gear shall be checked and tested by
the ship's crew. The test procedure shall include, where applicable, the operation of the
following:
1.1 the main steering gear;
1.2 the auxiliary steering gear;
1.3 the remote steering gear control systems;
1.4 the steering positions located on the navigation bridge;
1.5 the emergency power supply;
1.6 the rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder;
1.7 the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms;
1.8 the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and
1.9 automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment.
2. The checks and tests shall include:

2.1 the full movement of the rudder according to the required capabilities of the steering
gear;
2.2 a visual inspection for the steering gear and its connecting linkage; and
2.3 the operation of the means of communication between the navigation bridge and
steering gear compartment.
3. Emergency steering gear drill shall be conducted once every 3 months.

Q. MAGNETIC COMPASS IN DETAILS? REQUIREMENTS / ERRORS / DEVIATION

CURVE / ADJUSTMENTS / CARE & MAINTENANCE?
Ans.
REQUIREMENTS: -
As per SOLAS CH V, Regulation 19 (Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational

systems and equipments) // ANNEX 13 - requirements for operating, maintaining and testing
magnetic compasses:
All ships irrespective of size shall have: (Regln.19.2.1.1 of SOLAS CH V)

- a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass or other means, independent of any power
supply to determine the ship's heading and display the reading at the main steering position.
All ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall,
be fitted with: (Regln.19.2.2.1 of SOLAS CH V)
- a spare magnetic compass interchangeable with the magnetic compass.

Adjustment of Compasses
Each magnetic compass required to be carried by the Regulations shall be properly adjusted
and its table or curve of residual deviations available at all times. Magnetic compasses
should be adjusted when:
a.) they are first installed;
b.) they become unreliable;
c.) the ship undergoes structural repairs or alterations that could affect its permanent and
induced magnetism;
d.) electrical or magnetic equipment close to the compass is added, removed or altered; or,
e.) a period of two years has elapsed since the last adjustment and a record of compass
deviations has not been maintained, or the recorded deviations are excessive or when the
compass shows physical defects.
Maintenance: -
If a qualified compass adjuster is unavailable and the Master considers it necessary, then
adjustments may be made by a person holding a Certificate of Competency (Deck Officer)
Class 1 (Master Mariner). The compass must be re-adjusted by a qualified compass adjuster
at the next available opportunity.
Adjustments at sea: -
These adjustments are made with the ship on an even keel and after steadying on each
heading. When using the gyro, swing from heading to heading slowly and check gyro error
by sun's azimuth or ranges on each heading if desired to ensure a greater degree of
accuracy
. Be sure gyro is set for the mean speed and latitude of the vessel. "OSCAR QUEBEC"
international code signal should be flown to indicate such work is in progress.
. Come to an east (090°) cardinal magnetic heading. Insert fore-and-aft B magnets, or move
the existing B magnets, in such a manner as to remove all deviation.
. Come to a south (180°) magnetic heading. Insert athwartship C magnets, or move the
existing C magnets, in such a manner as to remove all deviation.
. Come to a west (270°) magnetic heading. Correct half of any observed deviation by moving
the B magnets.

. Come to a north (000°) magnetic heading. Correct half of any observed deviation by moving
the C magnets. (The cardinal heading adjustments should now be complete.)
. Come to any intercardinal magnetic heading, e.g. northeast (045°). Correct any observed
deviation by moving the spheres in or out.
. Come to the next intercardinal magnetic heading, e.g. southeast (135°). Correct half of any
observed deviation by moving the spheres. (The intercardinal heading adjustments should
now be complete, although more accurate results might be obtained by correcting the D
error determined from the deviations on all four intercardinal heading.
. Secure all correctors before swinging for residual deviations.

. Swing for residual undegaussed deviations on as many headings as desired, although the
eight cardinal and intercardinal headings should be sufficient.
Heeling error: -
This is the mathematical representation of the deviation caused when the vessel is heeled to
port or stbd by 1 deg.
This has 4 components:
1. Deviation due to Vertical component of the ships permanent magnetic field. Maximum
deviation in the north and south courses and does not change with latitude or hemisphere.
(Corrected by Heeling error magnets)
2. Deviation due to Induction of vertical soft iron component below the compass. Maximum
on North and South courses but changes in strength and polarity with latitude and
Hemisphere (Corrected by Heeling error magnets)
3. Vertical induction of Horizontal athwartships soft iron as the vessel rolls. Changes in
polarity with the hemisphere. In southern hemisphere, it will be low sided deviation and in the
northern hemisphere it will be high sided deviation. This is corrected by the presence of
Kelvin’s spheres. Maximum deviation on North and South courses
4. Horizontal induction of Fore and Aft soft iron, terminating below the compass position.
Maximum on North south courses and nil on East/West courses.
Heeling error is corrected by the use of Vertical permanent magnets Heeling error magnets
in a bucket placed below the compass. The bucket is attached to a chain and its position can
be adjusted by adjusting the chain. The bucket has holes to vary the number of magnets. At
the equator, the bucket is placed at its lowest position and farthest from the compass. As the
latitude increase the bucket is placed closer to the compass by adjusting the bucket.
MAGNETIC COMPASS CORRECTORS IN A BINNACLE: -
1.THE FLINDERS BAR (Vertical Soft Iron bar in its external tube)
- Compensates for errors caused by the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field.
- Used to compensate for induced magnetism in vertical soft iron.
- Used to remove deviation on easterly. and westerly heading.
- Set while vessel is on heading of magnetic East or West.
2.QUADRANTAL SPHERES (Soft Iron Quadrantal Correctors)
- Used to compensate for induced magnetism ln the horizontal soft iron.
- Used to remove deviation on the intercardinal headings.
- Set while the vessel is on heading of magnetic NE or SE,
3.HEELING MAGNET (Vertical Permanent Magnet in the central vertical tube)
- A single vertical magnet beneath the compass.
- Used-to compensate for both induced and permanent magnetism'
- Used to compensate for deviation caused by the vessel's inclination from vertical.
- Set while the vessel is on heading of magnetic North or South.
4.ATHWARTSHIPS MAGNETS {Permanent C Magnets in their trays)
- Used to compensate for errors caused by permanent magnetism'
- Set while the vessel is on heading of magnetic North or South.
5.FORE-and-AFT MAGNETS (Permanent B Magnets in their trays)
- Used to compensate for errors caused by permanent magnetism.
- Use the magnets in pairs, from the bottom up, with trays at the lowest point of travel.
- Set while vessel is heading of magnetic East or West.
MAGNETIC ANOMALY: -
A marine magnetic anomaly is a variation in strength of Earth's magnetic field caused by
magnetism in rocks of the ocean floor.

MAINTENANCE OF MAGNETIC COMPASS: -
- Condition of binnacle cap for any dents, condition of mirror.

- Illumination from main & emergency source. Dimming arrangements.
- Condition of Canvas.
- Ensure compass is free from bubbles.
- Gimble arrangement is free in all direction.
- Condition of door, free to open, not stuck due to rust or paint.
- Heeling magnetic bucket ok.
- There should not be any dust inside the binnacle.
- Apply varnish to any wooden part.
- Soft iron sphere base to check for rust.
- Magnetic compass can be clearly seen from screening position.
- Spare magnetic compass is secure and free from bubbles.
Q. WHY DEVIATION CARD OF MAGNETIC COMPASS MADE ON NORTHERN

HEMISPHERE NOT SUITABLE FOR SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE?
Ans.
Because the vertical soft iron changes polarity, as the ship moves from one hemisphere to
another. The deviation recorded in one hemisphere will change.
The strength and polarity of the induced magnetism will alter immediately as its magnetic
latitude or its orientation in a magnetic field, is changed, the induced magnetism has an
immediate effect upon the magnetic compass as the magnetic latitude or heading of a vessel
changes.
Q. WHY MAGNETIC POLES ARE NOT 180° APART?
The magnetic poles are not stationary. They vary in position on a yearly basis due to secular
variation. The entire magnetic field of the earth undergoes a small daily or Diurnal Change,
and a very slow, progressive Secular Change.
The North Magnetic Pole (based in 2001 survey) was located at Latitude 81.3° N, Longitude
110.8°W, and the South Magnetic Pole (based in 1990 survey) was located at Latitude 64.9°S,
Longitude 138.9°E.

Q. GYRO COMPASS IN DETAILS? REQUIREMENTS / ERRORS / MAKING GYRO

NORTH SEEKING / SPARES OF GYRO / CARE & MAINTENANCE?
Ans.
The function of Gyrocompass Equipment Is to provide an accurate nonmagnetic directional

reference with respect to true geographic north.
GYROSCOPE: -
a device consisting of a wheel or disc mounted so that it can spin rapidly about an axis which
is itself free to alter in direction. The orientation of the axis is not affected by tilting of the
mounting, so gyroscopes can be used to provide stability or maintain a reference direction in
navigation systems, automatic pilots, and stabilizers.
PROPERTIES OF GYROSCOPE: -
- Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in space and,
- Precession
Gyroscopic Inertia, is that property of a gyroscope which causes it to maintain its position in
space irrespective of any movement and to resist any force tending to turn its spin axis in a
new direction.
Precession is the angular displacement of the spin axis of the gyroscope when a torque is
applied to the gyroscope. Hence when a torque is applied to its sin axis the resulting
movement will be in a direction at right angle to the applied torque.
REQUIREMENTS: -
As per SOLAS CH V, Regulation 19 (Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational

systems and equipments)
All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall have, (Regln.19.2.5.1 of SOLAS CH V)
- a gyro compass, to determine and display their heading by shipborne non-magnetic means,
being clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position.
- a gyro compass heading repeater, to supply heading information visually at the emergency
steering position.
- a gyro compass bearing repeater, to take bearings, over an arc of the horizon of 360º

ERRORS OF THE GYRO COMPASS: -

1) Latitude (or damping) error
This error is present in a compass which is damped in tilt. A compass damped in tilt always
settles east of the meridian and above the horizon in NH, and vice-versa. Its magnitude
depends on the observer’s latitude, Sin (error) α Tan (latitude), At equator, the error is nil.
The error is eastward in all northerly latitudes, and vice-versa.
For the purpose of damping error, a latitude rider / adjuster is provided with the gyro
compass which shifts the lubber line equal to the amount of error in the appropriate
direction.
2) Speed Error (Course, Speed and Latitude Error)

The gyro compass settles in the N/S direction by sensing Earth’s spinning motion. Same gyro
compass when placed on a ship also senses the ship’s motion. And therefore, the axis of
gyro compass settles in a direction which is perpendicular to the resultant of the Earth’s
surface speed and the ship’s velocity.
The direction in which the compass settles, is therefore, different to the direction of the True
North and depends on ship’s course, speed and latitude of the observer.
This error also increases as the observer’s latitude increases. The error is westward on all
Northerly courses and vice-versa.
In exactly E-W courses, the error is nil. In exactly N-S courses, the error is maximum.
To compensate for steaming error, a speed rider is provided, which in association with the
latitude rider, shifts the lubber line equal to steaming error in the appropriate direction.
3) BALLISTIC DEFLECTION ERROR

A temporary oscillatory error of the gyro compass introduced when the north-south
component of the speed changes as by speed or course. Change, An accelerating force acts
upon the compass, causing a surge of mercury from one part of the system to another in the
case of the non-pendulous compass, or a deflection of a mass in the case of a pendulous
compass.
4) BALLISTIC DAMPING ERROR

A temporary oscillatory error of a gyro compass introduced during changes of course and
speed as a result of the means used to damp the oscillations of the spin axis.
5) GIMBALLING ERROR
This is due to the tilt of the compass rose. Directions are measured in the horizontal plane. If
the compass card is tilted, the projection of the outer rim in the horizontal is an ellipse, and
the graduations are not equally spaced. For normal angles of tilt, this error is small and can
be neglected.

MAKING GYRO NORTH SEEKING: -

To make the gyro seek the North a mercury tube is added. its effect being applied about the
horizontal axis. Effect of the mercury, are ballistic when applied about the horizontal axis. its
axle to a horizontal position until after it has passed the meridian.
To achieve damping in tilt, the point of application of the control force i.e. torque about
horizontal axis which was due to the top-heavy effect, is offset slightly to the East of the
vertical, resulting in a component of the same force producing a torque about the vertical
axis, the resulting precession about the horizontal axis will ensure that the amplitude of
oscillation is reduced and the gyro finally settles in the meridian.
SPARES FOR GYRO: -
As per Merchant Shipping (Safety of Navigation) Rules, 1997
Spare parts and spare equipment for gyro compass installations (as appropriate for the
equipment in use)
The following items should be carried on ships required by the regulations to have a gyro
compass installation:
- 2 cartridges for each cartridge fuse in use
- 2 dial lamps for each dial lamp in use
- 1 glass, azimuth circle, for each type in use
- 1 glass, pelorus stand cover, for each type in use
CARE & MAINTENANCE: -
- Check repeaters with master gyro, to be sure repeater systems functioning properly, if
required synchronize repeaters. Repeater of steering platform to be checked.
- Check compass by Azimuth observations.
- The speed and latitude correctors should be properly set.
- Check alarm unit by turning switch on alarm unit and noting that buzzer sounds.
- Check all electrical connections to make sure they are tight, clean and free from oil.
- Clean and oil parts as indicated on oiling and cleaning charts in master compass room.

Q. WHAT IS A DIRECTIONAL GYRO?
Ans.
The Directional Gyro is another vacuum driven gyroscope. It looks much like a compass. A
major difference it has with the compass is that it doesn’t rely on the earth’s magnetic field to
operate. When the gyroscope is spinning, it has a principle of remaining rigid in space. That
is the spinning wheel will resist any change in position. The DG takes advantage of that
principle. When an airplane is turning, the gyroscope will resist moving with the turn. The
energy used to resist the turn instead moves the compass card which will indicate the
heading of the airplane. DG’s are used because they are not effected by magnetic
disturbances or have turning errors inherent to the compass.
i. A two-degree-of-
freedom gyro with a provision for maintaining its spinaxis approximately horizontal.
ii. A flight instrument incorporating a gyro that holds its position inazimuth and thus can be u
sed as a directional reference.
Q. AUTO PILOT REQUIREMENT // PID AUTO PILOT + AUTO-ADAPTIVE

STEERING SYSTEM // CONTROL UNITS ON THE PANNEL?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19, 2.8.2 requires Heading Control or Track Control systems to be
fitted to all vessels of 10000 GT and upward. There is no requirement to fit a Track Control
system to any class of ship. Track Control systems include the functional capabilities of
Heading Control systems.
An auto pilot system is a Heading Control system. The autopilot is basically used when a ship
has to steer a set course for a long time without alteration.
There are two types of Autopilot system:
1.PID Autopilot.
2.Auto Adaptive Steering system.
The ship’s hull dynamic characteristics changes due to the load condition, speed of the ship,
depth of water, wind and waves etc. hence in PID auto pilot, the controls have to be re-
adjusted to get optimum steering, whereas in adaptive autopilot, the estimation algorithm is
incorporated so that the optimum steering is obtained without re-adjusting controls.

PID CONTROL: -
This is the combined action of proportional, derivative and integral controls. The deviation
signal has to be generated under the following conditions: -
- when the ship deviates from the set course and
- when the set course is changed.
In both these cases the ship’s heading on compass and set course signals are fed to the
control unit. This unit calculates the rudder angle on the basis of PID control and the set
values of rudder control, yaw control etc.
In the control unit, the Proportional control determines the rudder angle to be used, the
Derivative control takes care of the counter helm to be used and the Integral control
considers the effect of ship’s parameters. Additionally, there is a Filter System for action of
wind and waves.
The output of Control unit is given to the Error Amplifier, which also gets feedback from
rudder. On the basis of these inputs the Error Amplifier works out the order to be given to
rudder via Telemotor system.
Auto-Adaptive Steering System: -
this is an advanced version of the PID control, which adapts to the steering capabilities of the
ship as well as the wind and weather conditions.
Adaptive mode divided into 3 units as follows-

- Estimation unit
- Optimal control unit
- Adaptive Kalman Filter
Estimation unit – here the optimum steering is obtained without readjusting controls. It is
based on Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRACS), which gives desirable specifications
for the control system based on the mathematical model and the gain adjustment to make the
output of control system equal to the mathematical model.it also estimates the ship’s hull
dynamic characteristics.
The mathematical model indicating the ship’s response is incorporated in the autopilot and
the dynamic characteristics are estimated by the changing parameters of the mathematical
model so that the output of this model corresponding with the ship’s rudder angle response.
This system is used for both deviation from set course and alteration of courses.

Optimal Control Unit – consists of the optimal gain calculation unit and the order rudder
angle calculation unit. The optimal gain calculation unit calculates the optimal gain based on
the estimated results of the hull dynamic characteristics calculated by the MRACS, the ship’s
speed and the estimation unit functions.
The order rudder angle calculation unit calculates the optimal rudder angle to be ordered
based on the estimated course deviation and estimated rate of turn output from the adaptive
Kalman unit.
Kalman Filter – in adaptive autopilot a Kalman filter is used by which true and correct
weather adjustment are possible.
CONTROLS ON THE PANNEL: -
RUDDER CONTROL – This control determines the amount of rudder to be used to correct the
slightest amount of deviation from the set course. The setting has to be optimum so that the
ship quickly returns to the set course with minimum overshoot.
COUNTER RUDDER – This control determines the amount of counter action by the rudder to
be used to steady the ship on the set course keeping the overshoot to a minimum. Too low a
setting will allow the ship to overshoot and too high a setting will bring the ship back to the
set course slowly. Hence optimum setting is required.
Generally, the rudder and counter rudder controls work in tandem and their setting will
depend on each other, but the rudder control must be set first and then the counter rudder
control must be set optimally.
YAW – The setting of the yaw control depends on the wind and weather condition and their
effect on the course keeping ability of the ship. In bad weather with strong wind and rough
sea, a higher value should be selected while in calm weather a low value is preferred.
PERMANENT HELM – This control is used when the ship is being driven off course by cross
winds. Rudder angle used should be just sufficient to offset this drift.
RUDDER LIMIT – This control specifies the maximum amount of rudder to be used, when
correcting the ship’s head or when altering course on autopilot itself. For example, if this
value set to 10°, then while altering course using auto pilot rudder will give only 10°helm to
come to a new course.
OFF COURSE ALARM – This alarm is activated if the ship deviates from the set course by a
pre-decided limit, which is fed to the equipment. This limit is usually set depending on the
weather conditions and is higher in rough seas and strong winds when the ship is more likely
to deviate from the set course.

This alarm also serves as a warning in case the autopilot fails and the ship deviates from the
set course by the limits fed in.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AUTO PILOT (RESOLUTION A.342(IX)
Autopilots and heading control systems fitted onboard ships shall meet the following
performance standards:
a. Objective:
- Within limits related to the ship’s maneuverability the heading control system, in
conjunction with its source of heading information, should enable a ship to keep a preset
heading with minimum operation of the ship's steering gear.
- A heading control system may work together with a track control system adjusting its
heading for drift.
b. Functional Requirement:
- The heading control system should be capable of adapting manually or automatically to
different steering characteristics of the ship under various speed, weather and loading
conditions, and provide reliable operation under prevailing environment and normal
operational conditions.
- Means should be incorporated in the equipment to enable rudder angle limitation in the
automatic mode.
- Means should be incorporated to prevent unnecessary activation of the rudder due to
normal yaw motion.
- Any alteration of the preset heading should not be possible without intended action of the
ship's personnel.
c. CHANGE-OVER FROM AUTOMATIC TO MANUAL STEERING AND VICE VERSA:

- Change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice-versa should be possible at any
position of the rudder and should be effected by one manual control within 3 seconds.
- Change-over from automatic to manual steering should be possible under any conditions
including any failure in the automatic control system.
- When changing over from manual to automatic steering the heading control system shall
take over the actual heading as the preset heading.
- There should be a single change-over control which should be located in such a position
that it is easily accessible to the officer of the watch.
d. ALARMS AND SIGNALLING FACILITIES:

- An alarm both audible with mute function and visual should be provided in order to indicate
failure or a reduction in the power supply to the heading control system.
- An off-heading alarm, both audible with mute function and visual should be provided when
the actual heading deviates from the preset heading beyond a preset limit.
- An alarm both audible with mute function and visual should be provided when the heading
information in use deviates from the second heading source beyond a preset limit.
e. Controls:
- The number of operational controls should be such that easy and safe operation can be
achieved. The controls should be designed to preclude inadvertent operation.
- Unless features for automatic adjustment are incorporated in the installation, the heading
control system should be provided with adequate controls to adjust to effects due to weather
and the ship's steering performance.
- Except for the preset heading setting control, the actuation of any other control should not
significantly affect the heading of the ship.
- The heading control system should be connected to a suitable source of heading
information.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF AIS? WORKING PRINCIPLE / AIS MESSAGE /

TYPES OF AIS?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19, 2.4
All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and cargo
ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and
passenger ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with an automatic identification system
(AIS), as follows:
ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002:
- in the case of passenger ships, not later than 1 July 2003.
- in the case of tankers, not later than the first survey for safety equipment on or after 1 July
2003.
- in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and
upwards, not later than 1 July 2004.
- in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 300 gross tonnage and
upwards but less than 50,000 gross tonnage, not later than the first safety survey after 1 July
2004 or by 31 December 2004, whichever occurs earlier; and

- ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not later than 1
July 2008.
AIS shall:
- provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft
information, including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational status
and other safety-related information
- receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships.
- monitor and track ships; and
- exchange data with shore-based facilities.
USE OF AIS IN NAVIGATION & COLLISION AVOIDANCE SITUATION: -
- Collision avoidance must be carried out in strict compliance with the COLREGs. There is no
provision in the COLREGs for use of AIS information therefore decisions should be taken
based primarily on visual and/or radar information.
- The use of VHF to discuss action to take between approaching ships is fraught with danger
and still discouraged. Identification of a target by AIS does not remove the danger. Decisions
on collision avoidance should be made strictly according to the COLREGs
- AIS information may be used to assist in collision avoidance decision-making. When using
the AIS in the ship-to-ship mode for anti-collision purposes, the following cautionary points
should be borne in mind:
a. AIS is an additional source for navigational information. AIS does not replace, but
supports, navigational systems such as radar target-tracking and VTS; and
b. the use of AIS does not negate the responsibility of the OOW to comply, at all times, with
the Collision Regulations.
c. The user should not rely on AIS as the sole information system, making use of all safety-
relevant information available.
d. The use of AIS on board ship is not intended to have any special impact on the composition
of the navigational watch, which should continue to be determined in accordance with the
STCW Convention.

BASIC NOTES: -
- AIS utilizes a unique self-organizing time-division multiple access (STDMA) data

communications scheme, which uses the precise timing data in the GPS signals to
synchronize multiple data transmissions from many users on a single narrow-band channel.
- There are two VHF channels dedicated by ITU for Transmission of AIS data and their
frequencies are
a. AIS 1 – frequency 161.975 MHz – channel 87B and
b. AIS 2 – frequency 162.025 MHz – channel 88B.
- Information provided by the AIS falls into the following categories :-
a. Static Data
b. Dynamic Data
c. Voyage related data
d. Safety related message
- STATIC DATA:
This information is programmed into the system at the time of commissioning the system and
basically consists of – IMO Number, call sign and Name, Length and beam, Type of ship,
Location of position fixing antenna on the ship.
- DYNAMIC DATA:
This information is derived by interfacing ship’s GPS and other equipment with the help of
sensors and mainly consists of – Ship’s position, Time in UTC, course over ground, Speed
over ground, Heading, Navigational status, Rate of turn.
- VOYAGE RELATED DATA:
This data has to be entered manually by the master at the beginning of the voyage and can
be amended at any time as required. It normally consists of – Ship’s draft, Hazardous cargo
type, Destination and ETA, Route plan.

-SAFETY RELATED MESSAGE:
Free format short text messages would be manually entered, addressed either to a specific
addressee or broadcast to all ships and shore stations. The system allows up to 158
characters per message but the shorter the message the easier it will find free space for
transmission.
- The static and voyage related data are transmitted every six minutes, when amended or on
request. Safety messages are sent as needed.
- The update rates for dynamic information will depend on the ship’s status and speed,
according to the following schedule –
Ship at anchor 3 min

Ship 0-14 knots 12 sec
Ship 0-14 knots and changing course 4 sec
Ship 14-23 knots 6 sec
Ship 14-23 knots and changing course 2 sec
Ship >23 knots 3 sec
Ship >23 knots and changing course 2 sec
TYPES OF AIS: -
ITU-R (International Telecommunication Union-Radio communication) recommendation

describes the following types of AIS.
CLASS A
-A class A AIS unit broadcasts the following information every 2 to 10 seconds while
underway, and every 3 minutes while at anchor at a power level of 12.5 watts. The
information broadcast includes:
a. MMSI Number.
b. Navigational status.
c. Rate of turn.
d. Speed over ground.
e. Position accuracy.

f. Course over ground.
g. True heading and time in UTC
- In addition, the class A AIS unit broadcasts the following information every 6 minutes:
a. MMSI Number.
b. IMO Number
c. Radio call sign.
d. Name of the ship – 20 characters are provided.
e. Type of ship/cargo.
f. Dimensions of ship – to nearest meter.
g. Draught of ship.
h. Destination - 20 characters are provided.
i. ETA at Destination – Month, day, hour & minute in UTC.
CLASS B
- Class B AIS is more appropriate for fishing vessels and other small crafts.
- The Class B is nearly identical to the Class A, except the Class B:
a. Has a reporting rate less than a Class A, e.g. every 30 sec. when under 14 knots, as
opposed to every 10 sec. for Class A.
b. Does not transmit the vessel’s IMO number or call sign.
c. Does not transmit ETA or destination.
d. Does not transmit navigational status.
e. Is only required to receive, not transmit, text safety messages.
f. Does not transmit ROT information.
g. Does not transmit maximum present static draught.

IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AIS (RESOLUTION MSC.74(69)
A. Scope:
- The AIS should improve the safety of navigation by assisting in the efficient navigation of
ships, protection of the environment, and operation of Vessel Traffic Services (VTS), by
satisfying the following functional requirements:
.1 in a ship-to-ship mode for collision avoidance;
.2 as a means for littoral States to obtain information about a ship and its cargo; and
.3 as a VTS tool, i.e. ship-to-shore (traffic management).
B. Functionality:
- The system should be capable of operating in a number of modes:

.1 an "autonomous and continuous" mode for operation in all areas. This mode should be
capable of being switched to/from one of the following alternate modes by a competent
authority;
.2 an "assigned" mode for operation in an area subject to a competent authority responsible
for traffic monitoring such that the data transmission interval and/or time slots may be set
remotely by that authority; and
.3 a "polling" or controlled mode where the data transfer occurs in response to interrogation
from a ship or competent authority.
C. Capability:
- The AIS should comprise:
.1 a communication processor, capable of operating over a range of maritime frequencies,
with an appropriate channel selecting and switching method, in support of both short and
long range applications;
.2 a means of processing data from an electronic position-fixing system which uses the WGS-
84 datum.;
.3 a means to input and retrieve data manually;
.4 built in test equipment (BITE).
- The AIS should be capable of:
.1 providing information automatically and continuously to a competent authority and other
ships, without involvement of ship's personnel;

.2 receiving and processing information from other sources, including that from a competent
authority and from other ships;
.3 responding to high priority and safety related calls with a minimum of delay; and
.4 providing positional and maneuvering information at a data rate adequate to facilitate
accurate tracking by a competent authority and other ships.
D. Identification:
- For the purpose of ship and message identification, the appropriate Maritime Mobile
Service Identity (MMSI) number should be used.
E. Information:
- The information provided by the AIS should include
.1 Static:
- IMO number (where available) - Call sign & name - Length and beam - Type of ship -
Location of position-fixing antenna on the ship (aft of bow and port or starboard of
centerline)
.2 Dynamic:
- Ship's position with accuracy indication and integrity status - Time in UTC* - Course over
ground - Speed over ground - Heading - Navigational status (e.g. NUC, at anchor, etc. -
manual input) - Rate of turn (where available)
- Optional - Angle of heel (where available) **
- Optional - Pitch and roll (where available) **
.3 Voyage related:
- Ship's draught - Hazardous cargo (type)*** - Destination and ETA (at master’s discretion)
- Optional - Route plan (waypoints)**
.4 Short safety-related messages.
- The different information types are valid for a different time period and thus need a different
update rate:
- Static information: Every 6 min and on request
- Dynamic information: Dependent on speed and course alteration
- Voyage related information: Every 6 min, when data has been amended and on
request
- Safety-related message: As required
F. Permissible initialization period:
- The installation should be operational within 2 min of switching on.

G. Power Supply:
- The AIS and associated sensors should be powered from the ship's main source of
electrical energy. In addition, it should be possible to operate the AIS and associated
sensors from an alternative source of electrical energy.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF DOPPLER LOG? ERRORS ASSOSIATED TO

IT?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19, 2.3.4
All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall be
fitted with, speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and
distance through the water.
-Doppler log is based on the principle of Doppler shift in frequency measurement i.e.
apparent change in frequency received when the distance between source and observer is
changing due to the motion of either source or observer or both. In Doppler log an observer
is moving with a source of sound towards a reflecting plane, then the received frequency.
By measuring the received frequency & knowing the value of transmitted frequency and
velocity of sound in water, the speed of the vessel can be determined.
ERRORS OF DOPLLER LOG: -
a. Error in transducer orientation-
the transducers should make a perfect angle of 60° with respect to the keel or else the speed
indicated will be inaccurate.
b. Error in Oscillator frequency-
the frequency generated by the oscillator must be accurate and constant, any deviation in
the frequency will result in the speed indicated being in error.

c. Error in propagation velocity of acoustic wave-
the velocity of the acoustic wave at the temp of 16°C and salinity of 3.4% is 1505 m/sec, but
generally it is taken as 1500 m/sec for calculation. This velocity changes with temperature,
salinity or pressure. To compensate the error due to temperature variation, a thermistor i.e.
a resistance whose value changes with temperature, is mounted near the transducer and
change in velocity of the acoustic wave through water from the standard value due to the
change in sea water temperature is accounted for. In modern transducers the angle at which
the beam is transmitted is controlled with the help of phase difference.
d. Error due to ship’s motion-
during the interval between transmission and reception, the ship may marginally roll or pitch
and thereby the angle of transmission and reception can change and for a two degree
difference between the angle of transmission and reception, the net effect will be an error of
0.10% of the indicated speed which is marginal and can be neglected.
e. Error due to the effect of rolling and pitching
the effect of pitching will cause an error in the forward speed but it has no effect on the
athwartships speed. Similarly rolling will cause an error in athwartships, but not in forward
speed.
Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β
Where β is the angle of pitching for forward speed and angle of roll in case of athwartships
speed.
f. Error due to inaccuracy in measurement of comparison frequency
the difference in the frequencies received by the forward and aft transducers must be
measured accurately as any error in this will be directly reflected in the speed of the vessel.

IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR DOPPLER LOG (RESOLUTION A.824(19)

Devices to indicate speed and distance are intended for general navigational and ship
maneuvering use. Although the minimum requirement is to provide information on the
distance run and the forward speed of the ship through the water or over the ground,
additional information on ship's motions other than in the forward axis may be provided.
Devices to indicate speed and distance should comply with the following minimum
performance requirements:
1. The equipment should comply fully with its performance standards at forward speeds up
to the maximum speed of the ship and in water of depth greater than 3 m beneath the keel.
2. Speed information may be presented in either analogue or digital form. Where a digital
display is used, its incremental steps should not exceed 0.1 knots. Analogue displays should
be graduated at least every 0.5 knots and be marked with figures at least every 5 knots. If the
display can present the speed of the ship in other than the forward direction, the direction of
movement should be indicated unambiguously.
3. Distance run information should be presented in digital form. The display should cover the
range from 0 to not less than 9999.9 nautical miles and the incremental steps should not
exceed 0.1 nautical miles. Where practicable, means should be provided for resetting
readout to zero.
4. The display should be easily readable by day and by night.
5. Means should be provided for feeding distance run information to other equipment fitted
on board.
6. If equipment is capable of being operated in either the "speed through the water" or
"speed over the ground" mode, mode selection and mode indication should be provided.
7. If the equipment has provision for indicating speeds other than on a single fore and aft
axis, then the forward and athwart speed through the water must be provided, and the
forward and athwart speed over the ground may be provided as an additional option.
Resultant speed and course information may be provided as a switchable option. All such
information should clearly indicate the direction, mode and validity status of the displayed
information.
8. The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the requirements of
these standards when the ship is rolling up to + 10° and pitching up to + 5°.
9. Where any part of the system is designed to extend from and retract into the hull of the
ship, the design should ensure that it can be extended, operated normally and retracted at
all speeds up to the maximum speed of the ship. Its extended and retracted positions should
be clearly indicated at the display position.

10.Errors in the indicated speed, when the ship is operating free from shallow water effect
and from the effects of wind, current and tide, should not exceed 2% of the speed of the ship,
or 0.2 knots, whichever is greater.
11.Errors in the indicated distance run, when the ship is operating free from shallow water
effect and from the effects of wind, current and tide, should not exceed 2% of the distance
run by the ship in 1 h or 0.2 nautical miles in each hour, whichever is greater.
12.If the accuracy of devices to indicate speed and distance run can be affected by certain
conditions (e.g. sea state and its effects, water temperature, salinity, sound velocity in
water, depth of water under the keel, heel and trim of ship), details of possible effects should
be included in the equipment handbook.
13.The system should be so designed that neither the method of attachment of parts of the
equipment to the ship nor damage occurring to any part of the equipment which penetrates
the hull could result in the ingress of water to the ship.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF ECHO SOUNDER? PRINCIPLE / WORKING & /

ERRORS ASSOSIATED TO IT?
Ans.
All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall be
fitted with, an echo sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the
available depth of water.
Principle of Echo Sounder: -

 Echo sounder measures the depth of water by measuring the time for a pulse of energy
to travel to the sea bed and back and work on the principle of reflection of acoustic
energy.
 Short pulse of sound energy is transmitted vertically down from the ship.
 This pulse having been reflected from the sea bottom returns to the ship in the form of an
echo.
 Travel time (t) taken for its return, depends upon the depth of water (d), and on the
velocity of sound (v) through the water.
 Time taken (t) = (2 x d) / v or d = (v x t)/2
 Performance of an echo sounder system depends on the accuracy with which the
velocity of source propagation is measured.
The velocity of propagation is a function of temperature of water, pressure and salinity. The
velocity is usually taken as 1500 meters/second for sea water at 16°C and atmospheric
pressure.
Working of Echo Sounder: -

 The recorder sends a signal to the pulse generator which triggers a pulse and
simultaneously starts the recorder trace.
 The rate may be between 5-600 pulses a minute depending upon the depth to be
measured.
 Lesser the depth scale, faster the Pulse Repetition Frequency.
 The pulse from the Pulse Generator activated the transmitter which sends a powerful
electric pulse to the Transducer.
 The transducer converts the electric energy into sound energy producing a pulse.
 The sound energy travels to the bottom, hits the bottom and gets reflected back to the
transducer.
 The transducer converts the received sound energy of the echo into an electric pulse
and sends it to the receiver.
 In the receiver, the received pulse is processed and then amplified and sent to the
Recorder.
 At the recorder, the stylus which has been at a speed proportional to the speed of sound,
creates a physical mark on a paper or a visual blip or a digital signal for the recorder.
ERRORS OF ECHO SOUNDER: -
a. Velocity of Propagation in water –
the velocity of acoustic waves in seawater at a temperature of 16°C and salinity of 3.4% is
1500 m/sec. the velocity of acoustic wave changes if temperature, salinity or pressure
changes and since velocity is not correct, the depth recorded will be inaccurate. The change
in pressure has very little effect whereas changes in temperature and salinity influence more
on the velocity of the acoustic wave. The depth can be corrected to true depth from tables of
the velocity of sound in pure water and sea water – Refer NP 139 (HD 282).
b. Stylus speed error –
the stylus is rotating with a certain constant speed and the speed of the stylus is such that
the time taken for the stylus to travel from top to bottom is exactly equal to that for a acoustic
pulse to travel twice the distance of the range selected. Due to the fluctuation in the supply
voltage, the speed of the stylus motor changes hence the depth recorded will be inaccurate.
It should be checked periodically and adjusted as per the instruction given in the manual.

c. Pythagoras error –
This is error is found when two transducers are used one for transmission and other for
reception. The error can be determined by the formula
e = d - √(d2 – x2 / 4)
where d – recorded depth and x – spacing between two transducers.
The error is more dangerous in shallow depth and is negligible when one transducer is used
because the same transducer is used for transmission and reception of the acoustic waves.
e. Multiple echoes –
the echoes may be reflected a number of times between the keel and the seabed, thereby
giving multiple depth marks on the record, in such a case the first echo is the correct depth.
It can so happen that the echo sounder is selected on a higher range than the actual depth of
water. Hence the echo sounder must be started at minimum range scale.
f. Thermal and Density layers –
the density of the water varies with temperature and salinity, which will tend to form different
layers. It is possible for echoes to return from the surface of these layers and a faint line will
appear between zero and actual depth.

g. Zero-line adjustment error –
if the zero adjustment is not correct, the depth recorded will not be correct.
MAINTENANCE –
- Stylus speed is to be checked often and must be adjusted as per the manual. The speed of
the stylus motor is very important to indicate the correct depth.
- Prior to leaving the dry dock, it is necessary to check the transducer to ensure that they
have not been painted and it should be free from grease.
- Carbon dust must be cleared regularly while using the dry paper.
- As per the manual, it must be lubricated as and when necessary.
- Accuracy must be checked with lead line whenever an opportunity arises, like when at
anchor or at berth etc.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ECHO SOUNDER (RESOLUTION A.224(VII)
- The purpose of echo sounding equipment is to provide reliable information on the depth of
water under a ship to aid navigation in particular in shallow water.
- Echo sounding equipment should comply with the following performance requirements.
These Performance Standards are applicable for ship speeds from 0 up to 30 knots.
- Sound speed in water for the purpose of this standard is set at 1500 m/s
- Range of depth: Under normal propagation and sea bed reflectibility conditions the
equipment should be capable of measuring any clearance under the transducer between 2 m
and 200 m.
- Range scales: The equipment should provide a minimum of two range scales one of which,
the shallow range, should cover a range of 20 m, and the other, the deep range, should cover
a range of 200 m.
- Main display: The primary presentation should be a suitable graphical display which
provides the immediate depth and a visible record of soundings. The displayed record
should, show at least 15 min of soundings.

- Pulse repetition rate: The pulse repetition rate should not be slower than 12 pulses per
minute on the deep range and 36 pulses per minute on the shallow range.
- Roll and pitch: The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the
requirements of these performance standards when the ship is rolling ± 10° and/or pitching
± 5°.
- Multiple installations
If more than one transducer is used:
- means should be available to display the depths from the different transducers
separately; and
- a clear indication of the transducer(s) in use should be provided.
- Data storage: It should be possible to record on paper recording or other means the
information about:
the depth(s), and the associated time for 12 h.
- Accuracy of measurement: Based on a sound speed in water of 1,500 m/s, the tolerance of
the indicated depth should be either:
- ± 0.5 m on the 20 m range scale, respectively ± 5 m on the 200 m range scale; or
- ± 2.5% of the indicated depth, whichever is greater.
- Discrimination: The scale of display should not be smaller than 5.0 mm per meter depth on
the shallow range scale and 0.5 mm per meter depth on the deep range scale.
Malfunctions, alarms and indications: -
- Depth alarm: An alarm signal - both visual and audible with mute function - should be
provided when the water depth is below a preset value.
- Failure or reduction in power supply: Alarm signals, both visual and audible (with mute
function) to the navigator on the watch should be provided to indicate failure or a reduction
in the power supply to the echo sounder which would affect the safe operation of the
equipment.
- Operational controls: The function of range scale selection should be directly accessible.
The settings for the following functions should be recognizable in all light conditions:
- range scale; and - preset depth alarm.
Presentation of information: -
- Marks: The graphical display should be capable of showing:

- depth marks at intervals not larger than one-tenth of the range/scale in use; and
- time marks at intervals not exceeding 5 min.
- Paper recording: If paper is used for recording either by marks on the recording paper, or
by other means, there should be a clear indication when the paper remaining is less than 1
m.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF GPS? PRINCIPLE / WORKING & / ERRORS

ASSOSIATED TO IT? WHAT IS DGPS?
Ans.
All ships irrespective of size shall have, a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or
a terrestrial radio navigation system, or other means, suitable for use at all times throughout
the intended voyage to establish and update the ship's position by automatic means.
-The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system which consists of
24 navigational satellites in 6 different orbits that provides location and time information in all
weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of
sight to four or more GPS satellites.
-How position fixing is done by GPS?

GPS uses the ranging principle to fix the ship.
The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of specialized satellites. The
satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized to each other and to ground
clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. Likewise, the
satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well;
however, they are not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites
continuously transmit their current time and position. A GPS receiver monitors multiple
satellites and solves equations to determine the precise position of the receiver and its
deviation from true time. The time difference between data transmitted from the satellite and
its reception at the receiver is measured (which is in Nano-seconds) and integrated with
speed of light (3 X 10 meters per second). i.e. d= s x ∆t
At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown
quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time).
- The GPS satellites transmit signals on two carrier frequencies.

1. The L1 carrier is 1575.42 MHz and carries both the status message and a pseudo-
random code for timing.
2. The L2 carrier is 1227.60 MHz and is used for the more precise military pseudo-random
code.
Why two GPS on ship show slight different positions?

it’s not because their antennas are separated by some distance.
- Each GPS receiver has its own clock which are less stable which means each receiver has
its own clock error and when it solves the equations to determine the precise position of the
receiver i.e. d= s x ∆t where ‘s’ is speed of light (3 X 10 meters per second) and ‘∆t’ is the time
difference(∆t) between data transmitted from different satellites and its reception at the
receiver. ‘∆t ‘varies for each GPS resulting in the different values of ‘d ‘& hence slight
difference in the position.
ERRORS OF GPS: -
a. Ionospheric and tropospheric delay –
the radio waves radiated by the satellite when passing through the different layers of the
ionosphere and troposphere, the velocity of the waves vary which affects the time difference
measurement and the fix will not be accurate.
In case of signals from a satellite with low elevation, the refraction of radio waves will be
more which will increase this error. Hence the receiver is designed not to select the
satellites whose elevation is less than 9.5°.
b. Users clock error –
if the user clock is not perfectly synchronized with the satellite’s clock, the range
measurement will not be accurate and the range measurement along with the clock error is
known as PSEUDO RANGE. This error can be eliminated within the receiver on board by
obtaining the pseudo range from three satellites and is done automatically within the
receiver.
c. satellite clock error –
this error is caused due to the error in the satellite’s clock w.r.t. GPS time. This is monitored
by the ground based segments and any error in the satellite’s clock forms part of the 30
seconds’ navigational message.
d. Geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) –
the geometry of the satellite determines the angle of cut which in turns governs the quality of
the position obtained. Wider the angular separation between the satellites, more accurate is
the fix as the intersection will be almost at right angles.

The lower the GDOP value higher the accuracy of the fix and this GDOP value is indicated on
the display unit.
Since the receiver knows the position of all the satellites through 30 seconds’ navigational
message, it is programmed to select the best available satellites considering their elevation
and geometry.
f. Multipath error –
this error is caused by satellite signals arriving at the ship’s antenna both directly from the
satellite and having been reflected by some other objects. Thus, the two signals are received
simultaneously which will cause the distortion of signal from which range measurement is
obtained. Siting the antenna at a suitable place can minimize this error.
g. Deviation of the satellite from the predicted path –
the satellites are monitored and their path are predicted by ground based segment. However
between two consecutive monitoring of the same satellites, there may be minor drifts from
their predicted paths resulting in small position inaccuracy.
What is DGPS?
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global Positioning

System that uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast the
difference between the positions indicated by the satellite systems and the known fixed
positions. These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudo
ranges and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges, and receiver stations may correct
their pseudo ranges by the same amount. The correction signal is typically broadcast over
UHF radio modem.
DGPS techniques are called the Ground Based Augmentation System and Ground based
Regional Augmentation Systems. Both of these systems broadcast corrections via the
aviation VHF band.
A similar system that transmits range corrections from orbiting satellites instead of ground-
based transmitters is called a Satellite Based Augmentation System.

IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR GPS (MSC.112(73)

- The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based positioning, velocity and time system
that has three major segments: space, control and user. The GPS space segment will
normally be composed of 24 satellites in six orbits. The satellites operate in circular 20,200
km orbits at an inclination angle of 55° with a 12-hour period.
The spacing of satellites in orbit will be arranged so that a minimum of four satellites will be
in view to users world-wide, with a position dilution of precision (PDOP) of = 6. Each satellite
transmits on two "L" band frequencies,
L1 (1575,42 MHz) and L2 (1227,6 MHz).

L1 carries a precise (P) code and coarse/acquisition (C/A) code. L2 carries the P code. A
navigation data message is superimposed on these codes. The same navigation data
message is carried on both frequencies.
- The GPS receiver equipment should:
.1 be capable of receiving and processing the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and
provide position information in latitude and longitude World Geodetic System (WGS)-84 co-
ordinates in degrees, minutes and thousandths of minutes and time in UTC .
.2 operate on the L1 signal and C/A code;
.3 be provided with at least one output from which position information can be supplied to
other equipment. The output of position information based upon WGS-84 should be in
accordance with international standards.
.4 have static accuracy such that the position of the antenna is determined to within 100 m
(95%) with horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP) = 4 (or PDOP = 6);
.5 have dynamic accuracy such that the position of the ship is determined to within 100 m
(95%) with HDOP = 4 (or PDOP = 6) under the conditions of sea states and ship's motion likely
to be experienced in ships.
.6 be capable of selecting automatically the appropriate satellite-transmitted signals for
determining the ship's position with the required accuracy and update rate;
.7 be capable of acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 30 min, when there is no
valid almanac data;
.8 be capable of acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 5 min, when there is valid
almanac data;
.9 be capable of re-acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 5 min, when the GPS
signals are interrupted for a period of at least 24 h but there is no loss of power;
.10 be capable of re-acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 2 min, when
subjected to a power interruption of 60 s;
.11 have a minimum resolution of position, i.e. latitude and longitude, of 0.001 minutes;
.12 When a GPS receiver is equipped with a differential receiver, performance standards for
static and dynamic accuracies should be 10 m (95%);
-FAILURE WARNINGS AND STATUS INDICATIONS: -

. an indication within 5 s if either:
a. the specified HDOP has been exceeded, or, a new position has not been calculated for
more than 1 s.
b. a warning of loss of position.
c. differential GPS status indication of: - the receipt of DGPS signals and whether DGPS
corrections are being applied to the indicated ship's position.
d. DGPS text message display.
Q. WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY “WGS-84”?

Ans.
World Geodetic System (WGS).
GPS receivers operate on the World Geodetic System (WGS) global geocentric
reference system, or datum. It is global because, unlike other datums that only apply to
certain regions, WGS can be used over the entire Earth. It is geocentric because, unlike
other datums that use arbitrary points within the Earth as their origin, the origin of WGS is at
the actual center of the globe. Most military and commercial receivers allow the user the
capability to select the reference datum, but the receiver will default to WGS if none is
selected.
In other words, WGS 84 can be explained as:

WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic
datum. WGS 84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that
describe the Earth’s size, shape, and gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS 84 is the standard
U.S. Department of Defense definition of a global reference system for geospatial
information and is the reference system for the Global Positioning System (GPS). It is
compatible with the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS).

Note:
1. WGS84 is realised by adopting the coordinates of stations around the world surveyed by
Doppler satellite surveying technique.
2. The origin of WGS84 is located at the Earth center with an uncertainty of 1 to 2 meters.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF LRIT? PRINCIPLE / WORKING & / TESTINGS

ASSOSIATED TO IT?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19 – 1
To the following ship types engaged on international voyages.

1. All passenger ships including high speed craft.
2. Cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 GRT and above.
3. Mobile offshore drilling units
The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system is a designated International
Maritime Organization (IMO) system designed to collect and disseminate vessel position
information received from IMO member States ships that are subject to the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).
LRIT is a collection and distribution system for basic information on vessels.

There are two aspects to LRIT:
1. The ‘reporting’ aspect where vessels to which LRIT applies report their identity and
position, with a date/time stamp, every six hours (four times per day).
2. The ‘receiving’ aspect where coastal States can purchase reports when vessels are
within 1,000 nautical miles, or where port States can purchase reports when vessels
seek entry to a port at a pre-determined distance or time from that port (up to 96 hours
pre-entry).
As per SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-1, on Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT)
refers to the requirement for specified Convention vessels to automatically transmit their
identity, position and date/time of the position at 6-hourly intervals, with an ability to increase
the rate to intervals of up to once every 15 minutes when requested. In addition, the
equipment must be able to respond to poll requests.
LRIT users include the following:

 Flag States may request information on the location of their vessels around the world
 Coastal States may request information on ships up to 1 000 nautical miles from their
coasts irrespective of their flag

 Port States may request information on those ships that have declared one of their ports
as destination, irrespective of their location or flag
 Search and rescue authorities.
How does LRIT work?

LRIT Shipborne equipment transmits position information to the Communication Service
Provider (CSP).
 Communication Service Providers (CSP) provide the communication infrastructure and
services to ensure the end-to-end secure transfer of the LRIT message between the ship
and ASP.
 Application Service Providers (ASP) provide a communication protocol interface and add
information to the LRIT message between the CSP and the LRIT Data Centre.
 LRIT Data Centre collects and provides LRIT information to its users according to the
Data Distribution Plan.
LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP) defines rules and access rights (i.e. which users can
receive what LRIT information). The DDP server is managed by IMO and is populated
by SOLAS Contracting Governments, following IMO technical specifications. International
LRIT Data Exchange (IDE) routes LRIT information between LRIT Data Centres according to
the DDP.
When can an LRIT ship turn off its LRIT equipment?

