NATO

HANDBOOK

O c t o b e r 1995

N A T O O F F I C E O F I N F O R M A T I O N A N D P R ESS
B RUSSELS

R e p r i n te d e d i t i o n , w ith a m e n d m e n t s .
 N O R T H A T L A N T I C TREA T Y O RG AN ISA TIO N
{N ATO )
The N o rth Atlantic Treaty, signed in W ashington on
4 April 1949, created an Alliance for collective defence as
defined in Article 51 o f the U nited N ations Charter. The
Alliance links 14 European countries with the United
States and C anada.

M E M B E R C O U N T R IE S
Belgium, C anada, D enm ark, France, Germ any, Greece,
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the
United States.

The N A TO Emblem, which appears on the cover o f this

book, was adopted as the symbol o f the Atlantic Alliance
by the N o rth Atlantic Council in O ctober 1953. The
circle is the symbol o f unity and cooperation and the
compass rose suggests the com m on road to peace taken
by the 16 m em ber countries o f the Atlantic Alliance.

3
 TABLE O F CO N TEN TS

page
PREFACE 11
What is NATO? 17
The Fundamental Tasks of the Alliance 18
Origins of the Alliance 20
NATO Today 21

PA R T I - T H E T R A N S F O R M A T IO N O F TH E
A LLIA N C E
The Foundations of Europe’s New Security Environment 31
Security Architecture - A Broad Approach 39
The Alliance’s Strategic Concept 40
The North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) 43
Partnership for Peace 50
NATO’s Role in Peacekeeping 58
Alliance Interaction with the Organisation for Security
and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)1 69
The European Security and Defence Identity 72
Arms Control 74
The Challenge of Proliferation 82
The Mediterranean 88

PA R T II - HO W N A TO W O RKS
The Machinery of NATO 93
The Machinery of Cooperation 103
Fundamental Operating Principles 105
Joint Decision-Making 105
Political Consultation 107
Crisis Management 110
The Defence Dimension 111
Nuclear Policy 113
Economic Cooperation 114
Public Information 117
The NATO Security Investment Programme (Common
Infrastructure) 119

' Form erly CSCE.

5
Logistic Support 120
Armaments Cooperation 121
Armaments Planning 123
Standardization 123
Communications and Information Systems 125
Air Defence 125
Civil Emergency Planning 127
Civil and Military Coordination of Air Traffic
Management 129
Scientific Cooperation and Environmental Challenges 130

PA R T III - O R G A N I S A T IO N A N D
ST R U C TU R ES
NATO Headquarters 137
Permanent Representatives and National Delegations 137
The International Staff 137
The Secretary General 139
Private Office 139
Office of the Secretary General 140
Executive Secretarial 140
Office oflnformation and Press 141
N ATO Office of Security 141
Division of Political Affairs 142
Political Directorate 142
Economics Directorate 144
Division of Defence Planning and Policy 144
Force Planning Directorate 144
Nuclear Planning Directorate 145
Division of Defence Support 145
Policy and Coordination Staff 146
Directorate of Armaments Planning, Programmes and
Research 146
Directorate of Command, Control and Communications 147
Directorate of Air Defence Systems 147
Division of Infrastructure, Logistics and Civil Emergency
Planning 148
Infrastructure Directorate 148
Logistics Directorate 148
Civil Emergency Planning Directorate 149
Division of Scientific and Environmental Affairs 150
Office of Management 151

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Office of Financial Control 151
Office of the Chairman of the Budget Committees 151
International Board of Auditors 152
New Structures 152
Production and Logistics Organisations 153
National Military Representatives 155
The Military Committee 155
International Military Staff 156
Organisation of the International Military Staff 157
The Role of Allied Military Forces 161
New Force Structures 163
Force Reductions 164
Characteristics of Military Forces under the New Force
Structure 165
Composition of Forces 165
Availability and Readiness of Forces 167
NATO’s Integrated Command Structure 168
The Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) 169
Allied Command Europe (ACE) 170
ACE Reaction Forces Planning Staff (ARFPS) 173
The Reaction Forces Air Staff (RFAS) 173
NATO Airborne Early Warning Force (NAEWF) 173
The ACE Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) 174
Immediate Reaction Forces (Maritime) 175
The ACE Mobile Force (AMF) 176
The Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic
(SACLANT) 177
Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) 177
Canada-US Regional Planning Group 178
Military Agencies and Organisations 179
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development (AGARD) 179
Military Agency for Standardization (MAS) 179
NATO Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee
(NEWAC) 179
NATO Training Group (NTG) 180
Committee of the Chiefs of Military Medical Services in
NATO (COMEDS) 180
Military Committee Meteorological Group (MCMG) 180
Military Telecommunications and CIS Agencies 180
SHAPE Technical Centre (STC) 181
SACLANT Undersea Research Centre
(SACLANTCEN) 181

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 NATO Defense College 182
The NATO (SHAPE) School 182
NATO Communications and Information Systems (CIS)
School 184

PA R T IV - T H E W ID E R IN S T IT U T IO N A L
FRAM EW ORK
The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE)2 187
The European Union (EU) 192
The Western European Union (WEU) ' 196
The EUROGROUP and the Independent European
Programme Group (IEPG) 203
The Council of Europe 203

PA R T V - N O N -G O V E R N M E N T A L
O R G A N ISA T IO N S
North Atlantic Assembly (NAA) 207
Atlantic Treaty Association (ATA) 210
Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers (CIOR) 212

A PPEN D IC ES
APPENDIX I Members of the North Atlantic
Council 2 19
APPENDIX II Secretaries General of NATO 221
APPENDIX III Members of the Military Committee 223
APPENDIX IV Principal Officials of the NATO
International Staff 225
APPENDIX V Major NATO Commanders 227
APPENDIX VI Principal Officials of the NATO
International Military Staff 227
APPENDIX VII Principal NATO Agencies 229
APPENDIX VIII The North Atlantic Treaty 231
APPENDIX IX The Alliance’s Strategic Concept 235

- Form erly CSCE.

8
APPENDIX X NACC Work Plan for Dialogue,
Partnership and Cooperation
(1994/1995) 249
APPENDIX XI Partnership for Peace Invitation 265
Partnership for Peace Framework
Document 266
APPENDIX XII Declaration of the Heads of State
and Government participating
in the Meeting of the North
Atlantic Council held at NATO
Headquarters, Brussels, on
10-11 January 1994 269
APPENDIX XIII Key Arms Control Treaties and
Agreements ( 1963-1994) 277
APPENDIX XIV Abbreviations in Common Use 283
APPENDIX XV Chronology of Events ( 1945-1994) 295
APPENDIX XVI Financial and Economic Data
Relating to Defence 353
The NATO Integrated Data Service (NIDS) 367

LIST O F ILL U ST R A T IO N S
NATO’s Civil and Military Structure 95
Principal NATO Committees 97
Principal NATO Committees addressing NACC and PFP
activities 101
NATO International Staff 138
Divisions of the International Staff 143
NATO Military Structure 159
NATO International Military Staff 159

9
 PREFACE
In 1989 the world witnessed the beginning o f a process of
fundam ental political change in East-W est relations in­
cluding the dism antling o f the Berlin Wall, the disappear­
ance o f one-party Com m unist states throughout Central
and Eastern Europe, the establishm ent o f free and inde­
pendent states in the republics o f the former Soviet
Union, and the end o f the division o f Europe. The role
played by the N o rth Atlantic Alliance, from its establish­
ment in 1949 to the end o f the Cold W ar four decades
later, was fundam ental in bringing about the conditions
which m ade these developments possible. As the instru­
ment for guaranteeing the security, freedom and independ­
ence o f its members, m aintaining a strategic balance in
Europe and prom oting democratic values and the em er­
gence o f European dem ocratic institutions, the Alliance
created the stability which was the precondition for bring­
ing an end to the adversarial relationship between East
and West.
The advent o f these m om entous events and o f the trans­
form ation o f the security environm ent has had a profound
im pact on the N o rth Atlantic Alliance. M arking the end
o f the political, ideological and military confrontation
between East and West which characterised the Cold
W ar years, it has enabled the Alliance to reorient its
policies, m aintaining its core function o f ensuring the
security o f its mem ber states while pursuing its long-stand­
ing political goal o f establishing a just and lasting peaceful
order in Europe.
In addition to heralding a new era in international
relations o f world-wide significance, the end o f the Cold
W ar has enabled the Alliance to m ake m ajor reductions
in the levels o f its armed forces and in aspects o f their
readiness and deployment. It has also resulted in a
num ber o f new or much expanded tasks for the N orth
Atlantic Treaty Organisation. These include establishing
a process o f dialogue, cooperation and partnership with
the states o f Central and Eastern Europe and with those

11
states which gained independence following the dissolu­
tion o f the Soviet U nion, as well as with other countries
belonging to the O rganisation for Security and C oopera­
tion in Europe (OSCE)1; developing a close working
relationship with the OSCE and with other international
institutions, notably the U nited N ations, the European
U nion and the W estern European Union; and introducing
new m ilitary com m and and force structures reflecting the
changed strategic environm ent.
In the follow-up to the July 1990 L ondon Declaration
on a Transform ed N orth Atlantic Alliance, the Novem ber
1991 R om e D eclaration on Peace and C ooperation and
the publication o f the Alliance’s new Strategic Concept,
consultations am ong m em ber countries o f N A TO contin­
ued to focus on the future structure and organisation of
the Alliance in the light o f m ajor strategic change, decreas­
ing resources for defence and the need to address urgent
new tasks.
These consultations culm inated in far-reaching deci­
sions taken by N A TO Heads o f State and Governm ent
at their January 1994 Summit Meeting in Brussels. This
was the occasion for reaffirming the continuity o f N A TO
and its adherence to its fundam ental tasks as well as
introducing further measures to transform Alliance struc­
tures and policies to accord with new requirem ents. The
16 leaders o f N A T O countries confirmed their com m it­
m ent to the m aintenance o f the transatlantic partnership
through an A lliance dedicated to the sharing o f strategic
interests and to the pursuit o f joint security based on
stability, freedom, independence and dem ocratic princi­
ples. The January Summit M eeting also provided the
occasion for a strong reaffirm ation o f the U nited States’
com m itm ent to Europe by President Clinton.

1 A t the B udapest Sum m it M eeting in Decem ber 1994, CSC E H eads o f

State and G overnm ent announced that with effect from 1 January
1995, the CSC E would be know n as the O rganisation for Security and
C ooperation in E urope (OSCE). F u rth e r references to the CSC E in
this N A T O H andbook should be considered as references to the
OSCE.

12
 M ost prom inent am ong all decisions taken at the Brus­
sels Summit was the invitation to states participating in
the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council (NACC) and
other CSCE states to join N A TO countries in a P artner­
ship for Peace. This m ajor new initiative engages N A TO
and participating Partner countries in concrete cooper­
ation activities designed to increase confidence and co­
operative efforts to reinforce security. It enables par­
ticipating states to strengthen their relations with the
Alliance in accordance with their individual interests
and capabilities.
The Summit Meeting also agreed on measures to make
N A TO structures more flexible and more responsive to
current requirements, including the introduction o f C om ­
bined Joint Task Forces (CJTFs). This concept is de­
signed to make N A T O ’s joint military assets available
for wider operations, for example in the context o f the
emerging European Security and Defence Identity. It
also seeks to reinforce the Alliance’s ability to respond
to crisis situations such as the conflict in former
Yugoslavia, where, since the summer o f 1992, NATO
has provided support for efforts by the U nited N ations
to bring the conflict to an end. N A T O ’s readiness to
provide additional support in this context was also
reaffirmed.
O ther im portant developments at the Summit Meeting
included the launching o f new initiatives to prevent the
proliferation o f nuclear weapons and other weapons of
mass destruction and to provide protection against it;
and agreement to examine measures to prom ote dialogue,
understanding and confidence-building between the coun­
tries in the M editerranean region.
A t meetings o f N A TO Defence M inisters and Foreign
M inisters in M ay and June 1994, and at the end-of-year
M inisterial meetings in Decem ber 1994, progress achieved
in implementing the decisions taken by Heads o f State
and Governm ent was reviewed and additional steps were
taken to m aintain the m om entum o f the Alliance’s con­
tinuing transform ation and to enable it to combine its

13
core functions with new tasks. The im pact o f recent
decisions on the organisation and structure o f N A T O is
reflected as far as possible in this edition o f the
H andbook.

E ditor
Decem ber 1994

14
The N A TO H andbook is not a formally agreed N A TO
docum ent and does not therefore necessarily represent
the official opinions or positions o f individual member
governments on all policy issues discussed.

IS BN 92-845-0083-4

15
 W H A T IS N A T O ?
The N orth Atlantic Treaty o f April 1949 brought into
being an Alliance o f independent countries with a
common interest in m aintaining peace and defending
their freedom through political solidarity and adequate
military defence to deter and, if necessary, repel all possi­
ble forms o f aggression against them. C reated within the
framework o f Article 51 o f the U nited N ations Charter,
which reaffirms the inherent right o f individual or collec­
tive defence, the Alliance is an association o f free states
united in their determ ination to preserve their security
through m utual guarantees and stable relations with other
countries.
The N orth Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) pro­
vides the structure which enables the goals o f the Alliance
to be implemented. It is an inter-governm ental organisa­
tion in which mem ber countries retain their full sover­
eignty and independence. The O rganisation provides the
forum in which they consult together on any issues they
may choose to raise and take decisions on political and
military m atters affecting their security. It provides the
structures needed to facilitate consultation and cooper­
ation between them, in political, military and economic
as well as scientific and other non-m ilitary fields.
N A T O ’s essential purpose is to safeguard the freedom
and security o f all its members by political and military
means in accordance with the principles of the U nited
N ations C harter. Based on com m on values o f democracy,
hum an rights and the rule o f law, the Alliance has worked
since its inception for the establishm ent o f a just and
lasting peaceful order in Europe. This central Alliance
objective remains unchanged. N A TO also embodies the
transatlantic link by which the security o f N orth America
is permanently tied to the security o f Europe. It is the
practical expression o f effective collective effort among
its members in support o f their com m on interests.
The fundam ental operating principle o f the Alliance is
that o f com m on com m itm ent and m utual cooperation

17
am ong sovereign states based on the indivisibility o f the
security o f its members. Solidarity within th^ Alliance,
given substance and effect by N A T O ’s daily work in
political, m ilitary and other spheres, ensures th at no
m em ber country is forced to rely upon its own national
efforts alone in dealing with basic security challenges.
W ithout depriving m em ber states o f their right and duty
to assum e their sovereign responsibilities in the field o f
defence, the Alliance enables them to realise their essential
national security objectives through collective effort.
The resulting sense o f equal security am ong the mem ­
bers o f the Alliance, regardless o f differences in their
circum stances or in their national m ilitary capabilities,
contributes to overall stability within Europe and to the
creation o f conditions which favour increased cooper­
ation am ong Alliance m embers and between members of
the Alliance and other countries. It is on this basis that
new cooperative structures o f security are being developed
which serve the interests o f a Europe no longer subject to
divisions and free to pursue its political, economic, social
and cultural destiny.

T H E F U N D A M E N T A L T A S K S OF T H E A L L IA N C E
T he m eans by which the Alliance carries out its security
policies include the m aintenance o f a sufficient military
capability to prevent w ar and to provide for effective
defence; an overall capability to m anage crises affecting
the security o f its members; and active prom otion of
dialogue with other nations and o f a cooperative ap ­
proach to European security, including measures to bring
ab out further progress in the field o f arms control and
disarm am ent.
T o achieve its essential purpose, the Alliance perform s
the following fundam ental security tasks:
— It provides an indispensable foundation for a stable
security environm ent in Europe based on the growth
o f dem ocratic institutions and com m itm ent to the

18
 peaceful resolution o f disputes. It seeks to create an
environm ent in which no country would be able to
intim idate or coerce any European nation or to
impose hegemony through the threat or use o f force.
— In accordance with Article 4 of the N orth Atlantic
Treaty, it serves as a transatlantic forum for Allied
consultations on any issues affecting the vital interests
o f its members, including developments which might
pose risks to their security. It facilitates coordination
o f their efforts in fields o f com m on concern.
— It provides deterrence and defence against any form
o f aggression against the territory o f any NATO
member state.

— It preserves a strategic balance within Europe.

The structures created within N ATO enable member
countries to coordinate their policies in order to fulfil
these com plem entary tasks. They provide for continuous
consultation and cooperation in political, economic and
other non-m ilitary fields as well as the form ulation of
joint plans for the com mon defence; the establishment of
the infrastructure needed to enable military forces to
operate; and arrangem ents for joint training program mes
and exercises. U nderpinning these activities is a complex
civilian and military structure involving administrative,
budgetary and planning staffs, as well as agencies which
have been established by the mem ber countries o f the
Alliance in order to coordinate work in specialised fields
- f o r example, the com m unications needed to facilitate
political consultation and com m and and control of mili­
tary forces and the logistics support needed to sustain
military forces.
The following sections describe the origins o f the Alli­
ance; the progress which has been made towards the
realisation o f its goals; the steps being undertaken to
transform the Alliance in accordance with the dram atic
changes which have taken place in the political and

19
strategic environm ent; and the m achinery o f cooperation
and structural arrangem ents which enable N A TO to fulfil
its tasks.

O R IG IN S OF T H E A L L IA N C E
Between 1945 and 1949, faced with the pressing need for
economic reconstruction, W estern European countries
and their N orth Am erican allies viewed with concern the
expansionist policies and m ethods o f the U S SR. Having
fulfilled their own wartim e undertakings to reduce their
defence establishm ents and to demobilise forces, Western
governm ents became increasingly alarm ed as it became
clear th at the Soviet leadership intended to m aintain its
own m ilitary forces at full strength. M oreover, in view of
the declared ideological aims o f the Soviet Com m unist
Party, it was evident th at appeals for respect for the
U nited N ations C harter, and for the international settle­
m ents reached at the end o f the war, would not guarantee
the national sovereignty or independence o f dem ocratic
states faced with the threat o f outside aggression or
internal subversion. The im position o f undem ocratic
forms o f governm ent and the repression o f effective oppo­
sition and o f basic hum an and civic rights and freedoms
in m any Central and Eastern European countries as well
as elsewhere in the world, added to these fears.
Between 1947 and 1949 a series o f dram atic political
events brought m atters to a head. These included direct
threats to the sovereignty o f N orw ay, Greece, Turkey
and other W estern European countries, the June 1948
coup in Czechoslovakia and the illegal blockade o f Berlin
which began in April o f the same year.
The signature o f the Brussels Treaty o f M arch 1948
m arked the determ ination o f five W estern European coun­
tries - Belgium, France, Luxem bourg, the N etherlands
and the U nited K ingdom - to develop a com m on defence
system and to strengthen the ties between them in a
m anner which would enable them to resist ideological,
political and m ilitary threats to their security. N egotia­

20
tions with the U nited States and C anada then followed
on the creation o f a single N orth Atlantic Alliance based
on security guarantees and m utual commitments between
Europe and N orth America. D enm ark, Iceland, Italy,
Norw ay and Portugal were invited by the Brussels Treaty
powers to become participants in this process. These
negotiations culm inated in the signature o f the Treaty of
W ashington in A pril 1949, bringing into being a common
security system based on a partnership am ong these 12
countries. In 1952, Greece and Turkey acceded to the
Treaty. The Federal Republic o f G erm any joined the
A lliance in 1955 and, in 1982, Spain also became a
member of NATO.
The N orth Atlantic Alliance was thus founded on the
basis o f a Treaty between member states entered into
freely by each o f them after public debate and due parlia­
m entary process. The Treaty upholds their individual
rights as well as their international obligations in accord­
ance with the C harter o f the United Nations. It commits
each mem ber country to sharing the risks and responsibili­
ties as well as the benefits of collective security and
requires o f each o f them the undertaking not to enter
into any other international com m itm ent which might
conflict with the Treaty.

NATO TO D AY
The fall o f the Berlin Wall in November 1989, the unifica­
tion o f Germ any in October 1990' the disintegration of
the Soviet U nion in December 1991, and dram atic
changes elsewhere in C entral and Eastern Europe, marked
the end o f the Cold W ar era. Since these events, which
have transform ed the political situation in Europe, the
security requirem ents o f the members o f the Alliance
have fundam entally changed. However, as events have
proved, dangers to peace and threats to stability remain.
Following the decisions taken by the N A TO Heads of
State and Governm ent at their Summit Meetings in
L ondon in July 1990, in Rom e in Novem ber 1991, and in

21
Brussels in January 1994, the N o rth A tlantic Alliance has
therefore adapted its overall strategy in the light o f the
changing strategic and political environm ent. A ttention
has focused in particular on the need to reinforce the
political role o f the Alliance and the contribution it can
make, in cooperation with other institutions, in providing
the security and stability on which the future o f Europe
depends.
The Strategic Concept adopted by Heads o f State and
G overnm ent in Rom e in 1991 outlines a broad approach
to security based on dialogue, cooperation and the m ain­
tenance o f a collective defence capability. It integrates
political and m ilitary elements o f N A T O ’s security policy
into a coherent whole, establishing cooperation with new
partners in C entral and Eastern Europe as an integral
part o f the Alliance’s strategy. The Concept provides for
reduced dependence on nuclear weapons and m ajor
changes in N A T O ’s integrated m ilitary forces, including
substantial reductions in their size and readiness, im prove­
ments in their mobility, flexibility and adaptability to
different contingencies and greater use o f m ultinational
form ations. M easures have also been taken to streamline
N A T O ’s m ilitary com m and structure and to adapt the
Alliance’s defence planning arrangem ents and procedures
in the light o f the changed circum stances concerning
security in Europe as a whole and future requirem ents
for crisis m anagem ent and peacekeeping.
A t the Rom e Summit Meeting, N A TO H eads o f State
and G overnm ent also issued an im portant D eclaration
on Peace and C ooperation. The D eclaration set out the
context for the Alliance’s Strategic Concept. It defined
the future tasks and policies o f N A TO in relation to the
overall institutional fram ework for E urope’s future secu­
rity and in relation to the evolving partnership and cooper­
ation with the countries o f C entral and Eastern Europe.
It reaffirmed the Alliance’s com m itm ent to strengthening
the role o f the Conference on Security and C ooperation
in Europe, m aking specific suggestions for achieving this,
and reaffirmed the consensus am ong the m em ber coun­

22
 tries o f the Alliance on the development o f a European
security and defence identity. It underlined the Alliance’s
support for the steps being taken in the countries of
Central and Eastern Europe towards reform; offered
practical assistance to help them to succeed in this diffi­
cult transition; invited them to participate in appropriate
Alliance forums; and extended to them the Alliance’s
experience and expertise in political, military, economic
and scientific consultation and cooperation. A N orth
Atlantic C ooperation Council (NACC) was established
to oversee the future development o f this partnership.
The Rom e D eclaration also examined progress achieved
and specific opportunities available in the field o f arms
control and underlined the Alliance’s adherence to a
global view o f security taking into account broader chal­
lenges which can affect security interests.
Since the publication o f the Rom e D eclaration, addi­
tional measures have been taken at Ministerial Meetings
o f Foreign and Defence M inisters and by the N orth
Atlantic Council in Perm anent Session to further the
process o f adaptation and transform ation o f the Alliance.
Three areas o f activity merit particular mention, namely
the institutional political fram ework created to develop
the relationship between N A TO and its Cooperation
Partners in C entral and Eastern Europe; the development
of cooperation in the defence and military spheres; and
N A T O ’s role in the field o f crisis m anagem ent and
peacekeeping.
Firstly, in the institutional context, the m ost significant
event was the inaugural meeting o f the N orth Atlantic
C ooperation Council which took place on 20 December
1991, with the participation o f the Foreign M inisters or
representatives o f N A TO countries and o f six Central
and Eastern E uropean countries as well as the three
Baltic states. The role o f the N A C C is to facilitate cooper­
ation on security and related issues between the participat­
ing countries at all levels and to oversee the process of
developing closer institutional ties as well as informal
links between them. The 11 states on the territory o f the

23
form er S oviet U nion form ing the Com m onw ealth o f Inde­
pendent States (CIS) became participants in this process
in M arch 1992. G eorgia and A lbania joined the process
in April and June 1992 respectively and, by 1993, there
were 22 N ACC C ooperation Partners. N A C C cooper­
ation has been implemented on the basis o f W ork Plans
initially established annually but encom passing two-year
periods from 1995 onwards.
Subsequent consultations and cooperation in the
N A C C have been wide-ranging but have focused in
particular on political and security-related m atters; peace­
keeping; conceptual approaches to arm s control and disar­
m am ent: defence planning issues and m ilitary matters;
dem ocratic concepts o f civilian-military relations; the con­
version o f defence production to civilian purposes; de­
fence expenditure and budgets; scientific cooperation and
defence-related environm ental issues; dissem ination o f in­
form ation ab out N A TO in the countries o f C ooperation
Partners; policy planning consultations; and civil/m ilitary
air traffic managem ent.
Secondly, in the defence and m ilitary spheres, N A TO
Defence M inisters met with C ooperation Partners for the
first time on 1 April 1992 to consider ways o f deepening
dialogue and prom oting cooperation between them on
issues falling within their competence. The M ilitary C om ­
m ittee held its first m eeting in cooperation session on 10
April 1992 and both forum s now meet with C ooperation
Partners on a regular basis. In parallel, bilateral contacts
and cooperation are being developed between M inistries
o f Defence and at the m ilitary level.
A nd thirdly, against the background o f the crises in the
form er Yugoslavia and elsewhere, attention was directed
increasingly tow ards N A T O ’s potential role in the field
o f crisis m anagem ent and peacekeeping and particularly
its support for U N peacekeeping activities with regard
to the form er Yugoslavia. The m ain initiatives undertaken
by N A T O in this respect are described in P art I (N A T O ’s
Role in Peacekeeping).
D uring 1992 and 1993, the initiatives taken by the

24
Alliance over the previous three years were consolidated
and developed by the mem ber countries of N ATO , often
in coordination with the members o f the N A C C and
other states with which dialogue and cooperation had
been established.
In January 1994 a further Summit Meeting o f NATO
Heads o f State and G overnm ent took place in Brussels.
Alliance leaders confirmed the enduring validity and indis­
pensability o f the N orth Atlantic Alliance and their com ­
mitment to a strong transatlantic partnership between
N orth America and a Europe developing a Com mon
Foreign and Security Policy and taking on greater respon­
sibility for defence m atters. They also reaffirmed the
Alliance’s enduring core functions and gave their full
support to the development o f a European Security and
Defence identity.
A num ber o f additional decisions o f a far-reaching
nature were also taken. These included steps to adapt
further the Alliance’s political and military structures to
reflect both the full spectrum o f its roles and the develop­
ment o f the emerging European Security and Defence
Identity; endorsem ent o f the concept o f Combined Joint
Task Forces; reaffirmation that the Alliance remains open
to membership o f other European countries; the launch­
ing o f the Partnership for Peace (PFP) initiative; and
measures to intensify the Alliance’s efforts against prolif­
eration o f weapons o f mass destruction and their means
of delivery; and consideration o f measures designed to
prom ote security in the M editerranean region.
The implications o f each of these developments and of
their subsequent im plem entation are described in the
following chapters.
At their meeting in Istanbul in June 1994, and again at
the meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council in Brussels on
1 December 1994, Foreign M inisters noted the progress
achieved in implementing the January 1994 Summit
decisions with regard to Partnership for Peace; support
for the development o f the European Defence and
Security Identity and for the W estern European U nion; the

25
development of the C om bined Joint Task Forces concept;
N A T O ’s approach to the problem o f proliferation; and
the M editerranean region.
They discussed the essential role which N A TO contin­
ues to play in reinforcing stability and security in Europe,
emphasising th at N A TO has always been a political
com m unity o f nations com m itted to prom oting shared
values and defending com m on interests. Together with
the defensive capabilities o f the Alliance, this provides
the foundation which makes it possible for the Alliance
to contribute to stability and cooperation in the whole of
Europe. A strong transatlantic partnership and a contin­
ued substantial presence o f U nited States forces in Europe
are fundam ental not only to guarantee the Alliance’s core
functions but also to enable it to contribute effectively to
European security. N A TO m em ber countries are com m it­
ted to continuing the process o f adaptation o f the Alliance
in the context o f a broad approach to building political,
military and economic stability for all European coun­
tries. Foreign M inisters emphasised that they would con­
tinue to consult closely and in an open m anner with all
their Partners about the evolution o f the security architec­
ture o f Europe.
Referring to the statem ent m ade by H eads o f State and
G overnm ent th at the Alliance remains open to mem ber­
ship o f other E uropean states in a position to further the
principles o f the Treaty and to contribute to the security
o f the N o rth A tlantic area, Foreign M inisters also ad­
dressed the issue o f the Alliance’s enlargem ent. In their
com m uniqué, they stated th at enlargem ent, when it
comes, would be p art o f a broad European security
architecture based on true cooperation throughout the
whole o f Europe. It would threaten no one and would
enhance stability and security for all o f Europe. It will
complement the enlargem ent o f the European U nion, a
parallel process which also, for its part, contributes signifi­
cantly to extending security and stability to the new
democracies in th e East.
They announced their decision to initiate a process of

26
examination inside the Alliance to determ ine how NATO
will enlarge, the principles to guide this process and the
implications o f membership. They directed the Council in
Perm anent Session, with the advice o f the M ilitary Au­
thorities, to begin an intensive study, including an exami­
nation o f how the Partnership for Peace can contribute
concretely to this process. Foreign M inisters announced
that the results o f the C ouncil’s deliberations would be
presented to interested Partners prior to the next M iniste­
rial meeting in Brussels.
At their M inisterial meeting in December 1994, NATO
Defence M inisters invited Perm anent Representatives,
with the advice o f N A T O ’s M ilitary Authorities, to ensure
that the im plications o f this process for collective defence
arrangem ents and for the Integrated M ilitary Structure,
are also ad d ressed.
Allies agreed th at it was prem ature to discuss the
timeframe for enlargem ent or which particular countries
would be invited to join the Alliance. They also agreed
that enlargem ent should strengthen the effectiveness of
the Alliance, contribute to the stability and security of
the entire Euro-A tlantic area, and support their objective
o f m aintaining an undivided Europe. It should be carried
out in a way th at preserves the Alliance’s ability to
perform its core functions o f com m on defence as well as
to undertake peacekeeping and other new missions; and
in a way that upholds the principles and objectives o f the
W ashington Treaty. In this context, they recalled the
Preamble to the Treaty (see Appendix VIII).
The Council stated that all new members of N A TO
will be full members o f the Alliance enjoying the rights
and assuming all obligations o f membership; and that
when it occurs, enlargem ent will be decided on a case-by-
case basis and some nations may obtain membership
before others. The Allies reaffirmed their com m itm ent to
reinforce cooperative structures o f security which can
extend to countries throughout the whole o f Europe,
noting th at the enlargem ent o f N A TO should also be
seen in th at context. Against this background, they

27
expressed their wish to develop further the dialogue and
consolidate relations with each o f N A T O ’s Partners. F i­
nally, they stated that having just overcome the division
of Europe, they have no desire to see the emergence o f
new lines o f partition and are working tow ards an intensi­
fication o f relations between N A T O and its Partners on
the basis o f transparency, and on an equal footing.
N A T O ’s right to take its own decisions, on its own
responsibility, by consensus am ong its members, will in
no way be affected.

28
 PARTI

THE TRANSFORMATION
OF THE ALLIANCE
 T H E FO UN DA T IO N S OF E U R O P E 'S N E W
S E C U R IT Y E N V IR O N M E N T
The fourth o f April 1989, which m arked the fortieth
anniversary o f the signing o f the N orth Atlantic Treaty,
coincided with the beginning o f a period o f profound
change in the course o f East-W est and international
relations and a far-reaching transform ation o f the security
environment. The role o f the N orth Atlantic Alliance has
been fundam ental in bringing about the conditions for
change described in these pages. By providing the basis
for the collective defence and com m on security o f its
member countries and preserving a strategic balance in
Europe throughout the Cold W ar period, the Alliance
has safeguarded their freedom and independence. It con­
tinues to fulfil these core functions as well as assuming
new tasks and is building on the foundations it has
created in order to prom ote stability based on common
democratic values and respect for hum an rights and the
rule of law throughout Europe.
The origins and course o f recent developments, the
progress achieved tow ards the realisation o f m any o f the
long-standing goals o f the Alliance, and the principal
issues o f concern facing mem ber countries and their C o­
operation Partners, as they adapt their policies and shape
their com m on institutions to meet new challenges, are
described below.
The roots o f the changes which have transform ed the
political m ap o f Europe can be traced to a num ber of
developments during the 1960s and 1970s which were to
have far-reaching implications. While there were many
aspects to these developments, three events stand out in
particular, namely: the adoption by the Alliance, in De­
cember 1967, of the Harm el doctrine based on the parallel
policies o f m aintaining adequate defence while seeking
a relaxation o f tensions in East-W est relations; the intro­
duction by the G overnm ent o f the Federal Republic of
Germ any in 1969 o f C hancellor Willy B randt’s ‘O stpolitik’,
designed to bring about a m ore positive relationship

31
with Eastern European countries and the Soviet U nion
within the constraints imposed by their governments’
domestic policies and actions abroad; and the adoption
o f the CSCE Helsinki Final Act in August 1975, which
established new standards for the discussion o f hum an
rights issues and introduced measures to increase m utual
confidence between East and West.
A series of similarly im portant events m arked the
course of East-W est relations during the 1980s. These
included N A T O ’s deployment o f Interm ediate-Range N u ­
clear Forces in Europe following the December 1979
double-track decision on nuclear m odernisation and arms
control; the subsequent W ashington Treaty signed in
December 1987, which brought about the elim ination o f
US and Soviet land-based IN F missiles on a global basis;
early signs of change in Eastern Europe associated with
the emergence and recognition, despite later setbacks, o f
the independent trade union movement ‘Solidarity’ in
Poland in August 1980; the consequences o f the Decem­
ber 1979 Soviet invasion o f Afghanistan and the ultim ate
withdrawal o f Soviet forces from Afghanistan in F ebru­
ary 1989; and the M arch 1985 nom ination o f Mikhail
Gorbachev as General Secretary of the Soviet Com munist
Party.
In M arch 1989, in the framework o f the CSCE, prom is­
ing new arms control negotiations opened in Vienna,
between the 23 countries o f N A TO and the W arsaw
Treaty Organisation on reductions in conventional forces
in Europe (CFE).
The N A TO Summit Meeting held in Brussels at the
end o f M ay 1989 against this background was o f particu­
lar significance. Two m ajor statem ents o f Alliance policy
were published, namely a declaration m arking the fortieth
anniversary o f the Alliance, setting out goals and policies
to guide the Allies during the fifth decade o f their cooper­
ation; and a Comprehensive Concept o f Arm s C ontrol
and Disarmament.
The 1989 Summit Declaration contained m any ex­
tremely im portant elements. It recognised the changes

32
that were underway in the Soviet Union as well as in
other Eastern European countries and outlined the Alli­
ance’s approach to overcoming the division o f Europe
and the shaping o f a just and peaceful European order. It
reiterated the continuing need for credible and effective
deterrent forces and an adequate defence, and endorsed
President Bush’s arm s control initiative calling for an
acceleration o f the C FE negotiations in Vienna and for
significant reductions in additional categories o f conven­
tional forces, as well as in U nited States and Soviet
military personnel stationed outside their national terri­
tory. The D eclaration set forth a broad agenda for ex­
panded East-W est cooperation in other areas, for action
on significant global challenges and for measures designed
to meet the Alliance’s long-term objectives.
Developments o f m ajor significance for the entire E uro­
pean continent and for international relations as a whole
continued as the year progressed. By the end of 1989 and
during the early weeks of 1990, significant progress had
been made towards the reform o f the political and econ­
omic systems o f Poland and Hungary; and in the Germ an
Democratic Republic, Bulgaria, C zechoslovakia and,
after a bitter struggle, R om ania, steps had been taken
towards freedom and democracy which went far beyond
short-term expectations.
The promise held out for over 40 years to bring an end
to the division o f Europe and with it an end to the
division o f G erm any took on real meaning with the
opening o f the Berlin Wall in N ovem ber 1989. Beyond its
fundamental symbolism, the m em ber countries o f the
Alliance saw this event as part o f a wider process leading
to a Europe whole and free. The process was as yet far
from complete and faced num erous obstacles and uncer­
tainties, but rapid and dram atic progress had nevertheless
been achieved. Free elections had taken place or were
planned in m ost C entral and Eastern European countries,
former divisions were being overcome, repressive border
installations were being dism antled and, within less than
a year, on 3 O ctober 1990, the unification o f the two

33
Germ an states took place with the backing o f the inter­
national community and the assent o f the Soviet G overn­
ment on the basis o f an international treaty and the
democratic choice o f the G erm an people.
Both the fact and the prospect o f reform brought
about m ajor positive changes in the relationships o f Cen­
tral and Eastern European countries with the inter­
national community, opening up a new and enriched
dialogue involving East and West, which offered real
hope in place of the fear of confrontation, and practical
proposals for cooperation in place o f polemics and the
stagnation o f Cold W ar politics.
Such changes were not accomplished w ithout difficulty
and, as events within the former Soviet U nion and other
parts o f Central and Eastern Europe confirmed, created
new concerns about stability and security. The bold
course of reforms within the Soviet Union itself led to
new challenges as well as severe internal problems. M ore­
over the dire economic outlook and the m ajor difficulties
experienced in many of the countries of C entral and
Eastern Europe in managing the transition from authori­
tarian government and a centrally planned economy to
pluralist democracy and a free m arket combined to make
political forecasting uncertain and subject to constant
revision.
Throughout this period N A TO continued to play a
key role, providing the framework for consultation and
coordination of policies am ong its member countries in
order to diminish the risk of crises which could impinge
on common security interests. The Alliance pursued its
efforts to remove military imbalances; to bring about
greater openness in military m atters; and to build confi­
dence through radical but balanced and verifiable arms
control agreements, verification arrangem ents and in­
creased contacts at all levels.
At the Summit Meeting in London in July 1990, in the
most far-reaching Declaration issued since N A TO was
founded, the Heads o f State and Governm ent announced
m ajor steps to transform the Alliance in a m anner com-

34
mensúrate with the new security environm ent and to
bring confrontation between East and West to an end.
They extended offers to the governments o f the Soviet
Union and C entral and Eastern European countries to
establish regular diplom atic liaison with N A TO and to
work towards a new relationship based on cooperation.
The Declaration had been foreshadowed a m onth earlier
when N A TO Foreign M inisters met in Scotland and took
the exceptional step o f issuing a ‘Message from Turn-
berry’, extending an offer o f friendship and cooperation
to the Soviet U nion and all other European countries.
The announcem ent m ade by President G orbachev in July
1990, accepting the participation o f the united Germ any
in the N orth Atlantic Alliance, was explicitly linked to
the positive nature o f this Message and to the substantive
proposals and com m itm ents made by Alliance govern­
ments in London.
The London Declaration included proposals to develop
cooperation in num erous different ways. Leaders and
representatives of Central and Eastern European coun­
tries were invited to N A TO H eadquarters in Brussels.
Many such visits took place and arrangem ents for regular
contacts at the diplom atic level were made. The Secretary
General o f N A T Ó also visited M oscow immediately after
the London Summit Meeting to convey to the Soviet
leadership the proposals contained in the Declaration
and the Alliance’s determ ination to m ake constructive
use of the new political opportunities opening up.
A joint declaration and com m itm ent to non-aggression
was signed in Paris in N ovem ber 1990 at the same time
as the Treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe and the
publication, by all CSCE m em ber states, o f the ‘C harter
of Paris for a New E urope’. The Joint Declaration for­
mally brought adversarial relations to an end and reaf­
firmed the intention o f the signatories to refrain from the
threat or use o f force against the territorial integrity or
political independence o f any state, in accordance with
the purposes and principles o f the U N C harter and the
Helsinki Final Act. All other states participating in the

35
CSCE were invited to join this commitment. New military
contacts were established, including intensified discus­
sions o f military forces and doctrines. Progress was made
towards an ‘Open Skies’ agreement, perm itting overflights
of national territory on a reciprocal basis in order to
increase confidence and transparency with respect to mili­
tary activities. F urther talks were initiated to build on the
C FE Treaty on reductions o f conventional forces from
the Atlantic to the Ural M ountains, including additional
measures to limit m anpower in Europe. Agreement was
reached to intensify the CSCE process and to set new
standards for the establishment and preservation o f free
societies. M easures were taken to enable the CSCE proc­
ess, which had been successful in enhancing m utual confi­
dence, to be further institutionalised in order to provide a
forum for wider political dialogue in a m ore united
Europe. Internally, N A TO carried out a far-reaching
review of its strategy in order to adapt it to the new
circumstances.
Despite the positive course of many o f these develop­
ments, new threats to stability can arise very quickly and
in unpredictable circumstances, as the 2 August 1990
Iraqi invasion o f Kuwait and subsequent developments
in the G ulf area dem onstrated. N A TO countries used the
Alliance forum intensively for political consultations from
the outbreak of this crisis. They played a prom inent role
in support o f United N ations efforts to achieve a diplo­
matic solution and reiterated their collective defence com­
mitment under Article 5 of the N orth Atlantic Treaty, in
the event o f an external threat to T urkey’s security devel­
oping from the situation in the Gulf. Elements of N A T O ’s
Allied Mobile Force were sent to Turkey in order to
dem onstrate this commitment.
Significantly, the unity of purpose and determ ined op­
position by the international com m unity to the actions
taken by Iraq offered positive evidence o f the transform a­
tion which had taken place in relations between the
Soviet Union and the West. The benefits resulting from
the establishment o f better contacts and increased cooper­

36
ation between them were cleady apparent. The dangers
inherent in the G u lf crisis reinforced the Alliance’s deter­
mination to develop and enhance the level o f its cooper­
ation with the countries o f Central and Eastern Europe
as well as with other countries in accordance with the
goals set by Alliance H eads o f State and Governm ent in
the London Declaration.
This determ ination was further reinforced by the events
of 1991, including the repressive steps taken by the Soviet
Governm ent with regard to the Baltic states prior to
conceding their right to establish their own independence;
the deteriorating situation and outbreak o f hostilities in
Yugoslavia, leading to the break-up o f the Yugoslav
Federation; and the attem pted coup d ’etat in the Soviet
Union itself which took place in August.
Against the background o f these events, 1991 was
marked by an intensification o f visits and diplomatic
contacts between N A TO and the countries of Central
and Eastern Europe in accordance with the decisions
taken by N A T O Heads o f State and G overnm ent in
London. W ith the publication o f the Rom e Declaration
in November 1991, the basis was laid for placing their
evolving relationship on a m ore institutionalised footing.
The establishm ent o f the N orth Atlantic Cooperation
Council in December, bringing together the member coun­
tries of N A TO and, initially, nine Central and Eastern
European countries in a new consultative forum, was a
direct consequence o f this decision. In M arch 1992, partici­
pation in this forum was expanded to include all members
of the Com m onw ealth o f Independent States and by
June 1992, G eorgia and A lbania had also become
members.
The N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council is described
in more detail below. Its inaugural meeting took place on
20 December 1991, just as the Soviet Union was ceasing
to exist. Eleven form er Soviet republics became mem­
bers o f the new C om m onw ealth o f Independent States,
entering a period o f intense political and economic trans­
formation. In N agorno-K arabakh, M oldova, Georgia

37
and elsewhere, outbreaks o f violence occurred and serious
inter-state tensions developed.
The deteriorating situation, continuing use o f force
and m ounting loss o f life in the territory o f the former
Yugoslavia were m ajor causes o f concern which m arred
the prospects for peaceful progress tow ards a new security
environm ent in Europe. Both the N orth Atlantic Council
and the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council endeav­
oured to support efforts undertaken in other forums to
restore peace and to bring their own influence to bear on
the parties concerned.
D uring the same period, discussion o f measures de­
signed to strengthen the role o f the CSCE in prom oting
stability and democracy in Europe, including proposals
outlined in the Rom e D eclaration issued by the Alliance,
culm inated in the signature o f the 1992 Helsinki D ocu­
ment (‘The Challenges o f C hange’) at the CSCE Summit
M eeting held in July 1992. The docum ent describes, inter
alia, new initiatives for the creation o f a CSCE forum for
security cooperation and for CSCE peacekeeping activi­
ties, for which both the N orth A tlantic Council and the
N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council expressed full
support.
At the Novem ber 1991 Summit M eeting in Rome,
the Alliance also published its new Strategic Concept.
This is based on a broad approach to secu rity and sets
out the principles and considerations which determine
the future role o f the Alliance and the transform ation
o f its structures needed to enable it to fulfil its continu­
ing tasks and to play its full role, in cooperation with
other international institutions, in Europe’s future
security.
The key elements o f the Rom e D eclaration and the
principal orientations o f the Strategic Concept are out­
lined in the following sections.

38
 S E C U R IT Y A R C H IT E C T U R E -A B R O A D
APPROACH
The institutional basis for m anaging E urope’s future secu­
rity set out in the Rom e D eclaration takes as its starting
point the fact th at the challenges facing the new Europe
cannot be comprehensively addressed by one institution
alone. They require a fram ework o f m utually reinforcing
institutions, tying together the countries o f Europe and
N orth America in a system o f inter-relating and mutually
supporting structures. The Alliance is therefore working
towards a new E uropean security architecture which seeks
to achieve this objective by ensuring that the roles of
NATO, the CSCE, the European U nion, the Western
European U nion and the Council o f Europe are comple­
mentary. Other regional fram eworks o f cooperation can
also play an im portant part. Preventing the potential
instability and divisions which could result from causes
such as economic disparities and violent nationalism de­
pends on effective interaction between these various
elements.
The N orth Atlantic Alliance and the steps taken by the
Alliance in the fram ework o f the N orth Atlantic C ooper­
ation Council are fundam ental to this process. The Alli­
ance itself is the essential forum for consultation among
its members and is the venue for reaching agreement on
and implementing policies with a bearing on their security
and defence com m itm ents under the N orth Atlantic
Treaty. However, as the evolution o f E urope’s new secu­
rity architecture progresses, the Alliance is developing
practical arrangem ents, along with the other institutions
involved, to ensure the necessary transparency and com­
plementarity between them. This includes closer contacts
and exchanges o f inform ation and docum entation be­
tween the institutions themselves, as well as reciprocal
arrangements regarding participation and representation
in appropriate meetings.
The Strategic Concept adopted by the member coun­
tries o f N A TO in Novem ber 1991, and subsequent policy

39
statem ents adopted by the Alliance thus reflect a broad
approach to security o f which m ilitary capabilities are
one am ong a num ber o f other significant elements. It
also takes into account relevant political, economic and
other factors as well as structural considerations.
The Alliance has in fact always sought to achieve its
over-riding objectives o f safeguarding the security o f its
members and establishing a just and lasting peaceful
order in Europe through both political and military
means. This comprehensive approach remains the basis
o f the Alliance’s security policy. However, in the new
security situation, the opportunities to achieve these objec­
tives by political means, as well as taking into account
the economic, social and environm ental dimensions of
security and stability, are m uch improved. The Alliance’s
active pursuit o f dialogue and cooperation, underpinned
by the com m itm ent to an effective collective defence
capability and to building up the institutional basis for
crisis m anagem ent and conflict prevention, therefore
seeks to reduce the risk o f conflict arising out o f m isunder­
standing or design; to build increased m utual understand­
ing and confidence am ong all European states; to help
m anage crises affecting the security o f the Allies; and to
expand the opportunities for a genuine partnership
am ong all E uropean countries in dealing with common
security problems.

T H E A L L IA N C E 'S S T R A T E G IC C O N C E P T 1
E urope’s security has substantially improved. The threat
o f massive m ilitary confrontation no longer hangs over
it. Nevertheless potential risks to security from instability
o r tension still exist. Against this background, N A T O ’s
Strategic Concept reaffirms the core functions o f the
Alliance including the m aintenance o f the transatlantic

1T he full text o f the Alliance’s Strategic C oncept is reproduced in

Appendix IX.

40
link and o f an overall strategic balance in Europe. It
recognises that security is based on political, economic,
social and environm ental considerations as well as de­
fence. It builds on the unprecedented opportunity to
achieve the Alliance’s long-standing objectives by political
means, in keeping with the undertakings m ade in Articles
2 and 4 o f the N o rth A tlantic Treaty.2 The security
policy of the Alliance is therefore based on three mutually
reinforcing elements, namely: dialogue; cooperation; and
the maintenance o f a collective defence capability. Each
of these elements is designed to ensure that crises affecting
European security can be prevented or resolved
peacefully.
The military dimension o f the Alliance remains an
essential factor if these goals are to be achieved. It contin­
ues to reflect a num ber o f fundam ental principles:
— The Alliance is purely defensive in purpose.
— Security is indivisible. An attack on one member of
the Alliance is an attack upon all. The presence of
N orth American forces in and com m itted to Europe
remains vital to the security o f Europe, which is
inseparably linked to that o f N orth America.
— N A T O ’s security policy is based on collective defence,
including an integrated m ilitary structure as well as
relevant cooperation and coordination agreements.
— The m aintenance o f an appropriate mix o f nuclear
and conventional forces based in Europe will be re­
quired for the foreseeable future.
In the changed circumstances affecting E urope’s security,
NATO forces are being adapted to the new strategic
environment and are becoming smaller and more flexible.
Conventional forces are being substantially reduced and
in many cases so is their level o f readiness. They are also
being made m ore mobile, to enable them to react to a
wider range o f contingencies; and they are being reorgan­
ised to ensure th at they have the flexibility to contribute

2 For the text o f the N orth A tlantic T reaty, see Appendix V III.

41
to crisis managem ent and to enable them to be built up if
necessary for the purposes o f defence. M ultinational
forces play an increasingly im portant role within N A T O ’s
integrated military structure.
Nuclear forces have also been greatly reduced. The
withdrawal of short-range land-based nuclear weapons
from Europe, announced in September 1991, was com­
pleted in July 1992. The overall N A TO stockpile of
substrategic nuclear weapons in Europe has been reduced
to about one-fifth o f the level o f the 1990 stockpile. As
far as strategic nuclear forces are concerned, the START
II Treaty, signed by the US and R ussian Presidents in
January 1993, will eliminate multiple warhead interconti­
nental ballistic missiles and reduce strategic nuclear stock­
piles by two-thirds. The fundam ental purpose o f the
Alliance’s remaining nuclear forces o f either category will
continue to be political: to preserve peace and prevent
war or any kind o f coercion.
The Strategic Concept underlines the need for Alliance
security to take account o f the global context. It points
out risks o f a wider nature, including proliferation o f
weapons o f mass destruction, disruption o f the flow of
vital resources and acts o f terrorism and sabotage which
can affect Alliance security interests. The Concept there­
fore reaffirms the im portance of arrangem ents existing in
the Alliance for consultation am ong the Allies under
Article 4 o f the W ashington Treaty and, where appropri­
ate, coordination o f their efforts including their responses
to such risks. The Alliance will continue to address
broader challenges in its consultations and in the appropri­
ate m ultilateral forums in the widest possible cooperation
with other states.