A ship engaged on an international voyage may switch off its LRIT equipment only when it is
permitted by its Flag Administration, in circumstances detailed in SOLAS V/19:
1. Where international agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of
navigational information (WARSHIPS for example)
2. In exceptional circumstances and for the shortest duration possible where the operation
is considered by the master to compromise the safety or security of the ship.
3. When a ship is undergoing repairs in dry-dock or in port or is laid up for a long period, the
master may temporarily stop the transmission.
What exemptions are there from LRIT reporting?

A ship is exempt from reporting if it is-
1. Fitted with an operating automatic identification system (AIS), under 33 CFR 164.46, and
operates only within 20 nautical miles of the United States baseline;
2. A warship, naval auxiliaries or other ship owned or operated by a SOLASContracting
Government and used only on Government non-commercial service, or
3. A ship solely navigating the Great Lakes of North America and their connecting and
tributary waters as far east as the lower exit of the St. Lambert Lock at Montreal in the
Province of Quebec, Canada.
What can LRIT information be used for?
LRIT information can only be used for Security, Safety and Environmental protection.
Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF BNWAS? PRINCIPLE / WORKING

ASSOSIATED TO IT?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19.2.2.3 & 19.1.2.4
The new Resolution MSC.350(92) now clarifies in SOLAS V, Reg.19.1.2.4, the implementation
schedule for the carriage of BNWAS for ships constructed before 1 July 2002 as follows:
 passenger ships irrespective of size, not later than the first survey after 1 January 2016;
 cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards, not later than the first survey after 1
January 2016;
 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage, not
later than the first survey after 1 January 2017; and
 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage, not later
than the first survey after 1 January 2018.
July 2011: new vessels in excess of 150 tonnes
July 2011: all passenger vessels
July 2012: all vessels in excess of 3,000 tonnes
July 2013: all vessels between 500 and 3,000 tonnes
July 2014: all vessels between 150 and 500 tonnes
The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is
underway at sea.
- “The purpose of the bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) is to monitor bridge
activity and detect operator disability which could lead to marine accidents. The system
monitors the awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the
Master or another qualified OOW if for any reason the OOW becomes incapable of
performing the OOW’s duties.
This purpose is achieved by a series of indications and alarms to alert first the OOW and, if
he is not responding, then to alert the Master or another qualified OOW. Additionally, the
BNWAS may provide the OOW with a means of calling for immediate assistance if required.
The BNWAS should be operational whenever the ship’s heading or track control system is
engaged, unless inhibited by the Master.”
- The minimum requirement for a BNWAS under International Maritime

organization standards is to have a dormant stage and three alarm stages, except that on a
non-passenger vessel, the second stage may be omitted.

Stage 1: When the autopilot is engaged, the bridge officer is required to signal his presence
to the BNWAS system every 3 to 12 minutes in response to a flashing light, either by moving
an arm in front of a motion sensor, pressing a confirmation button, or directly applying
pressure to the BNWAS center.
Stage 2: When a confirmation signal fails to occur within 15 seconds in Stage 1, an alarm will
sound on the bridge, and if there is still no confirmation signal after a further 15 seconds, in
the captain’s and the first officer’s cabins. One of them must then go to the bridge and
cancel the alarm.
Stage 3: If neither the captain nor the first officer cancels the alarm within a specified time
period (between 90 seconds and 3 minutes depending on the size of the vessel), an alarm will
sound in locations where other personnel are usually available.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR BNWAS (RESOLUTION MSC.128(75)
a. Functionality:
The BNWAS should incorporate the following operational modes:
- Automatic (Automatically brought into operation whenever the ship’s heading or track
control system is activated and inhibited when this system is not activated)
- Manual ON (In operation constantly)
- Manual OFF (Does not operate under any circumstances)
i. Once operational, the alarm system should remain dormant for a period of between 3 and
12 min.
ii. At the end of this dormant period, the alarm system should initiate a visual indication on
the bridge.
iii. If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the bridge
15 s after the visual indication is initiated.
iv. If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage remote audible alarm in
the back-up officers and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first stage audible alarm is
initiated.
v. If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm at
the locations of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 s after the
second stage remote audible alarm is initiated.
vi. In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms
may sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm is
sounded in this way, the third stage alarm may be omitted.

vii. In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a
longer value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the back-up
officer and/or Master to reach the bridge.
b. Reset function:
i. It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel any audible alarm from any
device, equipment or system not physically located in areas of the bridge providing proper
look out.
ii. The reset function should, by a single operator action, cancel the visual indication and all
audible alarms and initiate a further dormant period. If the reset function is activated before
the end of the dormant period, the period should be re-initiated to run for its full duration
from the time of the reset.
c. Emergency call facility:
Means may be provided on the bridge to immediately activate the second, and subsequently
third, stage remote audible alarms by means of an emergency Call push button or similar.
d. Accuracy:
The alarm system should be capable of achieving the timings, with an accuracy of 5% or 5 s,
whichever is less, under all environmental conditions.
e. Security:
The means of selecting the Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period (Td)
should be security protected so that access to these controls should be restricted to the
Master only.
f. Reset facilities:
Means of activating the reset function should only be available in positions on the bridge
giving proper look out and preferably adjacent to visual indications. Means of activating the
reset function should be easily accessible from the conning position, the workstation for
navigating and maneuvering, the workstation for monitoring and the bridge wings.
g. Power supply:
The BNWAS should be powered from the ships main power supply. The malfunction
indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call facility, if incorporated, should be
powered from a battery maintained supply.

Q. CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT OF VDR & S-VDR? PRINCIPLE / WORKING

ASSOSIATED TO IT?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 20 & Annex 10
- To assist in casualty investigations, ships, when engaged on international voyages, shall be

fitted with a voyage data recorder (VDR) as follows:
i. passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002.
ii. ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than the first survey on or
after 1 July 2002.
iii. passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not
later than 1 January 2004; and
iv. ships, other than passenger ships, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2002.
- To assist in casualty investigations, cargo ships, when engaged on international voyages,
shall be fitted with a VDR which may be a simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR) as follows:
i. in the case of cargo ships of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July
2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2006 but not later than 1 July 2009.
ii. in the case of cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000 gross
tonnage constructed before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2007
but not later than 1 July 2010; and
- Administrations may exempt ships, other than ro-ro passenger ships, constructed before 1
July 2002 from being fitted with a VDR where it can be demonstrated that interfacing a VDR
with the existing equipment on the ship is unreasonable and impracticable.
PURPOSE: -
The purpose of voyage data recorder is to record and store ship’s critical parameters to
facilitate reconstruction of the incident for the purpose of analysis.
It will be used to identify the cause of an incident and thereby make a major contribution in
increasing the operational safety at sea. The benefits earned from this will be –
i. Accident investigation
ii. Response assessment
iii. Training support
iv. Promotion of best practices
v. Reduction in insurance costs.
-A typical VDR should be capable of recording the following information automatically and
maintain a sequential record of the data for at least past 12 hours-
Date & time in UTC, Ship’s position, Heading, Speed, Bridge audio, Radar & ARPA data, VHF
communication, Depth, Main Alarms, Rudder order and response, Engine order and
response, RPM, Echo sounder, Hull opening status, Water tight and fire door status, Hull
stresses, wind speed and direction etc.
- Generally, the VDR may consists of 4 modules. It may also have a replay facility. The
modules are:
a. Data management unit.
b. Audio module.
c. Final recording unit.
d. Remote alarm module.
e. Replay station (optional).
a. DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT –

The job of this unit will be to acquire and process all the data, so that it can be stored in the
specified format. Data from various sources would be fed to this unit, with the help of various
interfaces.
b. AUDIO MODULE –
This module will consist of an audio mixer for recording the bridge audio collected from
various microphones placed in wheelhouse, bridge wings, engine control room and other
critical places. The output of audio module should be protected by a password to protect the
identity of the ship’s staff.
c. FINAL RECORDING UNIT –
This is a crash survival, pressure tight, fir and penetration resistant storage medium to store
the required data. This would be in a form of capsule, resistant to shock, fire, immersion and
deep sea pressure. The ideal location for this capsule is monkey island or bridge wings so as
to provide easy access from outside.

d. REMOTE ALARM MODULE –

This will consist of a small panel connected to Data Management Unit and will generate
audible and visible alarm to indicate any error status of the equipment.
e. REPLAY STATION –
This is an optional module used to download and replay the recorded data.
S-VDR (SIMPLIFIED VOYAGE DATA RECORDER): -
Simplified Voyage Data Recorder (S-VDR), as defined by the requirements

of IMO Performance Standard MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for small
ships with only basic ship’s data recorded. It is not required to store the same level of
detailed data as a standard VDR, but nonetheless should maintain a store, in a secure and
retrievable form, of information concerning the position, movement, physical status,
command and control of a vessel over the period leading up to and following an incident.
Hence, the principle difference between VDR and S-VDR lays in the requirements for
recording of additional data.
VDR & S-VDR: -
The difference between a VDR and S-VDR mainly relates to the number of recording
channels and their characteristics. Both systems require Radar video, Bridge microphones
as well as VHF audio, in conjunction with position data, heading and course information, to
be recorded for a minimum of 12 consecutive hours.
For a ‘full-fledged’ system, the additional compulsory channel to be recorded are expanded
to other shipboard systems like echo sounder, propulsion and steering gear, watertight
doors, fire and smoke detection etc.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR VDR (RESOLUTION A.861(20)
GENERAL
- The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of preselected data items
relating to the status and output of the ship's equipment, and command and control of the
ship.
-The final recording medium should be installed in a protective capsule which should meet all
of the following requirements:
.1 be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure against tampering;

.2 maximize the probability of survival and recovery of the final recorded data after any
incident;
.3 be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective materials; and
.4 be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location.
- The equipment should be so designed that, as far as is practical, it is not possible to tamper
with the selection of data being input to the equipment. Any attempt to interfere with the
integrity of the data or the recording should be recorded.
- To ensure that the VDR continues to record events during an incident, it should be capable
of operating from the ship's emergency source of electrical power.
- If the ship's emergency source of electrical power supply fails, the VDR should continue to
record Bridge Audio from a dedicated reserve source of power for a period of 2 h.
- The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 12 h. Data items
which are older than this may be overwritten with new data.
DATA ITEMS TO BE RECORDED
- Date and time in UTC.
- Ship’s position in Lat & Long, and datum used.
- Speed through water or ground.
- Ship’s heading.
- Bridge audio.
- VHF communications.
- Radar & ECDIS picture data.
- Echo Sounder.
- Main Alarms.
- Rudder order & response.
- Hull opening status.
- Water tight & Fire door status.
- Acceleration and hull stresses.
- Wind speed and direction.
OPERATION
The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation. Means should be provided
whereby recorded data may be saved by an appropriate method following an incident, with
minimal interruption to the recording process.
Q. WHAT IS ECDIS? CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS / ADVANTAGE &

LIMITATIONS OF ECDIS? SAFETY SETTINGS ON ECDIS?
Ans.
SOLAS CH V / Regulation 19.2.1.4

All ships irrespective of size shall have:
- Nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship’s route for the
intended voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage; an Electronic
Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) may be accepted as meeting the chart
carriage requirements of this subparagraph.
- Back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of above paragraph.
a. Cargo ships other than tankers, of 20,000 GT & upwards but less than 50,000 GT
constructed before 1 Jul 2013, not later than the 1st survey on or after 1 Jul 2017.
b. Cargo ships other than tankers of 10,000 GT & upwards but less than 20,000 GT,
constructed before 1Jul 2013, not later than the 1st survey on or after 1 Jul 2018.
‘Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation information
system which, with adequate back-up arrangements, can be accepted as complying with the
up-to-date chart required by regulation V/19 & V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, by
displaying selected information from a system electronic navigational chart (SENC) with
positional information from navigation sensors to assist the mariner in route planning and
route monitoring, and by displaying additional navigation-related information if required.’
ADVANTAGES OF ECDIS: -
1. All chart information necessary for safe and efficient navigation is available at the click
of a mouse
2. Simple, reliable and fast updating of the ENC
3. Reduces the navigational workload as compared to use of a paper chart
4. It enables the mariner to execute in a convenient and timely manner
 Route planning
 Route monitoring
 Positioning
 Real-time position plotting
 Route and waypoint management
5. Real time monitoring of vessel’s position by OOW

 Radar / ARPA can be superimposed for enhanced command action (Anti-collision)

 Anti-Grounding Tool
 Weather and forecast data can be superimposed.
 Ice data can be superimposed
 Log keeping electronic and easy
 Voyage playback possible
 Real time update of chart possible
One of the most important features of ECDIS that makes it a unique aid to navigation, is the
capability of generating alarms (anti-grounding, off route, etc.) based on input from sensors
and analysis of chart information.
LIST OF ALARMS
 Under scale
 Exceeding XTE limits
 Crossing safety contour
Area with special conditions *
 Deviation from route
 Approach to critical point
 Different geodetic datum
 Malfunction of ECDIS
 Information over scale
 Larger scale ENC available
 Different reference system for added
 Navigational information
 Route planning across safety contour
 Route planning across specified area
 Positioning system failure
 Position test failure
*Area with special conditions includes Traffic separation zone, Traffic routing scheme crossing or
roundabout, Traffic routing scheme precautionary area, Two-way traffic route, Deepwater
route, Recommended traffic lane, Inshore traffic zone, Fairway, Restricted area, Caution
area, Offshore production area, Areas to be avoided, Military practice area, Seaplane landing

area, Submarine transit lane, Ice area, Channel, Fishing ground, Fishing prohibited, Pipeline
area, Cable area, Anchorage area, Anchorage prohibited, Dumping ground, Spoil ground, Dredged
area, Cargo trans-shipment area, Incineration area, Specially protected areas.
ECDIS Back-Up Requirements:

The following back-up options are generally accepted as meeting SOLAS carriage
requirements:
1. For ships using ECDIS as their primary means of navigation (no paper charts), an
additional and independent ECDIS shall be provided as a back-up. The backup ECDIS
should be connected to an independent power supply and connected to systems
providing continuous position-fixing capability. When the ECDIS is being operated in
Raster Chart Display System (RCDS) mode using RNC data due to lack of suitable
coverage of electronic navigational charts (ENC), then an appropriate folio of up-to-date
paper charts must be maintained for areas where only raster chart coverage is available.
2. For ships using ECDIS as an aid to navigation, the ship must carry and maintain an
appropriate folio of up-to-date paper charts. The ECDIS should be able to operate in a
normal capacity even when it is connected and supplied by an emergency source of
electrical power. Change over from one source of power supply to another, including any
interruptions in electrical supply should not require the equipment to be manually
reinitialized for a period of 45 seconds.
LIMITATIONS OF ECDIS:
- Too much information on the screen may cause clutter and can be distracting.
- Submenus can be very complex.
- Different type specific ECDIS leads to confusion.
- The size of the chart displayed on the screen monitor is very much reduced compared with
the paper chart.
- Some symbols may be misinterpreted due to unfamiliarity.
- Automatic plotting of position can lead to complacency concerning the vessel’s position
and proximity danger.
- Human error on setting manual settings on ECDIS, of ship’s voyage related parameters for
safety critical settings.
- Over reliance on ECDIS.
- Alarm deafness.
- Anomalies – it could be a simple use of SCAMIN (scale minimum) function, where certain
depths or symbols might not be visible at a particular scale or appears differently.

SAFETY SETTINGS ON ECDIS: -
There are 4 safety settings: -

- Safety Contour Setting
- Shallow contour settings
- Deep contour setting
- Safety Depth setting
a. SAFETY CONTOUR SETTING –

Safety contour is the contour line above which we can navigate without any water depth
concern. It includes the Vessel’s static draught + UKC + Squat.
Safety contour may be set equal to but not lower than the safety depth setting.
The area beyond safety contour is termed as NO GO.
b. SHALLOW CONTOUR SETTING –

Shallow contour value need to be used to tell ECDIS what is the value of shallow waters for
our draft. This is the value of depth below which it is definite for the vessel to get aground.
The shallow contour value need to be equal to or more than the draft of the vessel.
Let us say the vessel’s draft is 9 meters and we enter the shallow contour value of 9 meter.
The ECDIS will display 10-meter contour line as the shallow contour. If 10-meter contour is
not available, it will take next contour as the shallow contour for the vessel.
c. DEEP CONTOUR SETTING –

To indicate the area in which the depth of water is such that own ship may experience squat.
This setting is normally set to twice the Vessel’s draft.
d. SAFETY DEPTH –
This is the minimum depth required for the vessel to safely afloat.
Safety Depth = Deepest static draught + Anticipated Squat + Company’s min. UKC.

But the question is why do we need safety depth settings when we can navigate in waters
above the safety contours? This is because of two straight forward reasons
i. The depth above safety contour may not always be navigable.
ii. The depths below safety contour may not always be non-navigable.
On the ECDIS, all depths below SAFETY DEPTH will be shown more prominently (in Black
compared to others in grey color).
Standard Display is the display mode intended to be used as a minimum during route
planning and route monitoring.
Standard display consisting of:
.1 display base
.2 drying line
.3 buoys, beacons, other aids to navigation and fixed structures
.4 boundaries of fairways, channels, etc.
.5 visual and radar conspicuous features
.6 prohibited and restricted areas
.7 chart scale boundaries
.8 indication of cautionary notes
.9 ships’ routeing systems and ferry routes
.10 archipelagic sea lanes.
Display Base means the chart content, which cannot be removed from the display. It is not
intended to be sufficient for safe navigation.
Display base to be permanently shown on the ECDIS display, consisting of:
.1 coastline (high water);
.2 own ship's safety contour;
.3 isolated underwater dangers of depths less than the safety contour which lie within the
safe waters defined by the safety contour;

.4 isolated dangers which lie within the safe water defined by the safety contour, such as
fixed structures, overhead wires, etc.;
.5 scale, range and north arrow;
.6 units of depth and height; and
.7 display mode.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ECDIS (RESOLUTION A.817(19), Amended by

MSC 232(82)
1.SCOPE OF ECDIS
- The primary function of the ECDIS is to contribute to safe navigation.
- ECDIS with adequate back-up arrangements may be accepted as complying with the up-to-
date charts required by regulations V/19 and V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as
amended.
- ECDIS should be capable of displaying all chart information necessary for safe and efficient
navigation
- ECDIS should facilitate simple and reliable updating of the electronic navigational chart.
- ECDIS should reduce the navigational workload compared to using the paper chart.
- ECDIS should have at least the same reliability and availability of presentation as the paper
chart published by government authorized hydrographic offices.
- ECDIS should provide appropriate alarms or indications with respect to the information
displayed or malfunction of the equipment.
MODULE A – DATABASE
Provision and updating of chart information
- The chart information to be used in ECDIS should be the latest edition, as corrected by
official updates, of that issued by official updates and confirms to IHO standards.
- The contents of the SENC should be adequate and up-to-date for the intended voyage to
comply with regulation V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention as amended.
- ECDIS should be capable of accepting official updates to the ENC data provided in
conformity with IHO standards. These updates should be automatically applied to the SENC.

- ECDIS should keep and display on demand a record of updates including time of application
to the SENC.
MODULE B – OPERATIONAL & FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

a. Display of SENC information
- ECDIS should be capable of displaying all SENC information.
- SENC information available for display during route planning and route monitoring should
be subdivided into the following three categories, Display Base, Standard Display and All
Other Information
- ECDIS should present the Standard Display at any time by a single operator action.
- It should be easy to add or remove information from the ECDIS display. It should not be
possible to remove information contained in the Display Base.
- It should be possible for the mariner to select a safety contour from the depth contours
provided by the SENC. if the mariner does not specify a safety contour, this should default to
30m.
- It should be possible for the mariner to select a safety depth. ECDIS should emphasize
soundings equal to or less than the safety depth whenever spot soundings are selected for
display.
b. Scale
- ECDIS should provide an indication if:
.1 the information is displayed at a larger scale than that contained in the ENC; or
.2 own ship’s position is covered by an ENC at a larger scale than that provided by the
display.
c. Display of other Navigational Information

- Radar information and/or AIS information may be transferred from systems compliant.
Other navigational information may be added to the ECDIS display. However, it should not
degrade the displayed SENC information and it should be clearly distinguishable from the
SENC information.
- It should be possible to remove the radar information, AIS information and other
navigational information by single operator action.

d. Colours & Symbols

- IHO recommended colours and symbols should be used to represent SENC information.
- ECDIS should allow the mariner to select whether own ship is displayed in true scale or as a
symbol.
e. Display requirements
- ECDIS should be capable of displaying information for:
.1 route planning and supplementary navigation tasks; and
.2 route monitoring.
- The effective size of the chart presentation for route monitoring should be at least 270 mm x
270 mm.
- The display should be capable of meeting colour and resolution recommendations of IHO.
f. Route planning, Monitoring & Voyage Recording

i) Route Planning –
- It should be possible to carry out route planning including both straight and curved
segments.
- It should be possible to adjust a planned route alphanumerically and graphically including:
.1 adding waypoints to a route;
.2 deleting waypoints from a route; and
.3 changing the position of a waypoint.
- It should be possible to plan one or more alternative routes in addition to the selected route.
The selected route should be clearly distinguishable from the other routes.
- It should be possible for the mariner to specify a cross track limit of deviation from the
planned route at which an automatic off-track alarm should be activated.
ii) Route Monitoring -

- For route monitoring the selected route and own ship's position should appear whenever
the display covers that area.
- It should be possible to display a sea area that does not have the ship on the display (e.g.
for look ahead, route planning), while route monitoring. If this is done on the display used for
route monitoring, the automatic route monitoring functions (e.g. updating ship’s position,
and providing alarms and indications) should be continuous. It should be possible to return

to the route monitoring display covering own ship's position immediately by single operator
action.
- An alarm and Indication will come when:
i. Own ship crosses a safety contour, as selected by mariner.
ii. if within a specified time set by the mariner, own ship will cross the boundary of a
prohibited area or of a geographical area for which special conditions exist.
iii. when inputs from position, heading or speed sources is lost.
- It should be possible to enter the geographical co-ordinates of any position and then display
that position on demand.
- ECDIS should indicate discrepancies between the positions obtained by continuous
positioning systems and positions obtained by manual observations.
iii) Voyage Recording –
- ECDIS should store and be able to reproduce the previous 12 hours data. The following
data should be recorded at 1 minute intervals: -
.1 to ensure a record of own ship's past track: time, position, heading, and speed; and
.2 to ensure a record of official data used: ENC source, edition, date, cell and update history.
- In addition, ECDIS should record the complete track for the entire voyage, with time marks
at intervals not exceeding 4 hours.
- It should not be possible to manipulate or change the recorded information.
g) Calculation & Accuracy –

- The system should be capable of performing and presenting the results of at least the
following calculations:
.1 true distance and azimuth between two geographical positions;
.2 geographic position from known position and distance/azimuth; and
.3 geodetic calculations such as spheroidal distance, rhumb line, and great circle.
h) Performance Tests, Malfunctions Alarms & Indications –

- ECDIS should be provided with means for either automatically or manually carrying out on-
board tests of major functions. In case of a failure, the test should display information to
indicate which module is at fault.
- ECDIS should provide a suitable alarm or indication of system malfunction.

i) Back up Arrangements –
- Adequate back-up arrangements should be provided to ensure safe navigation in case of an
ECDIS failure.
.1 Facilities enabling a safe take-over of the ECDIS functions should be provided in order to
ensure that an ECDIS failure does not develop into a critical situation.
.2 A back-up arrangement should provide means of safe navigation for the remaining part of
a voyage in the case of an ECDIS failure.
MODULE C – INTERFACING & INTEGRATION

a. Connection with other equipment –
- ECDIS should not degrade the performance of any equipment providing sensor inputs, nor
should the equipment degrade the performance of ECDIS.
- ECDIS should be connected to the ship's position fixing system, to the gyro compass and to
the speed and distance measuring device.
b. Power Supply –
- It should be possible to operate ECDIS and all equipment necessary for its normal
functioning when supplied by an emergency source of electrical power in accordance with
the appropriate requirements of chapter II-1 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended.
Q. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF RADAR EQUIPMENT? WHAT IS ASPECT?

IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF RADAR AND ARPA? SOLAS
REQUIREMENTS?
Ans.
Carriage Requirements for RADAR & ARPA: -
- As per SOLAS CH V, Reg. 19.2.3, All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and
passenger ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with, a 9 GHz radar, or other means to
determine and display the range and bearing of radar transponders and of other surface
craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in
collision avoidance;

an electronic plotting aid (EPA), or other means, to plot electronically the range and
bearing of targets to determine collision risk.
(*EPA equipment enables electronic plotting of at least 10 targets, but without automatic
tracking.)
- As per SOLAS CH V, Reg. 19.2.7, All ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards shall be
fitted with, a 3 GHz radar or where considered appropriate by the Administration a second
9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface
craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in
collision avoidance.
a second automatic tracking aid, or other means to plot automatically the range and
bearing of other targets to determine collision risk.
(*Automatic Tracking Aid (ATA): ATA equipment enables manual acquisition and automatic
tracking and display of at least 10 targets.)
- As per SOLAS CH V, Reg. 19.2.8, All ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall be
fitted with, an automatic radar plotting aid (ARPA), or other means, to plot automatically the
range and bearing of at least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed and
distance through the water, to determine collision risks and simulate a trial manoeuvre.
Limitations of Radar equipment are –

a. Range Discrimination: -
- Is the ability of a Radar set to clearly distinguish two small targets, on the same bearing &
slightly different ranges, as two separate targets on the PPI. The factor that governs this, is
the Pulse length which causes all paint to expand radially outwards by ½ PL in meters.
- Considering the two small targets that are on the same bearing & close to each other, the
paint of the nearest target would expand towards the other, on the PPI by ½ PL in meters. If
the distance between two targets is equal to or less than ½ PL, their paints on PPI will merge
and shows as one single target.
- As per IMO Performance standards, the radar system should be capable of displaying two
point targets on the same bearing, separated by 40 m in range, as two distinct objects.

b. Bearing Discrimination: -
- Is the ability of a Radar set to clearly distinguish two targets, on the same range and slightly
different bearings, as two separate targets on the PPI. The governing factor is the Horizontal
Beam Width (HBW) of the set.
- HBW causes all targets on the PPI to expand in azimuth by ½ HBW on either side. The paints
of the two targets, on the same range & slightly different bearing would therefore, expands
towards each other by a total of one HBW. If the angle subtended at the scanner is equal to
or less than HBW, their paints would merge on the PPI and they would appear as one big
target. If the angle so subtended is more than HBW, they would paint as two separate
targets.
- bearing discrimination therefore usually expressed in degrees and as per IMO Performance
standards, it should not exceed 2.5°.
c. Range Accuracy: -
- As per IMO Performance standards, the error in the range of an object, obtained using
range rings or the VRM, should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale in use, or
30 m, whichever is greater.
- Range accuracy of radar depends on:
i. Correct synchronization between the transmission of the pulse & the commencement of
the trace.
ii. The scale of size of the tracing spot.
iii.Height of Scanner.
d. Bearing Accuracy: -
- As per IMO Performance standards, the radar bearing of an object, whose echo appears on
the edge of the display, should be capable of being measured with an accuracy equal to or
better than ±1°.
- The factors affecting bearing accuracy are:

i. Correct alignment between the heading marker and the scanner.
ii. Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing scale.
iii.Gyro error, if any, when the display is gyro stabilized.
iv.Beam width distortion.
e. Minimum Range: -
- the minimum detection range of Radar Set depends on the pulse length, the de-ionisation
delay, the VBW and the height of the scanner and the wave length.
f. Maximum Range: -
- the maximum range of radar set depends on the height of scanner, power of set, wave
length, pulse repetition frequency, pulse length, VBW and HBW, nature of target, weather
effects, sea and swell.
WHAT IS ASPECT: -
Aspect of a target is the relative bearing of the own vessel from the target (or the angle
between the target’s course & the theoretical line of sight), expressed in degrees between 0°
and 180° red or green.
Red means that the own vessel is on the target’s port side.
Example:
The angle between the WA produced & AC is the “ASPECT”.

Bearing of A from C = 035°(T)
± 180°
Bearing of C from A = 215°(T)
Course of target WA = 273°(T)
So, Own ship lies 76° on target’s port side.
So, Aspect = 076° Red.

IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARD FOR RADAR EQUIPMENT (MSC.192(79))
a. SCOPE OF THE EQUIPMENT: -

- The radar equipment should assist in safe navigation and in avoiding collision by providing
an indication, in relation to own ship, of the position of other surface craft, obstructions and
hazards, navigation objects and shorelines.
- The radar, combined with other sensor or reported information (e.g. AIS), should improve
the safety of navigation by assisting in the efficient navigation of ships and protection of the
environment by satisfying the following functional requirements:
i. in coastal navigation and harbor approaches, by giving a clear indication of land and other
fixed hazards;
ii.as a means to provide an enhanced traffic image and improved situation awareness;
iii.in a ship-to-ship mode for aiding collision avoidance of both detected and reported
hazards;
iv.in the detection of small floating and fixed hazards, for collision avoidance and the safety
of own ship; and
v.in the detection of floating and fixed aids to navigation.
b. Radar Sensor Requirements: -

Radar systems of both X and S-Bands are covered in these performance standards:
- X-Band (9.2-9.5 GHz) for high discrimination, good sensitivity and tracking performance;
and
- S-Band (2.9-3.1 GHz) to ensure that target detection and tracking capabilities are
maintained in varying and adverse conditions of fog, rain and sea clutter.
c.Radar range and bearing accuracy: -

The radar system range and bearing accuracy requirements should be:
Range - within 30 m or 1% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater;
Bearing - within 1°.
d.Gain and Anti-Clutter Functions: -
- Means should be provided, as far as is possible, for the adequate reduction of unwanted
echoes, including sea clutter, rain and other forms of precipitation, clouds, sandstorms and
interference from other radars.

- A gain control function should be provided to set the system gain or signal threshold level.
- Effective manual and automatic anti-clutter functions should be provided.
e. Operation with SARTs and Radar Beacons: -
- The X-Band radar system should be capable of detecting radar beacons and SARTs.
f. Minimum Range: -
- With own ship at zero speed, an antenna height of 15 m above the sea level and in calm
conditions, the navigational buoy in Table 2 should be detected at a minimum horizontal
range of 40 m from the antenna position and up to a range of 1 NM, without changing the
setting of control functions other than the range scale selector.
g. Discrimination: -
Range and bearing discrimination should be measured in calm conditions, on a range scale
of 1.5 NM or less and at between 50% and 100% of the range scale selected:
Range: - The radar system should be capable of displaying two point targets on the same
bearing, separated by 40 m in range, as two distinct objects.
Bearing: - The radar system should be capable of displaying two point targets at the same
range, separated by 2.5° in bearing, as two distinct objects.
h. Roll and Pitch: -

- The target detection performance of the equipment should not be substantially impaired
when own ship is rolling or pitching up to +/-10°.
i. Radar Availability: -
- The radar equipment should be fully operational within 4 minutes after switch ON from cold.
A STANDBY condition should be provided, in which there is no operational radar
transmission. The radar should be fully operational within 5 secs from the standby condition.
j. Display Range Scales: -
Range scales of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 NM should be provided. Additional range
scales are permitted outside the mandatory set.
k. Fixed Range Rings: -
- An appropriate number of equally spaced range rings should be provided for the range
scale selected.

- The system accuracy of fixed range rings should be within 1% of the maximum range of the
range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
l. Variable Range Markers (VRM): -
- At least two variable range markers (VRMs) should be provided.
- The VRMs should enable the user to measure the range of an object within the operational
display area with a maximum system error of 1% of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever
is the greater distance.
m. Electronic Bearing Lines (EBLs): -
- At least two electronic bearing lines (EBLs) should be provided to measure the bearing of
any point object within the operational display area, with a maximum system error of 1° at the
periphery of the display.
- The EBLs should be capable of measurement relative to the ships heading and relative to
true north. There should be a clear indication of the bearing reference (i.e. true or relative).
n. Parallel Index lines (PI): -
- A minimum of four independent parallel index lines.
- Simple and quick means of setting the bearing and beam range of a parallel index line
should be provided. The bearing and beam range of any selected index line should be
available on demand.
o. User Cursor: -
- The cursor position should have a continuous readout to provide the range and bearing,
and/or the latitude and longitude of the cursor position presented either alternatively or
simultaneously.
- The accuracy of the range and bearing measurements provided by the cursor should meet
the relevant requirements for VRM and EBL.
p. Off-Centering: -
- Manual off-centering should be provided to locate the selected antenna position at any
point within at least 50% of the radius from the center of the operational display area.
- On selection of off-centered display, the selected antenna position should be capable of
being located to any point on the display up to at least 50%, and not more than 75%, of the
radius from the center of the operational display area. A facility for automatically positioning
own ship for the maximum view ahead may be provided.
q. Display Mode of the Radar Picture: -
- A True Motion display mode should be provided.

- North Up and Course Up orientation modes should be provided. Head Up may be provided
when the display mode is equivalent to True Motion with a fixed origin.
- An indication of the motion and orientation mode should be provided.
r. Target Trails and Past Positions: -
- Variable length (time) target trails should be provided, with an indication of trail time and
mode. It should be possible to select true or relative trails
s. Presentation of Target Information: -
- Radar targets may be manually or automatically acquired and tracked using an automatic
Target Tracking (TT) facility.
- TT facilities should be available on at least the 3, 6, and 12 NM range scales. Tracking range
should extend to a minimum of 12 NM
- There should be an indication when the target tracking capacity is about to be exceeded.
Target overflow should not degrade the radar system performance.
- When a target is acquired, the system should present the trend of the target's motion within
one minute and the prediction of the targets' motion within 3 minutes.
- Separate facilities for cancelling the tracking of any one and of all target(s) should be
provided.
t. Automatic Identification System (AIS) Reported Targets: -
- Reported targets provided by the AIS may be filtered according to user-defined
parameters. Targets may be sleeping, or may be activated. Activated targets are treated in a
similar way to radar tracked targets.
- To reduce display clutter, a means to filter the presentation of sleeping AIS targets should
be provided, together with an indication of the filter status. (e.g. by target range, CPA/TCPA
or AIS target class A/B, etc.). It should not be possible to remove individual AIS targets from
the display.
- The course and speed of a tracked radar target or reported AIS target should be indicated
by a predicted motion vector. The vector time should be adjustable and valid for
presentation of any target regardless of its source.
u. AIS and Radar Target Data: -
- For each selected tracked radar target, the following data should be presented in
alphanumeric form: source(s) of data, actual range of target, actual bearing of target,
predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA), predicted time to CPA (TCPA),
true course of target, true speed of target.
- For each selected AIS target the following data should be presented in alphanumeric form:
Source of data, ship’s identification, navigational status, position where available and its

quality, range, bearing, COG, SOG, CPA and TCPA. Target heading and reported rate of turn
should also be made available. Additional target information should be provided on request.
- If the received AIS information is incomplete, the absent information should be clearly
indicated as ‘missing’ within the target data field.
- If the calculated CPA and TCPA values of a tracked target or activated AIS target are less
than the set limits:
· A CPA/TCPA alarm should be given.
· The target should be clearly indicated.
v.Input Data: -
The radar system should be capable of receiving the required input information from:
- a gyro-compass or transmitting heading device (THD);
- a speed and distance measuring equipment (SDME);
- an electronic position fixing system (EPFS);
- an Automatic Identification System (AIS).
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARD FOR ARPAs (A.823(19))
- Automatic radar plotting aids (ARPAs) should, in order to improve the standard of collision
avoidance at sea: .1 reduce the workload of observers by enabling them automatically to
obtain information about plotted targets, so that they can perform as well with several
separate targets as they can by manually plotting a single target; and .2 provide continuous,
accurate and rapid situation evaluation.
- Target acquisition may be manual or automatic for relative speeds up to 100 knots.
However, there should always be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and
cancellation.
- The ARPA should be able automatically to track, process, simultaneously display and
continuously update the information on at least 20 targets, whether automatically or
manually acquired.
- The ARPA should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly distinguishable on
the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans.
- The ARPA facilities should be available on at least 3, 6 and 12 nautical mile range scales,
and there should be a positive indication of the range scale in use. ARPA facilities may also
be provided on other range scales
- The ARPA should be capable of operating with a relative motion display with "north-up" and
"course-up" azimuth stabilization. In addition, the ARPA may also provide for a true motion
display. If true motion is provided, the operator should be able to select for the display either
true or relative motion. There should be a positive indication of the display mode and
orientation in use.
(note: True motion display means a display across which own ship and each target moves
with its own true motion.
Relative motion display means a display on which the position of own ship remains fixed and
all targets move relative to own ship.)
- an ARPA which is capable of presenting target course and speed information in graphic
form should also, on request, provide the target's true and/or relative vector.
- The ARPA information should not obscure the visibility of radar targets. The display of
ARPA data should be under the control of the radar observer. It should be possible to cancel
the display of unwanted ARPA data within 3 s.
- Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the ARPA data and radar
data.
- Provisions should be made to obtain quickly the range and bearing of any object which
appears on the ARPA display.
- When a target appears on the radar display and, has been acquired by the observer, the
ARPA should present in a period of not more than 1 min an indication of the target's motion
trend, and display within 3 min the target's predicted motion.
- The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible signal
of any tracked target which is predicted to close within a minimum range and time chosen by
the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with relevant
symbols on the display.
- The ARPA should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of range, and the
target's last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.
- It should be possible for the observer to activate or de-activate the audible warning signal.
- The observer should be able to select any tracked target to obtain data. Targets selected
should be marked with the relevant symbol on the radar display. If data is required for more
than one target at the same time each symbol should be separately identified, for example
with a number adjacent to the symbol.
- The following data for each selected target should be clearly, identified and displayed
immediately and simultaneously in alpha-numeric form outside the radar area:
.1 present range of the target;
.2 present bearing of the target;
.3 predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA);
.4 predicted time to CPA (TCPA);

.5 calculated true course of the target; and

.6 calculated true speed of the target.
- The operating manual should contain an explanation of the principles underlying the trial
manoeuvre technique adopted including, if provided, the simulation of own ship's
manoeuvring characteristics. It should be possible to cancel a trial manoeuvre at any time.
Q. DESCRIBE PRINCIPLES AND ERRORS OF A SEXTANT?

Ans.
The sextant is an instrument used for measuring angles. It is so named because its arc is one
sixth of a circle - 60°. Being an instrument of double reflection it can measure angles up to
120°.
PRINCIPLE: when a ray of light suffers reflection by two mirrors in the same plane, the
angle between the original incident ray and the final emergent ray is twice the angle between
the mirrors.
ERRORS OF THE SEXTANT: -

a. Error of Perpendicularity:
caused if the index mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant. To check for
this, clamp the index bar about half way along the arc, hold the sextant horizontally with the

arc on the further side and look obliquely into the index mirror. The arc and its reflection in
the index mirror should appear to be in one straight line. If not, error of perpendicularity
exists.
This error can be eliminated by carefully altering the setting of the first adjustment
screw, situated at the top of the frame of the index mirror.
b. Side Error:
Caused if the horizon glass is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant. To check
for this, clamp the index at 0°0.0’. hold the sextant horizontally and look at the horizon. The
reflected image of the horizon should appear exactly in a line with the actual horizon visible
to the right and left of the horizon glass. If not, side error exists.
Side error can be eliminated by altering carefully the setting of the second adjustment
screw, situated at the top Centre of the frame of the horizon glass.
c. Index Error:
Caused if the index mirror and the horizon glass are not exactly parallel to each other,
when the index bar is set at 0°0.0’. to find the index error, clamp the index at 0°0.0’ and,
holding the sextant vertical, look at the horizon, through the telescope. The reflected image
(in the silvered half of the horizon glass) and the direct image (in the unsilvered half of the
horizon glass) should appear in a perfect line. If not, turn the micrometer until they coincide
exactly. The reading of the micrometer, ON or OFF the arc as the case may be, gives the IE.
IE ‘OFF’ is +, and IE ‘ON’ is, -,
d. Error of collimation:
Caused if the axis of the telescope is not parallel to the plane of the sextant.
e. Centering Error:
Caused if the pivot of the index bar is not situated at the geometric Centre of the arc.

Q. DESCRIBE HOW TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM ( TRS ) FORMED? IDEAL

CONDITIONS FOR A TRS? AVOIDING ACTION OUT AT SEA? REPORTING OF
DANGEROUS MSG (FORMAT) AS PER SOLAS?
Ans.
A Tropical Revolving Storm may be defined as a roughly circular atmospheric vortex,
originating in the tropics or subtropics, where in the winds which blow in converging spiral
track (anti clockwise in Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere)
reach or exceed gale force (Beaufort force 8)
Ideal condition for the formation of a TRS: -

i.High relative humidity (Open sea).
ii. A ssufficiently large sea area where in, the sea surface temperature is in excess of 26°C.
i.e., in tropical areas.
(* above two points ensure that a large quantity of water vapour is present in the air.)
iii. Low Pressure area surrounded by High Pressure (Day time over large islands).
iv. Convection Current (Day time over large islands).
(* above two points ensure that air rises continuously, so that adiabatic cooling results in
condensation that liberates latent heat. This latent heat provides the energy for the TRS.)
v. Fair amount of Coriolis force. (i.e. Latitude more than 5° N or S)

(* the above point ensures that when the wind blow, from surrounding areas of HP to the LP
area inside, they get deflected sufficiently to blow spirally inwards (cyclonic)).
vi. weak prevailing winds (during change of season. Ex. During the change of monsoon – in
Indian waters, Mid-April to Mid-June and from October to December.)
(* the above point ensures that, if the prevailing winds are strong, the air would not rise
vertically. It would be carried off horizontally, thereby not allowing a TRS to form.)

TRS Tracks and Seasons

Signs of an Approaching TRS: -
i. Heavy and long swell from storm centre.
ii. Atmospheric pressure falls steadily. When Barometric pressure is lower than 5mb below
normal. A pressure drop of 20mb is sufficient to cause a well-developed TRS.
iii. Cirrus cloud in bands and filaments aligned towards
iv. Unusually clear visibility may occur.
v. At sunset time cloud colour will be red or copper.
vi. Clouds will be dense and heavy with threatening appearance.
vii. Frequent lighting will be experienced.
viii. Sea waves are becoming heavy and dangerous.
ix. Succession of squalls with or without rain.
Stages of Development: -
Tropical Depression(TD): A tropical cyclone with wind speeds up to 33 knots.

Tropical Storm (TS): A tropical cyclone with wind speeds 34 to 63 knots
Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with wind speeds greater than 63 knots.
EASTERLY WAVES: -
The Easterly waves are extremely important phenomena since they are related to the
formation of hurricanes in the north Atlantic. But not all easterly waves result in a violent
tropical revolving storm.
Easterly waves are most frequent during late summer when surface water temperature is
highest. They occur mainly in the western parts of large ocean basins between 5° and 20°
latitude.
Easterly waves are usually very apparent over West Africa where they can be seen from their
formation zone over Sudan/Ethiopia and westwards.
Clusters are often formed east of the Philippines and north of New Guinea where the water is
the warmest, at about 30°C. This is also the area where most tropical cyclones are
generated in the world.
Structure of a TRS:
St ructure: Parts of a tropical storm are described as below ,

a. The Eye or Vertex: -

A calm central area of lowest pressure, having a diameter between 4 miles and 30
miles, the average being about 10 miles.
Weather in the eye is normally calm but the sea can be extremely violent. There is little
or no precipitation and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen. The eye is the region of
lowest surface pressure than the surrounding environment.
b. The Eye-wall : -
An inner ring of hurricane force winds having a width usually between 4 miles and 30
miles. The winds in the eye wall blow in a perfectly circular path with a speed as high as 130
knots with occasional gusts up to 150 knots.
The pressure gradient in the eye-wall is very steep and therefore, the barograph would
register a near vertical trend, downward before the eye and upward behind it.
Eye wall consists of a dense ring of cloud and tall thunderstorms that produces heavy
rains.
c. The Outer storm area: -

The area surrounding the eye-wall, having a diameter between 50 miles and 800 miles,
the average being about 500 miles. Wind in this region are strong, about force 6 or 7 and the
pressure gradient is much less than in the eye-wall.
Here angle of indraft of wind is about 45º and this gradually decreases to 0º in the eye wall. In
this area, the cirrus cloud can be form of strands or filaments with aligned conditions and
points towards the storm center. Here visibility is excellent, except in occasional shower’s
areas.

Definitions: -
Track: The route over which the storm Centre has already passed.
Path: Predicted route over which the storm Centre is likely to travel.
Trough: The line drawn through the Centre of the storm, at right angles to the track.
Ahead of the trough, pressure falls whereas behind it, pressure rises.
Vertex: The western most longitude reached by the storm Centre when recurving takes
place.
Right hand semicircle (RHSC): It is the half of the storm, which lies to right of the
observer, who faces along the path of the storm. For a stationary observer, here the wind
veers steadily.
Left hand semicircle (LHSC): It is the half of the storm, which lies to left of the
observer, who faces along the path of the storm. For a stationary observer, here the wind
backs steadily.

Navigable Semicircle: It is the side of a tropical cyclone, which lies to the left of the
direction of movement of the storm in the Northern Hemisphere (to the right in the Southern
Hemisphere), where the winds are weaker and better for the navigation purpose.
Dangerous Semicircle: It is the side of a tropical cyclone, which lies to the right of the
direction of movement of the storm in the Northern Hemisphere (to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere), where the storm has the strongest winds and heaviest seas.
Dangerous quadrant: it is the advance quadrant of RHSC in the NH and LHSC in the SH.
The wind’s rotation pulls us towards the center with maximum apparent wind speed. Evasive
action has to be taken to keep the vessel out of this quadrant.

Actions when TRS is conformed: Then do the followings,
a. Obtain the bearing of the storm Centre: -

Face the wind and according to Buys Ballot’s law, the storm Centre will lie 8 to 12
points on your right in the NH & left in SH.
If the pressure has fallen 5 mb below normal, allow 12 points as it means that the
vessel is in the outer fringes of a well-developed TRS, or a new TRS is forming in the vicinity.
If the pressure has fallen 20 mb or more below normal, allow 8 points as it means that
the vessel is near the eye of a well-developed TRS.
b. To ascertain which semi-circle vessel lies: -

Bring the ship in stationary or “Heave to” (moving very slowly in one direction) to
position. Carefully monitor and write down wind directions every after 2 hours.
If wind direction changes clockwise (wind veers), then the vessel is at RHSC and if the
wind direction changes anti-clockwise (wind backs), then the vessel is at LHSC, in both
hemispheres.
c.Take avoiding actions: -
i. If vessel is in the Dangerous Quadrant:

Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind 1 to 4 points on the stbd bow (port
bow in SH) – 1 point for slow vessels (less than 12 knots) altering course as the wind veers
(backs in SH). This action should be kept up until the pressure rises back to normal i.e., until
vessel is outside the outer storm area.
If there is insufficient sea room, the vessel should heave to with the wind on the stbd bow
(port bow in SH) until the storm passes over.

ii. if vessel is in the path of the storm or if in the navigable semi-circle:

Procced as fast as practicable with the wind about 4 points on the stbd quarter
(port quarter in SH), altering course as the wind backs (veers in SH). This action should be
kept up until the pressure rises back to normal i.e., until vessel is outside the outer storm
area.
iii. 1-2-3 Rule for avoiding TRS:

Upon receipt of warning:

- Plot the current and forecast 24-hour storm position and forecast radius of 35 knot winds.
- using a compass extend the radius of the forecast 24-Hours 35 kts wind area by 100 NM.
- Draw tangents relative to the direction of the storm from the 35 Kts radius (current position)
to the outermost radius at the 24-hour forecast position. Avoid the DANGER AREA.
- Use the same procedure for the 48 & 72 hours forecast position, however, use 200 & 300
NM radii/respectively. Avoid the DANGER AREA.

iv. Safety sector method for keeping vessel clear of a TRS: -
In the above figure:

A ship in a position “A” at midnight steaming 180° T at 20 kn receives a report of
a Tropical storm to the south of her with center at “H1” moving NNW wards at 6 kn. Sector 1
is drawn but no action is taken, as if storm is continuing in its path, ship will clear off by wide
a margin.
Six hours later, when the ship is at “B”, the storm is reported to be centered at
“H2”and moving Northwards at 10 kn. Sector 2 is drawn and it is apparent that if the storm
continues on this path, the closest approach could be 150 nm or considerably less. Speed is
therefore reduced to 15 kn and the plot maintained.
At 1200, with ship at “C”, the storm is reported at “H3” now moving NNE and
having accelerated to 12 kn. Sector 3 is drawn and from the plot, it is now apparent that if the
ship continues on her southerly course she will steam into dangerous proximity to the storm.
Heaving to at this stage will only allow the storm to draw closer to the ship. Therefore, a bold
alteration of course to 250°T is made and speed increased to 20 kn to clear the storm field.
At 1800 with ship at “D”, the storm is reported at “H4” moving NE wards at 15 kn
and sector 4 is drawn. Even if the path of the storm should change to a northerly direction
the closest approach now is not likely to be less than 200 nm. To ensure an adequate margin

of safety the ship maintains a course of 250°T until midnight and then revert to her course to
make her destination.
DRAWING OF THE ABOVE SECTORS: -

From the reported position of the center of the storm, lay off its track and the
distance it is expected to progress in 24 hrs. From the reported center, lay off two lines 40°
on either side of the track. With the center of the storm as center and the estimated progress
in 24 hours as radius, describe an arc to cut the two lines on either side of the track. This will
embrace the sector into which the storm center may be expected to move within the next 24
hours.
DANGER MESSAGES / EXAMPLES OF REPORTING PROCEDURE: -
As per SOLAS CH V, Regulation 31:

The master of every ship which meets with dangerous ice, a dangerous derelict, or any
other direct danger to navigation, or a tropical storm, or encounters sub-freezing air
temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion on
superstructures, or winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm
warning has been received, is bound to communicate the information by all means at his
disposal to ships in the vicinity, and also to the competent authorities. The form in which the
information is sent is not obligatory. It may be transmitted either in plain language
(preferably English) or by means of the International Code of Signals.
As per SOLAS CH V, Regulation 32 (Information required in danger messages: -

For example – Tropical Storm
As much of the following information as is practicable should be included in the message:
 barometric pressure, preferably corrected (stating millibars, millimeters, or inches,
and whether corrected or uncorrected);
 barometric tendency (the change in barometric pressure during the past three
hours);
 true wind direction;
 wind force (Beaufort scale);
 state of the sea (smooth, moderate, rough, high);
 swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the true direction from which it comes. Period or
length of swell (short, average, long) would also be of value;

 true course and speed of ship.
THE REPORT LOOKS LIKE: -

Tropical cyclone
TTT STORM. 0030 UTC. AUGUST 18. 2004 N, 11354 E. BAROMETER CORRECTED 994
MILLIBARS, TENDENCY DOWN 6 MILLIBARS. WIND NW, FORCE 9, HEAVY SQUALLS.
HEAVY EASTERLY SWELL. COURSE 067, 5 KNOTS.
SOME MORE EXAMPLES OF DANGER MESSAGES: -
Ice
TTT ICE. LARGE BERG SIGHTED IN 4506 N, 4410W, AT 0800 UTC. MAY 15.
Derelicts
TTT DERELICT. OBSERVED DERELICT ALMOST SUBMERGED IN 4006 N, 1243W, AT 1630
UTC. APRIL 21.
Danger to navigation
TTT NAVIGATION. ALPHA LIGHTSHIP NOT ON STATION. 1800 UTC. JANUARY 3.
Icing
TTT EXPERIENCING SEVERE ICING. 1400 UTC. MARCH 2. 69 N, 10 W. AIR TEMPERATURE
18°F (-7.8°C). SEA TEMPERATURE 29°F (-1.7°C). WIND NE, FORCE 8.
Q. WHAT IS FRONTS AND WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH IT? FRONTAL

DEPRESSION?
Ans.
Front is defined as the boundary between two air masses of different density, humidity and
temperature, on the earth surface. Normally this is inclined towards the colder air mass,
which is around 0.5º to 1º with the earth surface. This inclined or sloppy surface of the front
is called Frontal surface.