42
 TH E N O R T H A T L A N T IC COOPERA TIO N
C O U N C IL (N A C C )
The development o f dialogue and partnership with its
new Cooperation Partners forms an integral part of
NATO’s Strategic Concept. The establishm ent o f the
N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council at the end o f 1991
thus m arked a further advance in the evolution o f a new,
positive relationship based on constructive dialogue and
cooperation.
The creation o f the N A C C was the culm ination o f a
number o f earlier steps taken by the members o f the
Alliance in the light o f the fundam ental changes which
were taking place in C entral and Eastern European coun­
tries. At the Ju ly 1990 L ondon Summit Meeting the
Alliance extended its hand o f friendship to them and
invited the governments o f the USSR, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria and R om ania to establish
regular diplom atic liaison with NATO . In Paris, in N o ­
vember 1990, the Alliance members and their new p art­
ners signed a Joint D eclaration stating that they no
longer regarded each other as adversaries.
In June 1991, when Alliance Foreign M inisters met in
Copenhagen, further steps were taken to develop this
partnership. As a result o f high level visits, exchanges of
views on security and other issues, intensified military
contacts and exchanges o f expertise in m any fields, a new
relationship was emerging. W hen N A TO Heads o f State
and Governm ent m et in Rom e in N ovem ber 1991, they
decided to broaden and intensify this dynamic process. In
reaching this decision they took account o f the growth of
democratic institutions throughout C entral and Eastern
Europe, the encouraging experience o f cooperation ac­
quired thus far and the desire shown by their cooperation
partners for closer ties.
As a next step they therefore decided to develop the
institutional basis for consultation and cooperation on
political and security issues. Foreign M inisters o f Central
and Eastern E uropean governm ents were invited to

43
attend a meeting with their N A TO counterparts to issue
a joint political declaration in order to enhance the con­
cept o f partnership, and to work out how the process
should be further developed. Concrete proposals for peri­
odic meetings and contacts with the N orth Atlantic C oun­
cil, the N A TO M ilitary Com mittee and other NATO
committees were put forward, in addition to the creation
o f the NACC.
These steps were designed to enable the member coun­
tries of the Alliance to respond effectively to the changed
situation in Europe and to contribute positively to the
efforts undertaken by their cooperation partners to fulfil
their commitments under the CSCE process and to make
democratic change irrevocable.
Consisting o f Foreign Ministers or Representatives of
the 16 NATO countries as well as the Central and Eastern
European and Baltic States with which N A TO established
diplomatic liaison during 1990 and 1991, the N A C C held
its inaugural meeting on 20 December 1991 with the
participation of 25 countries. Following the dissolution
o f the Soviet Union which took place on the same day,
and the subsequent creation of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS), participation in the NACC
was expanded to include all the member states o f the
CIS. Georgia and Albania joined the process in April and
June 1992 respectively. A t the meeting o f the N A C C held in
Oslo in June 1992, Finland also attended as an observer.
The NA C C holds at least one regular meeting per year
and others according to requirements.
C onsultations and cooperation in the framework of
the NA C C focus on political and security-related issues
where Alliance member countries can offer experience
and expertise. In addition to consultations on political
and security-related m atters, such issues include defence
planning questions and military m atters such as principles
and key aspects o f strategy; force and com m and struc­
tures; military exercises; dem ocratic concepts o f civilian-
military relations; civil /m ilitary coordination o f air traffic
management; and the conversion o f defence production

44
to civilian purposes. Participation in N A T O ’s scientific
and environm ental program m es has also been enhanced
as well as the dissemination o f inform ation about N A TO
in the countries concerned. N A TO governments under­
took to provide appropriate resources to support these
various activities, which were all included in the first
Work Plan for Dialogue, Partnership and Cooperation
issued by the N A C C in M arch 1992.
The 1993 W ork Plan identified a broad range o f new
topics and activities, such as nuclear disarm am ent, re­
gional expert group meetings and, o f particular im por­
tance, crisis m anagem ent and peacekeeping. To this latter
end, the 1993 W ork Plan provided for the establishment
of an Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeeping.
The Ad Hoc G roup started work at the beginning of
1993, with the aim o f developing a com m on understand­
ing on the political and operational principles o f peace­
keeping. A ‘R eport to M inisters on C ooperation in Peace­
keeping’ was issued at the June 1993 meeting o f the
NACC in Athens. The report addressed conceptual ap ­
proaches to peacekeeping; criteria and operational princi­
ples; joint training, education and exercises; and logistical
aspects of peacekeeping. It also included a program m e of
practical cooperation activities in preparation for partici­
pation in peacekeeping operations under U N and CSCE
mandates.
NACC Foreign M inisters met again in Brussels in
December 1993 and published a second report by the
NACC Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeeping,
as well as the 1994 N A C C W ork Plan. This included new
activities in areas such as defence procurem ent, air de­
fence and civil emergency planning. W hen they next met,
in Istanbul, in June 1994, NA C C Foreign Ministers were
able to review progress in the implementation o f the
Partnership for Peace (PFP) inititiative launched by
NATO Heads o f State and G overnm ent in January 1994
(see below). A third report on C ooperation in Peacekeep­
ing was also issued.
The N A CC now consists o f 38 member states. This

45
includes all 16 N A TO mem ber states (Belgium, Canada,
D enm ark, France, Germ any, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Lux­
em bourg, The Netherlands, Norw ay, Portugal, Spain,
Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States)3;
and all former members o f the W arsaw Pact (dissolved in
1991), including all states on the territory o f the former
USSR, i.e., Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bul­
garia3, the Czech Republic, Estonia3, Georgia, H ungary3,
K azakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia3, Lithuania3, M oldova,
Poland3, R om ania3, Russia3, Slovakia, Tajikistan, T urk­
menistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Finland, Slovenia and
Sweden have observers status in the NACC. These three
countries also participate in Partnership for Peace (see
below) and, together with A ustria4 and Ireland, in the work
o f the N A C C Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeep­
ing. This group has now merged with the P FP Political­
M ilitary Steering Com mittee to form the PM SC Ad Hoc
G roup, the role o f which is also described in m ore detail
below. A part from the work o f the Ad Hoc G roup, activities
in the framework o f the NA C C focus on consultation and
cooperation, particularly in the following areas:
— Political consultation
Regular consultations take place on political and
security-related issues o f interest to member states,
including regional conflicts. The N orth Atlantic C oun­
cil meets with A m bassadors o f NA C C C ooperation
Partners and the N A TO Political Com mittee meets
with C ooperation Partner counterparts at least every
other m onth. A num ber o f other N A TO committees
subordinate to the Council also meet regularly with
C ooperation Partner representatives.
__Economic issues
The Economic Com m ittee’s work with Cooperation

>N A C C founding m em ber states. (The Czech and Slovak Federal

Republic, also a founding m em ber, became the Czech Republic and
the Republic o f Slovakia on 1 January 1993.)
t postscript: A ustria joined Partnership for Peace on 10 February 1995,
thus also becoming a N A C C observer.

46
 Partners focuses on defence budgets and their relation­
ship with the economy, security aspects o f economic
developments and defence conversion issues. Expert
meetings, seminars and workshops are held to address
these subjects. D atabases and pilot projects are being
developed in the field o f defence conversion, for exam­
ple to facilitate the transform ation o f military produc­
tion into resources for civilian industrial output. The
annual N A TO Colloquium on economic develop­
ments in N A C C countries also brings together experts
for exchanges o f views on relevant economic topics.
— Information matters
In the field o f inform ation, the N A TO Com mittee on
Inform ation and C ultural Relations meets with repre­
sentatives o f C ooperation Partners annually to discuss
the im plementation o f inform ation activities foreseen
in the N A C C W ork Plan. Cooperative program mes
organised by the N A TO Office o f Inform ation and
Press include visits; co-sponsored seminars and confer­
ences; publications; and Dem ocratic Institutions Fel­
lowships. Assistance is provided by Liaison Embassies
of C ooperation P artner countries in Brussels and by
Contact Point Embassies o f N A TO countries in
N ACC capitals.
— Scientific and environmental issues
An extensive program m e o f cooperative activities in
scientific and environm ental affairs focuses on such
priority areas as disarm am ent technologies, environ­
mental security, high technology, science and technol­
ogy policy and com puter networking. In addition,
N ATO Science Fellowships are awarded to both
NATO and C ooperation Partner scientists for study
or research. Several hundred scientists from NACC
Cooperation P artner countries now participate in
N A T O ’s scientific and environm ental programmes.
— Defence Support issues
Cooperation program mes on topics related to defence

47
 procurem ent programme managem ent, materiel and
technical standardization, technical research, air de­
fence and com m unications and inform ation systems
interoperability, are developed by the Conference of
N ational Arm aments Directors (CN A D ), the N A TO
Air Defence Com mittee (N A D C ) and the NATO
Com munications and Inform ation Systems Com m it­
tee (N ACISC). Specific activities include meetings of
m ultinational expert teams, the provision o f technical
docum entation, workshops, seminars and other joint
meetings.
— Airspace coordination
N A TO ’s Committee for European Airspace C oordina­
tion (CEAC) meets in regular plenary sessions with
specialists from NA C C C ooperation Partner countries
and other nations to focus on civil-military coordina­
tion of air traffic m anagement. Partner country repre­
sentatives also take part in working groups, seminars
and workshops held under the auspices o f CEAC.
— Civil emergency planning
The Senior Civil Emergency Planning Com mittee
meets with C ooperation Partners to oversee a pro­
gramme o f practical cooperation activities (seminars,
workshops and exchange o f inform ation) in the field
o f civil emergency planning and hum anitarian assist­
ance. Emphasis is on disaster preparedness covering
the entire spectrum o f disaster prevention, mitigation,
response and recovery.
— Military cooperation
N A T O ’s M ilitary Com mittee holds annual meetings
at Chiefs o f Staff level with C ooperation Partners
and also meets at M ilitary Representative level. The
first meeting o f the M ilitary Com m ittee in C ooper­
ation Session took place in April 1992. It represented
an im portant milestone in the partnership process
and resulted in a military work plan designed to
develop cooperation and assist C ooperation Partners

48
 with the process o f restructuring their armed forces.
Activities in the framework o f the Military C ooper­
ation program me, which has now been subsumed
under the Partnership for Peace initiative, include
exchanges o f visits between senior NATO officers
and their NACC C ooperation Partner counterparts;
staff level meetings; expert team visits; speakers tours;
seminars and workshops focusing on conceptual and
practical areas, such as ‘Armed Forces in a Dem ocracy’
and ‘M ilitary Training and Education’; and a wide var­
iety of courses at the N A TO Defense College in Rome
and the NATO (SHAPE) School in Oberammergau.

On the basis o f progress reports presented in December

1994 by relevant committees with responsibilities relating
to NACC and PFP activities, NACC Ministers discussed
ways to strengthen further the N A CC consultation and
cooperation process and endorsed a revised NACC W ork
Plan for 1994/1995 (see Appendix X). Consultations ad­
dressed the relationship between NA C C and PFP with a
view to achieving m aximum efficiency and effectiveness
in partnership and cooperation activities and to reinforc­
ing security and stability in the Euro-Atlantic and CSCE
area; the evolution of the European security architecture
and ways to strengthen m utually reinforcing cooperation
between different institutions concerned with security and
regional conflicts, particularly the crisis in the former
Yugoslavia, and other regional issues. It was also decided
that future regular N ACC meetings will be held in con­
junction with the Spring Ministerial meetings o f the
North Atlantic Council.
Defence M inisters held their first joint meeting with C o­
operation Partners on 1 April 1992 to discuss current
issues and to consider ways of deepening their dialogue
and prom oting cooperation on issues falling within their
competence. It was decided to hold a high level seminar
on defence policy and managem ent, covering the role and
constitutional position o f armed forces in democratic
societies as well as strategic concepts and their implemen­

49
tation; and a w orkshop on practical aspects o f defence
m anagem ent and the reform and restructuring o f armed
forces. A further w orkshop on practices and work m eth­
ods relating to the environmental clean-up o f defence
installations was also scheduled.
O ther possible areas for cooperation on defence-related
issues identified by Defence Ministers include discussion
o f concepts such as defence sufficiency, stability, flexibil­
ity, crisis managem ent and peacekeeping; how defence
program mes can be planned and m anaged in democratic
societies (e.g., accountability, financial planning, pro­
gramme budgeting and management, research and devel­
opm ent, equipm ent procurem ent procedures and person­
nel management); consideration o f the legal and constitu­
tional framework regarding the position o f military forces
in a democracy; dem ocratic control o f armed forces;
civil-military relations and parliam entary accountability;
harm onisation o f defence planning and arms control
issues; m atters relating to training and exercises; defence
education; and other topics including reserve forces, envi­
ronm ental concerns, air traffic managem ent, search and
rescue activities, hum anitarian aid and military medicine.

P A R T N E R S H IP FOR P E A C E
Partnership for Peace is a m ajor initiative by NATO
directed at increasing confidence and cooperative efforts
to reinforce security. It engages N A TO and participating
partners in concrete cooperation activities designed to
achieve these objectives. It offers participating states the
possibility o f strengthening their relations with N A TO in
accordance with their own individual interests and
capabilities.
At the January 1994 Brussels Summit, Alliance leaders
announced: ‘We have decided to launch an immediate
and practical program m e that will transform the relation­
ship between N A TO and participating states. This new
program m e goes beyond dialogue and cooperation to
forge a real partnership - a Partnership for Peace.’

50
 The states participating in the N orth Atlantic C ooper­
ation Council (NACC) and other CSCE countries able
and willing to contribute to this program m e have been
invited to join the N A TO member states in this P artner­
ship. Partner states are invited by the N orth Atlantic
Council to participate in political and military bodies at
NATO H eadquarters with respect to Partnership activi­
ties. The Partnership will expand and intensify political
and military cooperation throughout Europe, increase
stability, diminish threats to peace, and build strength­
ened relationships by prom oting the spirit o f practical
cooperation and com m itm ent to democratic principles
that underpin the Alliance.
NATO will consult with any active participant in the
Partnership if that partner perceives a direct threat to its
territorial integrity, political independence, or security.
At a pace and scope determ ined by the capacity and
desire o f the individual participating partners, NATO
will work with its partners in concrete ways towards
transparency in defence budgeting, prom oting democratic
control o f defence ministries, joint planning, joint military
exercises, and creating an ability to operate with NATO
forces in such fields as peacekeeping, search and rescue
and hum anitarian operations, and others as may be
agreed.

Relationship Between the NACC and PFP

The process leading up to the Partnership for Peace
initiative can be traced back to the decisions taken at the
London (M ay 1990) and Rom e (Novem ber 1991) Sum­
mits relating to N A T O ’s transform ation in the post-Cold
War era. A key aspect o f this process was the creation of
the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council - a forum for
dialogue and cooperation between the Alliance and the
emerging democracies in C entral and Eastern Europe
and the newly independent states of the former Soviet
Union - which first met in December 1991.
Partnership for Peace has been established within the

51
fram ework o f the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council.
It builds on the m om entum o f cooperation created by the
NA CC, opening the way to further deepening and
strengthening o f cooperation between the Alliance and
the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and other
states participating in the Partnership, in order to enhance
security and stability in Europe and the whole o f the
N A C C area. Partnership for Peace activities are fully
coordinated with other activities undertaken in the
N A C C framework to ensure maximum effectiveness. This
includes the gradual integration o f practical, defence-
related military cooperation activities in the P FP pro­
gramme. NA C C cooperative activities listed in the NA C C
W ork Plan which cover fields in addition to those under
Partnership for Peace, including regular consultations
on political and security-related issues, continue to be
implemented.

Aims of the Partnership

Concrete objectives o f the Partnership include:
— facilitation of transparency in national defence plan­
ning and budgeting processes;
— ensuring democratic control o f defence forces;
— maintenance o f the capability and readiness to contrib­
ute, subject to constitutional considerations, to opera­
tions under the authority o f the U N a n d /o r the respon­
sibility of the CSCE;
— the development of cooperative military relations with
NATO, for the purpose o f joint planning, training
and exercises in order to strengthen the ability o f PFP
participants to undertake missions in the fields of
peacekeeping, search and rescue, hum anitarian opera­
tions, and others as may subsequently be agreed;
— the development, over the longer term, o f forces that
are better able to operate with those o f the members
o f the N orth Atlantic Alliance.
Active participation in the Partnership for Peace will play

52
an im portant role in the process o f N A T O ’s expansion,
which Alliance Governm ents have stated that they
‘expect and would welcome as part o f an evolutionary
process taking into account political and security develop­
ments in the whole o f Europe’. Article 10 o f the W ashing­
ton Treaty provides for such expansion to include m em­
bership o f other European states in a position to further
the principles o f the Treaty and to contribute to the
security o f the N o rth A tlantic area.

Obligations and Commitments

To subscribe to the Partnership, states sign a Fram ew ork
Document in which they recall that they are committed
to the preservation o f dem ocratic societies and the m ain­
tenance o f the principles o f international law. They reaf­
firm their com m itm ent to fulfil in good faith the obliga­
tions of the C harter o f the U nited N ations and the
principles o f the Universal D eclaration on H um an Rights;
specifically, to refrain from the threat or use o f force
against the territorial integrity or political independence
of any state, to respect existing borders and to settle
disputes by peaceful means. They also reaffirm their
commitment to the Helsinki Final Act and all subsequent
CSCE docum ents and to the fulfilment of the com m it­
ments and obligations they have undertaken in the field
of disarm am ent and arms control.

Implementation
The PFP procedure begins with the signature o f the
Partnership for Peace Fram ew ork D ocum ent by each
participant. The next step is the submission by each
Partner o f a Presentation D ocum ent to N A TO , developed
with the assistance o f N A TO authorities if desired, indicat­
ing the scope, pace and level o f participation in cooper­
ation activities with N A TO sought by the Partner (for
example, jo in t planning, training and exercises). The Pres­
entation D ocum ent also identifies steps to be taken by

53
the Partner to achieve the political goals o f the Partner­
ship and the military and other assets that might be made
available by the Partner for Partnership activities. It
serves as a basis for an Individual Partnership P ro­
gramme, to be agreed between the Partner and NATO.
Partners undertake to make available personnel, assets,
facilities and capabilities necessary and appropriate for
carrying out the agreed Partnership Programme. They
will fund their own participation in Partnership activities
and will endeavour to share the burdens of m ounting
exercises in which they take part.
A Political-M ilitary Steering Committee, as a working
forum for Partnership for Peace, meets under the chair­
manship of the Deputy Secretary General, in different
configurations. These include meetings of N ATO allies
with individual Partners to examine, as appropriate, ques­
tions pertaining to that country’s Individual Partnership
Programme. Meetings with all N A C C /P F P Partners also
take place to address common issues of Partnership for
Peace; lo provide the necessary transparency on Indi­
vidual Partnership Programmes; and to consider the P art­
nership W ork Programme.
To facilitate cooperation activities. NA C C Partner
countries and other PFP participating states are invited
to send permanent liaison officers to NATO H eadquar­
ters and to a separate Partnership C oordination Cell
(PCC) at M ons (Belgium), where the Supreme H eadquar­
ters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) is also located. The
Partnership C oordination Cell is responsible, under the
authority of the N orth Atlantic Council, for coordinating
joint military activities within the Partnership for Peace
and for carrying out the military planning necessary to
implement the Partnership Programmes.
The Partnership Coordination Cell is headed by a
Director whose responsibilities include consultation and
coordination with N A TO ’s military authorities on m at­
ters directly related to the PCC ’s work. Detailed opera­
tional planning for military exercises is the responsibility
of the military com mands conducting the exercise. The

54
Cell has a small num ber o f perm anent staff officers and
secretarial and adm inistrative support.
When N A TO and N A C C Foreign Ministers met in
Istanbul in June 1994, at their regular Spring Ministerial
meetings, they were able to review practical steps taken
towards the im plementation o f Partnership for Peace
since the January Summit. M inisters expressed their satis­
faction with the significant num ber of countries which
had already joined P FP and looked forward to more
countries joining, including other CSCE states able and
willing to contribute to the program me. Three such CSCE
countries which are not members o f the N A C C - Finland,
Slovenia and Sweden - have joined PFP and others are
expected to do so. Such states participate in the delibera­
tions on PFP issues and take part in other N A CC activi­
ties as observers.
By December 1994, Foreign M inisters were able to
record that Partnership for Peace was developing into an
im portant feature of European security, linking NATO
and its Partners and providing the basis for joint action with
the Alliance in dealing with com m on security problems.
Twenty-three countries had joined P FP ,5 many of
which had already agreed Individual Partnership Pro­
grammes with NATO. The PFP C oordination Cell at
Mons was fully operational and practical planning work
had begun, especially with regard to the preparation of
PFP exercises in 1995. Several PFP countries had already
appointed Liaison Officers to the C oordination Cell and
PFP country representatives had taken up the office
facilities provided for them in the M anfred W orner Wing
at NATO H eadquarters. The three PFP exercises held in
Autumn 1994 had launched practical military cooperation
which would improve com mon capabilities. The num ber

5 Albania. Arm enia. Azerbaijan, Bulgaria. Czech R epublic, Estonia,

Finland. Georgia. Hungary, K azakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, L ithua­
nia, M oldova. Poland. Rom ania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden,
Turkm enistan, U kraine and Uzbekistan. Postscript: Belarus, Austria
and M alta joined PFP in January, February and April 1995, respec­
tively. bringing the total num ber o f PFP Partners to 26.

55
of nationally sponsored exercises taking place in the
spirit of PFP was also increasing.
At the December Meeting, Foreign Ministers tasked
the Council in Perm anent Session, the NATO Military
Authorities and the Partnership C oordination Cell to
expedite the implementation of the Individual Partnership
Programmes and reaffirmed their com m itm ent to provide
the necessary resources. They also endorsed a planning
and review process within PFP based on a biennial plan­
ning cycle, beginning in January 1995, designed to ad ­
vance interoperability and increase transparency among
Allies and Partners. At their meeting in December 1994,
NATO Defence Ministers attached particular im portance
to this process as a means o f serving two o f the central
purposes of PFP: closer cooperation and transparency in
national defence planning and budgeting. They confirmed
that PFP provides an effective mechanism to develop the
essential military capabilities required to operate effec­
tively with NATO and to encourage interoperability be­
tween NATO and Partners which is o f value to Partner
countries whether they aspire to N A TO membership or
not.
The Council in Perm anent Session was requested to
examine how best to allocate existing resources within
the N A TO budgets. M inisters agreed to exchange inform a­
tion on respective national efforts to provide bilateral
assistance in support of Partnership objectives, in order
to ensure maximum effectiveness. These measures are
designed to supplement the efforts o f Partners to under­
take the planning needed to fund their own participation
in PFP.
Russia joined the Partnership for Peace in June 1994,
adding its signature to those o f all other participating
countries on the PFP Fram ew ork Document. The Alli­
ance and Russia agreed to develop a far-reaching, coop­
erative relationship, both inside and outside PFP. The
Individual Partnership Programm e under the Partnership
for Peace will be an extensive one, corresponding to
Russia’s size, im portance and capabilities. The Alliance

56
and Russia are also pursuing a broad, enhanced dialogue
and cooperation in areas where Russia has unique and
im portant contributions to make, com m ensurate with its
weight and responsibility as a m ajor European, inter­
national and nuclear power. They have agreed to share
information on issues regarding politico-security related
matters which have a European dimension; to engage, as
appropriate, in political consultations on issues of
common concern and to cooperate in a range o f security-
related areas, including the peacekeeping field. The Alli­
ance’s relationship with Russia, aimed at enhancing
mutual confidence and openness, is being developed in a
way which reflects com m on objectives and complements
and reinforces relations with all other states. It is not
directed against the interests o f third countries and is
transparent to others. Constructive, cooperative relations
between the Alliance and Russia are in the interest of
security and stability in Europe and of all other states in
the CSCE area.
Meeting at the end o f 1994 in M inisterial Session,
NATO Foreign M inisters reiterated their view that a
cooperative European security architecture requires the
active participation o f Russia.
The Council proposed using the opportunity of its
regular M inisterial meetings to meet with Russian M inis­
ters whenever useful. Foreign Ministers reaffirmed their
support for the political and economic reforms in Russia.
They also welcomed the com pletion o f the withdrawal
of Russian troops from G erm any and the Baltic States
and the agreement providing for the withdrawal o f the
Russian 14th Army from M oldova.
Following the Ministerial meeting on 1 December 1994,
NATO Foreign M inisters held a second meeting of the
Council attended by the Foreign M inister of the Russian
Federation, Andrei Kozyrev. The meeting was held with
a view to giving formal approval to the Russian PFP
Individual Partnership Program m e with NATO, as well
as a program m e for a broad, enhanced dialogue with
Russia beyond P F P . At this meeting, Foreign M inister

57
Kozyrev informed the Council that, prior to proceed­
ing with such approval, his Governm ent would require
more time to study implications of statements made
by the Council in the com m uniqué issued at the con­
clusion of its meeting held earlier in the day, particularly
regarding references to the future enlargement o f the
Alliance.
Ukraine joined the Partnership for Peace in February
1994, when Foreign M inister Anatoly Zlenko visited
NATO to sign the PFP Fram ework Document. Ukraine
subsequently submitted its P FP Presentation Document
on 25 May 1994. In their com m uniqué issued follow­
ing the meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council on 1
December, NATO Foreign Ministers emphasised the
importance they attached to developing N A TO ’s rela­
tionship with Ukraine and looked forward to the com ­
pletion of the U krainian P FP Individual Partnership
Programme.

NA T O ’S R O L E IN PEA CEKEEPING
The Political and Strategic Framework

The Alliance’s Strategic Concept adopted at the Rome

Summit recognised that 'the potential o f dialogue and
cooperation within all of Europe m ust be fully developed
in order to help to defuse crises and to prevent conflicts’.
NATO Heads of State and Governm ent announced that
to this end they would support the role o f the Conference
on Security and C ooperation in Europe (CSCE) and its
institutions, and recognised that other bodies, including
the European Community, Western European U nion and
United Nations could have im portant roles to play.
The political basis for the Alliance’s role in peacekeep­
ing in support of the CSCE was formalised at the Minis­
terial Meeting of the N orth Atlantic Council in Oslo, in
June 1992, when NATO Foreign M inisters announced
their readiness ‘to support, on a case by case basis in
accordance with their own procedures, peacekeeping ac­

58
tivities under the responsibility o f the CSCE’. This in­
cluded m aking available Alliance resources and expertise
for peacekeeping operations.
The deterioration o f the situation in the form er Y ugo­
slavia during this period led to a num ber of im portant
resolutions by the U N Security Council aimed at restoring
peace and bringing an end to the large scale loss of life
and hum an suffering in the area.
In December 1992, the Alliance stated its readiness to
support peacekeeping operations under the authority of
the U N Security Council, which has the prim ary responsi­
bility for international peace and security. N A TO Foreign
Ministers reviewed peacekeeping and sanctions enforce­
ment measures already being undertaken by N A TO coun­
tries, individually and as an Alliance, to support the
implementation of U N Security Council Resolutions relat­
ing to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia. They indi­
cated that the Alliance was ready to respond positively to
further initiatives that the UN Secretary General might
take in seeking Alliance assistance in this field.
In 1992 and 1993, the Alliance took several key deci­
sions in support o f UN peacekeeping initiatives in former
Yugoslavia, leading to operations by N A TO naval forces,
in conjunction with the W EU, to m onitor and subse­
quently enforce the U N em bargo in the Adriatic; and to
enforce the no-fly zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina hitherto
monitored by N A TO aircraft. The Alliance also offered
to provide close air support to the U N Protection Force
(U N PR O FO R ) in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and authorised
air strikes to relieve the strangulation o f Sarajevo and
other threatened areas.
At the January 1994 N A TO Summit in Brussels, Alli­
ance leaders reaffirmed their offer to support U N or
CSCE peacekeeping operations and directed the N orth
Atlantic Council in Perm anent Session to examine how
political and military structures and procedures could be
adapted to conduct Alliance missions, including peace­
keeping, more efficiently. As part o f this process, they
endorsed the concept o f Combined Joint Task Forces as

59
a means of facilitating contingency operations, including
operations with participating nations outside the Alliance,
with a view to providing separable but not separate
military capabilities that could be employed by N A TO or
the WEU.
The PFP program m e launched at the Brussels Summit
provides for joint planning and joint military exercises
and the development by P FP Partners of capabilities
which would enable them to operate with N A TO forces
in such fields as peacekeeping, search and rescue, and
hum anitarian operations. The first joint peacekeeping
field exercises under the auspices o f Partnership for Peace
were held in Autum n 1994.
Alliance Heads o f State and G overnm ent also repeated
N A TO ’s readiness to carry out air strikes in Bosnia-Herze-
govina. In February, the Council authorised air strikes
against any further use of artillery and m ortars in and
around Sarajevo and established a 20-kilometre heavy
weapons exclusion zone around the city. Two m onths
later, in April, similar decisions were taken with respect
to G orazde and other safe areas in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
When they met in December 1994, against the back­
ground o f increased tension and worsening conflict in the
former Yugoslavia, N A TO Foreign M inisters again made
it clear that they shared the com m on goal o f bringing peace
to the region through a negotiated settlement. The Alli­
ance’s purpose in this context is to support the United
N ations and the C ontact G roup (France, G erm any, Russia,
the United Kingdom and the United States) in their efforts
to achieve this objective. They reaffirmed their com m itm ent
to provide close air support for U N P R O F O R and to use
N A TO air power, in accordance with existing arrangem ents
with the United N ations. They would continue, together
with the W EU, the maritim e em bargo enforcement opera­
tions in the Adriatic and were determined to m aintain
Alliance unity and cohesion in working together with the
international com m unity to find a just and peaceful
solution in Bosnia and elsewhere in the former
Yugoslavia.

60
 M aritime Operations
NATO ships belonging to the Alliance’s Standing Naval
Force M editerranean, assisted by N A TO M aritim e Patrol
Aircraft (M PA), began m onitoring operations in the A dri­
atic in July 1992. These operations were undertaken in
support o f the U N arms em bargo against all republics of
the former Yugoslavia (U N Security Council Resolution
713) and the sanctions against the Federal Re­
public o f Yugoslavia (Serbia and M ontenegro) (UN SC
Resolution 757).
In Novem ber 1992, as an extension o f the maritime
m onitoring operations, N A TO and W EU forces in the
Adriatic began enforcement operations in support o f UN
sanctions. O perations were then no longer restricted to
registering possible violators but enabled m aritim e forces
to stop, inspect and divert ships when required. By the
end o f December 1994, some 44,500 ships had been
challenged and, when necessary, diverted and inspected.
A joint session o f the N orth Atlantic Council and the
Council of the W estern European Union was held on 8
June 1993. The Councils approved the combined N A T O /
WEU concept o f operations, which included a single
command and control arrangem ent under the authority
of the Councils o f both organisations. O perational con­
trol of the com bined N A T O /W E U Task Force was del­
egated, through N A T O ’s Supreme Allied C om m ander
Europe (SA CEU R), to the C om m ander Allied Naval
Forces Southern Europe (CO M N A V SO U TH ). The opera­
tion was nam ed ‘Sharp G u a rd ’.
In N ovem ber 1994, the U nited States Congress enacted
legislation limiting US participation in O peration ‘Sharp
G uard’. N A TO M ilitary Authorities were tasked to un­
dertake an assessment o f this development and adjust­
ments were made to ensure the full enforcement o f all
UN Security Council R esolutions which form the basis
of N A T O ’s involvement in form er Yugoslavia. At the
Ministerial meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council in
December, N A TO Foreign M inisters reaffirmed that, to-

61
gether with the W EU, the Alliance would continue the
maritime em bargo enforcement operations in the
Adriatic.

Air Operations
NATO Airborne Early W arning and C ontrol (AWACS)
aircraft began m onitoring operations in October 1992, in
support of UN Security Council Resolution 781, which
established a no-fly zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina. D ata
on possible violations of the no-fly zone has been passed
to the appropriate U N authorities on a regular basis.
On 31 M arch 1993, the U N Security Council passed
Resolution 816 authorising enforcement of the no-fly
zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina and extending the ban to
cover flights by all fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft
except those authorised by U N P R O F O R . In the event of
further violations, it authorised U N member states
to take all necessary measures to ensure compliance.
An enforcement operation, called ‘Deny Flight’, began
on 12 April 1993. It initially involved some 50 fighter and
reconnaissance aircraft (later increased to over 100) from
various Alliance nations, flying from airbases in Italy and
from aircraft carriers in the Adriatic. By the end of
December 1994, over 47,OOO sorties had been flown by
fighter and supporting aircraft. On 28 February 1994,
four warplanes violating the no-fly zone over Bosnia-
Herzegovina were shot down by N A TO aircraft. This
was the first military engagement ever undertaken by the
Alliance.
In June 1993, NATO Foreign Ministers decided to
offer protective air power for the United N ations Protec­
tion Force (U N PR O FO R ) in the perform ance o f its
overall mandate. In July, N A TO aircraft began flying
training missions for providing such Close Air Support
(CAS). On 10 and 11 April 1994, following a request
from the U N Force Com m and, N A TO aircraft provided
Close Air Support to protect U N personnel in Gorazde,
a UN-designated safe area in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

62
 At the January 1994 Brussels Summit, Alliance leaders
reaffirmed their readiness, under the authority o f the U N
Security Council and in accordance with the decisions of
the N orth Atlantic Council o f 2 and 9 August 1993, to
carry out air strikes in order to prevent the strangulation
of Sarajevo, the safe areas and other threatened areas
in Bosnia-Herzegovina. On 9 February 1994, the N orth
Atlantic Council condem ned the continuing siege of
Sarajevo and decided to carry out air strikes against
any further use o f artillery and m ortars in and around
Sarajevo. The heavy weapons of any o f the parties re­
maining in an area within 20 kilometres o f the centre
of the city after 20 February, would be subject to
NATO air strikes conducted in close coordination with
UN PRO FO R .
On 21 February, following the expiry o f the above
deadline, N A TO ’s Secretary General announced that the
objectives set on 9 February were being met and that U N
and NATO officials had recommended that air power
should not be used at that stage.
In response to a written request by the U N Secretary
General, the N orth Atlantic Council took further deci­
sions on 22 April to support the U N in its efforts to end
the siege o f G orazde and to protect other safe areas.
These decisions were made public in two separate state­
ments, issued by the Council.6 Unless Bosnian Serb
attacks against the safe areas o f G orazde ceased immedi­
ately, and Bosnian Serb forces withdrew three kilometres
from the centre o f the city by 00:01 G M T on 24 April,
and unless hum anitarian relief convoys and medical assist­
ance teams were allowed free access by the same date, the
Council announced that the C om m ander in Chief of
Allied Forces Southern Europe was authorised to conduct
air strikes against Bosnian Serb heavy weapons and other
military targets within a 20-kilometre radius o f Gorazde,
in accordance with the procedural arrangem ents worked

6 PR(94)31 an d PR (94)32 o f 22 A pril 1994.

63
out between NATO and U N P R O F O R following the
Council’s decisions o f 2 and 9 August 1993.
It further declared that after 00:01 G M T on 27 April,
specified military assets and installations would be subject
to air strikes if any Bosnian Serb heavy weapons remained
within a 20-kilometre exclusion zone around the centre of
Gorazde. Regarding other UN-designated safe areas
(Bihac, Srebrenica, Tuzla, and Zepa), the Council au th o r­
ised air strikes if these areas were attacked by heavy
weapons from any range. These other safe areas could
also become exclusion zones if, in the com m on judgem ent
of the NATO and U N M ilitary Com m anders, there was
a concentration or movement of heavy weapons within a
radius o f 20 kilometres around them. These measures
would be carried out using agreed coordination proce­
dures with U N PR O FO R (the so-called ‘dual key' system).
On 5 August, NATO aircraft attacked a target within
the Sarajevo Exclusion Zone at the request of U N P R O ­
FOR. The air strikes were ordered following agreement
between NATO and U N P R O F O R , after weapons were
seized by Bosnian Serbs from a weapons collection site
near Sarajevo.
On 22 September, following a Bosnian Serb attack on
an U N PR O FO R vehicle near Sarajevo, N A TO aircraft
carried out an air strike against a Bosnian Serb tank, at
the request of U N PR O FO R .
On 28 October 1994, following meetings in New York
between UN and NATO officials, a joint statem ent was
issued on understandings which had been reached concern­
ing the use of NATO air power in Bosnia-Herzegovina
in support of the relevant U N resolutions.
On 21 November 1994, N A TO aircraft attacked the
Udbina airfield in Serb-held C roatia. The air strike,
conducted at the request of and in close coordination
with U N PR O FO R , was in response to recent attacks
launched from that airfield against targets in the Bihac
area of Bosnia-Herzegovina. It was carried out under the
authority of the N orth Atlantic Council and United
Nations Security Council Resolution 958.

64
 Attacks on two N ATO aircraft were launched from a
surface-to-air missile site south o f Otoka, in north-west
Bosnia-Herzegovina. Following reconnaissance missions
which dem onstrated that the site posed a continued threat
lo aircraft participating in 'Deny Flight’, and in accord­
ance with self-defence measures previously announced,
an air strike was conducted against this site by NATO
aircraft, in close coordination with U N P R O F O R , on 23
November 1994.
On 24 November 1994, the N orth Atlantic Council
also decided that N A TO air power could be used, under
the provisions o f United N ations Security Council Resolu­
tion 958, against aircraft flying in C roatian air space
which have engaged in attacks on or which threaten UN
safe areas, subject to m aking arrangem ents with the
Croatian authorities.

Operations on the Ground

Ground operations relating to the crisis in former Yugo­
slavia began in late 1992. In September, N A TO allies
expressed their willingness to support actions undertaken
under U N responsibility to ensure the delivery of hum ani­
tarian assistance in Bosnia-Herzegovina, including by
contributing personnel or other resources such as trans­
portation, com m unications and logistics. In addition,
NATO declared its readiness to support the U N in m oni­
toring heavy weapons in Bosnia-Herzegovina and offered
to provide contingency planning for these tasks to the
UN and the CSCE.
In N ovember 1992, the U N Protection Force in
Bosnia-Herzegovina was provided with an operational
headquarters drawn from N A T O ’s N orthern Army
Group (N O R T H A G ), including a staff of some 100
personnel, equipm ent, supplies and initial financial
support. C ontacts were established between the Sup­
reme H eadquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)
and UN H eadquarters in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in
Zagreb.

65
 Contingency Planning
Throughout this period, N A TO conducted contingency
planning for a range of options to support U N activities
relating to the crisis. At the request o f the United Nations,
the Alliance provided contingency plans for enforcement
of the no-fly zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina; the establish­
ment of relief zones and safe havens for civilians in
Bosnia; and ways to prevent the spread of the conflict to
Kosovo and the Form er Yugoslav Republic o f M acedo­
nia. Possible contingency arrangem ents for the protection
of hum anitarian assistance, m onitoring o f heavy weap­
ons, and protection of UN forces on the ground, were
also made available to the UN.
In M arch 1993, the N orth Atlantic Council directed
NATO Military Authorities to plan for contingency op­
tions for the possible im plementation by N A TO of the
military aspects of a U N peace plan for Bosnia-Herze-
govina, should such a plan be signed by all parties to the
conflict; and at the January 1994 NATO Summit, Alli­
ance leaders reaffirmed their determ ination to contribute
to the implementation of a viable negotiated settlement
to the conflict.
In December 1994, Alliance Defence M inisters stressed
that they believed that U N P R O F O R should continue
its crucial mission of providing hum anitarian assistance
and saving human life. However, N A TO M ilitary A uth­
orities were undertaking contingency planning to assist
U N PR O FO R in withdrawing, should that become un­
avoidable.

Implications of Peacekeeping Activities for NATO Defence

Planning

The Alliance’s commitment to peacekeeping, either by

the use of collective assets, or in the context o f individual
national contributions to peacekeeping missions, has im­
portant implications for N A TO ’s defence planning. Ac­
cordingly, when NATO Ministers o f Defence met in

66
December 1992, they tasked the Defence Planning C om ­
mittee to identify specific measures in such areas as
command and control, logistic support, infrastructure,
and training and exercises which would enhance N A T O ’s
peacekeeping capabilities and could be refined through
NATO’s force planning process. They stipulated that
support for UN and C SCE peacekeeping should be in­
cluded am ong the missions o f N A TO forces and headquar­
ters. Collective defence planning targets adopted by the
Alliance take into account these requirements.

Cooperation in Peacekeeping
In parallel with efforts undertaken by the 16 member
countries of the Alliance, peacekeeping is the subject of
consultations within the N orth Atlantic C ooperation
Council (NACC) and in the fram ework of Partnership
for Peace.
At the December 1992 NA C C meeting, Foreign M inis­
ters from N A TO countries and the 22 C ooperation P art­
ners jointly signalled their determ ination to prevent the
current process of transition in Europe from being under­
mined by regional tensions, conflict and ethnic violence;
and to contribute to CSCE goals in preventing conflicts,
managing crises and settling disputes peacefully. They
slated their readiness to support and contribute on a case-
by-case basis to peacekeeping operations under U N or
CSCE authority. Accordingly, they agreed to cooperate
in preparation for UN or CSCE peacekeeping operations,
and to share experience and expertise in peacekeeping
and related m atters with one another and with other
CSCE states. The N A C C W ork Plan for 1993 included
specific provisions for cooperation on peacekeeping and
an NACC Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeep­
ing was established.
A report by the Ad Hoc G roup was adopted and
published at the M inisterial M eeting of the N A C C in
Athens in June 1993. It reflected a broad understanding
on definitions and principles for NA C C cooperation in

67
peacekeeping as well as on measures for practical cooper­
ation in several areas, including the sharing o f experience,
development of concepts and doctrine, training, planning
and logistics and the organisation of specialised seminars
and workshops. The sharing o f national experience in all
of these areas, and in more technical fields such as
communications and equipm ent interoperability, has con­
tinued. In December 1993, NA C C Foreign Ministers
approved a second report reflecting the progress in im­
plementing practical measures and a further progress
report was approved at the NA C C Ministerial Meeting
in Istanbul in June 1994. This addressed political and
conceptual issues of peacekeeping and practical cooper­
ation in peacekeeping planning as well as in more techni­
cal spheres.
Peacekeeping activities are also an im portant compo­
nent of the Partnership for Peace initiative launched by
NATO Heads of State and Governm ent in January
1994. This is reflected in many o f the Individual Partner­
ship Programmes being developed with participating
countries.
In Istanbul, Ministers decided to merge the Ad Hoc
G roup with the Political-Military Steering Committee on
Partnership for Peace. The merged group (the PM SC/
AHG on Cooperation in Peacekeeping) operates in the
N A C C /P F P framework. A num ber of interested CSCE
member states with specific experience in peacekeeping
have been invited to participate in the work o f the group
and are actively contributing to it. These include Finland,
Sweden and Slovenia - now participating also in their
capacity as PFP Partners - as well as Austria and Ireland.
A representative of the CSCE Chairman-in-Office regu­
larly attends the meetings o f the G roup and the United
Nations has also participated in its activities. In addition
to the above activities, seminars on different aspects of
peacekeeping have been held under NA C C auspices in
Prague, Copenhagen, Oslo and Budapest.
A Seminar on Peacekeeping and its Relationship with
Crisis M anagement was also held at N A TO Headquarters

68
in Brussels from 5-7 O ctober 1994. The seminar was
attended by 38 countries as well as representatives of
other international organisations. A sum m ary of the con­
clusions of the seminar formed part of a Progress R eport
to Ministers on cooperation in peacekeeping, published
at the meeting o f the NACC on 2 December 1994. The
Progress Report sets out an action plan for further work,
including the development of a com m on understanding
of operational concepts and requirements for peacekeep­
ing; peacekeeping training, education and exercises; and
logistic aspects.
Three peacekeeping exercises - in a combined N A C C /
PFP context - took place in A utum n 1994: one in Poland,
one in the Netherlands, and one maritim e exercise. In
addition, a num ber o f bilateral and multilateral exer­
cises have already taken place in this context and a
substantial program m e o f exercises is planned for 1995
and beyond.

A L L IA N C E IN T E R A C T IO N W IT H T H E
ORGA N ISA T IO N FOR S E C U R IT Y AN D
COOPERA T IO N IN EU R O P E (O SC E)1
A key com ponent o f Europe’s security architecture is
the Organisation for Security and C ooperation in
Europe. The OSCE is the only forum which brings to­
gether all the countries of Europe, as well as C anada
and the United States, under a com m on framework
with respect to hum an rights, fundam ental freedoms,
democracy, the rule o f law, security and economic co­
operation. The origins and current structures of the
OSCE are described in P art IV.
Through their num erous individual and collective con­
tributions and proposals, ranging from confidence-build­
ing measures to hum an rights commitments, Alliance
member states have sustained and prom oted the CSCE
process since its creation and have played a m ajor role at

7 Formerly CSCE: renam ed OSCE with effect from 1 January 1995.

69
key stages o f its development. The Alliance actively sup­
ported the institutionalisation o f the CSCE process, de­
cided upon at the Paris CSCE Summit Meeting in 1990,
and put forward additional concrete proposals at its
Rome Summit in 1991 to develop further the potential
role of the CSCE.
In the Final Com muniqué o f the Oslo Ministerial
meeting of the N orth Atlantic Council on 4 June 1992,
NATO member countries stated their readiness to sup­
port on a case-by-case basis, in accordance with their
own procedures, peacekeeping activities under the res­
ponsibility of the CSCE, including m aking available
Alliance resources and expertise. In their June 1993 com­
muniqué. NATO Foreign Ministers reaffirmed these
commitments.
The practical support offered by NATO for the work
o f the CSCE was recognized in the 1992 Helsinki Summit
Declaration. The CSCE participating states agreed to
invite NATO, as well as other relevant international
organisations, to attend CSCE meetings and to contribute
to its work on specialised topics.
At the CSCE Forum for Security Cooperation, NATO
member states, in association with other participating
states, have tabled a num ber o f substantive proposals
addressing issues such as harm onisation, exchange of
information on defence planning, non-proliferation and
arms transfers, military cooperation and contacts, global
exchange of military inform ation and stabilising measures
for localised crisis situations.
The Alliance is continuing to contribute to the enhance­
ment of the CSCE’s operational and institutional capacity
to prevent conflicts, manage crises and settle disputes
peacefully. The Secretary General o f NATO , Manfred
W ôrner, addressed the CSCE Council meeting in Rome
on 30 November 1993, and emphasised that NATO
would do its utm ost to strengthen the CSCE.
At the January 1994 Brussels Summit, Alliance leaders
reaffirmed this commitment and pledged their active sup­
port for efforts to enhance the C SC E’s operational capa­

70
bilities for early warning, conflict prevention and crisis
management.
On the eve o f the CSCE Summ it Meeting in Budapest
in December 1994, N A TO Foreign M inisters expressed
their support for the objectives of the Summit in num er­
ous fields. As a regional arrangem ent under C hapter VIII
of the UN Charter, the CSCE ‘should play a key role for
conflict prevention and crisis m anagem ent and resolution
in its area. In accordance with Article 52 of the UN
Charter, CSCE participating states should make every
effort to achieve the peaceful settlement of local disputes
through the C SCE, before referring them to the UN
Security Council.’
Addressing the situation in Southern Caucasus, which
continued to be of special concern, Allied Governments
emphasised that lasting solutions to conflicts in the
region, particularly in and around N agorno-K arabakh,
can only be reached under the aegis o f the U N and
through CSCE mechanisms. They expressed the hope
that the CSCE would be in a position to contribute
effectively to the peace process in N agorno-K arabakh,
including through the establishm ent of a CSCE m ultina­
tional peacekeeping operation.
The fifth CSCE Review Conference took place in Buda­
pest from 10 October to 2 December 1994, concluding
with a Summit Meeting on 5-6 December, attended by the
new NATO Secretary General Willy Claes. In his remarks
to CSCE leaders, the Secretary General emphasised that
NATO was ready to put its resources and experience
at the disposal of the CSCE to support its peacekeeping
and crisis m anagem ent tasks, as it had done for the
United Nations. Lessons learned in the former Yugosla­
via would be taken into account. New patterns o f cooper­
ation through the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council
and the Partnership for Peace should also be regarded
as both complem entary to and supportive of CSCE
activities.
At a meeting with UN and regional and other organisa­
tions convened by the CSCE C hairm an in office on 5

71
December, the NATO Secretary General emphasised the
need for increased com plem entarity o f effort between
international organisations, based on a rational allocation
of tasks and missions. Indicating that the Alliance re­
mains ready to support peacekeeping and other opera­
tions, based on a U N or CSCE m andate. He emphasised
that effectiveness required efficient interaction and coordi­
nation at the political, strategic as well as the tactical
level.
The participation o f the CSCE Presidency in the Ad
Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeeping is evidence
of the complem entarity and transparency which character­
ise the development of cooperation in the field o f peace­
keeping taking place in the NA C C and P FP frame­
work.

T H E E U R O P E A N S E C U R I T Y A N D D EF EN CE
IDENTITY
A further im portant element in the progress towards the
new security architecture was the Treaty on European
Union, signed by the leaders of the European Community
in M aastricht in December 1991. On 1 Novem ber 1993,
upon completion of the ratification process o f the Maas­
tricht Treaty, the European C om m unity became the Euro­
pean Union.
In January 1994, NATO Heads o f State and Govern­
ment welcomed the entry into force o f the Treaty and the
launching of the European Union, as a means o f strength­
ening the European pillar o f the Alliance and allowing it
to make a more coherent contribution to the security of
all the Allies. In their Summit Declaration they also
welcomed the close and growing cooperation between
NATO and the Western European Union (W EU) (see
part IV) achieved on the basis of agreed principles of
complementarity and transparency. They further an­
nounced that they ‘stand ready to m ake collective assets
of the Alliance available, on the basis o f consultations in
the N orth Atlantic Council, for W EU operations under­

72
taken by the European Allies in pursuit o f their com m on
Foreign and Security Policy’.
In this context, as part o f the process of further expand­
ing cooperation with the W EU as well as developing and
adapting N A TO ’s structures and procedures to new tasks,
the Heads o f State and G overnm ent endorsed the concept
of Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTFs). They directed
NATO M ilitary Authorities to develop the concept and
establish the necessary capabilities. Detailed work on the
implementation o f the concept is continuing. At the Minis­
terial meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council o f 1 December
1994, Ministers tasked the Council in Perm anent Session to
examine ways to facilitate the further development o f the
concept, including, as soon as appropriate, through pilot
trials. Meeting in December 1994, N A TO Defence Minis­
ters also affirmed their support for the continuing work on
the concept, the im plem entation of which should be consist­
ent with the principle o f developing separable but not sep­
arate military capabilities for use by N A TO or the WEU.
The M aastricht Treaty includes agreement on the devel­
opment of a Com m on Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP), ‘including the eventual framing o f a com m on
defence policy which might in time lead to a common
defence'. It includes reference to the W EU as an integral
part of the development o f the European U nion created
by the Treaty and requests the W EU to elaborate and
implement decisions and actions o f the European Union
which have defence implications.
At the meeting of the W EU M em ber States which took
place in M aastricht in December 1991, at the same time
as the meeting o f the European Council, a declaration
was issued inviting members o f the European Union to
accede to the W EU or to become observers, and inviting
other European members o f N A TO to become associate
members of the W EU.
The Treaty on European Union also made provision
for a report evaluating the progress m ade and experience
gained in the field o f foreign and security policy to be
presented to the European Council in 1996.

73
 The Alliance welcomed all these steps, recognising that
the development o f a European security and defence
identity role, reflected in the strengthening o f the Euro­
pean pillar within the Alliance, reinforces the integrity
and effectiveness of the Atlantic Alliance as a whole.
M oreover these two positive processes are m utually rein­
forcing. In parallel with them, member countries o f the
Alliance have agreed to enhance the essential transatlantic
link which the Alliance guarantees and to m aintain fully
the strategic unity and the indivisibility o f their security.
The Alliance’s Strategic Concept, which is the agreed
conceptual basis for the military forces o f all the members
o f the Alliance, facilitates com plem entarity between the
Alliance and the emerging defence com ponent o f the
European political unification process. Alliance member
countries have reaffirmed their intention to preserve their
existing operational coherence since, ultimately, their secu­
rity depends on it. However, they have welcomed the
prospect o f a gradual reinforcement o f the role o f the
W estern European Union, both as the defence com ponent
o f the process o f European unification and as a means of
strengthening the European pillar o f the Alliance. WEU
member states have affirmed that the Alliance will remain
the essential forum for consultation am ong its members
and the venue for agreement on policies bearing on the
security and defence commitments o f Allies under the
W ashington Treaty.
At the meeting o f the W EU Council o f M inisters in
Noordwijk in November 1994, preliminary conclusions
on the form ulation of a Com m on European Defence
Policy were endorsed. This development, which takes
into account the results of the NATO Brussels Summit in
January, was welcomed by N A TO Foreign Ministers
when they met in Brussels at the end o f the year.

A R M S CONTROL
Efforts to bring about m ore stable international relations
at lower levels o f military forces and arm am ents, through

74
effective and verifiable arm s control agreements and
confidence-building measures, have long been an integral
part of N A T O ’s security policy. M eaningful and verifi­
able arms control agreements, which respect the security
concerns o f all the countries involved in the process,
improve stability, increase m utual confidence and dim in­
ish the risks of conflict. Defence and arm s control policies
must remain in harm ony and their respective roles in
safeguarding security need to be consistent and mutually
reinforcing. The principal criterion for arms control
agreements is therefore that they m aintain or improve
stability and enhance the long-term security interests of
all parties. To do this, they have to be clear, precise
and verifiable.
The field o f arms control includes measures to build
confidence and those which result in limitations and
reductions o f military m anpower and equipment. The
Alliance is actively involved in both these areas. Extensive
consultation takes place within N A TO over the whole
range of disarm am ent and arm s control issues so that
commonly agreed positions can be reached and national
policies coordinated. In addition to the consultation
which takes place in the N orth Atlantic Council and the
Political Committees, a num ber o f special bodies have
been created to deal with specific arm s control issues,
such as the High Level Task Force, an internal coordinat­
ing body on conventional arm s control questions estab­
lished by M inisters in 1986.
In May 1989, in order to take account of all the
complex and interrelated issues arising in the arms control
context, the Alliance developed a Comprehensive C on­
cept of Arms C ontrol and Disarm am ent. The Concept
provided a fram ework for the policies o f the Alliance in
the whole field o f arms control.
The negotiations on C onventional Armed Forces in
Europe (CFE) am ong the member countries of N A TO
and of the W arsaw Treaty O rganisation, which began in
Vienna in M arch 1989, resulted in the conclusion of the
CFE Treaty on 19 Novem ber 1990. The Treaty was

75
signed by the 22 member states o f N A TO and the Warsaw
Pact during a Summit Meeting in Paris o f all 34 countries
then participating in the CSCE process. Two further
im portant documents were also signed by all CSCE par­
ticipants at the Paris Summit, namely the C harter of
Paris for a New Europe; and the Vienna D ocum ent 1990,
containing a large num ber of confidence and security­
building measures applicable throughout Europe. In
M arch 1992 this document was subsumed by the Vienna
Document 1992, in which additional measures on open­
ness and transparency were introduced. These were fur­
ther enhanced by the ‘Vienna Document 1994’ adopted
by the CSCE in December 1994.
As a result o f the dram atic political and military de­
velopments which have taken place since 1989, some of
the initial premises for the C FE Treaty changed during
the course o f the negotiations. Key factors in this re­
spect were the unification of Germany; substantial
Soviet troop withdrawals from Eastern Europe; the
advent of democratic governments in Central and East­
ern Europe; the disintegration o f the W arsaw Pact; com­
prehensive unilateral reductions in the size o f Soviet
armed forces as well as those o f other countries in the
region; and subsequently the dissolution o f the Soviet
Union itself.
N otwithstanding these changes which had m ajor impli­
cations, particularly in terms o f the attribution of national
responsibility for implementing the Treaty, the successful
outcome of the negotiations and the entry into force of
the Treaty have fundamentally enhanced European secu­
rity. The C FE Treaty is the culm ination of efforts initi­
ated by the Alliance in 1986 to reduce the level of armed
forces in Europe from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ural
M ountains. It imposes legally-binding limits on key cat­
egories of equipment held individually and collectively.
The main categories o f equipm ent covered by these provi­
sions are those which constitute offensive military capabil­
ity, namely tanks, artillery, arm oured com bat vehicles,
com bat aircraft and attack helicopters. The limits have