Fronts are generally moves with winds movements, but do not move as quickly as wind. In
the Northern Hemisphere, Cold fronts and occluded fronts usually travel from the northwest
to southeast and warm fronts travel from southwest to northeast. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the reverse happens. This movement is caused by the pressure gradient force
(horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure) and the Coriolis effect.
Cold front devolves, when cold air mass replaces relatively warm air mass. After cold front
passes over a place, the temperature becomes lower then it was before. Cold fronts can
move up to twice as fast and produce sharper changes in weather than warm fronts. On
weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line
of triangle-shapes, pointing in the direction of travel.
Warm front devolves, when warm air mass replaces relatively cold air mass. After cold front
passes over a place, the temperature becomes higher than it was before. Warm front moves
more slowly than the cold front, because cold air is denser and harder to remove from the
earth's surface. On weather maps, the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red
line of semi-circles, pointing in the direction of travel.
Stationary front is a non-moving boundary between two air masses; both are not strong
enough to replace each other. They tend to remain essentially in the same area for extended
periods of time, usually moving in waves. Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with
alternating red half-circles and blue spikes, pointing in opposite directions, indicating no
significant movement.
Occluded front is formed, when a cold front overtakes a warm front. It lies within a sharp
trough, but the air mass behind the boundary can be either warm or cold. Occluded fronts
are indicated on a weather map by a purple line with alternating half-circles and triangles
pointing in direction of travel. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure
areas.

Below are the symbols of four types of fronts: -
WEATHER ASSOCIATED IN FRONTS: -
At cold front - Wind very squally and veers. Thick cloud with cumulonimbus. Heavy rain,
sometimes with hail, thunder or sleet. Air pressure falls near the front then suddenly rises.
Visibility poor. Temperature is cold.
Behind the cold front - Strong and gusty wind. Clear skies for a while or cumulus cloud. Air
pressure steady. Visibility good.
At warm front - Wind increasing and backing. Temperature continues to rise. Nimbostratus
cloud building and thickening. Rain becoming heavier. Air pressure falling. Visibility
deteriorating
Forward of warm front - Altostratus and cirrus clouds. Rain turns to drizzle. Air pressure
steadies. Wind veers. Visibility is poor.

At Warm Sector - Wind steady. Pressure steady. Occasional showers or clear sky. Poor
visibility. Temperature is mild. cloud may thin and break.
(*The warm sector is the area of warmer air behind a warm front, usually between the warm and cold
fronts in a depression. Temperatures are often warmer than they are before the warm front or after
the cold front.)
Depressions: -
sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones, are areas of low atmospheric pressure,
located at areas between 30° and 60° latitude. It develops, when warm air from the sub-
tropics meets with cold air from the Polar regions. It usually has well defined warm and cold
fronts. Diameter of a depression various from 200 to 2,000 miles; they may be deep when
pressure at their Centre is very low and the isobars are tightly packed. Depressions are
formed at the boundary between two different air masses. This depression is normally
associated with cloudy, rainy and windy weather. This occurs, when warm air is forced to
rise over cold air. Here warm air is traveling faster than cold air or warm air travels in
opposite direction.
Since this depression is formed at frontal area of different air masses, it is also known
as Frontal depression. The formation process of this depression is called Frontogeneses. On
a weather chart (synoptic or prognostic) a depression appears as a set of closed curved
isobars, with wind circulation anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere (as below diagram),
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Q. OCEAN CURRENTS, TYPES AND CAUSES? WHAT EFFECT IT CAUSES ON

CLIMATE? SURFACE CURRENTS – ARABIAN SEA & BAY OF BENGAL?
Ans.
Ocean currents are the circulations of water caused by various factors. Ocean currents
have two different methods of moving water. Surface currents move as a result of blowing
winds and are influenced by atmospheric factors. Deep ocean currents move as a result of
the density differences that are present in the ocean.
The two largest currents on earth are the Kuroshio current which circulates near
Japan, and the Antarctic circumpolar current, which circulates around Antarctica.
A current is different from a Tidal flow which is subject to hourly changes and which is
caused by the gravitational effects of the Moon, Sun or Planets.
A Tidal Stream is the resultant of the tidal flow and the current in a particular coastal
area. It changes every hour.
TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS: -

Based on temperature, Ocean currents can broadly be divided into two classes—the warm
and the cold currents.

a. The Warm Currents: These are those currents which flow from the low latitudes in
Tropical Zones towards the high latitudes in the Temperate and Sub-Polar Zones. They bring
warm water into cold water areas. Warm currents are generally experienced along the
western shores of large oceans.
Examples: The Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift, The Norwegian Current, The
Brazilian Current, The Kuro Shio, The Alaskan current, the East Australian current, the
Mozambique current, the Agulhas current.
b. The Cold Currents: These currents have a lower surface temperature and bring cold
water into warm water areas. These currents flow in the high latitudes from the Polar regions
towards the low latitudes in the warm Equator region. Cold currents are generally
experienced along the eastern shores of large oceans.
Examples: the Labrador current, the Portuguese and canary current, the Benguela
current, the Oya shio, the Californian current, the West Australian current, the Kamchatka
current.
Based on their depth the ocean currents can also be divided into two categories:
a. The Surface Currents: These currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in
the ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean.
b. The Deep-Water Currents: These currents make up the other 90 per cent of the
ocean water. These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density
and gravity. Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the
temperatures arc cold enough to cause the density to increase.
CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS: -
There are 3 main causes of ocean currents:
1. Drift
2. Upwelling and
3. Gradient
1.Drift :
Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long periods.
The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea surface to move.
However, Coriolis force deflects the drift current to the right in the northern hemisphere (left
in the southern hemisphere) by about 30° to 45°.
The maximum strength of a drift current is only up to about 2 knots.

Examples of drift currents are:
a. North equatorial and South equatorial current, caused by the trade winds.
(*Trade Winds: Trade Winds blow between the Equator and the Tropics. These winds move
Equatorial waters pole wards and westwards. They warm the eastern coasts of continents.)
b. North Atlantic current, North Pacific current, West wind drift, caused by the Westerlies.
(*Westerlies: Westerlies blow in the temperate latitudes and result in a north-easterly flow of water in
the Northern Hemisphere and the opposite In the Southern Hemisphere.)
2. Upwelling :
Whenever a wind blows away from a long coastline for a considerable length of time,
the outflow of water from the coast is replaced by an upward movement (upwelling) of sea-
water, from a depth up to about 150 meters or so. Since this upwelling takes place from
below, the water that comes to the surface is colder than the surrounding sea-surface.
Upwelling currents are experienced along the eastern shores of oceans, in low
latitudes. Here the trade winds blow off shore, resulting in upwelling.
Examples: Canary current and Benguela current of the east Atlantic, Californian current and
Peru current of the east Pacific.
3.Gradient :
A gradient current is caused by differences in level (resulting from natural slopes or
build up by winds) or by differences in density (resulting from differences of temperature or
salinity). The greater the salinity, the greater the density and vice versa. The lower the
temperature, the greater the density and vice versa.
When different water masses lie adjacent to each other, gradient currents are set up
between them because of differences in temperature and salinity.
Example: the surface current that flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean is a result of
difference in level. The Mediterranean Sea, being land locked, experiences severe
evaporation. Since the input by rivers and rain is very small, its level falls and a gradient
current from the Atlantic flows in through the Strait of Gibraltar.

EFFECT ON CLIMATE: -
Ocean currents act as conveyer belts of warm and cold water, sending heat toward the polar
regions and helping tropical areas cool off. warm surface currents carrying less dense water
away from the Equator toward the poles, and cold deep ocean currents carrying denser
water away from the poles toward the Equator. The ocean’s global circulation system plays a
key role in distributing heat energy, regulating weather and climate, and cycling vital
nutrients and gases.
SURFACE CURRENT – ARABIAN SEA & BAY OF BENGAL: -

a. During the NE Monsoon: (November to January)
In open waters, the general movement is westward, being caused by the NE Monsoon
and being deflected to the right by Coriolis force. Coastal effects cause an anticlockwise
circulation, the easterly flow being provided by the Indian Equatorial counter current.
b. During late NE Monsoon: (February to April)

Although the main flow of water, in open water, is westerly, the coastal circulation
becomes clockwise. This is because the cool air, of the NE Monsoon, lowers the temperature
of the sea surface at the head of the Arabian sea & Bay of Bengal by as much as 3°C. A
gradient current therefore flows northwards along the western shores of both waters,
opposite to the wind direction.
c. During the SW Monsoon: (May to September)

In open waters, the general movement is eastward, being caused by the SW Monsoon
and being deflected to the right by Coriolis force. The SW Monsoon greatly strengthens the
clockwise coastal circulation already existent just before its onset.

Q. CURRENT ROSE CHARTS, VECTOR MEAN CHARTS AND PREDOMINANT

CURRENT CHARTS, DESCRIBE HOW THESE CHARTS DIFFER AND EXPLAIN
THE USE OF EACH?
Ans.
Details of currents can be found in the current atlas, chart of worlds currents, routeing
charts and sailing directions.
Current Rose Charts: -
Uses: - Provides local area knowledge to the navigator regarding rates and direction for the
current movement. Used in conjunction with the routeing charts.
• Shows the variability of the ocean currents in the area that it covers.
• The function of the rose is to indicate the degree of current variability in the region. It is
divided into 16 compass sectors to process the number of observations (current speeds
less than 6 nm per day are ignored).
• Thenumber of observations is then expressed as a percentage of the total number of
observations, to determine the length of the arrows.
• Eacharrow is subdivided to show the percentage frequency of occurance at various
range of speeds in that direction.
• The upper figure in the Centre of the rose represents the total number of observations.
• The lower figures represent the percentage frequency of the observations with speeds
less than 6 nm per day
Vector Mean Current Charts :-
Uses: - Used to establish overall movement of water which are of considerable value for
oceanographic purposes, where net transport of surface water is required.
Used by the navigator for calculating drifts of objects, such as icebergs or derelicts, over
long periods; the longer the period, the more likely the drift will approximate to the vector
mean drift.
Useful in MERSAR operations for long range search engagement.

• Shows the long-term displacement of water in the world oceans by means of an arrow
pointing in the appropriate direction. It portrays the overall movement of water over a
period of three months to which the chart refers and is also called General Circulation.
• Thearrow flows with the current and represents the mean resultant direction and rate of
current; the mean position of the observation is at the Centre of the arrow.
• Thefigure above the arrow indicates speed, while the range of values within which the
speed falls is shown by the thickness of the arrow.
• Thefigure beneath the arrow shows the number of observations used to determine the
vector mean.
• Thevector mean current indicated is the resultant value of all observations being
considered for that area.
Predominant Current Charts: -

Uses: - Is the one which is of the greatest value to the navigator as it gives the general
picture of circulation of the currents.
Used extensively when planning an ocean route, to establish expected progress in
conjunction with the predominant currents of the region. Predominant direction and average
rate used with the knowledge of how much it may differ from the regional forecast.
The predominant current direction is not only the one shown on the chart but includes all
directions 15 degrees on either side of it.
• Shows the current which is more likely to be experienced in the area being considered.
• The current direction being indicated by an arrow and its thickness reflects constancy.
• Constancy of the predominant direction is determined as a percentage of observations
in the predominant sector to the total number in the basic area.
• Direction is established by the use of 24 sectors, one of which will have the largest
number of observations in an indicated direction.
• The average rate of the current, in miles per day, is determined by observations in a
predominant sector and is given by the figure at the tail end of the arrow.
• The chart is derived by: -
(a)Observations made for 90° sectors round the compass and each sector displays 15
degrees from the other.
(b) The mid direction of the sector contains the number of observations that are made in
the predominant direction.

Q. WEATHER SYMBOLS ON WEATHER CHARTS?

Ans.


Q. WHAT IS A SYNOPTIC CHART AND A PROGNOSTIC CHART?

Ans.
SYNOPTIC CHART: -
A chart showing the distribution of meteorological conditions over a wide region at a
given moment. Synoptic charts are used to report on the current weather patterns.
Various weather elements received from large number of stations are plotted on
weather charts for the same GMT at synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200 & 1800, to obtain
synopsis (bird’s eye view) of weather over large area at that particular time.
A synoptic chart gives the movement and development of various weather system, e.g.
Low pressure center, High pressure center, Troughs, Ridges, Fronts.
PROGNOSTIC CHART: -
A prognostic chart is a map displaying, the predicted state of the atmosphere, for a
given time in the future. For ex. For 12, 24, 32, 48,74 & 96 Hrs. reports.
Surface weather prognostic charts for mariners indicate the positions of high and low
pressure areas, as well as frontal zones, up to five days into the future. Surface wind
direction and speed is also forecast on this type of chart. Wave prognostic charts show the
expected sea state at some future time.
Q.THE ANEROID BAROMETER? ITS ERRORS & CORRECTION?

Ans.
Aneroid means without liquid. A sealed chamber made of very thin metal, having a
partial vacuum inside it, is connected by a system of levers and springs to a pointer fitted
over a circular, graduated scale. The thin metal has an elastic effect.
When the atmospheric pressure increases, the chamber gets compressed and the
inward movement of its wall is transmitted mechanically to the pointer that then register a
higher reading on the scale.
When the atmospheric pressure decreases, the opposite happens. The expansion of
the chamber is assisted by a spring.
ERRORS: -
Reading of an aneroid barometer need two corrections:

a. Index Error (Instrumental error) –

This is very likely and is caused by imperfect elasticity of the vacuum chamber. Index
error is likely to change and should be obtained at least once in 3 months, by comparison
with another aneroid barometer which error is known.
b. Height Correction –
Since atmospheric pressure near sea level falls at the rate of 1 mb for every 10 meters
increase of height, the correction may be calculated as follows:
Correction (in mb) = Ht. above sea level in mtrs. ÷ 10
This correction is always additive.
Q. CORRECTION TO BE APPLIED TO A MERCURY BAROMETER? WHY

MERCURY IS USED?
Ans.
Reason why Mercury is Used in Barometers: -
a. Mercury has a high relative density – 13.6. therefore, a mercury barometer is less than
1 meter high whereas a water barometer would have to be over 10 meter high.
b. Mercury does not wet the glass surface as other liquids would.
c. Mercury is easily visible.
d. Mercury has a uniform coefficient of expansion, so temperature correction can easily
be applied accurately.
e. Mercury cannot escape easily, owing to its high viscosity.
f. Mercury has a low freezing point, about -39°C and a very high boiling point, over
350°C and hence suitable for marine barometer.
CORRECTION OF BAROMETRIC READINGS: -

For the sake of uniformity of climatic records and for forecasting purposes, all
barometric readings should be reduced to a common datum – sea level in latitude 45° with
no error due to temperature.
All barometric readings should, therefore corrected for height, latitude,
temperature and index error.
a) Reason for Height Correction: -

atmospheric pressure decreases as height increases. The reading on the bridge will,
therefore be lower than the reading at sea level. We have to add a correction for height to
the bridge reading at the rate of 1 mb for every 10 meter above sea level.

b) Reason for latitude correction: -

Since the earth’s polar radius is about 13 miles less than its equatorial radius, the
gravitational force at the poles is greater than that at the equator. One c.c. of mercury,
therefore, weighs more at the poles than at the equator.
The barometer readings in latitudes higher than 45° need a plus correction while
those in latitudes lower than 45° need a minus correction to bring them to the uniform datum
of 45° latitude. The rate of change is about 1 mb for every 12° of latitude.
c) Reason for Temperature correction: -

Each mercury Barometer is constructed to show correct readings at a particular
temperature called the standard or fiducial temperature, which is 0°C (273°K). standard
temperature of the barometer is mentioned on a brass plate attached to the metal case of
the barometer.
If the temperature of the barometer is different from its standard temperature, the
pressure indicated by the barometer has to be corrected at the approximate rate of 1 mb for
6° difference. The correction is additive if the actual temperature is below the standard
temperature and vice versa.
Temperature error is caused by the different coefficients of expansion of mercury,
glass and the metal scale.
d) Index Error: -
If a barometer does not give the correct pressure inspite of proper corrections being
applied for height, latitude and temperature, the difference between the corrected
barometric pressure and the actual atmospheric pressure is called the index error of the
barometer, is positive if the former is less and negative if the former is more.
Index error to be checked every 3 months, as it may change slowly with time.
Q. WHY NAUTICAL TWILIGHT IS USED FOR STAR SIGHT?

Ans.
Twilights is the relationship of the center of sun to the plane of the horizon. In order, at
the end of the day, we have: Sunset - the center of the sun appears to be at the horizon,
(though by the time the center of the sun appears to touch the horizon it is actually already
below the horizon due to refraction,) Civil twilight - where the center of the sun is 6° below
the horizon, Nautical twilight - when the center of the sun is 12° below the horizon,
Astronomical twilight - when the sun is 18° below the horizon. In the morning, the order is
reversed and ends with Sunrise.

For celestial navigator we will only concern ourselves with the times and importance
of civil twilight and nautical twilight. At the start of the day, nautical twilight is the most
important to get right.
The reason is that morning stars are observed at nautical twilight when the sun is still 12°
below the horizon and the sky is brightening slowly. It is still dark enough to see the stars
easily yet there is just enough light to see the horizon At the end of the day, the most
important to get right is the time of civil twilight when the sun has reached 6° below the
horizon. Then it is light enough to still see the horizon and yet dark enough to see the
navigational stars. These are the key times for the celestial navigator, actually it’s the time
between civil twilight and nautical twilight that star sights are shot. This time can be short
so it’s important to get it right.
Q. WHAT IS A CIRCUMPOLAR BODY?

Ans.
Under certain conditions of latitude and declination, a celestial body may remain
above the rational horizon – does not set, and is then theoretically visible at all times, even
during lower meridian passage. Under such conditions, the body is said to be circumpolar.
It will be seen that for a body to be circumpolar:
i. Lat and Dec must be of same name (i.e., both N or both S)
ii. Lat ≥ polar distance Or, Lat ≥ 90° – Dec Or, Lat + Dec ≥ 90°
Q. SIGHT CALCULATIONS? STAR FINDER? FORMULAE? VARIOUS CELESTIAL

DEFINITIONS?
Ans.
CRITERIA FOR CHOSING STARS FOR OBSERVATION: -
- Brightness and ease of identification.
- Smaller the magnitude, brighter the stars.
- Altitude should be between, 20° - 70°.
- Angular separation between stars must be between 90° - 120°.
- take at least 3 or more stars for observation.

HOW TO IDENTIFY A STAR: -
there are 2 methods: a) Using Star Finder, and b) Using Sight Reduction Tables.
Admiralty star finder (NP 323): -
It consists of the star charts for Both Northern and southern Hemisphere, together
with 8 transparent templates for the Latitudes 0° to 60°, and 75°. These charts show, total 57
stars tabulated in nautical almanac.
In the morning Find out the LMT Nautical twilight, and in the evening the LMT for Civil
twilight. Apply LIT to get GMT.
From the almanac, Get GHA Aries, apply Longitude to get LHA Aries.
From DR Lat and LHA Aries, select the latitude templates closest to DR Lat, for the
correct hemisphere, and point the pointer on LHA Aries and using the Azimuth, find the
suitable stars for taking sights.
Sight Reduction Table for Marine Navigation (NP 303): -
Rapid Sight Reduction Tables for Navigation is available as a three-volume set.
- Volume 1 contains the altitude to 1' and true azimuth to 1° for the seven stars most suitable
for finding position with a sextant, for the complete range of latitudes and hour angles of
Aries.
- Volume 2 and Volume 3 contain values of the altitude to 1' and azimuth to 1° for integral
degrees of declination from 29° north to 29° south, for the complete range of latitudes and for
all hour angles, for sights of the Sun, Moon and planets.
Volume 2 covers latitudes between 0° and 40°. Volume 3 covers latitudes between 39° and
89°.
- corrections for precession and nutation are given in Table 5, but their omission will not give
rise to a positional error greater than two miles.
Volume 1 may be used without reference to The Nautical Almanac.

Selected stars. The tabulated (or computed) altitude (Hc) and the true azimuth (Zn) are given
for seven selected stars for each latitude and each entry of LHA ϒ. Of each selection of seven
stars, three are marked with a diamond symbol (♦) as being suitable for a three-star fix.
A total of 41 stars are used, of which 19 are of the first magnitude (brighter than magnitude
1.5) and 17 of the second magnitude. The names of first-magnitude stars are given in capital
letters. A complete list of the 57 stars selected for astronavigation is given in the front of this
volume, and an asterisk is printed beside those stars not used within.
the seven stars available, together with their approximate altitudes and azimuths. From
these seven stars, the observer can select those which best suit his particular purpose and
the prevailing conditions; the approximate altitudes and azimuths make identification easy,
and enable the sextant to be preset to the approximate altitude.
- TABLE 4 — GHA ϒ FOR THE YEARS 2006-2014.
a. GHA ϒ AT 00h ON THE FIRST DAY OF EACH MONTH, b. INCREMENT OF GHA ϒ FOR DAYS
AND HOURS,
c. INCREMENT OF GHA ϒ FOR MINUTES AND SECONDS.
Example. The value of GHAϒ for 2012 August 17 at 05h 11m 41s UT is (a) 310° 00′ + (b) 090°
59′ + (c) 002° 55′ = 043° 54′.
- TABLE 5 — CORRECTION FOR PRECESSION AND NUTATION.
The table gives the correction to be applied to a position line or a fix, each entry consists of a
group of four figures of which the first (in bold type) is the distance, in nautical miles, which
the position line or fix is to be moved, and the group of three figures is the direction (true
bearing). The table is entered firstly by the year, then by choosing the column nearest the
latitude and finally the entry nearest the LHAϒ of observation; no interpolation is necessary.

WHAT IS DIP? EXPLAIN THROUGH A DIAGRAM: -
Dip. A correction has to be made to the sextant altitude to allow for the height of the
observer’s eye above the horizon; this is known as Dip.
Dip = 1.76 x Square Root (Ht of Eye in meters)
Consider the diagram below:
O is an observer’s position on the Earth’s surface and E is the position of his eye. We can
see that, as the observer’s height of eye is raised above sea level, his visible horizon ‘dips’
below the true horizon and so the altitude measured at E becomes greater than that
measured at O.
Dip is the error caused by this difference and has to be subtracted from the reading.
HORIZON SYSTEM: -
OBSERVER'S RATIONAL HORIZON
Is a grate circle on the celestial sphere every point on which is 90 degrees away from his
Zenith. The plane of the observer's rational horizon, therefor passes through the center of
the earth.