76
already brought about dram atic reductions. They also
ensure that no single country is able to m aintain military
forces at levels which would enable it to hold a dom inat­
ing military position on the European continent.
In addition, there are provisions contained in declara­
tions forming an integral part o f the Treaty on land-
based naval aircraft and a no-increase com m itm ent with
regard to personnel strengths. The im plementation of the
Treaty provisions is subject to a precise calendar and a
rigid regime o f inform ation exchanges and inspections
under detailed ‘verification’ clauses.
Two further essential elements of the C FE Treaty
should be mentioned, namely:
(a) the establishm ent o f a Joint Consultative G roup, on
which all the parties to the Treaty are represented,
where any issues relating to Treaty interpretation,
compliance or development can be raised and dis­
cussed; and
(b) the m andate for follow-on (C FE 1A) talks on further
measures including limitations on personnel
strengths. These talks began on 29 Novem ber 1990.
The members o f the Alliance attach param ount im por­
tance to the Treaty as the cornerstone o f Europe’s military
security and stability. In December 1991, together with
their Cooperation Partners, they established a High Level
Working G roup in which all Central and Eastern E uro­
pean countries participated, as well as the independent
states in the form er Soviet Union with territory in the
CFE area of application, in order to facilitate the early
entry into force of the Treaty. In February 1992 agreement
was reached on a phased approach for bringing the C FE
Treaty into force. In May the eight former Soviet states
concerned agreed on the apportionm ent o f rights and
obligations assumed by the Soviet U nion under the terms
of the CFE Treaty. This agreement, which was confirmed
at the June 1992 E xtraordinary Conference in Oslo, pro­
vided the basis for the provisional application o f the C FE
Treaty, throughout the area o f application, as of 17 July

77
1992, allowing its verification and reduction procedures
to be implemented immediately. Following ratification by
all eight states o f the former Soviet Union with territory
in the area of application o f the Treaty, and completion
o f the ratification process by all 29 signatories, the CFE
Treaty formally entered into force on 9 Novem ber 1992.
With the establishment of the Czech Republic and Slova­
kia as independent countries, the num ber o f states which
are party to the C FE Treaty rose to 30.
The Alliance also attaches considerable im portance to
the parallel implementation of the Concluding Act of the
Negotiations on Personnel Strength of Conventional
Armed Forces in Europe. This establishes the commit­
ments entered into by the parties to the C FE 1A follow-
on negotiations in accordance with agreements reached
on 6 July 1992.
In December 1994, N A TO Foreign Ministers welcomed
the successful completion of the second reduction phase
of the CFE Treaty and reiterated their concern that the
Treaty, which remains the cornerstone o f European secu­
rity and stability, must be fully and firmly implemented
and its integrity preserved.
Other im portant elements introducing greater openness
and confidence-building in the military field include agree­
ments achieved in M arch 1992 on an ‘Open Skies’ regime,
permitting overflights of national territory on a reciprocal
basis.
The importance which the Alliance attaches to the Open
Skies Treaty, as a means o f prom oting openness and
transparency o f military forces and activities, was re­
flected in the statem ent made by NATO Foreign Minis­
ters in their communiqué of 1 December 1994, calling for
ratification of the Treaty by all signatories and its earliest
possible entry into force.
In 1990 the N orth Atlantic Council established a Verifi­
cation C oordinating Com mittee to coordinate verification
and implementation efforts am ong members o f the Alli­
ance with regard to conventional arms control and disar­
mament agreements in general, and particularly with

78
regard to the C FE Treaty. The Com mittee ensures infor­
mation exchange am ong Alliance nations on their inspec­
tion plans and on any verification and implementation-
related issues. It also oversees the development and opera­
tion of a central verification database m aintained at
NATO H eadquarters, containing the data from all CFE
information exchanges as well as records of certified
reductions and reports on other inspections. In addition
the Committee supervises the inspection support activities
of the N A TO M ilitary Authorities, such as the develop­
ment of com m on field procedures or the conduct of
NATO verification courses, providing guidance as neces­
sary. The Com mittee also serves as a forum for consulta­
tions among Allies 011 compliance concerns and related
issues.
The Verification C oordinating Com mittee plays a fur­
ther role as the forum for consultation, coordination
and exchange o f experience am ong Allies on activities
related to the im plem entation o f the Vienna 1994 CSCE
Document. Such activities include evaluation visits, in­
spections or visits to airbases, and observations o f exer­
cises and other m ilitary activities. However, there has
been a significant reduction in the num ber o f large scale
exercises.
Since 1992, the Verification C oordinating Com mittee
has continuously expanded cooperation in C FE Treaty
implementation with C entral and East European coun­
tries. VCC-sponsored seminars with Partners at NATO
Headquarters have helped to explore feasible measures.
As a consequence, today, many activities are jointly con­
ducted, am ong them inspections o f military installations
and m onitoring and certification o f reductions by joint
multinational teams. The Com mittee has sponsored verifi­
cation courses for C ooperation Partners and in early
1994, it also agreed to m ake the N A TO verification
database (VERITY) available to them.
The C SC E/O SC E process has a pivotal role in the field
of arms control and disarm am ent. The 1992 CSCE
Follow-Up Meeting in Helsinki was therefore seen as a

79
turning point in a comprehensive arms control and dis­
arm am ent process in Europe involving all CSCE par­
ticipants. It offered a unique opportunity to move the
process forward. The decisions taken at the conclusion
of the Helsinki Follow-Up M eeting are summarised in
P art IV. The fifth CSCE Review Conference took place in
Budapest from 10 October-2 Decem ber 1994, ending with
a Summit M eeting on 5-6 December 1994, attended by
the N A TO Secretary General.
A t the M inisterial Meeting o f the N A C in December
1994, N A TO Foreign M inisters reiterated their support
for the objectives o f the CSCE in the field of arms
control. In particular, they anticipated the adoption ai
the Budapest Summit o f substantial agreements reached
in the CSCE Forum for Security C ooperation, including
the Code of C onduct on Security M atters; the agreemem
on global exchange o f military inform ation; the increased
focus on non-proliferation issues; and a further enhance­
m ent o f the Vienna D ocum ent on confidence-building
measures. In this context the Alliance supports the en­
hancem ent o f transparent and effective arm s control and
confidence-building measures throughout the CSCE area
and at regional levels. The achievements of the Budapesl
Summit are summarised in P art IV.
In the field o f nuclear arms control, the Alliance’s
objective is to achieve security at the minimum level oi
nuclear arms sufficient to preserve peace and stability.
The entry into force and early im plem entation of the July
1991 START I Agreem ent (providing for approximately
30 per cent cuts in the strategic forces o f the United
States and the form er Soviet U nion), and the January
1993 STA R T II Agreement (see below) are key elemenls
in the efforts to achieve this objective. President Bush's
initiative o f 27 September 1991, which included, in
particular, the decision to eliminate nuclear warheads for
ground-launched short-range weapon systems, fulfilled
the short-range nuclear forces (SN F) arm s control objec­
tives expressed in the London D eclaration of July 1990.
The withdraw al o f US ground-launched and maritime

80
tactical nuclear weapons (TN W ) from Europe was
completed by July 1992. In M ay 1992, the withdrawal
of former Soviet tactical nuclear weapons to the territory
of Russia for ultim ate dism antlem ent had been com­
pleted.
In January 1992 the U nited States President again
took the initiative in the field of nuclear arms control in
his State of the Union address, proposing further recipro­
cal cuts in strategic nuclear forces. The initial reaction of
the Russian leadership was extremely positive and in­
cluded additional proposals.
Allies also fully supported the Lisbon Protocol o f May
1992 between the United States and the four states of the
former Soviet Union with nuclear weapons on their terri­
tory (Belarus, K azakhstan, Russia and Ukraine), commit­
ting them to joint im plementation o f the START I Treaty.
Similarly, the Alliance welcomed commitments by Bela­
rus, Kazakhstan and U kraine to adhere to the N uclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as non-nuclear weapon
states and urged these states to implement all their com­
mitments as soon as time allowed. Belarus acceded to the
NPT in July 1993, K azakhstan in February 1994 and
Ukraine in December 1994.
The June 1992 agreement between the United States
and Russia, which was confirmed by the signature o f the
START II Treaty in Moscow on 3 January 1993, was a
further major step, reducing strategic nuclear forces well
below the ceilings established by the START I Treaty.
The START II Treaty, once implemented, will eliminate
land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
with multiple warheads, and reduce by two-thirds the
current levels of strategic nuclear weapons by the year
2003, or possibly sooner.
With Ukraine’s accession to the N PT on 5 December
1994 and its concom itant com pletion o f the ratification
process of START I, the last remaining obstacle to the
entry into force of the STA R T I Treaty was removed and
the way was cleared for the ratification and implementa­
tion of START II. Welcoming these developments at

81
their meeting in December 1994, N A TO Defence Minis­
ters reiterated their full support for efforts aimed al
achieving the indefinite and unconditional extension of
the N PT in 1995, as well as their support for efforts to
strengthen the international non-proliferation regimes;
and also undertook to work to enhance the verification
regime for the N PT.
The Alliance’s transform ed relationship with Russia
was also reflected in the declarations by the Presidents of
the United States and Russia and the Prime Minister of
the United Kingdom that, by the end o f May 1994, the
strategic missiles under their respective commands would
no longer be targeted against each other’s countries.
The trilateral statem ent signed by the Presidents of the
United States, Russia and U kraine on 14 January 1994
was of vital im portance for retaining the momentum of
the strategic arms control process. It set out procedures
for the transfer of ICBM warheads from Ukraine to
Russia for dismantlement, as well as associated security
assurances, com pensation and assistance measures. Major
concrete steps towards the fulfilment o f this process in­
clude the withdrawal o f strategic warheads from Ukraine
ahead of the agreed schedule, and the deactivation of all
SS-24 ICBMs on its territory.

T H E C H A L L E N G E OF P R O L I F E R A TION
Despite these many positive developments in the field
of arms control, the global proliferation o f weapons of
mass destruction and o f their means o f delivery is a
m atter of serious concern to Alliance governments since
it undermines international security. N A TO Ministers
have made clear their preoccupations on this subject
repeatedly, emphasising that non-proliferation of nuclear
weapons is an essential element of cooperative security
and international stability. They have stressed the need
for measures to prevent the unauthorised export of equip­
ment and technologies related to weapons o f mass destruc­
tion. Several N A TO allies are providing technical and

82
financial assistance in the process o f eliminating nuclear
weapons in the former Soviet Union. Consultation on
these bilateral assistance program mes takes place in an
Ad Hoc Group to Consult on the N uclear W eapons in
the Former Soviet Union (GNW ), established by the
North Atlantic Council in February 1992. Concerns
about proliferation have been voiced by all the members
of the North Atlantic C ooperation Council in NACC
statements, underlining the im portance attached to efforts
undertaken in this field.
Transfers of conventional arm am ents which exceed
legitimate defensive needs, particularly to regions o f ten­
sion, also increase the dangers of conflict and hinder the
peaceful settlement o f disputes. The Alliance therefore
fully supports the United Nations Arms Register, estab­
lished in 1992 as an instrum ent to restrain global
conventional arms sales.
Within the CSCE, NATO Allies have also led the way in
tabling proposals dealing with non-proliferation in general
and transfers of conventional weapons in particular.
The Chemical W eapons Convention (CWC), which
opened for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993, repre­
sents a major achievement in global non-proliferation
efforts. When it enters into force, the CWC, signed by
more than 150 nations, will ban the production, acquisi­
tion, transfer, stockpiling and use o f chemical weapons.
In a related field, the strengthening o f the Biological and
Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) agreed at the Third
Review Conference in 1991 and the ongoing efforts to
explore the feasibility of verification in this area, have
been further positive developments.
When they met in December 1994, NATO Foreign
Ministers again stressed the im portance they attach to
the completion o f these essential arm s control tasks, as
well as the achievement of a universal ban on the produc­
tion of fissile material for weapons purposes.
A chronology of key arm s control treaties and agree­
ments of relevance to the Alliance signed between 1963
and 1994 is given at Appendix X III.

83
 Alliance Policy Framework on Proliferation of Weapons
of Mass Destruction8
The statem ent of the U N Security Council on 31 January
1992 affirmed that the proliferation o f weapons of mass
destruction (W M D) constitu ted a threat to international
peace and security. The Alliance’s Strategic Concept,
adopted in N ovember 1991, identified proliferation of
W M D and ballistic missiles as a problem requiring special
consideration. At the 1994 Brussels Summit, Heads of
State and Governm ent o f N A TO countries stressed that
proliferation o f W M D and their delivery means poses a
threat to international security and is a m atter of concern
to the Alliance. They directed N A TO to develop a policy
framework to consider how to reinforce current preven­
tion efforts and how to reduce the proliferation threat
and protect against it. The Policy Fram ew ork was devel­
oped by two expert groups established in accordance
with the decision of the January 1994 Summit Meeting to
intensify and expand N A T O ’s political and defence ef­
forts against proliferation. The work o f the two groups-
the Senior Politico-M ilitary G roup on Proliferation (SGP)
and the Senior Defence G roup on Proliferation (DGP) - is
brought together in the Joint Com m ittee on Proliferation
(JCP), which reports to the N orth Atlantic Council.
The Summit initiative reflects the fact th at there are
developments in the evolving security environm ent that
give rise to the possibility o f increased W M D prolifera­
tion. These include the following:

— some states (e.g. Iraq, N orth K orea) have not com­

plied with, and even wilfully disregarded their inter­
national non-proliferation com m itm ents, in particular
those stemming from m em bership o f the 1968 Nuclear
N on-Proliferation Treaty;

>T h is s e c tio n is b a s e d o n th e A llia n c e P o lic y F r a m e w o r k is su e d a t the

M in is te r ia l M e e tin g o f th e N o r t h A tla n tic C o u n c il h e ld in Istanbul.
T u r k e y o n 9 J u n e 1994.

84
— major political changes on the European continent
following the break-up o f the form er Soviet U nion
have potential proliferation implications that require
close attention;
— a number o f states on the periphery o f the Alliance
continue in their attem pts to develop or acquire the
capability to produce W M D and their delivery means
or to acquire illegally such systems;
— non-state actors, such as terrorists, mays also try to
acquire W M D capabilities;
— ever-increasing trade in today’s world economy, in­
cluding transfers o f dual-use commodities, is leading
to greater diffusion o f technology, which complicates
efforts to detect and prevent transfers of materials
and technology for the purpose o f developing W M D
and their delivery means;
— similarly, the growth o f indigenously developed W M D-
related technology has also made proliferation more
difficult to control;
— in addition, there is the risk that a proliferator
might seek to profit or gain political benefit by selling
WMD and their delivery means, relevant technology
and expertise. Such a trade could result in Allies
being threatened by an adversary that obtained
WMD capabilities developed in areas beyond N A T O ’s
periphery.

Current international efforts focus on the prevention

of WMD and missile proliferation through a range of
international treaties and regimes. The most im portant
norm-setting treaties are the N uclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT), the Chemical W eapons Convention
(CWC) and the Biological and Toxin W eapons Conven­
tion (BTWC). With regard to the N PT, following its
unconditional and indefinite extension in M ay 1995,
efforts are currently focused on universal adherence to
the Treaty and enhancing its verification and safeguards
regime. For the CWC, the most immediate goal is its
rapid entry into force. The BTWC can be strengthened

85
through efforts in the field o f transparency and verifica­
tion. The Allies fully support these efforts.
The aforementioned treaties are complemented on the
supply side by the N uclear Suppliers G roup, the Zangger
Committee, the Australia G roup and the Missile Technol­
ogy Control Regime. These regimes should be reinforced
through the broadest possible adherence to them and
enhancement of their effectiveness.
The Allies furtherm ore support other relevant efforts
in the field of non-proliferation and arm s control, such as
the negotiation of a universal and verifiable Comprehen­
sive Test Ban Treaty and the negotiation o f a possible
convention banning the production of fissile material for
nuclear explosive purposes.
The Alliance policy on proliferation is aimed at
supporting, reinforcing and complementing, not duplicat­
ing or substituting the aforem entioned treaties and
regimes.

N A TO ’s Role

In accordance with the Strategic Concept, N A TO ’s role

is not only to defend its m em bers’ territory but also lo
provide one of the indispensable foundations for a stable
security environment in Europe.
A stable international order with a broad base of
shared values is key to Allied security. W M D prolifera­
tion can undermine the achievement o f such a stable
international order. Conversely, lack o f confidence in the
international order can prom pt states to acquire WMD
to meet perceived threats.
W M D and their delivery means can also pose a direct
military risk to the member states o f the Alliance and to
their forces.
N A TO ’s approach to proliferation has therefore both
a political and a defence dimension.

86
 The Political Dimension
The principal non-proliferation goal o f the Alliance and
ils members is to prevent proliferation from occurring or,
should it occur, to reverse it through diplom atic means. In
ihis regard, N A TO seeks to support, w ithout duplicating,
work already underway in other international fora and
institutions. In particular, Allies are:
— assessing the potential proliferation risk presented by
states on N A T O ’s periphery, as well as relevant devel­
opments in areas beyond N A T O ’s periphery;
— consulting regularly on W M D p ro liferation threats
and related issues and coordinate current Alliance
activities that involve aspects o f W M D proliferation
issues;
— supporting efforts to broaden participation in inter­
national non-proliferation fora and activities;
— sharing inform ation on their various efforts to support
the safe and secure dism antlem ent of nuclear weapons
in the former Soviet Union;
— consulting within the N A C C fram ework with NACC
and PFP Partners with the aim o f fostering a common
understanding of, and approach to the W M D prolif­
eration problem, taking into account efforts in this
field in other fora, in particular the different export
control groups.

The Defence Dimension

As a defensive Alliance, N A TO must address the military
capabilities needed to discourage W M D proliferation and
use, and if necessary, to protect N A TO territory, popula­
tions and forces.

NATO is therefore:
— examining in detail the current and potential threat
to Allies posed by W M D proliferation, taking into con­
sideration m ajor m ilitary/technological developments;

87
— examining the im plications o f proliferation for defence
planning and defence capabilities o f N A TO and its
members, and consider what new measures may be
required in the defence area;
— considering how, if necessary, to improve defence
capabilities o f N A TO and its members to protect
NATO territory, populations and forces against
W M D use, based on assessments o f threats (including
non-state actors), Allied military doctrine and plan­
ning, and Allied military capabilities;
— considering how N A T O ’s defence posture can support
or might otherwise influence diplom atic efforts to
prevent proliferation before it becomes a threat or to
reverse it.

THE M ED ITE RR AN E AN
At the M inisterial meeting o f the N A C in Athens in June
1993, and again at the January 1994 Summit in Brussels,
Alliance leaders reiterated their conviction that security
in Europe is greatly affected by security in the Medi­
terranean. The positive im pact o f recent agreements
concluded in the Middle East peace process represented
a breakthrough and opened the way for measures to be
considered which could prom ote dialogue, understanding
and confidence-building in the region.
In Istanbul, in June 1994, Foreign M inisters agreed to
examine possible proposals for achieving these goals. In
December 1994, they stated their readiness to establish
contacts on a case-by-case basis, between the Alliance
and M editerranean non-m em ber countries, with a view
to contributing to the strengthening o f regional stability.
On 8 February 1995, the Council, meeting in Perma­
nent Session, decided to initiate a direct dialogue with
M editerranean non-m em ber countries. The aim of this
dialogue is to contribute to security and stability in the
M editerranean as a whole and to achieve better mutual
understanding.
At their spring 1995 meeting, N A TO Foreign Ministers
recorded their satisfaction that their initiative for dialogue
had met with a positive response and that exploratory
discussions had been launched with five M editerranean
states outside the Alliance (Egypt, M orocco, Tunisia,
Israel and M auritania).
An extension of the dialogue to other M editerranean
countries which are willing and able to contribute to the
peace and security o f the region will be envisaged after
the initial round of discussions with the above countries.

89
 PA R T II

H O W N A TO WORKS
 T H E M A C H I N E R Y OF NA TO
The basic m achinery fo r cooperation among the 16 mem­
bers was established during the formative years of the
Alliance. It consists o f the following fundamental
elements:
(a) The N o rth Atla ntic C o uncil (NAC) has effective po­
litical authority and powers o f decision and consists
of Perm anen t Representatives of all member coun­
tries meeting together at least once a week. The
Council also meets at higher levels involving Foreign
Ministers or Heads o f G overnm ent but it has the
same authority and powers o f decision-making, and
its decisions have the same status and validity, at
whatever level it meets. The Council has an im portant
public profile and issues declarations and com m uni­
qués explaining its policies and decisions to the gen­
eral public and to governm ents o f countries which
are not m em bers o f the Alliance.
The Council is the only body within the Alliance
which derives its authority explicitly from the N orth
Atlantic Treaty. T he C ouncil itself was given responsi­
bility under the T reaty for setting up subsidiary
bodies. C om m ittees and p lanning groups have since
been created to support the work o f the Council or
to assum e responsibility in specific fields such as
defence p lan n ing, nuclear planning and military
m atters.
The C ouncil thus provides a unique forum for wide-
ranging consu ltation between m em ber governm ents
on a ll issues affecting their security and is the most
im portant decision-m aking body in N A TO . All 16
member countries o f N A T O have an equal right to
express their views round the C ouncil table. Decisions
are the expression o f the collective will o f m em ber
governm e n ts arriv ed at by com m on consent. All
mem ber governm ents are p arty to the policies form u-

93
lated in the Council or under its authority and to the
consensus on which decisions are based.
Each government is represented on the Council by a
Perm anent Representative with am bassadorial rank.
Each Perm anent Representative is supported by a
political and military staff or delegation to NATO,
varying in size.
Twice each year, and sometimes m ore frequently,
the Council meets at Ministerial level, when each
nation is represented by its M inister of Foreign
Affairs. Summit Meetings, attended by Heads of State
or G overnm ent, are held whenever particularly im­
portant issues have to be addressed.
While the permanent Council normally meets al
least once a week, it can be convened at short notice
whenever necessary. Its meetings are chaired by the
Secretary General o f N A TO or, in his absence, his
Deputy. At M inisterial Meetings, one o f the Foreign
Ministers assumes the role o f H onorary President.
The position rotates annually am ong the nations in
the order of the English alphabet.
Items discussed and decisions taken at meetings of
the Council cover all aspects o f the Organisation’s
activities and are frequently based on reports and
recom m endations prepared by subordinate commit­
tees at the Council’s request. Equally, subjects may
be raised by any one o f the national representatives
or by the Secretary General. Perm anent Representa­
tives act on instructions from their capitals, informing
and explaining the views and policy decisions of their
governments to their colleagues round the table. Con­
versely they report back to their national authorities
on the views expressed and positions taken by other
governments, informing them o f new developments
and keeping them abreast o f movement towards con­
sensus on im portant issues or areas where national
positions diverge.
When decisions have to be made, action is agreed
upon on the basis of unanim ity and com m on accord.

94
NATO's Civil and Military Structure
N ational A uth o rities

P erm an e n t R e p re sen tativ e s

 There is no voting or decision by majority. Each
natio n represented at the Council table or on any of
its subordinate committees retains complete sover­
eignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
(b) The Defence Planning Committee (DPC) is normally
composed of Perm anent Representatives but meets at
the level of Defence Ministers at least twice a year,
and deals with most defence m atters and subjects
related to collective defence planning. With the excep­
tion o f France, all member countries are represented
in this forum. The Defence Planning Committee pro­
vides guidance to N A T O ’s military authorities and
within the area of its responsibilities, has the same
functions and attributes and the same authority as
the Council on m atters within its competence.
(c) The Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) is the principal
forum for consultation on all m atters relating to the
ro le of nuclear forces in N A T O ’s security and defence
policies. All member countries except France partici­
pate. Iceland participates as an observer. It normally
meets twice a year at the level of Defence Ministers,
usually in conjunction with the DPC, and at ambassa­
dorial level as required.
(d) The Secretary General is a senior international states­
man nom inated by the member nations both as Chair­
man of the N orth Atlantic Council, Defence Planning
Committee, N uclear Planning G roup and of other
senior committees, and as Secretary General of
NATO. He also acts as principal spokesman of the
Organisation, both in its external relations and in
com m unications and contacts between member gov­
ernments. The role o f the Secretary General is de­
scribed in more detail in Part III.
(e) The International Staff is drawn from the member
countries, serves the Council and the Committees
and W orking G roups subordinate to it and works on
a continuous basis on a wide variety o f issues relevant
to the Alliance. In addition there are a number of
civil agencies and organisations located in different

96
 Principal NATO Com m ittees

I
VO C O M M IT T E E ON SE N IO R PO L IT IC O C IV IL & M IL IT A RY
'- J IN F O R M A T IO N E X E C UT IV E M IL IT A R Y G R O U P
W O R K IN G BU D G ET
& CULTURAL ON C O M M IT T E E S
GROUP PR O L IF E R A T IO N
R E L A T IO N S

3
CO N FER EN C E O F NATO C O M M IT T E E FO R |
N A TIO N A L
Wi n SE N IO R D E FE N C E
COMM U NICATIONS 4
N A TO AIR E U RO PE A N

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ST A N D A R D IZ A T lO f G R O U P ON D E FE N C E
A RM A M E N T S INFORMATION A IR SPA CE
G RO U P PR O LIF ER A TIO N CO M M IT T E E C O O R D IN A T IO N I
D IR E C T O R S SYST EMS COMMITTEE

( 1) M o st o f the above c o m m ittees report to the C o u n cil. S om e a re responsible to ihc D efence P lanning C om m ittee or N uclear Planning G roup. C ertain c om m ittees arc jo in t civil and m ilitary bodies w hich report both to the
C o u n c il. D efence Planning C o m m ittee o r N uclear P lanning G ro u p and to the M ilitary C om m ittee
(2) Senior Po litico -M ilitary G ro u p o n Proliferation p lu s Sen io r D efence G ro u p on Proliferation.
 member countries, working in specific fields such as
com m unications and logistic support. The organisa­
tion and structures o f the International Staff and the
principal civil agencies established by N A TO to per­
form specific tasks are described in P art III.
( 0 The Military Committee is responsible for recommend­
ing to N A T O ’s political authorities those measures
considered necessary for the com m on defence of the
N A TO area and for providing guidance on military
m atters to the M ajor N A TO Com m anders, whose
functions are described in P art III. At meetings of the
N orth Atlantic Council, Defence Planning Committee
and N uclear Planning G roup, the M ilitary Commit­
tee is represented by its Chairm an or his Deputy.
The M ilitary Com mittee is the highest military auth­
ority in the Alliance under the political authority of
the N orth Atlantic Council and Defence Planning
Committee, or, where nuclear m atters are concerned,
the N uclear Planning G roup. It is composed of the
Chiefs o f Staff o f each mem ber country except
France, which is represented by a military mission to
the M ilitary Committee. Iceland has no military
forces but may be represented by a civilian. The
Chiefs o f Staff meet at least twice a year. At other
times member countries are represented by national
M ilitary Representatives appointed by the Chiefs of
Staff.
The Presidency o f the M ilitary Com mittee rotates
annually am ong the nations in the order o f the Eng­
lish alphabet. The C hairm an o f the M ilitary Commit­
tee represents the Com mittee in other forums and is
its spokesman, as well as directing its day-to-day
activities.
(g) The Integrated Military Structure remains under politi­
cal control and guidance at the highest level. The role
of the integrated military structure is to provide the
organisational framework for defending the territory
of the member countries against threats to their secu­
rity or stability. It includes a network of m ajor and

98
 subordinate military com m ands covering the whole
of the N orth Atlantic area. It provides the basis for
the joint exercising o f military forces and collabora­
tion in fields such as com m unications and inform a­
tion systems, air defence, logistic support for military
forces and the standardization or interoperability of
procedures and equipment.
The role o f the Alliance’s integrated military forces
is to guarantee the security and territorial integrity
of member states, contribute to the maintenance of
stability and balance in Europe and to crisis m anage­
ment, and, ultimately, to provide the defence of the
strategic area covered by the N A TO Treaty.
The integrated military structure is being adapted to
take account of the changed strategic environment. It
is described in more detail in Part III.
(h) The International Military Staff supports the work of
N A TO ’s M ilitary Committee. There are also a
number o f M ilitary Agencies which oversee specific
aspects o f the work o f the M ilitary Committee. The
organisation and structure o f the International
Military Staff and M ilitary Agencies are described in
Part III.
The basic elements o f Alliance consultation and decision­
making outlined above are supported by a committee
structure which ensures that each member nation is repre­
sented at every level in all fields o f N A TO activity in
which it participates. The principal committees and their
roles are described in the following chapters.
Since the initiatives taken by NATO Heads o f State
and Governm ent in January 1994, the N orth Atlantic
Council has established a num ber o f additional com m it­
tees and groups which form part o f the machinery avail­
able to N A TO for the managem ent o f new tasks:
— The Political-Military Steering Committee on Part­
nership for Peace (PMSC) meets as the principal
working forum on Partnership for Peace in different
configurations, including meetings with individual

99
 P artners and with all N A C C /P F P countries (see
P art I, P artn ership for Peace). T he N A C C Ad Hoc
G ro u p on C o o peration in Peacekeeping has been
m erged with the PM SC to form the PM SC/Ad Hoc
Group on Cooperation in Peacekeeping.
— The Joint Committee on Proliferation (JC P) consoli­
dates the w ork o f two additional groups, namely
the Senior Politico-Military Group on Proliferation
(SGP) and the Senior Defence Group on Prolifera­
tion (DGP). T he SG P is responsible for the develop­
m en t o f an overall policy fram ew ork on prolifera­
tion and serves as a forum for consultations on the
political aspects o f the proliferation challenge. It
meets under the C hairm anship o f the Assistant
Secretary G en eral for Political Affairs. The DGP
focuses, as its nam e implies, on defence aspects of
proliferation and is co-chaired by a senior North
Am erican and senior European representative on a
rotational basis. The JC P meets under the chairman­
ship o f the D eputy Secretary G eneral o f NATO
and reports lo the N orth A tlantic Council.
— In M ay 1994, the Council also established a Provi­
sional Policy Coordination Group (PPCG). This
G roup is charged, in conjunction with NATO’s
M ilitary A uthorities, with assisting the Council in
examining how the Alliance’s political and military
structures and procedures might be developed and
adapted to conduct m ore efficiently and flexibly,
missions undertaken by the Alliance including peace­
keeping, cooperation with the W estern European
Union (W EU), and in that context, development of
the Com bined Joint Task Forces (C JTF) concept.
These missions are described in Part I. The PPCG
meets under the chairm anship o f the Assistant Sec­
retary General for Defence Planning and Policy.
The structure provided by the key com ponents of the
Organisation described above is underpinned by proce­
dures for political and other forms of consultation and
by a system of com m on civil and military funding
100
 Principal NATO Committees(,>
addressing NACC and PFP activities
PO L IT IC A L -M IL IT A R Y b M IL IT A RY PM SC /A D H O C
P O L IT IC A L
STEERIN G C O M M ITTE E B C O M M IT T E E S M ILITA R Y C O O P ERA TION G R O U P ON
O N P A R T N E R S H IP H (A T SE N IO R & C O M M ITTEE W OR KIN G C O O PE R A T IO N IN
FO R P E A C E 1- 1 | O THER LEV ELS) G RO U P
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PE A C E K E E P IN G 1-'1

C O M M IT T E E ON
V E R IFIC A T IO N
A T L A N T IC PO L IC Y R E G IO N A L E X PE R T IN FO R M A T IO N
C O O R D IN A T IN G
A D V ISO R Y G R O U P W O R K IN G G R O U PS & CULTURAL
C O M M IT T E E
RE L A T IO N S

N A TO C O M M IT T E E FOR SE N IO R CIV IL NATO

N A T O AIR
C O M M U N IC A T IO N S & | E U R O PE A N E M E RG E N CY ST A N D A R D IZ A T IO N
D E FE N C E

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IN F O R M A T IO N A IR SP A C E PLA N N IN G GROUP
C O M M IT T E E
SY S T E M S C O M M IT T E E I C O O R D IN A T IO N C O M M IT T E E

C O U N C IL C O N FE R E N C E O F C O M M IT T E E ON
O P E R A T IO N S AN D N A TIO N A L TH E C H A L L E N G E S O F i
EX E R C ISE A RM A M E N T S M O D E R N SO C IE T Y *
CO M M IT T E E D IR E C T O R S
— i
1326-94

(1 ) M o st o f thes e C o m m ittees h av e resp o n sibilities relatin g to th e im p lem en tatio n o f th e N A C C W ork P lan or o f P a rtn ersh ip fo r Peace (P F P ) activities, in a d d itio n to the ir norm al
N A T O fu n ctio n s. T h ey m eet reg u la r ly in c o o p e ra tio n session a n d w ith P F P partners.
(2) In acc o rd a n ce w ith th e decision ta k e n b y N A C C F o reig n M in isters in Ista n b u l in Ju n e 1994. th e N A C C A d H oc G ro u p on C o o p e ra tio n in Peacekeeping ha s been m erg e d w ith the
P o litical-M ilitary S teering C o m m itte e o n P a rtn ersh ip for Peace an d now m eets in th e N A C C /P F P co n tex t a s th e P M S C /A H G o n C o o p e ratio n in Peacekeeping
provided by member nations on a cost-sharing basis. The
principle o f com m on-funding applies equally to the provi­
sion o f the basic facilities needed by the defence forces of
member countries in order to fulfil their N ATO commit­
ments; and to the budgetary requirem ents o f the political
headquarters of the Alliance in Brussels and o f NATO
civil and military agencies elsewhere. It is extended to
every aspect o f cooperation within NATO.
N A T O ’s financial resources are allocated on the basis of
separate civil and military budgets m anaged by Civil and
M ilitary Budget Committees (CBC and MBC) in accord­
ance with agreed cost-sharing form ulas and a self-critical
screening process. This embodies the principles o f open­
ness, flexibility and fairness and ensures that maximum
benefit is obtained, both for the O rganisation as a whole
and for its individual members, by seeking cost-effective
solutions to com m on problems. Political control and
m utual accountability, including the acceptance by each
member country o f a rigorous, m ultilateral, budgetary
screening process, are fundam ental elements. F air compe­
tition am ong national suppliers o f equipm ent and services
for contracts relating to com m on-funded activities is an
im portant feature o f the system.
In view o f the financial and resource im plications of the
Alliance’s transform ation and o f new tasks decided upon
by N A TO governments, a Senior Resource Board (SRB)
has also been established. Com posed o f senior national
representatives, the SRB currently meets under the chair­
m anship o f the Assistant Secretary General for Infrastruc­
ture, Logistics and Civil Emergency Planning and is
tasked with military resource allocation m atters and
identification o f priorities. Representatives o f the Military
Com mittee and M ajor N A TO C om m anders and the
Chairm an o f the M ilitary Budget Com mittee, the Infra­
structure Com mittee and the N A TO Defence Manpower
Com m ittee also participate in its work.
The first Annual R eport subm itted by the SRB at the
end o f 1994 examined the status o f existing funding
program mes and the potential dem ands for common

102
funding in the future. Com menting on the Report, NATO
Defence M inisters reaffirmed their commitment to pro­
vide adequate funds to ensure that the essential require­
ments of the Alliance’s Military Authorities, and new
requirements stemming from the January 1994 Summit
initiatives, continue to be met.
At the Ministerial Meeting o f the Council in December
1994, Foreign M inisters directed the Council in Perm a­
nent Session to engage in a wide-ranging examination of
Alliance budgetary managem ent, structures and proce­
dures to ensure that the appropriate resources are directed
towards the program mes which will have the highest
priority.

T H E M A C H I N E R Y OF COOPERA T ION
In addition to the above elements, which constitute the
practical basis for cooperation and consultation among
the 16 members of the N orth Atlantic Alliance, the North
Atlantic Cooperation Council or ‘N A C C ’, was established
in December 1991 to oversee the further development of
dialogue, cooperation and consultation between NATO
and its C ooperation Partners in Central and Eastern
Europe and on the territory o f the form er Soviet Union.
The development and role o f the N ACC is described in
Part I.
When it met for the second time in M arch 1992, the
NACC published its first W ork Plan for Dialogue, P art­
nership and C ooperation, which set out the basis for
initial steps to develop the relationship between the partici­
pating countries and detailed the principal topics and
activities on which the NA C C would concentrate. This
provided the pattern for the subsequent work of the
NACC. An agreed W ork Plan for Dialogue, Partnership
and C ooperation is now drawn up every two years,
establishing topics to be addressed and activities to be
pursued in different fields (political and security related
matters; policy planning consultations, peacekeeping; de­
fence planning issues and military matters; economic

103
issues; science; environm ental issues; civil emergency plan­
ning; hum anitarian assistance; inform ation; air traffic
management). The consensus ru le which governs decision­
making throughout the Alliance applies equally to the
work o f the N ACC and other bodies which have been
established to further the process of cooperation between
NATO and its Partner countries. The N A C C Work
Plan is thus based on com m on consent am ong all the
participating countries following consultation and dis­
cussion in the appropriate forums.
In addition to meetings o f the N A C C itself, meetings
with representatives of C ooperation Partner countries
also take place on a regular basis under the auspices of
the N orth Atlantic Council in perm anent session and of
its subordinate NATO bodies.
While the N orth Atlantic Council derives its authority
from the contractual relationship between NATO
member countries established on the basis o f the North
Atlantic Treaty, the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council
is the forum created for consultation and cooperation on
political and security issues between N A TO and its
Cooperation Partners, proposed in the Rome Declaration
of November 1991.
The introduction o f the Partnership for Peace (PFP)
initiative, in January 1994, added a new dimension to
N A CC cooperation, enabling practical military cooper­
ation with N A TO to be developed in accordance with the
different interests and possibilities o f PFP Partner coun­
tries. The program m e aims at enhancing respective peace­
keeping abilities and capabilities through joint planning,
training and exercises, and by so doing improving the
interoperability o f the Partner country’s military forces
with those o f NATO. It also aims at facilitating transpar­
ency in national defence planning and budgeting proc­
esses and in the dem ocratic control of defence forces.
The Partnership for Peace is described in more detail in
Part I.
The machinery for cooperation developed to manage
the PFP program m e includes the provision o f office space

104
at NATO H eadquarters for liaison officers of Partner
countries; a Partnership Coordination Cell located at
Mons, near SHAPE; and a Political-Military Steering
Committee on Partnership for Peace (PMSC) which meets
in different configurations, both with individual Partners
and with all N A C C /P F P countries.

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The fundamental operating principles o f the Alliance
involve both a comm on political commitment and a
commitment to practical cooperation am ong the member
countries. Their joint security is indivisible. No individual
member country therefore has to rely on its own national
efforts and economic resources alone to deal with basic
security challenges. However, no nation surrenders the
right to fulfil its national obligations towards its people
and each continues to assume sovereign responsibility for
its own defence. The Alliance enables member countries
to enhance their ability to realise essential national secu­
rity objectives through collective effort. The resulting
sense of equal security am ongst them, regardless o f differ­
ences in their circumstances or in their relative national
military capabilities, contributes to their overall stability.
The principles and working practices which have been
developed within the Alliance form the basis for cooper­
ation undertaken in the context o f the N orth Atlantic
Cooperation Council (NACC) and for cooperation be­
tween the members of the Alliance and countries partici­
pating in the Partnership for Peace (PFP).

J O I N T D EC I S I O N - M A K I N G
In making their joint decision-making process dependent
on consensus and com m on consent, the members o f the
Alliance safeguard the role of each country’s individual
experience and outlook while at the same time availing
themselves o f the machinery and procedures which allow
them jointly to act rapidly and decisively if circumstances

105
require them to do so. The practice o f exchanging informa­
tion and consulting together on a daily basis ensures that
governments can come together at short notice whenever
necessary, often with prior know ledge o f their respective
preoccupations, in order to agree on com m on policies. If
need be, efforts to reconcile differences between them will
be m ade in order that joint actions may be backed by the
full force o f decisions to which all the mem ber govern­
ments subscribe. Once taken, such decisions represent the
common determ ination o f all the countries involved to
implement them in full. Decisions which may be politi­
cally difficult or which face com peting dem ands on re­
sources thus acquire added force and credibility.
All N A TO mem ber countries participate fully at the
political level o f cooperation within the Alliance and are
equally com m itted to the terms o f the N orth Atlantic
Treaty, not least to the reciprocal undertaking made in
Article 5 which symbolises the indivisibility o f their secu­
rity - namely to consider an attack against one or more
o f them as an attack upon them all.
The m anner in which the Alliance has evolved never­
theless ensures th at variations in the requirements and
policies o f mem ber countries can be taken into account
in their positions within the Alliance. This flexibility
manifests itself in a num ber o f different ways. In some
cases differences may be largely procedural and are ac­
com m odated without difficulty. Iceland for example, has
no military forces and is therefore represented in NATO
military forums by a civilian if it so wishes. In other
cases the distinctions may be of a substantive nature.
France, which remains a full mem ber o f the North
Atlantic A lliance and o f its political structures, withdrew
from the Alliance’s integrated military structure in 1966.
It does not participate in N A T O ’s Defence Planning
Committee, N uclear Planning G roup or M ilitary Com­
mittee. R egular contacts with N A T O ’s military structure
take place through a French M ilitary Mission to the
M ilitary Com mittee and France participates in a
num ber o f practical areas o f cooperation in the commu­

106
nications, arm am ents, logistics and infrastructure
spheres.
Spain, which joined the Alliance in 1982, participates
in N A TO ’s Defence Planning Committee and Nuclear
Planning G roup as well as in its Military Committee. In
accordance with the terms o f a national referendum held
in 1986, Spain does not take part in N A TO ’s integrated
military structure but does participate in collective de­
fence planning. M ilitary coordination agreements enable
Spanish forces to cooperate with other allied forces in
specific roles and missions and to contribute to allied
collective security as a whole while remaining outside the
integrated military structure. All N A TO countries partici­
pate fully in the Political-M ilitary Steering G roup on
Partnership for Peace and other groups associated with
the NACC and PFP programme.
Distinctions between N A TO member countries may
also exist as a result o f their geographical, political,
military or constitutional situations. The participation of
Norway and D enm ark in N A T O ’s military dispositions,
for example, m ust comply with national legislation which
does not allow nuclear weapons or foreign forces to be
stationed on their national territory in peacetime. In
another context, military arrangem ents organised on a
regional basis may involve only the forces o f those coun­
tries directly concerned or equipped to participate in the
specific area in which the activity takes place. This ap­
plies, for example, to the forces contributed by nations to
the ACE Mobile Force and to the standing naval forces
described in P art III.

POLITICAL CONSULTATION
Policy form ulation and implementation in an Alliance of
16 independent sovereign countries depends on all
member governments being fully informed o f each other’s
overall policies and intentions and o f the underlying
considerations which give rise to them. This calls for
regular political consultation, wherever possible during

107
the policy-making stage o f deliberations before national
decisions have been taken.
Political consultation in N A TO began as a systematic
exercise when the Council first m et in September 1949,
shortly after the N orth Atlantic Treaty came into force.
Since that time it has been strengthened and adapted to
suit new developments. The principal forum for political
consultation remains the Council. Its meetings take place
with a minimum o f formality and discussion is frank and
direct. The Secretary General, by virtue o f his Chairman­
ship, plays an essential part in its deliberations and acts
as its principal representative and spokesm an both in
contacts with individual governments and in public
affairs.
C onsultation also takes place on a regular basis in
other forums, all o f which derive their authority from the
Council: the Political Com m ittee at senior and other
levels, Regional Expert G roups, Ad Hoc Political Work­
ing G roups, an Atlantic Policy Advisory G roup and
other special committees all have a direct role to play in
facilitating political consultation between mem ber govern­
ments. Like the Council, they are assisted by an Inter­
national Staff responsible to the Secretary General of
N A TO and an International M ilitary Staff responsible to
its Director, and through him, responsible for supporting
the activities o f the M ilitary Committee.
Political consultation am ong the members o f the Alli­
ance is not limited to events taking place within the
N A TO Treaty area. Events outside the geographical area
covered by the Treaty may have im plications for the
Alliance and consultations on such events therefore take
place as a m atter of course. The consultative machinery
o f N A TO is readily available and extensively used by the
member nations in such circumstances.
In such situations, N A TO as an Alliance may not be
directly involved. However the long practice o f consulting
together and developing collective responses to political
events affecting their com m on interests enables member
countries to draw upon com m on procedures, cooperative

108
arrangements for defence and shared infrastructure, if
they need to do so. By consulting together they are able
to identify at an early stage areas where, in the interests
of security and stability, coordinated action may be
taken.
The need for consultation is not limited to political
subjects. W ide-ranging consultation takes place in many
other fields. The process is continuous and takes place
on an info rmal as well as a formal basis with a mini­
mum o f delay or inconvenience, as a result of the collo­
cation o f national delegations to N A TO within the
same headquarters. W here necessary, it enables intensive
work to be carried out at short notice on m atters of
particular im portance or urgency with the full participa­
tion of representatives from all governments concerned.
Consultation within the Alliance takes many forms. At
its most basic level it involves simply the exchange of
information and opinions. At another level it covers the
communication o f actions or decisions which govern­
ments have already taken or may be about to take and
which have a direct or indirect bearing on the interests of
their allies. It may also involve providing advance warn­
ing of actions or decisions to be taken by governments in
the future, in order to provide an opportunity for them
to be endorsed or com m ented upon by others. It can
encompass discussion with the aim of reaching a consen­
sus on policies to be adopted or actions to be taken in
parallel. And ultimately it is designed to enable member
countries to arrive at m utually acceptable agreements on
collective decisions or on action by the Alliance as a
whole.
Regular consultations on political issues also take place
in the context o f the N orth Atlantic Cooperation Council
(NACC) and in meetings o f the N orth Atlantic Council
and political committees with Cooperation Partners. In
addition, the Partnership for Peace Invitation, signed by
NATO Heads o f State and Governm ent, and the Partner­
ship for Peace Fram ew ork Document, signed by states
participating in the P FP program me, m ake provision for

109
N A T O consultations with any active participant in the
Partnership, if that Partner perceives a direct threat to
its territorial integrity, political independence, or
security.

CRISIS M A N A G E M E N T
C onsultation am ong N A TO mem ber countries naturally
takes on particular significance in times o f tension and
crisis. In such circumstances, rapid decision-making based
on consensus on measures to be taken in the political,
military and civil emergency fields depends on immediate
and continuous consultation between mem ber govern­
ments.
The principal N A TO forums for the intensive consulta­
tion required are the Council and the Defence Planning
Committee, supported by the M ilitary Committee, the
political committees and other committees as may be
needed. The practices and procedures involved form the
Alliance’s crisis m anagem ent arrangem ents. Facilities, in­
cluding com m unications, in support o f the process are
provided by the N A TO Situation Centre, which operates
on a perm anent 24-hour basis. Exercises to test and
develop crisis m anagem ent procedures are held at regu­
lar intervals in conjunction with national capitals and
M ajor N A TO Com manders. Crisis m anagem ent arrange­
ments, procedures and facilities, as well as the prepara­
tion and conduct o f crisis m anagem ent exercises, are
coordinated by the Council O perations and Exercise
Committee.
Crisis m anagem ent is also one o f the agreed fields of
activity in the context o f defence planning issues and
military m atters addressed by the annual N A C C Work
Plan and is likewise included in Individual Partnership
Programm es which are being elaborated by N A TO and
Partner countries under the Partnership for Peace initia­
tive. Activities in this field include crisis management
courses, workshops and briefings as well as joint
exercises.

110
 THE DEFENCE DIMENSION
The framework for N A TO ’s defence planning process is
provided by the underlying principles which are the basis
for collective security as a whole: political solidarity
among member countries; the prom otion o f collaboration
and strong ties between them in all fields where this
serves their com m on and individual interests; the sharing
of roles and responsibilities and recognition o f mutual
commitments; and a joint undertaking to maintain ad­
equate military forces to support Alliance strategy.
In the new political and strategic environm ent in
Europe, the success of the Alliance’s role in preserving
peace and preventing war depends even more than in the
past on the effectiveness of preventive diplomacy and
successful m anagem ent o f crises affecting security. The
political, economic, social and environmental elements of
security and stability are thus becoming increasingly im­
portant. Nonetheless, the defence dimension remains indis­
pensable. The role o f the military forces o f the Alliance is
described in more detail in P art III. It includes contribut­
ing to the m aintenance o f stability and balance in Europe
as well as to crisis m anagement. The maintenance of an
adequate military capability and clear preparedness to
act collectively in the com m on defence therefore remain
central to the Alliance’s security objectives. Ultimately
this capability, combined with political solidarity, is de­
signed to prevent any attem pt at coercion or intimidation,
and to guarantee that military aggression directed against
the Alliance can never be perceived as an option with any
prospect o f success, thus guaranteeing the security and
territorial integrity o f member states.
In determining the size and nature of their contribution
to collective defence, mem ber countries of N A TO retain
full sovereignty and independence o f action. Nevertheless,
the nature o f N A T O ’s defence structure requires that in
reaching their individual decisions, member countries take
into account the overall needs o f the Alliance. They
therefore follow agreed defence planning procedures

111
which provide the methodology and m achinery for deter­
mining the forces required to implement A lliance policies,
for coordinating national defence plans and for establish­
ing force planning goals which are in the interests of the
Alliance as a whole. The planning process takes many
quantitative and qualitative factors into account, includ­
ing changing political circumstances, assessments pro­
vided by N A T O ’s M ilitary Com m anders o f the forces
they require to fulfil their tasks, scientific advances, tech­
nological developments, the im portance o f an equitable
division o f roles, risks and responsibilities within the
Alliance, and the individual economic and financial capa­
bilities o f member countries. The process thus ensures
that all relevant considerations are jointly examined to
enable the best use to be m ade o f the national resources
which are available for defence.
Close coordination between international civil and mili­
tary staffs, N A T O ’s military authorities, and N A TO gov­
ernments is m aintained through an annual exchange of
inform ation on national p lans. This exchange o f informa­
tion enables each nation’s intentions to be com pared with
N A TO ’s overall requirements and, if necessary, reconsid­
ered in the light o f new M inisterial political directives,
m odernisation requirements and changes in the roles and
responsibilities o f the forces themselves. All these aspects
are kept under continuous review and are scrutinised at
each stage o f the defence planning cycle.
The starting point for defence planning is the agreed
Strategic Concept which sets out in broad terms Alliance
objectives and the means for achieving them. More de­
tailed guidance is given every two years by Defence
Ministers. Specific planning targets for the armed forces
o f member nations are developed on the basis of this
guidance. These targets, known as ‘Force G oals’, gener­
ally cover a six-year period, but in certain cases look
further into the future. Like the guidance provided by
Defence Ministers, they are updated every two years. In
addition, allied defence planning is reviewed annually
and given direction by M inisters o f Defence. This annual

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defence review is designed to assess the contribution of
member countries to the com m on defence in relation to
their respective capabilities and constraints and against
the Force Goals addressed to them. The Annual Defence
Review culminates in the com pilation o f a common NATO
Force Plan which provides the basis for NATO defence
planning over a five-year time frame.
Thus at their meeting in December 1994, NATO Defence
Ministers conducted an A nnual R eview of the Alliance’s
conventional and nuclear forces, including national de­
fence plans for 1995 to 1999 and beyond, and adopted a
five-year Force Plan.

NUCLEAR POLICY
A credible Alliance nuclear policy and the dem onstration
of Alliance solidarity and com m on commitment to the
prevention o f war require widespread participation in
nuclear roles by the European Allies involved in collective
defence planning. Sub-strategic nuclear forces based in
Europe and com m itted to N A TO provide an essential
political and m ilitary link between the European and the
North American members o f the Alliance. Since the
elimination o f nuclear artillery and short-range surface-
to-surface nuclear missiles, these forces now consist only
of Dual-Capable A ircraft (DCA).
The Defence M inisters o f member countries which
take part in N A T O ’s Defence Planning Committee come
together at regular intervals each year in the Nuclear
Planning G ro u p (N PG ) which meets specifically to dis­
cuss policy issues associated with nuclear forces. These
discussions cover deploym ent issues, safety, security and
survivability o f nuclear weapons, comm unications, com ­
mand and control, nuclear arm s control and wider ques­
tions of com m on concern such as nuclear proliferation.
The Alliance’s nuclear policy is kept under review and
decisions are taken jointly to modify or adapt it in the
light o f new developments and to update and adjust
planning and consultation procedures.

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 In this context, at the M inisterial Meeting of the
N uclear Planning G roup in December 1994, NATO De­
fence M inisters received a presentation by the United
States on the results o f its N uclear Posture Review,
conducted in consultation with the Alliance. The Defence
M inisters expressed their satisfaction with the reaffirma­
tion o f the United States’ nuclear com m itm ent to NATO.
The N PG Staff G roup is the working body composed of
members o f the national delegations o f the countries
participating in the N P G and carries out the detailed
work on behalf of the N P G Perm anent Representatives.
It meets regularly once a week and other times as neces­
sary. O ther ad hoc groups established by and reporting
to the N P G are the High Level G roup (H LG ) and the
Senior Level W eapons Protection G roup (SLWPG).
These groups, chaired by the U nited States and composed
o f national experts from capitals, meet several times each
year to discuss aspects o f N A T O ’s nuclear policy and
planning and m atters concerning safety and security of
nuclear weapons.