VISIBLE HORIZON
Is a small circle on the earth surface bounding the observer's field of vision at sea.
The radius of the visible horizon increase as the observer's height of eye increase.
SENSIBLE HORIZONE
Is a small circle on the celestial sphere, the plane of which passes through the observer's
rational horizon. The sensible horizon is the horizontal plane passing through the observer's
eye.
CELESTIAL HORIZON
The celestial horizon is the horizontal plane passing through the center of the earth which
coincides with the center of the celestial sphere.
- LATITUDE of a place is the arc of a meridian, or the angle at the centre of the earth,
measured between the equator and the parallel of latitude passing through that place.
- LONGITUDE of a place is the arc of the equator, or the angle at the geographic pole,
contained between the prime meridian and the meridian passing through that place.
- DECLINATION of a celestial body is the arc of a celestial meridian, or the angle at the
centre of the celestial sphere, measured between the equinoctial and the declination circle
passing through that body.
- GHA or Greenwich Hour Angle of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial, or the angle
at the celestial pole, measured westerly from the celestial meridian of Greenwich to the
celestial meridian passing through that body.
- LHA or Local Hour Angle of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial, or the angle at the
celestial pole, measured westerly from the observer’s celestial meridian to the celestial
meridian passing through that body.
FIRST POINT OF ARIES is that point on the surface of the celestial sphere where the sun’s
path crosses the equinoctial from South to North. The sun’s declination at this point is
00°00’.
SHA or Sidereal Hour Angle is the arc of the equinoctial, or the angle at the celestial pole,
measured westerly from the First point of Aries.
FORMULAE: -
Amplitude: Sin Amp = Sin Dec / Cos Lat
Azimuth: A = Tan Lat / Tan P, B = Tan Dec / Sin P, Tan Az = 1 / C . Cos Lat
(‘A’ is normally named opposite to Lat, i.e. when LHA is between 270° & 090°,
and same as Lat when LHA is between 090° & 270°.
‘B’ is named the same as Declination.
‘C’ : if A & B are same name, Add and retain same name, if of contrary
Names, subtract and retain name of larger one.
The Az is named: The prefix N or S is the same name of ‘C’, suffix E or W is
depending on the value of LHA. If LHA is between 000° & 180°, the body lies
To the west and if it is between 180° & 360°, lies to East.
Longitude by Chronometer:
Cos P = Sin T alt ∓ Sin lat. Sin dec / Cos lat . Cos dec
If LHA between 000° & 180°, P = LHA
If LHA between 180° & 360°, P = 360° - LHA
If Lat and Dec are same name (-), contrary names (+)
Intercept:
Cos CZD = Cos P . Cos lat . Cos dec ± Sin lat . Sin dec
If Lat and Dec are same name (+), contrary names (-)
Ex-meridian altitude:
Cos MZD = Cos TZD + [(1 – Cos P) . Cos DR lat . Cos dec]
CALCULATION METHODS: -
1) Latitude by Meridian altitude “SUN” –

Sext Alt = ….. LMT Mer pass =
IE (ON / OFF) = ON (+) / OFF (-) LIT (E/W) = E(-) / W(+)
Obs Alt = ….. GMT Mer pass =
Dip (…) = always subtract Dec =
App Alt = ….. d =
Tot Corrn (LL/UL) = LL (+) / UL (-) Dec =
T Alt = ….. (Named same as AZIMUTH, N or S)
MZD = (90° - T alt) (Named opposite to T alt)
Dec = …..
Latitude = MZD ± Dec ( Same name +, and retain name. Opposite names, subtract
And retain the name of the larger one )
2) Longitude by Chronometer “STAR” -

GHA γ = ….. Sext Alt = …..
Incr = ….. IE (ON / OF) = …..
GHA γ = ….. Obs Alt = …..
SHA ★ = ….. Dip = always subtract
GHA ★ = ….. App Alt = …..

Tot Corcn = always subtracted
T alt = …..
TZD = (90° - T alt)

Calculate, LHA using formula: Cos P = Sin T alt ∓ Sin lat. Sin dec / Cos lat . Cos dec
( *Note:
1. For SUN, before meridian passage LHA will be between 180° & 360°. After meridian
passage LHA will be between 000° & 180°.
2. another method to know the LHA will be, apply DR long to GHA, will give approximation
answer, which should be near to the calculated P. )
LHA = P = …..
GHA★= …..
Obs Long = ….. (Ans).
3. Intercept Method for calculating “STAR” -

GHA γ = ….. Sext Alt = …..
Incr = ….. IE (ON / OF) = …..
GHA γ = ….. Obs Alt = …..
Long (E/W) = ….. Dip = Always subtracted
LHA γ = ….. App alt =
SHA ★ = ….. Totl Corcn = Always subtracted
LHA ★ = LHA γ + SHA ★ T alt = …..

TZD = (90° - T alt)
* if LHA < 180°, P = LHA & if > 180°, P = (360 – LHA)
By using formula, calculate CZD
Cos CZD = Cos P . Cos lat . Cos dec ± Sin lat . Sin dec.
We had already calculated TZD.
Intercept “AWAY”: - When, TZD > CZD
Intercept “TOWARDS”: - When, TZD < CZD

Q. WHAT IS MEANT BY SQUAT AND EXPLAIN HOW DOES IT OCCUR?
SQUAT: This is a term used to define changes in draught and trim which occurs when the
depth of water beneath the vessel is less than one and a half time the draught of the vessel
when travelling at a significant speed.
CAUSES: When there is a limited clearance under the keel the restriction increases the
velocity of water flow which causes a drop in pressure thereby reducing the buoyancy force
on the vessel. This effect is increased still further when vessel is in the confined channel
since the velocity of water flow must increase due to further restriction. Since the weight of
the vessel remains unchanged the ship will have to sink further thereby increasing her
draught in order to restore equilibrium. There is likely to is a change in trim since the LCB
likely to change therefore creating a trimming moment. Where LCF is greater than LCB there
will be a trimming moment at astern, where LCF is less than LCB there will be a trimming
moment by the head and where LCF = LCB there will be no trimming effect and maximum
squat will be of equal value at fwd and aft.
Squat may be calculated by the following simplified formulae:

 Squat = (CB X V2 ) / 100 (In open waters)
 Squat = 2 X (CB X V2 ) / 100 (In confined waters)
b) List the factors, which effect the magnitude of squat.
 Squat varies on the following factors:
 Ship’s speed: Squat is directly proportional to the square of speed.
 Block co-efficient: Squat directly varies with CB.
 Blockage factor (S): It is the ratio between cross section of the vessel and cross section
of the canal or river.
So, in confined water, squat is more than in open water.
c) Describe the overall effect of shallow water on the maneuvering characteristics of a
vessel.
1. Speed of the vessel decreases as squat is directly proportional to square of speed.
2. R.P.M. decreases and high R.P.M. increases astern trim.
3. Higher the draught to depth of water ratio greater the squat which results in lesser U.K.C.
4. Vibration may occur.
5. In shallow water squat causes abnormal bow and stem wave to build up there by the type
of bow effects wave making and pressure distribution.
6. Steering is effected because the water displaced by the hull is not so easily replaced by
other water and the propeller and rudder might be working in partially vacuum conditions.
The vessel takes long to answer her helm and response to engine movement become
sluggish.

7. It will be extremely difficult to correct a yaw or sheer with any degree of rapidity.
8. The moving vessels bow wave; stem wave and trough increase in amplitude.
SIGNS OF SQUAT: -
1. Speed decreases. 2. RPM decreases. 3. Vibration may occur. 4. Steering is affected
vessel become sluggish to maneuver. 5. Ship made waves increase in amplitude. 6. Ship
wake changes color and becomes muddy.
Q. Define Light Characteristics?

Ans.
FLASHING: The Duration of the Light is always less than the duration of the Darkness. The
Frequency does not exceed 30 times per minute.
(Quick flashing: - The Frequency is at least 60 or 50 flashes/min / Very Quick Flashing: - The
Frequency is at least 120 or 100 flashes/min)
ISOPHASE: The light has equal duration between Light and Darkness
OCCULTING: Occulting is the opposite of Flashing. The light is more ON then OFF.
ALTERNATING: An alternating light changes colour. This Special purpose light is typically
used for special applications requiring the exercise of great caution. Example. WG(white
green)
Why Characterizations of Lights: -
- All Lighted aids to navigation are either Major or Minor lights.

- Where Major lights are used for key navigational points along sea coasts, channels
and harbor and river entrances.
- These lights are normally placed in lightships, light houses, and other permanently
installed structures. Providing high intensity and high reliability of the lights.
- Major lights are then subdivided into primary and secondary lights.
Primary lights: - very strong, long range lights used for the purpose of making landfalls
or coastal passages.
Secondary Lights: - shorter range lights found for example at harbour and river
entrances.
- Minor Lights on the other hand are likely to be found within harbours, along channels
and rivers. These have a low to moderate intensity and sometimes mark isolated
danger.

Q. DESCRIBE VARIOUS MOORING SYSTEM?

Ans.
Open moor
Vessel anchored with both anchors leading ahead.

Both the anchors remain 1point on the bow.
Procedures
Approach the anchorage with wind or current on one bow.
Weather anchor or upstream anchor is let go on the run (1).
The headway continued and cable is laid up 1/3 rd of the final length of the cable.
The second anchor is let go (2).
First anchor snubbed at the gypsy.
The vessel brings-to on her weather cable. It gradually grows taut to windward.
Bow develops a rapid swing into the stream or wind.
Both the anchors are veered.
Finally the anchors are one point at each bow.

Standing moor, ordinary moor, dropping moor, straight moor
Vessel required to moor with bridge along the dotted line.

Stream ahead.
Port anchor-5 shackles, stbd anchor-4 shackles.
Procedure:
Head to stream or wind.

When both are present, head to one has stronger effect.
With sufficient headway, take vessel to position 1.
Position-1 is roughly 5 shackles minus half ship's length beyond line AB.
Let go port anchor.
The vessel drifts downstream, render port cable to nine shackles, the sum of two lengths.
She is brought up on her cable.
Then the starboard anchor is let go at position-2.
Vessel then moves to the position by rendering or veering the starboard cable and heaving
in four shackles on the riding cable.
Engines may be used to reduce stress on the windlass.

Running moor, flying moor

Vessel required to moor with bridge along the dotted line.
Stream ahead.
Port anchor-5 shackles, starboard anchor-4 shackles.
Procedure:
Head to stream or wind.
When both are present, head to one has stronger effect.
Let go starboard anchor on run, when vessel is 4 shackles and half of ship's length (1).
The cable is rendered as the vessel moves upstream.
The cable is not allowed to be tighten, as bow will cant to starboard.
The cable is rendered or veered 9 shackles and vessel moves to position-2.
In position-2, port anchor is let go.
The vessel moves stern.
Five shackles weighed on lee (starboard) cable and five shackles veered on riding cable.
The vessel is then brought up on her riding cable at position-3.

Advantages of mooring
Vessel occupies little swinging room.
Vessel turns almost to her length about stem.
Scopes can be pre-adjusted for the prevailing strength of wind or stream.
Scope of each cable is estimated in the same way as single anchor.
Disadvantages
Lee anchor has no value to ship if headwind increases or vessel drags.
Risk of getting a foul hawse.
Special precautions
Maintain a constant watch to prevent foul hawse.
Determine foul arc and clear arc.
Vessel should always swing to clear arc on each tidal change.
Use engine to give vessel correct sheer.
Keep eye on the weather.
Know the times of tide change.
Preference:
I will prefer standing moor. Because:
Safer
More control on the ship.
The anchor is let go after vessel stopped.
There is no possibility of damage due to anchoring at headway.

Baltic moor
Employed alongside a quay.
Used when construction of the berth is no sufficiently strong enough to withstand
ranging in bad weather.
Can be employed for berthing a vessel in an onshore gale wind.
Procedures:
For a average size merchant ship, a 25-30mm wire is passed from the after ends on the
poop, along the offshore side, outside and clear of everything.
Offshore anchor is cockbilled.
A man is send over side on a chair to secure the wire with the anchor, preferably at the
shackle.
The wire is secured with ship's rail by sail twine in bights.
The aft end of the wire is sent to a wrapping barrel, ready for heaving slack wire.
When the stem is abreast the position of the quay where the bridge will be positioned,
the anchor is let go.
The vessel is still on headway.
About half a ship's length of the cable, the cable is surged and then snubbed.
The wire is hove-in aft.
The onshore wind will drift the vessel to the berth.
The scope of the cable and the wire is adjusted and veered slowly until the ship is
alongside.
Distance of ship, length of cable and wire must be considered.
Normally, the anchor is dropped at a distance 2/3 shackles length of the cable from the
quay, which may vary depending on the prevailing circumstance.

Mediterranean moor
Method of securing a vessel stern to the berth.
Both the anchors leading ahead to hold the bow in position.
The approach should preferably be made with the berth on port side.
The starboard anchor is let go about two ships length from the berth(1).
The vessel continues to move ahead.
Starboard helm is applied and the cable is veered.
The engines are then put astern and the port anchor is let go (2).
As the vessel comes astern, transverse thrust swings the stern to port towards the berth.
Stern lines are sent away.

Q. DESCRIBE EMERGENCY TOWING ARRANGEMENTS? WHAT IS EMERGENCY

TOWING PROCEDURES AND CONTENTS OF EMERGENCY TOWING
BOOKLET?
Ans.
SOLAS Regulation II-1/3-4 (RES. MSC.256 (84) - Emergency Towing Arrangements and
Procedures
Emergency towing arrangements on tankers
Emergency towing arrangements shall be fitted at both ends on board every tanker of not
less than 20,000 tonnes deadweight. tankers, including oil tankers, gas carriers and
chemical tankers, in emergencies such as complete mechanical breakdowns, may need to
be towed out of danger.
For tankers constructed on or after 1 July 2002:

- the arrangements shall, at all times, be capable of rapid deployment in the absence of main
power on the ship to be towed and easy connection to the towing ship. At least one of the
emergency towing arrangements shall be pre-rigged ready for rapid deployment; and
- emergency towing arrangements at both ends shall be of adequate strength taking into
account the size and deadweight of the ship, and the expected forces during bad weather
conditions. The design and construction and prototype testing of emergency towing
arrangements shall be approved by the Administration, based on the Guidelines developed
by the Organization.
- Towing components:
- Strength of the towing components:

i. should have a working strength of at least 1,000 kN for tankers of 20,000 tonnes
deadweight and over but less than 50,000 tonnes deadweight and;
ii. at least 2,000 kN for tankers of 50,000 tonnes deadweight and over.
The strength should be sufficient for all relevant angles of towline, i.e. up to 90° from the
ship's centerline to port and starboard and 30° vertical downwards.
- Length of towing pennant:
The towing pennant should have a length of at least twice the lightest seagoing ballast
freeboard at the fairlead plus 50 m.

- The bow and stern strongpoint and fairleads should be located so as to facilitate towing
from either side of the bow or stern and minimize the stress on the towing system.
- to ensure rapid deployment, emergency towing arrangements should comply with the
following criteria:
.1 The aft emergency towing arrangement should be pre-rigged and be capable of being
deployed in a controlled manner in harbor conditions in not more than 15 min.
.2 The pick-up gear for the aft towing pennant should be designed at least for manual
operation by one person taking into account the absence of power and the potential for
adverse environmental conditions that may prevail during such emergency towing
operations. The pick-up gear should be protected against the weather and other adverse
conditions that may prevail.
.3 The forward emergency towing arrangement should be capable of being deployed in
harbor conditions in not more than 1 h.
.4 All emergency towing arrangements should be clearly marked to facilitate safe and
effective use even in darkness and poor visibility.
- All emergency towing components should be inspected by ship personnel at regular

intervals and maintained in good working order.

Emergency towing procedures on ships: -
Application dates for Passenger and Cargo ships are as follows:

 All passenger ships, not later than 1st January 2010;
 Cargo ships built on or after 1st January 2010; and
 Cargo ships built before 1st January 2010, not later than 1st January 2012
Ships shall be provided with an emergency towing procedure. Such a procedure shall be
carried aboard the ship for use in emergency situations and shall be based on existing
arrangements and equipment available on board the ship.
The procedure shall include:
1 drawings of fore and aft deck showing possible emergency towing arrangements;
2 inventory of equipment on board that can be used for emergency towing;
3 means and methods of communication; and
4 sample procedures to facilitate the preparation for and conducting of emergency towing
operations.
EMERGENCY TOWING BOOKLET

The Emergency Towing Booklet (ETB) should be ship specific and be presented in a clear,
concise and ready-to-use format (booklet, plan, poster, etc.).
Ship-specific data should include but not be limited to:

i.ship’s name;
ii. call sign;
iii. IMO number;
iv. anchor details (shackle, connection details, weight, type, etc.);
v. cable and chain details (lengths, connection details, proof load, etc.);
vi. height of mooring deck(s) above base;
vii. draft range; and
viii. displacement range.

Comprehensive diagrams and sketches should be available and include the following:
i. assembly and rigging diagrams;
ii. towing equipment and strong point locations; and
iii. equipment and strong point capacities and safe working loads (SWLs).
A copy should be kept at hand by the owners/operators in order to facilitate the passing on of
information to the towage company as early as possible in the emergency. A copy should
also be kept in a common electronic file format, which will allow faster distribution to the
concerned parties.
A minimum of three copies should be kept on board and located in:

1. the bridge;
2. a forecastle space; and
3. the ship’s office or cargo control room.
DEVELOPING PROCEDURES
Ship-specific procedures should be identified during the ship’s evaluation and entered
accordingly in the ETB. The procedures should include, as a minimum, the following:
i. a quick-reference decision matrix that summarizes options under various emergency
scenarios, such as weather conditions (mild, severe), availability of shipboard power
(propulsion, on-deck power), imminent danger of grounding, etc.;
ii. organization of deck crew (personnel distribution, equipment distribution, including
radios, safety equipment, etc.);
iii. organization of tasks (what needs to be done, how it should be done, what is needed
for each task, etc.);
iv. diagrams for assembling and rigging bridles, tow lines, etc., showing possible
emergency towing arrangements for both fore and aft. Rigged lines should be lead such that
they avoid sharp corners, edges and other points of stress concentration;
v. power shortages and dead ship situations, which must be taken into account,
especially for the heaving across of heavy towing lines;
vi. a communications plan for contacting the salvage/towing ship . This plan should list all
information that the ship’s master needs to communicate to the salvage/towing ship.
This list should include but not be limited to:
a) damage or seaworthiness;
b) status of ship steering;
c) propulsion;
d) on deck power systems;
e) on-board towing equipment;

f) existing emergency rapid disconnection system;
g) forward and aft towing point locations;
h) equipment, connection points, strong points and safe working loads (SWL);
i) towing equipment dimensions and capacities; and
j) ship particulars;
vii. evaluation of existing equipment, tools and arrangements on board the ship for
possible use in rigging a towing bridle and securing a towline;
viii. identification of any minor tools or equipment providing significant improvements to
the “towability” of the ship;
ix. inventory and location of equipment on board that can be used during an emergency
towing situation;
x. other preparations (locking rudder and propeller shaft, ballast and trim, etc.); and
xi. other relevant information (limiting sea states, towing speeds, etc.).
Q. DESCRIBE GROUND TACKLE?

Ans.
When a vessel is stranded along one side, her engines are of little value in refloating
her. Ground-tackle will have to be employed with or without towing assistance.
This is meant for the use of anchors, carefully placed at considerable distances from
ship, or rigging the anchor in tandem, to maximize the holding power. Anchors are
connected by heavy wire hawsers, possibly using some lengths of her chain cable. Heavy
purchases are then rigged, often one secured to the hauling part of the other to give greater
mechanical advantage and lower stresses on the final hauling part, to impose a stress upon
these anchors. This stress, which must be applied continuously, is beneficial in refloating the
ship.
At some time during the operation anchors will have to be carried from the ship to
selected sites. We will assume that the crew of a ship is required to lay ground tackle and
that a good variety of gear is available.


Q. SOLAS REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOT TRANSFER ARRANGEMENTS?

Ans.
SOLAS CH V, REGLN.23
This Regulation applies to any ship which may employ a pilot (SOLAS Ch V/Reg. 23.1.1) with
equipment and arrangements installed on or after 1 July 2012.
General: -
- All arrangements used for pilot transfer shall efficiently fulfil their purpose of enabling
pilots to embark and disembark safely. The appliances shall be kept clean, properly
maintained and stowed and shall be regularly inspected to ensure that they are safe to use.
They shall be used solely for the embarkation and disembarkation of personnel.
- The rigging of the pilot transfer arrangements and the embarkation of a pilot shall be
supervised by a responsible officer having means of communication with the navigation
bridge who shall also arrange for the escort of the pilot by a safe route to and from the
navigation bridge.
- A pilot ladder shall be certified by the manufacturer as complying with this regulation.
- All pilot ladders used for pilot transfer shall be clearly identified with tags or other
permanent marking so as to enable identification of each appliance for the purposes of
survey, inspection and record keeping.
Transfer Arrangements: -
- Arrangements shall be provided to enable the pilot to embark and disembark safely on
either side of the ship.
- In all ships where the distance from sea level to the point of access to, or egress from,
the ship exceeds 9 m, and when it is intended to embark and disembark pilots by means of
the accommodation ladder6, or other equally safe and convenient means in conjunction with
a pilot ladder, the ship shall carry such equipment on each side, unless the equipment is
capable of being transferred for use on either side.
-Safe and convenient access to, and egress from, the ship shall be provided by either:
i. a pilot ladder requiring a climb of not less than 1.5 m and not more than 9 m above the
surface of the water so positioned and secured that:
a. it is clear of any possible discharges from the ship.
b. it is within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the
mid-ship half-length of the ship.

c. each step rests firmly against the ship's side.

d. the single length of pilot ladder is capable of reaching the water from the point of
access to, or egress from, the ship and due allowance is made for all conditions of
loading and trim of the ship, and for an adverse list of 15°; the securing strong point,
shackles and securing ropes shall be at least as strong as the side ropes.
ii. an accommodation ladder in conjunction with the pilot ladder (i.e. a combination
arrangement), or other equally safe and convenient means, whenever the distance from the
surface of the water to the point of access to the ship is more than 9 m. The accommodation
ladder shall be sited leading aft. When in use, means shall be provided to secure the lower
platform of the accommodation ladder to the ship's side, so as to ensure that the lower end
of the accommodation ladder and the lower platform are held firmly against the ship's side
within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship
half-length and clear of all discharges.
iii. when a combination arrangement is used for pilot access, means shall be provided to
secure the pilot ladder and manropes to the ship's side at a point of nominally 1.5m above the
bottom platform of the accommodation ladder.
Access to the ship's deck
Means shall be provided to ensure safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any
person embarking on, or disembarking from, the ship between the head of the pilot ladder,
or of any accommodation ladder or other appliance, and the ship's deck. Where such
passage is by means of:
i. a gateway in the rails or bulwark, adequate handholds shall be provided;
ii. a bulwark ladder, two handhold stanchions rigidly secured to the ship's structure at or
near their bases and at higher points shall be fitted. The bulwark ladder shall be securely
attached to the ship to prevent overturning.
- Shipside doors used for pilot transfer shall not open outwards.
- Mechanical pilot hoists shall not be used.
- The following associated equipment shall be kept at hand ready for immediate use when
persons are being transferred;
i. two man-ropes of not less than 28 mm and not more than 32 mm in diameter properly
secured to the ship if required by the pilot.
ii. a lifebuoy equipped with a self-igniting light.
iii. a heaving line.
- Adequate lighting shall be provided to illuminate the transfer arrangements over side, the
position on deck where a person embarks or disembarks.
- An updated poster entitled "Required boarding arrangements for pilots" is contained
in MSC.1/Circ.1428 - Pilot Transfer Arrangements . IMO advises that this poster should be
brought to the attention of all concerned with pilot transfer.
Q. GMDSS BATTERIES TESTS AND CHECKS?

Ans.
GMDSS batteries provide power to GMDSS equipments in case ship’s main as well as
emergency power fail. The requirement of GMDSS batteries is governed by Regulation 13,
Chapter 4 of SOLAS.
As per SOLAS, GMDSS batteries should provide power to operate GMDSS for: -
i. 1 hour in case GMDSS has the power from emergency generators
ii. 6 hours in case GMDSS does not have the power from emergency generators.
iii. Batteries must be recharged to the required minimum in less than 10 hours.
iv. The capacity of the batteries must be checked at interval of less than 12 months.
Maintaining the GMDSS batteries in excellent condition is important to have them ready in
emergency. There are typically three type of tests/Maintenance done on GMDSS batteries.
i. Daily on Load/Off Load test
ii. Yearly Capacity test
iii. General Maintenance required on the battery.
Daily On Load / Off Load test: -

On load / off load test is done to ensure that -
1. GMDSS equipments can have the power from battery. This ensures that all the connections
from the battery to the GMDSS equipmemts are intact.
2. Battery is able to provide power during operation of the GMDSS equipments. That is when
load is put on battery, it does not drain out too quickly.

For the on Load / Off load test, Following procedure should be followed: -
- First Switch off the AC power to the GMDSS station. This is because if the battery is on
continuous charge, this will not show any drop-in voltage which we intend to find out with On
Load/Off Load test. after the GMDSS equipments are on battery power, note down the
voltage of the batteries.
- Press the PTT button to transmit on a non-distress and idle R/T frequency. Note down
the on-Load voltage while the PTT is pressed.
- The drop-in voltage should not be more than 1.5 volts.
Capacity Test: -
All batteries have a life span. The capacity of a battery can reduce with age. There has
to be a way to measure the capacity. And with Capacity test we do exactly that.
We charge the battery to full and then measure it by discharging. To discharge the
battery, we apply a known load to measure its capacity. Capacity of the battery is measured
in Ampere hour (Ah). So, 200 Ah means the battery can give a current of 200 Ampere for one
hour or 20 Amperes for 10 hours and so on.
Before we proceed further, let’s agree on these two statements
i. The voltage is not the measure of capacity of the battery. (*The measure of capacity of
a battery is “how much current it can produce for how many hours”.)
ii. A battery 100% full (Fully charged) does not mean that it will or can produce the rated
capacity.
There is another SOLAS requirement about deep discharge of the battery while performing
capacity test. In the simplest of the terms, deep discharge means the least voltage a battery
can be brought to. If we discharge the battery below this voltage, the battery can loose its
capacity to a level where it cannot be used again.
General maintenance required on GMDSS Batteries: -

The onboard batteries do not need much of maintenance as such. There are two things that
need to be checked. First is the electrolyte level and second is the specific gravity of the
electrolyte. If you have maintenance free batteries onboard, you do not need to check
anything on that except the conditions in which it is stored.

Q. KNOW YOUR NAVTEX?

Ans.
- Navtex is part of GMDSS equipments which is required to be fitted onboard every ship
as per SOLAS Chapter IV Reg 7.
- Navtex range is the range of the Navtex transmitter upto which the transmission can
reach to the ships. It is usually between 250nm – 400 nm and is affected by various
surrounding factors. The transmitter range of a Navtex station is available in the ALRS
Vol.1,3,4 & 5.
- The Navtex station sends message on a designated frequency and we receive it on

board if we are in range of that Navtex station.
 Navtex uses frequency 518 KHz for transmitting messages in English.
 Navtex uses another frequency 490 kHz for transmitting messages in local
language.
- format of Navtex message:

Every Navtex message starts with letters ZCZC which indicates the start of the
message. This is followed by two letters (we call it B1B2) and two numbers (B3B4). In the
last, end of the message is denoted by “NNNN”.
ZCZC: As I said it denotes the start of the message
B1: First letter denotes the identity of the Navtex station broadcasting this message.
This can be anything from letter A to Letter X.
B2: The second letter denotes the message type.
B3B4: The two numbers denote the message number of the Navtex message.
NNNN: indicates the “End of the message”.
- character B2 in Navtex message identity represent the type of Navtex message. A

letter from A to Z denotes the message type. For example, letter A means the message type
is “Navigational warning” and letter B mean the message type is “Meteorological warning”.
Here is the list of what all message type we can receive through Navtex.

- As per SOLAS Chapter IV, reg 17 we need to maintain the radio records for all the
important activities. But IMO has clarified this that we are not required to log receiving
Navtex messages in the GMDSS log. Maintaining the print out of the Navtex messages is
sufficient to satisfy the regulation 17 of the SOLAS chapter 17.
Q. ANCHOR. ANCHORING TERMS. PROCEDURES, CERTIFICATES?
Ans.
Shortening-in: The cable is shortened-in when some of it is hove inboard.
Short stay: A cable is at short stay when it is taut and leading down to the water close
To the vertical.
Long stay: A cable is at long stay when it is taut and leading down to the water close
to the horizontal.
Up-and-down: The cable is up-and-down when it is leading vertically to the water.

Brought up: A vessel is said to be brought up when her way has stopped and she is
riding to her anchor, with the anchor holding. The terms 'come to' and 'got
her cable' are sometimes used to mean the same thing. The officer in
charge of an anchor party will know when the vessel is brought up, by the
cable rising up from the surface towards the hawse pipe when the brake
is holding it. The vessel should then move towards the anchor, causing the
cable to drop back and make a catenary.
Snub Cable: To snub the cable is to stop the cable running out by applying the brake. A
vessel is said to snub round on her anchor when she checks the paying
out of the cable by applying the brake on the windlass, so causing the
cable to act as a spring, turning the bow smartly in the direction of the
cable.
Range Cable: To lay out the cable on deck, or a wharf, or in a drydock, etc.
Veer cable, To pay out cable under power, i.e. using the windlass motor.
Walk back:
Surge Cable: To allow cable to run out freely, not using the brake or the windlass motor.
Scope: The depth of water is necessary for determining scope, which is the ratio
of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point.
Foul Hawse: When both anchors are out and the cables are entwined or crossed.
Clear Hawse: When both anchors are out and cables are clear of one another.
Action in case of anchor fouled by underwater obstruction:

 Vessel is moved ahead under engines, veering cables until it grows well astern.
 When the vessel is brought up to with the cable growing astern, and the cable is taut,
then work the engines ahead slowly and see if the cable breaks out slowly.
 In case it does not break out then steer the vessel slowly in an arc towards the anchor
and try to rotate the anchor and break it out by constant movement.
 If still unsuccessful then try the above procedures using astern movements.
 If still not successful, then rig up an anchor buoy and slip cable for later recovery.
Action in case of anchor fouled with wire cable etc.:

 Anchor and fouling to be hove well up into the hawse pipe.
 Use a fibre rope and pass it round the obstruction and heave both ends taut and make
fast on the forecastle deck near maximum flare.
 Walk back anchor clears of obstruction.
 Heave the anchor into the hawse pipe.

 The obstruction which is now clear of the anchor can be released by slipping the fibre
rope.
What are the action when another Ship anchor dragging towards own ship?
 Sound ‘U’ on the whistle, it will attract attention of other vessel in the vicinity and this will
serve as witness.
 Inform mate /Master /ER to keep engines ready
 Call by VHF, if no reply use day light signaling lamp.
 Call for emergency anchor stations.
 Call for quarter master, ARPA/RADAR to be switched on
 If mate/Master not on board call for additional officer/cadet to assist on bridge.
 Inform port control/agent.
 Pay out maximum cable until half shackle left in chain locker, this helps own vessel drop
astern
 Put wheel hard over with respect to other ship to move transversely.
 Prepare second anchor for letting go.
 If other vessel still dragging and happens to sang own ships cable, own ship will feel a
sudden pull towards other ship if this happens slip first anchor.
 When own ship has dropped astern sufficiently and is well clear put wheel amidships &
drop second anchor.
How would you determine if your ship is dragging anchor and what action would you take as
OOW?
Checks to be performed:
 Check position by radar (range bearing), GPS & UKC
 D.log indicates ship is moving in certain direction with a speed of more than 1 knot
 Confirm vsl is within the turning circle
 Course recorder indicates distorted curve rather than regular sine curve
 Regular swinging motion is topped & weather side becomes fixed.
 Abnormal vibrations are felt on the hull
 Relative positions to surrounding ships changes
 Taut cable condition continues

Actions when dragging anchor is confirmed:

1. When the ship has steered away from the 1st anchor, drop the other anchor on the
bottom and stop the run of the cable
2. Put both cables in gear and walk back equal equally on both, ensuring that the first
anchor has at least half a shackle left in chain locker
3. Put both the brakes on, take the gears out and hold on
4. Keep anchor watch to ensure that the anchors are holding
5. Keep engines on stop at short notice
6. If the master is ashore, the chief officer would automatically take charge of the situation
7. In rare case of both master and c/o ashore, the second officer would have to manage,
KEEPING THE FOLLOWING POINTS IN MIND
8. The length of the cable paid out (usually 6 times the depth of water) is only to ensure that
the pull on the anchor shank, while it in on seabed, is horizontal. Once that is assured
paying out more cable would not help!!
9. Heaving up anchor, manoeuvering the ship and re anchoring should only be the last
resort by the second officer. Having insufficient experience and being without proper
support on the bridge this is too risky
10. Inform the harbor control by vhf.” my ship is dragging anchor. Require a pilot
immediately.”
11. Call up agents on telephone and inform them” ship is dragging anchor; the master and
chief officer are ashore please contact them and send them onboard as soon as possible
12. Pull the wheel hard over away from the first anchor and hold it there.
13. Prepare the second anchor to let go
14. Carry out master’s orders
15. Inform master
16. Inform engine room, this is an emergency, get engines ready as soon as possible.
Switch on power to windlass
17. Call anchor stations
18. Call for a messenger on bridge because the a.b. will be manning the wheel
19. Switch on the steering motors
20. Switch on Radar /ARPA
21. Try the pneumatic whistle and electric klaxon
22. The vhf would already be on channel 16
23. Keep a record of all the happenings and their timings in bridge notebook

Why do we sometimes have two anchors of different cable lengths onboard ships?
It is not very uncommon to notice 10 shackles on one anchor while 11 shackles on other
one. All the requirements concerning anchor onboard are formulated in the guidelines
issued by International association of classification society (IACS). These requirements
include requirements for anchor weight, diameter and steel grade for the stud link of the
chain cable and the length of the anchor chain etc.
All these requirements are governed by something called “Equipment number”. If you would
have seen the anchor certificate generally issued during yard delivery of the vessel, you
would find the equipment number on that certificate.
Equipment number is calculated by formula

As per the equipment number, the total length of the anchor chain is given. So, if say, for a
particular equipment number, the minimum length of the cable required is 21 shackles, one
side of the anchor is given 10 shackles and the other one 11 shackles.
Anchor certificate contents: -
1. Type of anchor
2. Weight excluding stock in KGs
3. Weight of stock and head
4. Length of shank and arm in mm
5. Diameter of trend
6. Proof load applied in tonnes
7. Identification of proving house, official mark and government mark
8. Number of test certificate
9. Year of license
10. Details of testing & inspections
Q. CONTENTS OF IAMSAR Vol.3? LATEST AMMENDMENTS TO 2016 EDITION?

SEARCH METHODS?
Ans.
SOLAS regulation V/21 requires all ships to carry an up-to-date copy of IAMSAR Manual
Volume III.
Section 1 Overview
Section 2 Rendering assistance
Section 3 On-scene co-ordination
Section 4 On-board emergencies
Appendix A Regulation V/33 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea,
1974, as amended
Appendix B Search action message
Appendix C Factors affecting observer effectiveness
Appendix D Standard format for search and rescue situation report (SITREP)
Appendix E SAR briefing and debriefing form
Appendix F Own emergency
Appendix G Rendering assistance.
Latest amendments to Vol.3: MSC.1/Circ.1513 : entered into force from 1st July 2016.
- new Section 5 on Multiple Aircraft SAR Operations.
- Add new appendix H - Checklist for multiple aircraft SAR operations.
1. Expanding Square Search (SS)

* Most effective when the location of the search object is known within relatively close limits.
· The commence search point is always the datum position.
· Often appropriate for vessels or small boats to use when searching for persons in the water
or other search objects with little or no leeway.
· Due to the small area involved, this procedure must not be used simultaneously by multiple
aircraft at similar altitudes or by multiple vessels.
· Accurate navigation is required; the first leg is usually oriented directly into the wind to
minimize navigational errors.
· it is difficult for fixed-wing aircraft to fly legs close to datum if S is less than 2 NM.

2. Sector Search (VS)
· Most effective when the position of the search object is accurately known and the search
area is small.
· Used to search a circular area centered on a datum point.
· Due to the small area involved, this procedure must not be used simultaneously by multiple
aircraft at similar altitudes or by multiple vessels.
. An aircraft and a vessel may be used together to perform independent sector searches of
the same area.
. A suitable marker (for example, a smoke float or a radio beacon) may be dropped at the
datum position and used as a reference or navigational aid marking the center of the pattern.
. For aircraft, the search pattern radius is usually between 5 NM and 20 NM.
· For vessels, the search pattern radius is usually between 2 NM and 5 NM, and each turn is
120°, normally turned to starboard.

3. Parallel Sweep Search (PS)

• Used to search a large area when survivor location is uncertain.
• Most effective over water or flat terrain.
• Usually used when a large search area must be divided into subareas for assignment to
individual search facilities on-scene at the same time.
• The commence search point is in one corner of the sub-area, one-half track space inside
the rectangle from each of the two sides forming the corner.
• Search legs are parallel to each other and to the long sides of the subarea.

Q. DESCRIBE RECOVERY METHODS OF PERSON OVER BOARD?

Ans.
There are 3 situations:
i. Immediate action: the person overboard is noticed from the bridge and action is taken
immediately.
ii. Delayed action: the person is reported to the bridge by an eyewitness and action is
initiated with some delay.
iii. Person missing action: the person is reported to the bridge as missing.
Standard methods of recovery are: -
1. WILLIAMSON TURN
- Rudder hard over to the opposite side, where the person is reported to felt down.
- After deviation from original course by 60°, rudder hard over to the opposite side.
- When 20° short of opposite course, rudder to midship position and ship to be turn to
reciprocal course.
Advantages:
i. Good in reduced visibility, can be performed at night.

ii. Makes good original track line.
iii. Simple.
Disadvantages:
i. Takes the ship farther away from the scene of the incident.
ii. Slow procedure.
2. ONE TURN or SINGLE TURN or ANDERSON TURN
- Rudder hard over
- After deviation from the original course by 250°, rudder to midship position and stopping
manoeuvre to be initiated.
Advantages:
i. Fastest recovery method.
ii. Good for ships with tight turning characteristics.
iii. Used most by ships with considerable power.
Disadvantages:
i. Very difficult for a single screw vessel.
ii. Difficult because, approach to person is not straight.

3. SCHARNOW TURN
- Rudder hard over.
- After deviation from original course by 240°, rudder hard over to the opposite side.
- when heading 20° short of opposite course, rudder to midship position so that ship will turn
to opposite course.
Advantages:
i. Will take vessel back into her wake.
ii. Less distance is covered.
iii. Saving time.
Disadvantages:
i. Cannot be carried out effectively unless the time elapsed between occurrence of the
incident and the commencement of the manoeuvre is known.

Q. DESCRIBE TURNING CIRCLE?

Ans.
1. Adavance: is the distance travelled by center of gravity along the original course from the
position at which the rudder order is given to the position at which the heading has changed
to 090° from original course.
2. Transfer: is the distance travelled by center of gravity measured from original track to the
point when vessel has altered course through 090°.
3. Tactical diameter: is the transfer for the vessel when course altered through 180° from the
original course.
4. Drift angle: is the angle between F & A line of vessel and the tangent to turning circle.
5. Head reach: Distance along the direction of the course that it covers from the moment the
full astern command is given until ahead speed changes sign.
6. Track reach: Distance along the vessel's track that it covers from the moment astetn
command is given until ahead speed changes sign.
7. Turning circle: The roughly circular path followed by a vessel when it alters course under
helm through 360 degrees.
Q. SHIPS NAVIGATION IN HEAVY WEATHER AND RECOMMENDED ACTION BY

MASTER?
Ans.
Navigation in heavy weather is defined as conditions with winds of Beaufort Scale 7 or more
and a Significant Wave Height of 4 meters or more.
The Master shall obtain forecast for the area. Passage plan shall be checked for estimated
time of passing such area. If not on weather routing advice already, in case of severe storm,
he may ask for such services through the operator.
Ships navigation in heavy weather check item: -
1. Have you informed C/E (Engine Room), head of departments and crew?
2. Have you confirmed openings such as W/T doors / vents/ ports/ chain pipes/ sounding
pipes etc. are all closed securely?
3. Have all cargo lashings been checked and tightened?
4. Have you secured derricks, cranes and davits?
5. Have all movable objects everywhere onboard (on deck, in engine room, stores,
accommodation, galley etc) been securely fixed?
6. Has ballast been adjusted to reduce free surface effect and are draft, trim, and stability
conditions adequate?
7. Have you inspected anchor stowage, lashing and stoppers of anchors and chain?
8. Have brakes of the windlass been extra tightened and mooring wires and ropes been well
secured?
9. Are two power units for the steering gear running?
10. Has the vessel's course and speed been adjusted as necessary (on master’s orders), in
order to minimize adverse effects of heavy weather?
11. Has crew been warned to not go out on weather deck without permission? And is
permission granted only after appraising situation, adjusting course (on master’s orders) if
required?
12. Have safety ropes and hand ropes been arranged where necessary (if required)?
13. Consideration of loading Heavy weather ballast in cargo Tanks?
14. Have instructions been given on:
Keeping watch on weather reports (monitoring)
Transmitting weather reports, or danger message (in case of tropical storm) as per SOLAS
V/2a
15. Any additional instructions from the Master.

The master's action
The Master shall, if possible, select a reasonable route that allows the vessel to avoid
navigation in heavy weather or keep a safe distance from the storm centre
The Master must regulate speed and/or alter course in heavy weather, as required by good
seamanship, in order to avoid the possibility of damage to ship and cargo, also to avoid
needless expenditure of fuel.
Reduction of a few revolutions will make a considerable difference to the motion of the ship,
but very little difference in voyage time.
When he judges that the vessel will be in heavy weather, the Master shall take necessary
countermeasures mentioned in the “Navigation in Heavy Weather Checklist” .
If vessel is available to use a certain cargo tank designated for Heavy Weather Ballasting,
and the Master considers it necessary to do so due to inadequate draft, he shall inform it to
the company and also, he shall take all necessary precautions for this Ballasting and De-
ballasting process.
Inspection before entering and after leaving heavy weather
The Master shall inspect the vessel and cargo during navigation in (if practicable) and just
after heavy weather conditions and advise Company if any damage has occurred.
Any possible (even if temporary) repairs by ship staff either to the Hull, Fittings or to the
Cargo (Containers) must be attempted by ship staff as soon as weather abates.

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. HOW VISIBILITY CAN BE ACERTAIN OUT AT OPEN WATERS?
Ans.: On a clear visibility, we can calculate the Visible horizon by using the formula:
1.17 x √h = distance in NM (*h is ht. of eye in feet) OR,
2.09 x √h = distance in NM (*h is ht. of eye in meters).
On Nories table, a Visibility table is given at every distance of Ht. of eye.
Please note, as visibility is restricted by fog, it is scientifically proved that fog can affect
visibility by on an approximate 200 mtrs. The navigation light, backscatters due to refraction
of fog. It is a good indication to know if visibility is deteriorating.
Q. WHAT IS STRANDING, BEACHING, GROUNDING & FOUNDERING?
Ans.
Grounding is the touching of a ship’s bottom with the ground, whether deliberate or
involuntary.
Stranding is an accidental grounding due to heavy weather effect, machinery breakdown or
negligence.
Beaching is the intentional or voluntary grounding. The three main reasons for which
Beaching of ship is done are:
 To prevent loss of ship due to flooding when there is major damage below the water
line of the ship
 To refloat the ship when satisfactory repair has been done and water tight integrity is
restored
 In order to hand it over to the scrap yard.
Foundering is the adverse effect on the vessel's buoyancy due to the ingress of water
resulting in sinking.
Foundering could be the end result of a collision or any situation causing hull damage or
water ingress.

BEACHING PROCEDURES & PRECAUTIONS: -
Points to consider (during beaching):
 select the beaching site carefully (if the time permits, consider the type of bottom, how
level is it, obstructions/obstacles present)
 check details of tide (tidal heights, direction, tide times)
 beach the vessel at 90o to the beach line (level ground)
 beach approximately 1-2 hours after high water (to ensure sufficient water
to refloat). If unable to beach around this time period. Ballast the vessel to its
maximum draft by whatever reversible means needed to refloat it.
 stop engines prior to making contact (cooling water intake protection).
 once vessel has grounded, lay out anchors (fore and aft depending on weather
conditions).
 if vessel is moving on bottom, add extra weights, if deep keel vessel, consider shoring
up (prevent vessel lying into the sea for refloating purposes).
Advantages of Bows-On Beaching: -

i. Strong fore-foot area is aground.
ii. Propeller and rudder are always in deeper water.
iii. Stern anchor is usable. Bower anchors can also be used.
iv. there is a clear view of the beach during the operation. It is easy to ‘con’ the ship.
v. Stern suctions are not chocked.
Advantages of Stern-On Beaching: -
i. Bow buoyancy is less, so it is unlikely to slew with the tide.
ii. Bower anchors can be laid out properly without a risk of the ship sitting on them. These
prevent slewing and help in pulling out the ship easily. It is quite easy to carry this out in the
form of a Mediterranean moor.
iii. The ahead engine power is generally 1.6 times the stern power, so it would be easier to
get off the beach.

iv. The vulnerable and buoyant stern-end is not subject to strong sea and weather, so the
ship is more stable and secure.
Beaching Procedure: -
- Approach at right angles to the beach, allowing for the wind and tide. If possible, lay out the
anchors and cables at the proper positions.
- Keep enough steerage way to prevent drift of seaward end.
- Do not stop engines immediately on touching bottom. Drive up the ship firmly ashore.
Reduce possibility of pounding.
- Taking ballast in the end aground after beaching will help to keep it there firmly.
- Sound all bilges and tanks. Inspect the ship for damage, Hatches may have sprung from
their seating and cause flooding later.
- Check the depth of water around the ship and confirm the nature of bottom.
- Note the draft. Comparing with floating draft gives a rough idea of the lost buoyancy.
- Repairs can be carried out during low water when the hull is exposed.
Refloating:
- attempt to refloat as soon as vessel reaches flotation draft, remove ballast if it was added -
maintain an even trim
- bleed cooling systems
- use anchors to kedge the vessel.
Stranding or Grounding: -
Stranding is the accidental grounding of a vessel on a beach or shoreline while grounding is

the accidental contact with the sea bed other than the shoreline.
Actions to take (accidental stranding or grounding):

- sound the alarm to muster the crew/passengers.
- account for all personnel and check for injuries
- stop engines and auxiliaries if grounding is severe
- sound bilges and inspect void areas
- take bearings and plot your position - then attempt to determine reason for grounding from
the charts

- survey the area around the grounding (from chart)

- determine the tide and tidal stream
- check weather predictions for the area
- sound around the vessel to determine the extent of the grounding
- check for hull damage (if severe damage has occurred, it may be best to stay grounded)
With a partial grounding:
- move passengers and crew to lighten the grounded section of the vessel, jettison any
weights possible
- use astern power sparingly, pay attention to the pumping of mud/sand under the keel due to
excess astern propulsion.
if rocky - astern propulsion can damage the hull lay out anchors to assist in refloating or
preventing vessel going further aground
- request assistance (if necessary). consider a tow.
- display appropriate signal `vessel aground'.
When refloating, use anchors to kedge, if the engine's propulsion is insufficient

to refloat. Move weights as necessary, have lifesaving appliances ready in case of sudden
need. Commence refloating just prior to high tide. If the bottom is sand or mud a vacuum
may be created between the hull and the sea-bed. To break this suction, it may be necessary
to "waggle the vessel's tail" by use of the weights or pulling on alternate anchors.
Once clear of the obstruction it will be necessary to again check the vessel for any damage
or ingress of water. Also, check propulsion and steerage systems and engine cooling
systems.
Note events in vessel’s log or record book and report incident to the authorities.
If grounded on a reef at an uncertain location, it may be prudent to stay grounded and adding
ballast to prevent further damage to the hull due to movement of the vessel on the grounding.
Foundering: -
Foundering is the adverse effect on the vessel's buoyancy due to the ingress of water
resulting in sinking.
Foundering could be the end result of a collision or any situation causing hull damage or
water ingress.

Action taken (to prevent foundering):
When collision or damage assessment drills are undertaken, the first concern is the ingress
of water, which if left unchecked, could lead to the vessel's foundering.
To prevent this, several steps can be taken:
If the vessel is bilged the holed compartment should be, if possible, isolated by closing
watertight doors or openings and the section pumped out. If the pump cannot contain the
flooding other means may be needed to reduce the intake of water.
Listing the vessel, especially if the damage is near the waterline, will reduce the flow of
water into the vessel. This can be achieved by moving weights or ballasting.
Thought may be given to the use of any possible material to plug up a hole. This could
include pillows, bedding, cushions, mattresses etc.
"Collision Mats" could also be incorporated. This is usually a strong piece of canvas with
spars secured on two opposite sides. The mat is usually rolled up and the lines led under the
hull until it is near the hole and then unrolled effectively sealing the holed area and reducing
the flow of water into the compartment.
NOTE: - If spars are not used the water pressure may prevent the `tarps' (collision mats) from
fully covering the holed section.
There are commercially manufactured collision mats for small craft. These are of the
umbrella principle. The unit is pushed through the hole then opened around the area by
pulling on the centre pole.
REMEMBER: - Collision Mats are designed to reduce the ingress of water to a level where the
pump discharge is of a greater capacity than the flow of water into the vessel.
Once control has been gained, more permanent repairs can be undertaken.
If a vessel has sustained damage to it's bow section or a compartment which leaves a
bulkhead exposed to the sea, support must be given to these particular areas. The water
pressure on the bulkhead will increase dramatically once the vessel gets underway - without
support more damage may occur resulting in loss of the vessel.
Q. WHAT ARE THE METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS TO BE CARRIED ON BOARD?

Ans.
i. Barometer.
ii. Whirling psychometer.
iii. Weekly barograph.

iv. sea thermometer.
v. Marine bucket.
Q. WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMAL BULB AND NAVIGATION BULB?

Ans.
Normal Bulb: Single filament, screw or pin type.
Navigation Bulb: Double filament, plate type. Anti-vibrant, Ratings – 220V, 65W
Q. CONTENTS OF WHEEL HOUSE POSTER?