E C O N O M I C COOPERA T I O N
The basis for economic cooperation within the Alliance
stems from Article 2 o f the N orth Atlantic Treaty which
states that the mem ber countries ‘will seek to eliminate
conflict in their international economic policies and will
encourage economic collaboration between any or all of
them ’. N A T O ’s Economic Com mittee, which was estab­
lished to prom ote cooperation in this field, is the only
Alliance forum concerned exclusively with consultations
on economic developments with a direct bearing on secu­
rity policy. Analyses and joint assessments o f security-
related economic developments are key ingredients in the
coordination o f defence planning within the Alliance.
They cover m atters such as com parisons o f military spend­
ing, developments within the defence industry, the avail­
ability o f resources for the im plementation o f defence
plans, intra-Alliance trade in defence equipm ent and econ­

114
omic cooperation and assistance between member
countries.
The premise on which economic cooperation within
the Alliance is founded is that political cooperation and
economic conflict are irreconcilable and that there must
therefore be a genuine com m itm ent among the members
to work together in the economic as well as in the
political field, and a readiness to consult on questions of
common concern based on the recognition o f common
interests.
The member countries recognise that in many respects
the purposes and principles o f Article 2 o f the Treaty are
pursued and implemented by other organisations and
international forums specifically concerned with econ­
omic cooperation. N A TO therefore avoids unnecessary
duplication o f work carried out elsewhere but reinforces
collaboration between its members whenever economic
issues o f special interest to the Alliance are involved,
particularly those which have political or defence implica­
tions. The Alliance therefore acts as a forum in which
different and interrelated aspects o f political, military
and economic questions can be examined. It also provides
the means whereby specific action in the economic field
can be initiated to safeguard com m on Alliance interests.
In recognition o f the fact that Alliance security depends
on the economic stability and well-being of all its mem­
bers as well as on political cohesion and military cooper­
ation, studies were initiated in the 1970s, for example, on
the specific economic problems o f Greece, Portugal and
Turkey. These resulted in action by N A TO governments
to assist the less prosperous members o f the Alliance by
means of m ajor aid program mes implemented largely
through other organisations such as the Organisation for
Economic C ooperation and Development (OECD). The
special economic problems and prospects of these coun­
tries continue to be m onitored.
In the context o f the Alliance’s overall security inter­
ests, a wide range o f other economic issues may have a
bearing on collective security. This includes in particular

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the conversion o f defence production to civilian purposes,
and m atters such as the m anagem ent o f defence expendi­
tures and budgets, industrial perform ance, consum er prob­
lems, population movements and external economic rela­
tions - especially with respect to the countries o f Central
and Eastern Europe and the independent states on the
territory o f the former Soviet Union. Analyses and joint
studies o f issues such as these have contributed for many
years to N A T O ’s assessment o f the security environment
affecting its coordinated defence plans. Increasingly they
form part o f the wider approach to security issues
adopted by the Alliance as a result o f the fundamental
changes which have taken place in Europe.
In accordance with the annual N A C C W ork Plan,
activities conducted in the economic sphere o f NATO
cooperation in the N A C C fram ework have concentrated
in particular on the interrelationship between defence
expenditures and the economy and on identifying solu­
tions to the problem o f converting to civilian purposes
industrial capacity formerly devoted to military produc­
tion. The successful handling o f the conversion issue is
central to the economic reform process taking place in
many N A C C countries and offers benefits ranging from
improvements in living standards and reductions in unem­
ployment as well as decreases in military expenditure and
the freeing o f resources for civilian use.
C ooperation in the field o f defence conversion has
enabled representatives o f governments, the private sector
and relevant international organisations to be brought
together in seminars and other meetings to clarify the
nature o f the task involved, assess prospects, identify
government roles and consider solutions, security link­
ages, financial constraints and ‘hum an conversion’ as­
pects o f the problem (e.g. redeploym ent and training).
F urther steps have included m ore comprehensive infor­
m ation gathering; the creation o f databases o f conversion
experts and defence sector industries in N A TO and Part­
ner countries interested in establishing cooperation agree­
ments; and the development o f pilot projects in Cooper­

116
ation Partner countries. The annual NATO Economics
Colloquium held in July 1994 also focused on privatisa­
tion and conversion matters.

P U B L I C I N F O R M A T ION
Public recognition o f the achievements o f the Alliance and
of its continuing role in the post-Cold W ar era is essential in
maintaining the ability o f the Alliance to carry out its basic
tasks, while expanding and deepening its relations with
former adversaries with whom it has now established a
permanent partnership based on cooperation, dialogue and
common security interests. The responsibility for explaining
national defence and security policy and each member
country’s own role within the Alliance rests with individual
governments. The choice o f the m ethods to be adopted and
the resources to be devoted to the task o f informing their
publics about the policies and objectives o f the Alliance is
also a m atter for each member nation to decide.
The role o f N A T O ’s Office of Inform ation and Press is
therefore to complement the public inform ation activities
undertaken within each country, providing whatever as­
sistance may be required, and to manage the Organisa­
tion’s day-to-day relations with the media. In accordance
with the N A C C W ork Plan, it is also contributing to the
widespread dissemination o f inform ation about NATO
in the countries participating in the N orth Atlantic C o­
operation Council. Embassies of NATO member coun­
tries serving as contact points and NATO-related inform a­
tion centres in NACC countries assist with this task.
To meet these requirements, the Office of Inform ation
and Press produces inform ation m aterials such as periodi­
cal and non-periodical publications, videos, photographs
and exhibitions. It also administers a m ajor programme
of visits which brings over 20,000 people to NATO Head­
quarters each year for briefings by and discussions with
experts from the International Staff, International Mili­
tary Staff and national delegations on all aspects o f the
Alliance’s work and policies. Conferences and seminars

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on security-related themes are also organised both at
NATO and elsewhere, often involving security specialists,
parliam entarians, journalists, church leaders, trade union­
ists, academics, students or youth organisations.
The NATO Office o f Inform ation and Press sponsors
two types o f Research Fellowship Programmes: the first,
which has existed since 1956, awards grants to post-gradu­
ates and other qualified citizens o f member countries to
stimulate study and research into subjects o f relevance to
the Alliance; the second, introduced in 1989, makes
awards to citizens o f the countries o f Central and Eastern
Europe for the study o f Western democratic institutions.
The role of managing day-to-day relations with the
media is covered by the Press and M edia Service, which
is responsible for channelling official policy statements
and announcem ents to journalists, arranging interviews
with the Secretary General and other senior officials of
the O rganisation and responding to enquiries and arrang­
ing visits from the media.
The 1994/1995 NACC W ork Plan for developing dia­
logue, partnership and cooperation includes, in the infor­
m ation field, joint meetings; dissemination o f information
through diplomatic liaison channels and Alliance embas­
sies as well as by electronic means (E-Mail); group visits
to NATO; sponsorship o f sem inar participation in Allied
countries; co-sponsorship of seminars in Central and
Eastern Europe; speakers tours; fellowships for the study
o f Democratic Institutions; and increased distribution of
N A TO docum entation and publications, in languages of
C ooperation Partners.
There are a num ber o f non-governm ental organisations
which support N A TO and play an im portant role, often
in an educational capacity, in disseminating information
about Alliance goals and policies. The N A TO Office of
Inform ation and Press assists them in this work. These
organisations include national Atlantic Committees or
Associations, as well as a num ber o f other national and
international bodies such as the N orth Atlantic Assembly,
which brings together Parliam entarians from member

118
countries; and the Interallied Confederation of Reserve
Officers, in which 12 N A TO member countries are repre­
sented. F urther inform ation about these organisations is
given in Part V.
Similar assistance is being extended to non-govern­
mental organisations and inform ation centres in NACC
countries, particularly in connection with visiting pro­
grammes, conferences and seminars, and publishing
activities.

T H E N A TO S E C U R I T Y I N V E S T M E N T
PROGRA M M E (C O M M O N INFRA S T R UCTURE)
Installations o f m any different kinds are needed to enable
military forces to train effectively and to be ready to
operate efficiently if called upon to do so. The NATO
Security Investm ent Programm e enables the installations
and facilities required by the M ajor NATO Com manders
for the training and operational use o f the forces assigned
to them to be financed collectively by the participating
countries. Such funding takes place within agreed limits
and in accordance with agreed N A TO procedures on the
basis of cost-sharing arrangem ents developed to distribute
the burden and benefits as equitably as possible. The
programme provides for installations and facilities such
as airfields, com m unications and inform ation systems,
military headquarters, fuel pipelines and storage, radar
and navigational aids, port installations, missile sites,
forward storage and support facilities for reinforcement,
etc. Facilities used only by national forces, or portions of
installations which do not come within the criteria for
NATO com m on-funding, are financed by the govern­
ments concerned. C ontracts for installations designated
as NATO Investm ent are normally subject to inter­
national competitive bidding procedures on the basis of
cost estimates, screened by the N A TO Infrastructure
Committee, to ensure compliance with agreed specifica­
tions as well as maximum efficiency and economy.
Aspects o f such contracts which can best be under­

119
taken locally are usually exempt from this procedure
and are subject to national competitive bidding, but the
principle is m aintained and exemption has to be ap­
proved. Completed projects are subject to inspection by
teams consisting o f experts from the country on whose
territory the installation is located, user countries, and
N A TO International Staff and M ilitary Authorities. The
program me is continuously m onitored by the NATO
Infrastructure Com mittee and all financial operations are
audited by the N A TO International Board of Auditors
under the authority o f the N orth Atlantic Council. The
Security Investm ent Programm e is being adapted to meet
the requirements o f the Alliance’s new Strategic Concept
published in Novem ber 1991, as well as subsequent deci­
sions taken in this context. M oreover, the creation of the
Senior Resource Board in O ctober 1993 has provided a
mechanism for providing broad resource and programme
guidance. This is ensuring the coordinated implementa­
tion o f investment activities which support both the
N A TO Strategic Concept and the realisation o f medium
and long term resource m anagem ent objectives.

LOGISTIC SUPPORT
There are many spheres o f civilian and military activity
which have a direct or indirect bearing on the common
security o f the mem ber countries o f the Alliance. The
assistance available to defence forces to enable them to
fulfil their roles includes, for example, providing shared
access to the logistic support which they need if they are
to function effectively. Each member country is responsi­
ble for ensuring, individually or through cooperative ar­
rangements, the continuous support o f its own forces.
C oordinated logistics planning is therefore an essential
aspect o f the efficient and economical use o f resources.
Examples o f cooperative arrangem ents include the
com m on funding o f logistics facilities under the NATO
Infrastructure Programm e; the coordination o f civil logis­
tics resources under Civil Emergency Planning arrange­

120
ments; and logistics aspects o f arm am ents production and
procurement. It is through such arrangem ents that the
availability o f the necessary installations, storage and
maintenance facilities, transport resources, vehicles, weap­
ons, am m unition, fuel supplies, and stocks o f spare parts
can be coordinated.
C ooperation in these fields is coordinated through the
Senior N A T O Logisticians’ Conference. A num ber of
production and logistics organisations have also been
established to m anage specific aspects o f the support
needed by N A TO forces on a perm anent basis, including
the Central Europe O perating Agency responsible for the
operation and m aintenance o f the C entral Europe Pipe­
line System; and the N A TO M aintenance and Supply
Organisation which assists mem ber countries primarily
through the com m on procurem ent and supply o f spare
parts and the provision o f m aintenance and repair
facilities.

A R M A M E N T S COOPERATION
Responsibility for equipping and m aintaining military
forces rests with the mem ber nations o f N A TO and in
most spheres research, development and production of
equipment are organised by each country in accordance
with its national requirements and its commitments to
NATO. Since the establishm ent o f the Alliance, however,
extensive coordination and cooperation in the field of
armaments has taken place within N ATO . Armaments
cooperation remains an im portant means o f achieving
the crucial political, military and resource advantages of
collective defence.
NATO arm am ents cooperation is organised under a
Conference o f N ational Arm am ents Directors (CNAD)
which meets on a regular basis to consider political,
economic and technical aspects o f the development and
procurement o f equipm ent for N A TO forces. Army, navy
and air force arm am ents groups, a Defence Research
Group and a Tri-Service G roup on Com munications and

121
electronics support the work o f the Conference and are
responsible to it in their respective fields. Assistance on
industrial m atters is provided by a NATO Industrial
Advisory G roup which enables the C N A D to benefit
from industry’s advice on how to foster government-to-
industry and industry-to-industry cooperation and assists
the Conference in exploring opportunities for inter­
national collaboration. O ther groups under the Confer­
ence are active in fields such as defence procurement
policy and acquisition practices, codification, quality
assurance, test and safety criteria, and materiel
standardization.
W ithin the above structure project groups, panels, work­
ing and ad hoc groups are established to prom ote cooper­
ation in specific fields. The overall structure enables
member countries to select the equipm ent and research
projects in which they wish to participate and facilitates
exchange o f inform ation on operational concepts, na­
tional equipm ent program mes and technical and logistics
m atters where cooperation can be o f benefit to individual
nations and to N A TO as a whole.
In 1993, the N orth Atlantic Council approved revised
policies, structures and procedures for N A TO armaments
cooperation designed to strengthen cooperative activities
in the defence equipm ent field; to orient the work of the
C N A D towards four key areas (the harm onisation of
military requirements on an Alliance-wide basis; the pro­
m otion of essential battlefield interoperability; the pursuit
o f cooperative opportunities identified by the CN A D and
the prom otion o f improved transatlantic cooperation;
and the development o f critical defence technologies,
including expanded technology sharing); and to stream­
line the overall C N A D committee structure in order to
make it more effective and efficient. In 1994, the CNAD
agreed on a series o f practical cooperation measures with
the Western European Arm aments G roup (W EAG). This
agreement took account o f the fact that the Western
European Union (W EU) has assumed the responsibilities
in the arm am ents field formerly exercised by the Independ­

122
ent European Program m e G roup (IEPG). It also pro­
vided a means o f expanding the dialogue on transatlantic
armaments issues between European and N orth
American allies.

A R M A M E N T S PLANNING
In 1989 the N orth Atlantic Council approved the estab­
lishment o f a C onventional Arm aments Planning System
(CAPS). The aims o f this system are to provide guidance
to the C N A D and orientation to the nations on how the
military requirem ents o f the Alliance can best be met by
armaments program mes, individually and collectively; to
harmonise longer-term defence procurem ent plans; and
to identify future opportunities for arm am ents cooper­
ation on an Alliance-wide basis. The outcome o f this
planning process is a series o f recom m endations issued
every two years by the N A TO Conventional Arm aments
Review Com mittee (N CA RC) under the authority o f the
CNAD. These recom m endations are designed to elimi­
nate unnecessary duplication o f effort in meeting the
military needs o f the Alliance, to provide a framework
for the exchange o f inform ation and the harm onisation
of operational requirements within the C N A D ’s arm a­
ments groups, and to establish more rational and cost-
effective m ethods o f arm am ents cooperation and defence
procurement. On the basis o f the experience gained since
1989, the C N A D undertook a revision o f the CAPS in
1993, in order to simplify planning procedures and
strengthen the overall effectiveness o f the CAPS.

S T A NDA R D I Z A T I ON
Standardization and interoperability between NATO
forces make a vital contribution to the combined opera­
tional effectiveness o f the military forces o f the Alliance
and enable opportunities to be exploited for making
better use o f economic resources. Extensive efforts are
therefore m ade in many different spheres to improve

123
cooperation and eliminate duplication in research, devel­
opm ent, production, procurem ent and support o f defence
systems. N A TO Standardization Agreements for proce­
dures and systems and equipm ent com ponents, known as
STANAGs, are developed and prom ulgated by the
N A TO M ilitary Agency for Standardization in conjunc­
tion with the Conference o f N ational Arm am ents Direc­
tors and other authorities concerned.
By formulating, agreeing, implementing and maintain­
ing standards for equipm ent and procedures used through­
out NATO, a significant contribution is m ade to the
cohesion o f the Alliance and the effectiveness o f its de­
fence structure. While standardization is o f relevance in
many different areas, the principal forum for standardiza­
tion policy issues is the N A TO Standardization Group,
which acts as a coordinator for the various endeavours
and aims to incorporate standardization as an integral
part o f Alliance planning.1

1 P o s ts c r ip t: O n 18 J a n u a r y 1995, th e N A T O C o u n c il a g re e d to establish
a n e w N A T O S ta n d a r d iz a tio n O rg a n is a tio n . I t c o m p ris e s a n e w N A TO
C o m m itte e fo r S ta n d a r d iz a tio n , c o m p o s e d o f h ig h level n a tio n a l repre­
s e n ta tiv e s , a n in te rn a l N A T O H e a d q u a r te r s S ta n d a r d iz a tio n Liaison
B o a r d , a n d a n O ffice o f N A T O S ta n d a r d iz a tio n c o m p o s e d o f existing
j o i n t c iv ilia n a n d m ilita r y N A T O s ta ff.
T h is n e w o r g a n is a tio n w ill g iv e re n e w e d im p e tu s to A llia n c e work
a im e d a t im p r o v in g th e c o o r d in a tio n o f a llie d p o lic ie s a n d p ro g ram m es
fo r m a te rie l, te c h n ic a l a n d o p e r a tio n a l s ta n d a r d i z a tio n . I t will also
s u p p o r t th e P a r tn e r s h ip fo r P e a c e in itia tiv e b y a d d r e s s in g specific pro­
p o s a ls f o r im p r o v e d s ta n d a r d i z a tio n p u l fo r w a r d b y P a r tn e r countries
a n d p r o m o te c lo s e r c o lla b o r a tio n w ith I n te r n a tio n a l C iv ilia n S tandards
O rg a n is a tio n s .
T h e N A T O C o m m itte e fo r S ta n d a r d iz a tio n w ill b e c o -c h a ire d by the
N A T O A s s is ta n t S e c re ta ry G e n e r a l f o r D e fe n c e S u p p o r t, a n d b y the
D ir e c to r o r th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita r y S ta ff. Its e s ta b lis h m e n t underlines
th e im p o r ta n c e o f im p r o v e d s ta n d a r d i z a tio n in th e n e w A llia n c e Strate­
g ic C o n c e p t, a n d in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f m u ltin a tio n a l fo rc e s to support
p e a c e k e e p in g , c risis m a n a g e m e n t a n d c o lle c tiv e d e fe n c e .

124
 C O M M UN ICA T I O N S A N D I N F OR M A TION
SYSTEMS
Rapid and reliable com m unications and information sys­
tems are required by national and N ATO political and
military authorities for political consultation, crisis m an­
agement and for the com m and and control of assigned
forces. M odern technology and the integration of strate­
gic and tactical com m unications and inform ation systems
into an overall N A TO Com m unications and Inform ation
System (CIS) has enabled these requirements to be met.
The rudim entary com m unications links available in the
early days o f the Alliance were expanded in the late 1960s
to provide direct com m unications between capitals,
NATO H eadquarters and M ajor NATO Commands.
When N A TO moved to Brussels in 1967 a modern com­
munications system was established as part of a range of
improvements in crisis m anagem ent facilities. Satellite
communications and ground terminals were introduced
in 1970. The integration o f the overall system was under­
taken by the N A TO Com munications and Inform ation
Systems Agency (NACISA). The system is operated by
the NATO Integrated C om m unications and Inform ation
Systems O perating and Support Agency (NACOSA). Re­
lated policy m atters are coordinated by the N A TO Com ­
munications and Inform ation Systems Committee
(NACISC). The system is financed jointly by member
nations through the N A TO Com m on Infrastructure Pro­
gramme. A Tri-Service G roup on Com munications and
Electronics, established under the Conference o f National
Armaments Directors, prom otes cooperation am ong the
NATO nations in the development and procurem ent of
communications and electronic equipm ent with the aim
of achieving the m aximum degree o f standardization and
interoperability.

A I R D E FE N CE
The NATO Air Defence Com mittee (NA DC) is responsi­
ble for advising the N orth Atlantic Council and Defence

125
 Planning Com mittee on all aspects o f air defence, includ­
ing tactical missile defence, and enables m em ber countries
to harm onise their national efforts with international
planning related to air com m and and control and air
defence weapons. The air defence o f C anada and the
United States is coordinated in the N orth American Air
Defence system (N O RA D ). In 1994, the N A D C began a
dialogue with C ooperation Partners under the aegis of
the N orth Atlantic C ooperation Council. The aim is to
foster m utual understanding and confidence in air defence
aspects o f common interest. Developments under the
Partnership for Peace initiative will further enhance co­
operation in this area.
A ir Defence o f the N A TO European airspace is pro­
vided by a complex system which enables aircraft and
tactical missiles to be detected, tracked and intercepted
either by maritime and ground-based weapons systems or
by interceptor aircraft. The com m and and control struc­
ture which facilitates air defence comprises the NATO
Air Defence G round Environm ent (N A D G E), which in­
cludes a num ber o f sites stretching from Northern
Norw ay to Eastern Turkey, the Im proved United King­
dom Air Defence G round Environm ent (IUKADGE)
and the Portuguese Air C om m and and C ontrol System
(POACCS). These systems integrate the various sites,
equipped with m odern radars and data processing and
display systems, which are linked by m odem digital com­
m unications. M uch o f this integrated air defence structure
has been commonly financed through the N A TO Infra­
structure program m e and a significant part o f the succes­
sor system, known as the Air C om m and and Control
System (ACCS), will be similarly funded. Implementation
o f the ACCS has been agreed by the N orth Atlantic
Council, and the N A TO ACCS M anagem ent Organisa­
tion will supervise its com pletion, with a first operational
capability scheduled by the end o f the century.
D uring the late 1980s, early w arning capability was
enhanced through the acquisition o f a fleet o f NATO
E-3A A irborne Early W arning and C ontrol (AWACS)

126
aircraft. The fleet is currently being improved, through
modernisation program m es m anaged by the NATO
AEW&C Program m e M anagem ent Organisation. These
NATO-owned and operated aircraft, together with the
E3-D aircraft owned and operated by the United King­
dom, comprise the N A TO A irborne Early W arning Force
which is available to the M ajor N A TO Com m anders.
The French and U nited States Air Forces also have E-3
aircraft, which can interoperate with the air defence
ground structure.
As a consequence o f the new security environment,
the NA TO Air Defence Com mittee has reviewed the
requirements and form ulated a revised long term pro­
gramme to ensure Alliance air defences adapt to the new
security situation and can contribute effectively to crisis
management. To realise this concept the need for m ultina­
tional training is being considered, as is the potential
contribution o f m aritim e assets to continental air defence
and possible reinforcements by readily transportable air
defence elements. Since tactical missiles are now part of
the weapons inventory o f many countries, the Alliance is
also examining ways o f applying counterm easures to such
systems.
In December 1994, N A TO Defence Ministers wel­
comed a decision by the Conference o f N ational A rm a­
ments Directors to pursue work on an Alliance G round
Surveillance capability which would complement the
AWACS capability and would be an invaluable tool for
the com m and o f military operations, and also for peace­
keeping and crisis management.

CIVIL E M E R G E N C Y P L A N N I N G
Civil Emergency Planning in N A TO refers to the develop­
ment o f collective plans for the effective use o f Alliance
civil resources in support o f Alliance strategy. Civil prepar­
edness and the m anagem ent o f relevant resources are
primarily national responsibilities. However, N A TO coor­
dination is essential in order to facilitate national plan­

127
ning and to ensure that the m any facets o f civil emergency
planning contribute to the security o f the Alliance in a
cost-effective and well-structured m anner. The NATO
body which undertakes these responsibilities is the Senior
Civil Emergency Planning Com mittee (SCEPC). The
SCEPC coordinates the activities o f a num ber o f Planning
Boards and Committees dealing with the mobilisation
and use o f resources in the fields o f ocean shipping, civil
aviation, European inland surface transportation, petro­
leum, industry, food and agriculture, civil communica­
tions, medical care and civil defence.
N A T O ’s civil emergency planning activities have experi­
enced a fundam ental change in recent years. Greater
emphasis has been placed on crisis m anagem ent and civil
support to the military, particularly in civil transport. In
accordance with directives o f the N orth Atlantic Council,
flexible arrangem ents have been m ade for drawing on the
expertise, in crisis situations, o f high-level experts from
business and industry to support N A T O ’s crisis manage­
ment machinery. In 1993, the Council am ended the proce­
dures governing N A TO cooperation in emergency disas­
ter assistance in peacetime to allow them to be applied
to disasters outside the Alliance’s borders, if requested by
a relevant international organisation.
Reflecting the new security environm ent, N A TO ’s civil
emergency planners have been directed to consider the
scope for civil support to peacekeeping activities under
the responsibility o f the U N or the CSCE. In January
1994, under the auspices o f the N A C C , a Seminar on the
H um anitarian Aspects o f Peacekeeping was held in Buda­
pest. It identified many o f the non-m ilitary aspects of
peacekeeping th at are essential for successful peacekeep­
ing operations. Civil emergency planning also features
prom inently in the N A C C W ork Plan. The prim ary focus
is on disaster response activities, with particular emphasis
on cooperation in civil emergency planning in responding
to civil protection requirem ents and capabilities in indi­
vidual Partner countries.
In many o f the above fields, relevant consultation,

128
coordination and cooperation arrangements with the Alli­
ance also form part o f Individual Partnership Pro­
grammes being developed between NATO and Partner
countries in the PFP framework.

CIVIL A N D M I L I T A R Y C O O R D I N A T I O N OF AI R
TRA FFIC M A NA G E M E N T
The N orth Atlantic Council established the Committee
for European Airspace C oordination (CEAC) in 1955.
The Committee is responsible for ensuring that all civil
and military airspace requirements over the territory of
the 16 N A TO nations are fully coordinated. This includes
the conduct o f m ajor air exercises, the harm onisation of
air traffic control systems and procedures, and the sharing
of communications frequencies. Observers from the Inter­
national Civil Aviation O rganisation, the International
Air Transport Association and the European Organisa­
tion for the Safety o f Air N avigation (EU RO C O N TRO L)
also assist the CEAC.
More recently, the surge in civilian air traffic, and
delays caused by insufficient capacity o f air traffic control
and airport structures in many parts o f Europe to cope
with peak-time traffic, have highlighted the need for
effective coordination between civil -and military authori­
ties to ensure th at the airspace is shared by all users on
an equitable basis. Consequently, in the context o f current
efforts tow ards future pan-European integration o f air
traffic m anagem ent, CEAC is represented in a num ber of
international forums and is a participant in the European
Air Traffic C ontrol H arm onisation and Integration Pro­
gramme approved by the T ransport Ministers of the
European Civil Aviation Conference. CEAC is the only
international forum specifically charged with the resolu­
tion of civil and military air traffic management
problems.
Since exchanges o f views on airspace m anagement con­
stitute part o f the developing partnership between the
NATO Alliance and its C ooperation Partners, the Com m it­

129
tee is also actively engaged in this endeavour. Since 1991,
m eetings on civil/m ilitary coordination o f air traffic man­
agement have been held periodically with high-level par­
ticipation by N A T O members and other European coun­
tries. In M ay 1992, the Central and East European and
C entral Asian states which are members o f the North
Atlantic C ooperation Council (N A CC) took part in a
sem inar on this issue, together with representatives from
N A TO countries, as well as the N A TO M ilitary Authori­
ties and five international organisations with responsibili­
ties in this field.
From Novem ber 1992, C ooperation Partners were in­
vited to take part in plenary sessions o f the CEAC
addressing the civil/m ilitary dimension o f the integration
o f Central and Eastern Europe in W estern European air
traffic m anagem ent strategies. R egular plenary and work­
ing level meetings now constitute part o f the cooperation
activities related to air traffic m anagem ent foreseen in the
NA C C W ork Plan. Early in 1994 European neutral coun­
tries were invited to participate in CEA C activities,
thereby establishing the com m ittee as a unique forum for
coordination between civil and military users o f the entire
continental European airspace, as acknowledged by the
European Civil Aviation Conference. The Partnership
for Peace initiative agreed by N A T O ’s Heads of State
and Governm ent in January 1994 is further increasing
concrete cooperation in this area, notably with regard to
coordination o f air exercises.

S C IE N T I F I C COOPERA T I O N A N D
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
The concept o f m utual security includes a broad range of
global concerns which transcend national boundaries.
These include m aintaining a strong scientific base, preserv­
ing the physical environm ent, m anaging natural resources
and protecting health. N A TO addresses these issues
through program mes of scientific activity and projects of
environmental im portance.