Ans.
As per IMO Resolution A601(15), Provision and display of manoeuvring information on
board , Applicable to all ships to which SOLAS applies.
WHEEL HOUSE POSTER: -
 Should be permanently displayed in wheelhouse
 It should contain:
1. General Ship particulars.
2. Detailed information describing the manoeuvring characteristics of the ship.
3. Draft at which the manoeuvering data were observed, loded or ballast.
4. Steering particulars.
5. Propulsion particulars.
6. Turning circle
7. Anchor chain.
8. Man over board rescue manoeuvre.
 Shall be of such size to ensure ease of use.
Q. WHAT IS DRYING HEIGHT AND CHART DATUM?

Ans.
Drying height: it is the extent to which a patch is exposed in the air at the level of chart.
Chart datum: it is usually a level so low that the tide will not frequently fall below it.

Q. GYRO FAILS OUT AT SEA, HOW WILL YOU COME TO KNOW? Action?
Ans.
Indication of Gyro fail:
- Gyro fail alarm will come. (Audio & Visual)
- Hunting or drifting of the gyro compass card.
- When steering by auto pilot, the ship will not be able to maintain her desired course, off
course alarm will be on.
- Radar bearing will become unreliable, it changes to head up mode.
The following actions are suggested as a minimum in event of failure of vital bridge
equipment gyro compass: -
1) Inform to the Master

2) If the 2nd gyrocompass is available, activate it. Otherwise, following measures to be
taken.
3) Change over to Hand steering for steering with magnetic compass with applying Compass
deviation value with Deviation curve and observation, or to TMC (Transmitting Magnetic
Compass) Autopilot, where fitted.
4) Consider effect on other navigational and communication equipment which have a gyro
feed especially Radar/ ARPA and ECDIS and enter headings manually.
5) Plot positions more frequently to confirm course made good and accordingly allow
correction to course steered. In coastal waters, make good use of parallel indexing
technique to keep vessel on charted track.
Also secure True course run (Course made good) by plotting GPS position and verify with
Heading of Magnetic compass.
6) Reduce speed if considered necessary.
7) In the meantime, to check Instruction Manual for troubleshooting guide.
8) Inform to the office, to enable to arrange repair at next port
9) Caution pilots at next port, about Gyro unavailability.
Q. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RACON & BEACON?

Ans.
Racon is a radar responder beacon, when targeted by the radar waves of the ship, it
activates the racon and a characteristic echo on the PPI is painted. The bearing and range
both can be obtained by a racon.
Bacon is a fixed artificial navigation mark, sometimes called day bacon. It can be recognized
by means of its shape, colour, pattern or top mark. It may carry light, radar reflector or other
navigational aid.

Q. WHAT IS TACK LINE? WHAT IS ITS LENGTH?

Ans.
Tack line is a length of halyard about 6 feet (2 meters) long, used to separate each group of
flags.
Q. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSIT BEARING AND LEADING LIGHTS? WHAT
IS CLEARING LINE AND CLEARING BEARING?
Ans.
Transit Bearing: The transit bearing plotted on a chart is a position line. Compass error can
be obtained by comparing transit compass bearing and true bearing from chart.
Leading Light: Leading light is in line with the approach channel. Effective way to guiding the
ship to help them to maintain the position in the middle of a channel.
Clearing Line: A clearing line is a line drawn through two conspicuous objects on the chart
such that a vessel has to be kept outside of this line in order to clear some danger.
Clearing Bearing: When clearing, lines are not shown on the chart, a conspicuous object is
selected and a bearing clear of the danger laid off from it. A vessel kept on this bearing will
then pass clear off the danger.
Q. WHAT IS ANTI GROUNDING ALARM IN ECDIS?

Ans.
The final layer of safety is the anti-grounding function. This tool allows the ECDIS to
scan ahead of the ship to a distance set by the user. It acts as a final layer of safety should a
navigational danger be missed by the visual check or route scan. The scanned area is
sometimes displayed as a cone or column on screen and should be set to a distance
appropriate to the amount of navigable water ahead of the vessel. This value should be
determined for each stage of the voyage and noted in the passage plan. The functionality of
the anti-grounding function varies between brands; users should determine the capabilities
of their ECDIS equipment’s ant grounding function.

SOME KNOWLEDGE FROM COLREGS
Q. WHAT IS THE DIAMETER OF BELLS AND MASS OF THE STRIKER? CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE BELL?
Ans.
- The diameter of the mouth of the bell shall be not less than 300mm for vessel of 20 meters
or more in length.
- The mass of the striker shall be not less than 3% of the mass of the bell.
- A bell or gong or other device having similar sound characteristics shall produce a sound
pressure level of not less than 110dB(*decibel) at a distance of 1 meter from it.
Q. SOUND SIGNAL RANGE OF AUDIBILITY?

Ans.
200 mtr or more - 2.0 NM
75m but less than 200 m - 1.5 NM
20m but less than 75m - 1.0 NM
Less than 20m - 0.5 NM
Q. AMMENDMENTS TO COLREGS?
Ans. These amendments entered into force on 1 January 2016. After existing part E
(Exemptions), a new part F is added to read as follows: “PART F – VERIFICATION OF
COMPLIANCE WITH THE PROVISIONS OF THE CONVENTION”.
It contains 3 more Rules, namely:

Rule-39 – Definitions.
Rule-40 – Applications.
Rule-41 – Verification of compliance.
Q. CONTENTS OF COLREGS?
Ans.
Contents
Part A - General
o 1) Application
o 2) Responsibility
o 3) General Definitions

Part B - Steering and Sailing Rules
Section I - Conduct of Vessels in any Condition of Visibility

o 4) Application
o 5) Look-out
o 6) Safe Speed
o 7) Risk of Collision
o 8) Action to Avoid Collision
o 9) Narrow Channels
o 10) Traffic Separation Schemes
Section II - Conduct of Vessels in Sight of One Another
o 11) Application
o 12) Sailing Vessels
o 13) Overtaking
o 14) Head-on Situation
o 15) Crossing Situation
o 16) Action by Give-way Vessel
o 17) Action by Stand-on Vessel
o 18) Responsibilities Between Vessels
Section III - Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility
o 19) Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility
Part C - Lights and Shapes

o 20) Application
o 21) Definitions
o 22) Visibility of Lights
o 23) Power-driven Vessels Underway
o 24) Towing and Pushing
o 25) Sailing Vessels Underway and Vessels Under Oars
o 26) Fishing Vessels
o 27) Vessels Not Under Command or Restricted in Their Ability to Maneuver
o 28) Vessels Constrained by their Draft
o 29) Pilot Vessels
o 30) Anchored Vessels and Vessels Aground
o 31) Seaplanes
Part D - Sound and Light Signals

o 32) Definitions
o 33) Equipment for Sound Signals
o 34) Maneuvering and Warning Signals
o 35) Sound Signals in Restricted Visibility
o 36) Signals to Attract Attention

o 37) Distress Signals
Part E - Exemptions
o 38) Exemptions
Part F - VERIFICATION OF COMPLIANCE WITH THE PROVISIONS OF THE CONVENTION

o 39) Definitions
o 40) Applications
o 41)Verification of compliance
Annex I – Positioning and Technical details of Lights and Shapes.

1. Definition
2. Vertical Positioning and Spacing of lights
3. Horizontal positioning and spacing of lights
4. Details of location of Direction-Indicating lights for fishing vessels,
Dredgers & vessels engaged in underwater operations.
5. Screen for side lights
6. Shapes
7. Colour specifications of lights.
8. Intensity of lights.
9. Horizontal sectors.
10.Vertical sectors.
11. Intensity of Non-Electrical lights
12.Manoeuvring Light.
13.High Speed Craft.
14.Approval.
Annex II – Additional signals for Fishing vessels fishing in close proximity.

1. General
2. Signals for trawlers
3. Signals for Purse Seiners
Annex III – Technical Details of sound signal Appliances.

1. Whistles
2. Bell or Gong
3. Approval
Annex IV – Distress signals.
Q. WHAT IS 4 STAGES OF COLLISION AVOIDANCE?

Ans.
When two vessels in sight of each other are approaching with no change of compass
bearing, so that when there is a risk of collision, one of them is required to keep out of the
way by Rule from Section II. There may be four stages relating to the permitted or required
action from each vessel."

1. At long range, before risk of collision exists, both vessels are free to take any action.
2. When risk of collision first begins to apply the give-way vessel is required to take early and
substantial action to achieve a safe passing distance and the other vessel must keep her
course and speed.
3. When it becomes apparent that the give-way vessel is not taking appropriate action in
compliance with the Rules the stand-on vessel is required
to give the whistle signal prescribed in Rule 34(d) and is permitted to take action to avoid
collision by her manoeuvre alone, but a power-driven vessel must not alter course to port to
avoid another power-driven vessel crossing from her own port side. The give-way vessel is
not relieved of her obligation to keep out of the way.
4. When collision cannot be avoided by the give-way vessel alone the stand-on vessel is
required to take such action as will best aid to avoid collision.
The distance at which the various stages begin to apply will vary considerably. They will be
much greater for high speed vessels involved in a fine head on or fine crossing situation. For
a crossing situation involving two power-driven vessels in the open sea it is suggested that
the outer limit of the second stage might be of the order of 5 to 8 miles and that the outer limit
for the third stage would be about 2 to 3 miles.
Q. IALA REGION A & B, NAME THE PLACES?
Ans.
Region A comprises nations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, parts of Africa and
most of Asia other than the Philippines, Japan and Korea.
Region B comprises nations in North America, Central America and South America,
Philippines, Japan and Korea.

Q. DESCRIBE AN EMERGENCY WRECK MARKING BUOY?

Ans.
The Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy is maintained in position until:

 the wreck is well known and has been promulgated in nautical publications;
 the wreck has been fully surveyed and exact details such as position and least depth
above the wreck are known;
 a permanent form of marking of the wreck has been carried out.
Characteristics
The buoy has the following characteristics:
 A pillar or spar buoy, with size dependent on location.
 Coloured in equal number and dimensions of blue and yellow vertical stripes (minimum
of 4 stripes and maximum of 8 stripes).
 Fitted with an alternating blue* and yellow flashing light with a nominal range of 4
nautical miles where the blue and yellow 1 second flashes are alternated with an
interval of 0.5 seconds.
 If multiple buoys are deployed, then the lights should be synchronized.
 Consideration should be given to the use of a racon Morse code “D” and/or AIS
transponder.
 The top mark, if fitted, is to be a standing/upright yellow cross.
* The light characteristic was chosen to eliminate confusion with blue lights to identify law
enforcement, security and emergency services.
Q. SUBMARINE IDENTIFICATION LIGHTS?

Ans.
Submarines may display, as a distinctive means of identification, an intermittent
flashing amber (yellow) beacon with a sequence of one flash per second for three (3)
seconds followed by a three (3) second off-period.

The light will be located, where it can best be seen, as near as practicable, all around
the horizon. It shall not be located less than 2 ft above or below the masthead light.
Q. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NAVIGATIONAL AID AND AID TO NAVIGATION?

Ans.
Navigation aid: An onboard instrument, device, chart, method, etc., intended to assist in the
navigation.
Aid to navigation: A device or structure external to the ship, designed to assist in

determination of position, to define a safe course, or to warn of dangers or obstructions.
Q. TYPES OF NAVIGATION BUOYS, AS PER “INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF

LIGHTHOUSE AUTHORITIES” (IALA)?
Ans. Six types of navigation buoys:
- Lateral
- Cardinal
- Isolated danger
- Safe water
- New wreck
- Special
Lateral buoys and marks: -

The location of lateral buoys defines the borders of channels and indicates the
direction. Under IALA A red buoys mark the port side of the channel when returning from
sea, whereas under IALA B green buoys mark the port side of the channel when sailing
towards land.

A modified Lateral mark may be used at the point where a channel divides to
distinguish the preferred channel, that is to say the primary route or channel which is so
designated by an authority.
Cardinal Marks: -
Cardinal marks indicate that the deepest water in the area lies to the named side of the
mark. its distinctive pattern of black and yellow stripes, which follows the orientation of the
cones - the black stripe is in the position pointed to by the cones (e.g. at the top for a north
cardinal, in the middle for a west cardinal).
optionally, its distinctive sequence of flashing light, which consists of a sequence of
quick or very quick flashes whose number gives the clock face position which corresponds
to the direction of the cardinal (e.g. three for an east cardinal, nine for a west; north has
continuous flashes, and south may be augmented with a long flash, to help distinguish it from
a west in difficult conditions)
A cardinal mark may be used to accomplish the following:
 Indicate that the deepest water is an area on the named side of the mark
 Indicate the safe side on which to pass a danger
 Draw attention to a feature in a channel, such as a bend, junction, branch, or end of a
shoal
 Draw attention to a new danger such as a grounded ship. In such cases two equal marks
are often placed together to indicate that it's a newly marked danger and is not yet
printed in official charts.

Isolated Danger Mark: -
an Isolated danger mark is a mark erected on, or moored on or above, an isolated

danger which has navigable water all around.
Distinctive double black spherical top marks and Group flashing (2) white lights, serve
to associate Isolate Danger mark with Cardinal marks.
Safe Water Marks: -
Safe water marks serve to indicate that there is navigable water all-round the mark.
These include center line marks and mid-channel marks. Such a mark may also be used as
an alternative to a cardinal or a lateral mark to indicate a landfall.
Body: red and white vertical stripes; Top mark (if any): single red sphere. Lights are
typically calm and white: Morse A, Iso, Occ or LFl 10s.

Special Marks: -
Marks not primarily intended to assist navigation but which indicate a special area or
feature referred to in appropriate nautical documents, for example:
- ODAS mark
- Traffic separation marks, where use of conventional channel marking may cause confusion.
- Spoil Ground Marks.
- Military Exercise Zone Marks.
- Cable or Pipeline Mark.
- Recreation Zone Marks.
Q. WHAT IS ‘ODAS’BUOY?
Ans. ODAS means a structure, platform, installation, buoy, or other device, not being a ship,
together with its appurtenant equipment, deployed at sea essentially for the purpose of
collecting, storing or transmitting samples or data relating to the marine environment or the
atmosphere.
An Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODAS) is a set of instruments deployed at sea to
collect as much meteorological and oceanographic data as possible.
Q. WHAT YOU UNDERSTAD BY THE WORD “NOT TO IMPEDE”?

Ans. When a vessel, is required not to impede the passage of another vessel such vessel,
shall so far as practicable navigate in such a way as to avoid the development of risk of
collision. If, however, a situation has developed so as to involve risk of collision, the relevant
Steering and sailing rules shall be complied with.

Q. CHARACTERISTICS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF “SHAPES”?

Ans.
- Shapes shall be black and of the following sizes:
i. a ball shall have a diameter of not less than 0.6 meter.
ii. a cone shall have a base diameter of not less than 0.6 meter and a height equal to its
diameter.
iii. a cylinder shall have a diameter of at least 0.6 meter and a height of twice its diameter.
iv. a diamond shape shall consist of two cones as defined in (ii) above having a common
base.
- The vertical distance between shapes shall be at least 1.5 meter.

- In a vessel of less than 20 meters in length, shapes of lesser dimensions but
commensurate with the size of the vessel may be used and the distance apart may be
correspondingly reduced.
Q. PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN KEEPING A NAVIGATIONAL WATCH?

Ans.
As per STCW’2010, Chapter VIII, Part 4-1
- masters, chief engineer officers and watchkeeping personnel, shall be observed to ensure
that safe watches are maintained at all times.
- The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are adequate
for maintaining a safe navigational or cargo watch. Under the master’s general direction, the
officers of the navigational watch are responsible for navigating the ship safely during their
periods of duty, when they will be particularly concerned with avoiding collision and
stranding.
Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch
- The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master’s representative and is
primarily responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship and for complying with
the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended.
- Lookout
i. A proper lookout shall be maintained at all times in compliance with rule 5 of the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and shall serve
the purpose of:
.1 maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing, as well as by all other
available means, with regard to any significant change in the operating environment;
.2 fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to
navigation; and
.3 detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris and other
hazards to safe navigation.
ii. The duties of the lookout and helmsperson are separate and the helmsperson shall not
be considered to be the lookout while steering.
iii. The officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the sole lookout in daylight
provided that, on each such occasion:
.1 the situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that it
is safe to do so;
.2 full account has been taken of all relevant factors, including, but not limited to:
– state of weather; – visibility; – traffic density; – proximity of dangers to navigation; and – the
attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes; and
.3 assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in the
situation so requires.
- Watch arrangements
When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge, which may include
appropriately qualified ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
.1 at no time shall the bridge be left unattended;
.2 weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
.3 proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge of
the watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
.4 use and operational condition of navigational aids such as ECDIS, radar or electronic
position-indicating devices and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the ship;
.5 whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
.6 whether there are radio duties to be performed;
.7 unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators provided on the
bridge, procedures for their use and their limitations; and
.8 any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special
operational circumstances.

- Taking over the watch

i. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hand over the watch to the
relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is not capable of carrying out the
watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the master shall be notified.
ii. Relieving officers shall not take over the watch until their vision is fully adjusted to the
light conditions.
iii. Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as to the
ship’s estimated or true position and confirm its intended track, course and speed, and UMS
controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to navigation expected to be
encountered during their watch.
iv. Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
.1 standing orders and other special instructions of the master relating to navigation of the
ship;
.2 position, course, speed and draught of the ship;
.3 prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of these factors
upon course and speed;
.4 procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines are on
bridge control; and
.5 navigational situation, including, but not limited to:
.5.1 the operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used or
likely to be used during the watch;
.5.2 the errors of gyro- and magnetic compasses;
.5.3 the presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity;
.5.4 the conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch; and
.5.5 the possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under-keel
clearance.
v. If, at any time, the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to be relieved when a
manoeuvre or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of that officer shall
be deferred until such action has been completed.
- Performing the navigational watch
i. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 keep the watch on the bridge;
.2 in no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved; and

.3 continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence
of the master on the bridge, until informed specifically that the master has assumed
that responsibility and this is mutually understood.
ii. During the watch, the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at
sufficiently frequent intervals.
iii. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall have full knowledge of the location
and operation of all safety and navigational equipment on board the ship and shall be aware
and take account of the operating limitations of such equipment.
iv. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not be assigned or undertake any
duties which would interfere with the safe navigation of the ship.
v. In cases of need, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hesitate to
use the helm, engines and sound signaling apparatus.
vi. Officers of the navigational watch shall know the handling characteristics of their ship,
including its stopping distances, and should appreciate that other ships may have different
handling characteristics.
vii. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall make regular checks to ensure
that:
.1 the person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course;
.2 the standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when
possible, after any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro-compasses are
frequently compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass;
.3 the automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
.4 the navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning
properly;
.5 the radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph 86 of this
section; and
.6 the UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.
viii. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall notify the master immediately:
.1 if restricted visibility is encountered or expected;
.2 if the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing concern;
.3 if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
.4 on failure to sight land, or a navigation mark or to obtain soundings by the expected
time;
.5 if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in soundings
occurs;

.6 on breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control, steering gear

or any essential navigational equipment, alarm or indicator;
.7 if the radio equipment malfunctions;
.8 in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage;
.9 if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict; and
.10 in any other emergency or if in any doubt.
- Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas

i. Clear weather: The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall take frequent and
accurate compass bearings of approaching ships as a means of early detection of risk of
collision and shall bear in mind that such risk may sometimes exist even when an
appreciable bearing change is evident, particularly when approaching a very large ship or a
tow or when approaching a ship at close range. The officer in charge of the navigational
watch shall also take early and positive action in compliance with the applicable
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972.
ii. Restricted visibility: Comply with COLREGS. In addition, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall:
.1 inform the master;
.2 post a proper lookout;
.3 exhibit navigation lights; and
.4 operate and use the radar.
iii. In hours of darkness: The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch,
when arranging lookout duty, shall have due regard to the bridge equipment and
navigational aids available for use, their limitations, procedures and safeguards
implemented.
iv. Coastal and congested waters: The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area
and corrected with the latest available information, shall be used. Fixes shall be taken at
frequent intervals, and shall be carried out by more than one method whenever
circumstances allow. When using ECDIS, appropriate usage code (scale) electronic
navigational charts shall be used and the ship’s position shall be checked by an independent
means of position fixing at appropriate intervals.
The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all relevant
navigation marks.
v. Navigation with pilot on board: Despite the duties and obligations of pilots, their
presence on board does not relieve the master or the officer in charge of the navigational
watch from their duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. The master and the pilot
shall exchange information regarding navigation procedures, local conditions and the ship’s
characteristics. The master and/or the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall co-
operate closely with the pilot and maintain an accurate check on the ship’s position and
movement.
If in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall seek clarification from the pilot and, if doubt still exists, shall notify
the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the master arrives.
vi. Ship at anchor: If the master considers it necessary, a continuous navigational watch
shall be maintained at anchor. While at anchor, the officer in charge of the navigational
watch shall:
.1 determine and plot the ship’s position on the appropriate chart as soon as
practicable;
.2 when circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether the
ship is remaining securely at anchor by taking bearings of fixed navigation marks or
readily identifiable shore objects;
.3 ensure that proper lookout is maintained;
.4 ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically;
.5 observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
.6 notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags anchor;
.7 ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery is in
accordance with the master’s instructions;
.8 if visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
.9 ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that appropriate
sound signals are made in accordance with all applicable regulations; and
.10 take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and comply
with applicable pollution regulations.

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN
This Notes has been prepared by Me, with taking lots of effort, countless
hours and guidance from many Internet Sources, Senior Authors, Books, IMO sites,
CODES, past notes.
All efforts have been made to ensure correctness of information, before

putting it down in this notes. These notes been prepared taking into consideration, if
one can read from these notes, no need waste their valuable time in searching for
the answers here and there.
These notes are primarily prepared to assist in self preparation of 1MFG

orals. Will like to dedicate this book to all my Marine friends, who are preparing
for Mates orals. This book is intended to be share with others free of cost.
While referring to these notes, please be aware, these notes been prepared in
the Year 2016-17. Any amendments to be made further, by IMO and/or MSC circulars,
do refer to that.
Finally Thank you everyone, who love these notes. Hope and had faith this
book will help and assist many who preparing for 1MFG Orals.
Please share this Notes to everyone.
Jai Mata Di
Sagar Samrat Das

Dassagarsamrat85@gmail.com.

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1MFG // FUNCTION -1 // NAVIGATION

CHIEF MATE (FG) ORALS NOTE

1|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

2|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. PASSAGE PLANNING AS A CHIEF OFFICER?

As a Chief officer, main concern on voyage planning are: -

Q. ICE NAVIGATION. PLANNING, PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED?

The main principle of Ice-Navigation is – “Freedom of Movement of vessel”

- Mark Ice limits on appropriate charts.

3|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

- Be prepared to go “Full Astern” at any time.

4|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Figure : Backing onto Ice: Rudder Amidships. Dead Slow Astern.

5|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

- On deck, all the pipelines are drained and isolated.

- Check heating systems of machinery and accommodation regularly.

- Ship stopped in ice inshore, must always point seaward.

Q. SIGN OF ICE IN THE VICINITY?

Q. WHAT ARE THE EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR HIGH LATTITUDE

Q. WHAT IS POLAR CODE AND POLAR WATER OPERATION MANUAL?

entry into force of the SOLAS amendments is 1 January 2017.

7|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. What is egg diagram?

Q. HOW WILL A MAGNETIC COMPASS BEHAVE AT THE NORTH POLE?

8|Page Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. EFFECT ON GYRO COMPASS IN HIGHER LATTITUDE?

Q. TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS / STREAMS? VARIOUS DEFINATIONS ON

Tide rises and falls. Tidal current floods and ebbs.

lunar semidiurnal range is increased.

The lunar semidiurnal range is decreased.

10 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. WHAT IS SHIP ROUTING SYSTEM / CRITERIA?

SOLAS CH V / REG.10 // IMO Resoln. 572(14).

CRITERIA / PURPOSE / OBJECTIVES: -

- The precise objectives of any routing system are: -

- the separation of opposing stream of traffic so as to reduce the incidence of head on

- the simplication of pattern of traffic flow in converging areas.

- the organization of safe traffic flow in areas of concentrated offshore exploration or

Q. WHAT IS WEATHER ROUTING SYSTEM?

Climatological Routeing: is following the standard route recommended for a particular

12 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. WORLD ROUTIENG CHARTS AND CONTENTS OF SHIP ROUTINE GUIDE?

9 areas with 12 charts each, total of 108 charts.

- North Atlantic Ocean

CONTENTS OF SHIP ROUTING GUIDE: -

PART A – General, Design criteria and Symbols.

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Q. WHAT IS A WIND ROSE?

The thickness of the arrow indicates the wind force.

Q. Use of Admiralty Sailing Directions?

14 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. WHAT IS SHIP REPORTING SYSTEM / CRITERIA?

c. The number of reports should kept to a minimum.

d. No charge should be made for communication of reports.

15 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

h. The purpose of the system should be clearly defined.

Q. WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT INDIAN SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS?

-INDSAR is a supplementary and an advanced computerized ship reporting system,

INSPIRES (Indian Ship Position & Information System: -

16 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

Q. WHAT IS VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES (VTS) AS PER SOLAS. FUNCTIONS

2. Contracting Governments undertake to arrange for the establishment of VTS where, in

17 | P a g e Prepared By: Sagar Samrat Das

straits used for international navigation and archipelagic sea lanes.