130
 The program m es o f the N A TO Science Committee
seek to advance the frontiers o f science generally and
to tackle scientific and environm ental problems of con­
cern to N A T O and to its C ooperation Partners. By
providing m ultilateral support for high-level scientific
research, they encourage the development o f national
scientific and technological resources and enable econo­
mies to be achieved through international collabora­
tion.
The N A TO Science Program m e was established in
1957, since when it has involved over half a million
scientists from Alliance and other countries. M ost of its
activities prom ote collaboration through international ex­
change program m es and encourage international working
arrangements am ong scientists, focusing in particular on
individual rather than institutional involvement. The prin­
cipal forms o f exchange are Collaborative Research
Grants, Advanced Study Institutes and Science Fellow­
ships. There are also a num ber o f special program mes to
stimulate activity in particularly promising areas o f scien­
tific research. The results o f all these activities are gener­
ally available and are published in scientific literature.
A further program m e o f the Science Committee is
known as Science for Stability. This program m e arose
out of the need to provide concrete assistance to the
economically less prosperous member countries o f the
Alliance. The program m e has concentrated on assisting
Greece, Portugal and Turkey to enhance their scientific
and technological research and development capacity and
to strengthen cooperation between universities, public
research institutes and private companies. Its projects are
essentially jo in t ventures o f significance to the devel­
opment o f scientific, engineering and technological cap­
abilities. They assist these countries by supplementing
national resources with international funding for equip­
ment, foreign technical or managerial expertise, and
training abroad.
The Science Com m ittee is composed o f national repre­
sentatives able to speak authoritatively and on behalf of

131
their respective governments on scientific m atters. It de­
cides on policy and ensures the im plementation of the
Science Programm e, in collaboration with the staff of the
Scientific and Environm ental Affairs Division.
Following the demise o f the W arsaw Treaty Organisa­
tion and the collapse o f the Soviet Union, the NATO
Science Program m e was substantially refocused. A major
part of its activities has subsequently been directed to­
wards the solution o f environm ental and other scientific
problems relevant to security issues in the territories of
N A TO and its C ooperation Partners. The NACC Work
Plan for Dialogue, Partnership and C ooperation provides
a framework which enables the Science Committee to
apply its various traditional support mechanisms to prob­
lems o f disarm am ent, environm ental security, high tech­
nology, science and technology policy and computer
networking. The W ork Plan also provides for joint meet­
ings o f the Science Com mittee with C ooperation Partners,
distribution of proceedings of N A TO Scientific Meetings
to central libraries in each country and N A TO Science
Fellowships.
In 1969, a Com mittee on the Challenges o f Modem
Society (CCMS) was established to respond to the Alli­
ance’s concern about environm ental issues. M ember coun­
tries have participated through this Com mittee in numer­
ous initiatives to take advantage o f the potential offered
by the Alliance for cooperation in tackling problems
affecting the environm ent and the quality o f life. Under
the auspices of the Committee, projects have been under­
taken in fields such as environm ental pollution, noise,
urban problems, energy and hum an health, and safety
issues. Since 1992, projects on defence-related environmen­
tal issues have received a special emphasis. Examples
include pilot studies on ‘Defence Environm ental Expecta­
tions’, resulting in guidelines on environm ental training
and principles adopted by the N orth Atlantic Council;
and on the ‘Environm ental Aspects o f Re-Using Former
M ilitary Lands’ to assist C ooperation Partners in convert­
ing former military bases to civilian use.

132
 Two im portant concepts characterise the work of the
Committee, namely that it should lead to concrete action
and that its results should be entirely open and accessible
to international organisations or individual countries else­
where in the world. F or each project embarked upon,
one or m ore nations volunteer to assume a pilot role,
which includes taking responsibility for planning the
work, coordinating its execution, preparing the necessary
reports and prom oting follow-up action.
In accordance with the NA C C W ork Plan, the Com m it­
tee on the Challenges of M odern Society is also broaden­
ing its work to include joint meetings with N A TO ’s
Cooperation Partners and seminars on defence-related
environmental issues, as well as new pilot studies on
topics of particular interest to these countries. It has also
been agreed th at the role o f co-director o f a pilot study
can be assumed by a Cooperation Partner country as
long as there is also a co-director from a NATO country.
Meetings o f the CCM S with representatives from
Cooperation Partners take place annually. Activities initi­
ated or under discussion include pilot studies on aspects
of cross border environm ental problems em anating from
defence-related installations and activities (focusing par­
ticularly on radioactive and chemical pollution in areas
where cooperative action am ong nations represents the
only way o f addressing the problem); studies relating to
damage limitation and clean-up methodology for contam i­
nated former military sites; conferences on protection of
the ozone layer; and work on the defence, environment
and economics interrelationship, designed to identify envi­
ronmentally sound approaches to the operations of armed
forces.

133
 PART III

ORGANISA TION AND

STRUCTURES
 NATO H eadquarters
The N A T O Headquarters in Brussels is the po litical
headquarters o f the Alliance and the permanent home o f
the North Atlantic Council. It houses Permanent Repre­
sentatives and national delegations, the Secretary General
and the International Staff, national Military Representa­
tives, the Chairman o f the Military Committee and the
International Military Staff, and a number o f NATO
agencies.
There are approximately 3,750 people employed at
NATO Headquarters on a full-time basis. O f these, some
2,150 are members o f national delegations and national
military representatives to N A TO . There are approxi­
mately 1,180 civilian members o f the International Staff
and 420 members o f the International Military Staff
including 80 civilian personnel. Since 1994, a number o f
Cooperation Partner representatives also have liaison
offices at N A T O Headquarters.

Permanent Represe ntatives and National Delegations

Each member nation is represented on the N orth Atlantic
Council by an A m bassador or Permanent Representative
supported by a national delegation com posed o f advisers
and officials w ho represent their country on different
NATO com m ittees. The delegations are similar in many
respects to small embassies. Their collocation within the
same headquarters building enables them to maintain
formal and informal contacts with each other, as well as
with N A T O ’s international staffs, easily and without
delay.

The International S taff

The work o f the N orth Atlantic Council and its com m it­
tees is supported by an International Staff consisting o f
personnel from member countries either recruited directly
by the Organisation or seconded by their governments,

137
 NATO International Staff

C H A IR M A N
SEC RETA RY G EN ERA L
C H A IR M A N
C I V IL & M IL IT A R Y IN T E R N A T IO N A L
BUDGET BOARD OF
C O M M IT T E E S DEPUTY SECRETA RY G EN ERA L
A U D IT O R S

D IR E C T O R O F T H E P R IV A T E O F F IC E

Ul
oo
A S S IS T A N T A SSIST A N T A SSIST A N T
A S S IS T A N T A S S IS T A N T S E C R ETA R Y
SECRETARY SECRETARY SE C R ET A R Y
SECRETARY G E N E R A L FO R
G E N E R A L FO R G E N E R A L FO R G E N E R A L FOR
G E N E R A L FO R IN FR A ST R U C T U R E .
P O L IT IC A L D EFENCE S C IE N T IFIC &
D EFENCE L O G IST IC S & CIV IL
A F F A IR S P L A N N IN G E N V IR O N M E N T A L
SU PPO RT E M ER G EN C Y
& P O L IC Y A FFA IRS
P LA N N IN G

D IR E C T O R O F
IN F O R M A T IO N
& PR ESS
D IR E C T O R O F
N A T O O F F IC E
O F S E C U R IT Y

]
normally for periods o f 3-4 years. The members o f the
International Staff are responsible to the Secretary G en­
eral and owe their allegiance to the Organisation through­
out the period o f their appointment.
The International Staff comprises the Office o f the
Secretary General, five operational D ivisions, the Office
of Management and the Office o f the Financial Control­
ler. Each of the D ivisions is headed by an Assistant
Secretary General, w ho is normally the chairman o f the
main committee dealing with subjects in his field o f
responsibility. Through their structure o f Directorates
and Services, the D ivisions support the work o f the
committees in the various fields o f activity described in
Parts I and II.

The Secr etary General

The Secretary General is responsible for prom oting and
directing the process o f consultation and decision-making
Ihrough the Alliance. He is the Chairman o f the North
Atlantic Council, the Defence Planning Committee and
ihe Nuclear Planning Group as well as titular Chairman
of other senior committees. He may propose items for
discussion and decision and has the authority to use his
good offices in cases o f dispute between member coun­
tries. He is responsible for directing the International
Staff and is the principal spokesman for the Alliance in
relations between governments and with the media. The
Deputy Secretary General assists the Secretary General
in the exercise o f his functions and replaces him in his
absence. He is Chairman o f the High Level Task Force
on Conventional Arms Control, the Executive Working
Group, the N A TO Air Defence Committee, the Joint
Consultative Board, the Joint Com m ittee on Proliferation
and a number o f other Ad H oc and W orking Groups.
The Secretary General has under his direct control a
Private Office and the Office o f the Secretary General.
The Private Office supports the Secretary General and
Deputy Secretary General in all aspects o f their work. Its

139
staff includes a Legal Adviser and a Special Adviser for
Central and Eastern European Affairs.
The Office o f the Secretary General consists of the
Executive Secretariat (including the Information Systems
Service and Council Operations Section), the Office of
Information and Press and the N A T O Office o f Security.
The Executive Secretariat is responsible for ensuring
the sm ooth functioning o f Council, N A C C , Defence Plan­
ning Committee and Nuclear Planning Group business
and the work o f the whole structure o f committees and
working groups set up under these bodies. It is also
responsible for administrative arrangements concerning
the N A C C and other bodies meeting in the NACC or
PFP context. Members o f the Executive Secretariat act as
Committee Secretaries and provide secretarial and admin­
istrative back-up for the Council and a number of other
committees. Agendas, summary records, reports, decision
and action sheets are prepared and issued by Committee
Secretaries under the responsibility o f the Committee
Chairmen.
The Executive Secretary is Secretary to the Council,
Defence Planning Com m ittee and Nuclear Planning
Group and is responsible for ensuring that the work of
the different divisions o f the International Staff is carried
out in accordance with the directives given. Through the
Council Operations Section, the Executive Secretary, in
addition to these functions, coordinates crisis manage­
ment arrangements and procedures in NATO including
their regular exercising, and through the Information Sys­
tems Service ensures autom ated data processing (ADP)
support to both the International Staff and International
Military Staff and office com m unications for the entire
N A T O Headquarters. He is also responsible on behalf of
the Secretary General for the development and control of
the N A TO Situation Centre (see below). The Director of
the International Military Staff, acting for the Military
Committee, is responsible for the coordination of the
day-to-day operation o f the Centre with the Chief of the
Situation Centre.

140
 The Office o f Information and Press consists o f a Press
and Media Service and an Information Service divided
into a Planning and Productions Section and an External
Relations Section. The Director o f Information and Press
is Chairman o f the Com m ittee on Information and Cul­
tural Relations and o f the annual meeting o f Ministry o f
Defence Inform ation Officials. The Director is assisted
by a Deputy Director, who is also the official spokesman
for the Secretary General and the Organisation in con­
tacts with the media.
The Press and M edia Service arranges accreditation
for journalists; issues press releases, communiqués and
speeches by the Secretary General; and provides a daily
press review and press cutting service for the staff o f the
NATO Headquarters in Brussels. It organises media inter­
views with the Secretary General and other N A TO offi­
cials and provides technical assistance and facilities for
radio and television transmissions.
The Office o f Inform ation and Press assists member
governments to widen public understanding o f N A T O ’s
role and policies through a variety o f programmes and
activities. These make use o f periodical and non-periodi­
cal publications, video film production, photographs and
exhibitions, group visits, conferences and seminars and
research fellowships. The Office includes a library and
documentation service and a media library.
The Office maintains close contacts with national infor­
mation authorities and non-governmental organisations
and undertakes activities designed to explain the aims
and achievements o f the Alliance to public opinion in
each member country. It also organises or sponsors a
number o f multinational programmes involving citizens
of different member countries and, in conjunction with
NATO’s Cooperation Partners, undertakes information
activities designed to enhance public knowledge and
understanding o f the Alliance in the countries represented
in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council.
The N A T O Office o f Security coordinates, monitors
and implements N A T O security policy. The Director o f

141
Security is the Secretary General’s principal adviser on
security issues and is Chairman o f the NATO Security
Committee. He directs the N A T O Headquarters Security
Service and is responsible for the overall coordination of
security within N A TO .
The Division of Political Affairs com es under the respon­
sibility o f the Assistant Secretary General for Political
Affairs, who is Chairman o f the Senior Political Commit­
tee and o f the Political Committee. He is also Chairman
o f the Senior Politico-M ilitary G roup on Proliferation.
The D ivision has two Directorates:
The Political D irectorate is responsible for:
(a) preparation o f the political discussions o f the Council
and o f the discussions o f the Political Committee at
regular and senior level including their meetings with
N A C C and PFP Partners;
(b) preparation o f notes and reports on political subjects
for the Secretary General and the Council;
(c) political liaison with the delegations o f member coun­
tries and with representatives o f Cooperation Partners;
(d) preparation o f the meetings o f the North Atlantic
Cooperation Council and diplom atic liaison contacts
on political and security related matters with Cooper­
ation Partners;
(e) liaison with other governmental and non-governmen­
tal international organisations;
(f) development o f com m on positions and/or proposals
in the field o f disarmament and arms control.
The day-to-day work o f the Political Directorate is
handled by five sections responsible respectively for
N A TO matters as well as multilateral and regional affairs;
policy planning; issues concerning cooperation activities
and liaison with the countries represented in the North
Atlantic Cooperation Council and in the Partnership for
Peace programme; disarmament, arms control and coop­
erative security; and verification and implementation coor­
dination am ong Allies and with Cooperation Partners.

142
 Divisions o f th e In te rn a tio n a l Staff
D IV ISI ON O F

l) D IV ISIO N O F
IN F R A S T R U C T U R E .
L O G IS T IC S &
C IV IL EM E R G E N C Y
PLA N N IN G
S C IE N T IF IC &
EN V IR O N M E N T A L
A FF A IR S

• DISARMAMENT
TECHNOLOGIES
• ENVIRONMENTAL
SECURITY AND
ADVANCED STUDY
INSTITUTES
• HIGH TECHNOLOGY
• ARMAMENTS COOPER ATION AND COLLABORATIVE
RESEARCH GRANTS
• SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY POLICY
• PROGRAMME CONTROL AND SCIENCE
A RM A M EN TS PL A N N I N G . • SUSTAINABILITY FELLOWSHIPS
PR O G R A M M E S & • SIGNALS • COMPUTER
RESEA RCH DIRECTORATE • M OBILnY NETWORKING
• SCIENCE FOR STABILITY
• CCMS PROGRAMME
• AIR-BASED ARMAMENTS
• LAND-BASED ARMAMENTS
• SEA-BASED ARMAMENTS
• DEFENCE RESEARCH
UJ • ARMAMENTS PLANNING

COMM AND. CO NTROL

& C O M M U N IC A T IO N S
D IR E C T O R A T E
C IV IL E M E R G E N C Y
• PLANNING & PLA N N IN G
REQUIREMENTS D IR E C T O R A T E
• INTEROPERABILITY
& COOPERAnVE
PROGRAMMES

• AIR DEFENCE WEAPONS

AND ANALYSIS
• AIR COMMAND AND
CONTROL
• AIR DEFENCE PLANNING
AND COOPERATION
• CIVIL/MILITARY AIR
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
 The Director o f the Political Directorate is Deputy
Assistant Secretary General for Political Affairs and
Deputy Chairman o f the Senior Political Committee, and
Acting Chairman o f the Political Committee at regular
level.
The Economics D irectorate provides advice concerning
econom ic developments which have political or defence
implications for N A TO . It undertakes studies of econ­
omic trends and carries out studies o f economic aspects
o f security on behalf o f the Econom ic Committee; pre­
pares econom ic assessments o f N A T O countries for the
Defence Review Com m ittee in the context of NATO
defence planning; and maintains contacts with inter­
national econom ic organisations. The Economics Directo­
rate also has responsibility for preparing contacts on
econom ic issues and consultations involving NATO’s Co­
operation Partners in fields such as defence conversion,
defence expenditure, and other security-related economic
issues. The Director o f the Econom ics Directorate is
Chairman o f the Econom ic Committee.
The Division of D efence P l an ning and Policy comes
under the responsibility o f the Assistant Secretary Gen­
eral for Defence Planning and Policy, who is Chairman
o f the Defence Review Com m ittee (the senior defence
planning body in N A T O under the authority of the
DPC) and Vice-Chairman o f the Executive Working
Group. He also supervises the work o f the Nuclear Plan­
ning Group (N PG ) Staff Group. He is Chairman of the
Provisional Policy Coordination Group (PPCG). The
Division also supports the Political-Military Steering
Committee on Partnership for Peace (PMSC) in the coor­
dination and development o f PFP activities. The Division
has two Directorates:
The Force Planning D irectorate is responsible for de­
fence policy issues and the preparation, in collaboration
with national delegations, o f all papers and business
concerned with the Defence Review, including the analy­
sis o f national defence programmes; for other matters of
a politico-military nature considered by the Defence Plan­

144
ning Committee; for the preparation o f studies o f general
or particular aspects o f N A T O defence planning and
policy on behalf o f the Executive W orking Group; for
supporting the PFP programme and developing the Com ­
bined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) concept; for the mainten­
ance of a com puterised database o f information on
NATO forces; and for the organisation and direction o f
statistical studies required to assess the N A T O defence
effort. The D irector for Force Planning is Vice-Chairman
of the Defence R eview Committee.
The Nuclear Planning D irectorate is responsible for
coordination o f work on the developm ent o f N A TO
defence policy in the nuclear field and the work o f the
Nuclear Planning G roup. The Director o f Nuclear Plan­
ning is Chairman o f the N P G Staff Group. The D irecto­
rate also has an important role in the crisis management
activities o f the A lliance and is responsible for many
aspects o f the work undertaken by N A T O in the field o f
peacekeeping (see Part I).
The Division of Defence Support, under the responsibil­
ity of the Assistant Secretary General for Defence Sup­
port, has the follow ing tasks:
(a) advising the Secretary General, the N orth Atlantic
Council, the D efence Planning Committee and other
NATO bodies on all matters relating to armaments
research, developm ent, production, procurement, and
materiel aspects o f air defence and command, control
and com m unications systems;
(b) promoting the m ost efficient use o f the resources o f
the Alliance for the equipment o f its forces.
The Division provides liaison with N A T O production
and logistics organisations concerned with cooperative
equipment projects and liaison with N A T O military agen­
cies dealing with defence research and related issues. It
participates in all aspects o f the N A T O Defence Planning
process within its responsibility and competence. The
Assistant Secretary General for Defence Support serves as
the Permanent Chairman o f the Conference o f N ational

145
 Armaments Directors (C N A D ). The Division consists of
a policy and coordination staff, and three Directorates:
— The Policy & Coordination S ta ff supports the Assistant
Secretary General in addressing broad policy and
programming issues related to defence equipment pro­
curement and Alliance armaments cooperation. The
staff coordinates D ivision activities in support of
N A C C and Partnership for Peace programmes; devel­
ops initiatives to remove barriers to cross-border de­
fence trade and industrial collaboration; and main­
tains liaison with external bodies such as the Western
European U nion and the European Union. The staff
also directly supports the work o f NATO groups
dealing with materiel and technical standardization,
acquisition practice and the industrial advice available
to further N A T O arm am ents cooperation.
— The D irectorate o f A rm am ents Planning, Programmes
and Research is responsible for the formulation of
policy initiatives in the arm am ents field designed to
help to orient C N A D activities towards the accom­
plishm ent o f the A llia n ce’s new m issions, such as
consultations am o ng A lliance m em ber nations on the
defence equipm ent im plications o f peacekeeping opera­
tio ns. It provides support to the A rm y, Navy and Air
Force A rm am ents G rou ps and the D efence Research
G roup and their subordinate bodies. The role of the
latter is to facilitate the exchan ge o f information and
the harm onisation o f m ateriel con cep ts and opera­
tional requirem ents for future A llian ce land, maritime,
air, research a nd tech n ological capabilities in order to
achieve coop era tiv e p rogram m es and a high level of
equipm ent stan d ard ization . T he D irectorate also pro­
vides sup port to h igh -lev el m ulti-service programmes
such as current w ork b ein g undertaken to develop an
alliance G ro u n d Surv eillan ce cap ab ility based on air­
borne sensors for the m an agem en t o f the Alliance’s
C on v en tio n a l A rm a m en ts P la n n in g System (CAPS).
In ad d itio n , it co n trib u tes e x p ertise in the armaments

146
field related to cooperative activities undertaken
within the framework o f Partnership for Peace.
The Directorate o f Command, Control and Communica­
tions is primarily responsible for prom oting and coor­
dinating cooperative programmes and interoperability
in communications and electronics and for the develop­
ment and coordination o f the overall policy and plan­
ning aspects o f N A T O 's civil and military com m unica­
tions and information system. It provides staff sup­
port to the N A TO Com m unications and Information
Systems Committee and the Tri-Service Group on
Communications and Electronic Equipment. Appro­
priate support on com m unications and information
matters is also given to other com m ittees such as the
Senior Civil Emergency Planning Committee and the
Council Operations and Exercises Committee.
The Directorate o f Air Defence System s, in close co­
operation with the Military Authorities, is responsible
for promoting and coordinating efforts to assure the
continuing adequacy, effectiveness and efficiency o f
NATO Air Defence Systems and their extended appli­
cation to provide air defence against tactical missiles.
It provides support to the N A T O Air Defence Com ­
mittee, whose role is to advise the Council and D e­
fence Planning Comm ittee on all aspects o f air defence
programme development. Within the framework o f
the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, it also has
responsibility for contributing to the consultation proc­
ess with Cooperation Partners. It provides liaison
with the agencies responsible for the implementation
of air defence related systems, the N A T O Airborne
Early Warning Programme, the Air Command and
Control System Programme and the improved
HAWK Surface-to-Air M issile System. The Directo­
rate is, in addition, responsible for providing support
to the Committee for European Airspace Coordina­
tion, whose role is to ensure the coordination o f civil
and military airspace requirements, including the im-

147
 provement o f air traffic management with Cooper­
ation Partners.
The Division of Infrastructure, Logistics and Civil Emer­
gency Planning com es under the responsibility of the
Assistant Secretary General for these matters. He is the
Chairman o f the Senior Resource Board, the Senior Civil
Emergency Planning Com m ittee in Plenary Session, and
Co-Chairman o f the Senior N A T O Logisticians’ Confer­
ence. He is also Chairman o f the Infrastructure Commit­
tee. The D ivision consists o f three Directorates:
The Infrastructure D irectorate com es under the direc­
tion o f the Controller for Infrastructure, who is Deputy
Assistant Secretary General and, together with the
Deputy Controller, permanent Chairman o f the Infra­
structure Committee. The Infrastructure Directorate is
responsible for supporting the Infrastructure Committee
by:
(a) developing proposals on policy issues, on funding
issues related to the shape and size o f the NATO
Infrastructure Programme, and on improved proce­
dures for its management;
(b) providing technical and financial supervision of the
N A T O Infrastructure Programme;
(c) screening, from the technical, financial, economic and
political points o f view, the M ajor N A T O Command­
ers’ proposed activities, presented normally in the
form o f capability packages and related cost esti­
mates; and
(d) screening, from a technical and financial point of
view, requests to the Infrastructure Committee for
authorisations o f scope and funds.
The Logistics D irectorate com es under the direction of
the Director o f Logistics, w ho is the Chairman of the
N A T O Pipeline C om m ittee and D eputy Co-Chairman of
the Senior N A T O Logisticians’ Conference. The Directo­
rate is responsible for:
(a) the developm ent and coordination o f plans and poli-

148
 cies designed to achieve a coherent approach within
NATO on consumer logistics matters in order to
increase the effectiveness o f Alliance forces by achiev­
ing greater logistical readiness and sustainability;
(b) providing staff support to the Senior N A T O Logisti­
cians’ Conference and its subsidiary bodies;
(c) providing technical staff support to the N A T O Pipe­
line Committee;
(d) supporting, coordinating and maintaining liaison
with N ATO military authorities and with N A T O and
other committees and bodies dealing with the plan­
ning and implementation o f consumer logistics m at­
ters; and
(e) maintaining liaison, on behalf o f the Secretary Gen­
eral, with the directing bodies o f the Central Europe
Pipeline System and the N A T O Maintenance and
Support Organisation.

The Civil Emergency Planning D irectorate, under the direc­

tion of the Director o f Civil Emergency Planning who is
the Chairman o f the Senior Civil Emergency Planning
Committee in permanent session, is responsible for:

(a) the coordination and guidance o f planning aimed at

the rapid transition o f peacetime econom ies o f the
nations o f the Alliance to an emergency footing;
(b) development o f the arrangements for the use o f civil
resources in support o f Alliance defence and for the
protection o f civil populations; and
(c) providing staff support to the Senior Civil Emergency
Planning Committee and the nine civil emergency
planning boards and com m ittees responsible for devel­
oping crisis management arrangements in the areas
of civil sea, land and air transport; energy; industry;
food and agriculture; civil communications; medical
care; and civil defence.

The Director o f Civil Emergency Planning also oversees,

on behalf o f the Secretary General, the civil/m ilitary
coordination o f humanitarian assistance for the republics

149
o f the Com m o nwealth o f Independent States in the fields
o f coordination o f transport; logistical expertise and com­
munications support for distribution; and practical assist­
ance in addressing medical requirements. These tasks are
being undertaken by the Alliance, which has a subsidiary
role in this field, in accordance with principles agreed by
member countries. N A T O is providing support in areas
in which the Alliance has unique experience or expertise,
in close cooperation with N A T O nations, other inter­
national organisations and recipient states.
The Scientific and Environmental Affairs Division comes
under the responsibility o f the Assistant Secretary Gen­
eral for Scientific and Environmental Affairs, who is
Chairman o f the N A T O Science Committee and Acting
Chairman o f the Com m ittee on the Challenges of Modern
Society. He is assisted by a D eputy Assistant Secretary
General and has the follow ing responsibilities:
(a) advising the Secretary General on scientific and tech­
nological matters o f interest to NATO;
(b) implementing the decisions o f the Science Committee;
directing the activities o f the sub-committees created
by it and developing ways to strengthen scientific and
technological capabilities o f A lliance countries;
(c) supervising the developm ent o f pilot projects initiated
by the Committee on the Challenges o f Modem
Society;
(d) ensuring liaison in the scientific field with the Inter­
national Staff o f N A T O , with N A T O agencies, with
agencies in the member countries responsible for im­
plementation o f science policies and with inter­
national organisations engaged in scientific, techno­
logical and environmental activities.
The Assistant Secretary General for Scientific and Envi­
ronmental Affairs also has responsibility for overseeing
activities designed to enhance the participation of scien­
tists from N A T O ’s Cooperation Partners in NATO
science programmes, and in projects o f the Committee on
the Challenges o f M odern Society.

150
 The Office of M an agement com es under the responsibil­
ity of the Director o f M anagem ent who is responsible for
all matters pertaining to the organisation and structure
of the International Staff, and for advising the Secretary
General on civilian staff policy and em olum ents through­
out the Organisation. H e is charged with the preparation,
presentation and managem ent o f the International Staff
budget. He supervises a C oordination and Policy Section
(which addresses m anagement matters relating to the
Organisation as a whole); a Budgets and Financial Analy­
sis Section; and a M anagem ent Advisory U nit, which has
responsibility for advising the Secretary General on all
matters related to organisation, work m ethods, proce­
dures and manpower.
The Deputy Director o f M anagem ent is responsible for
the general administration o f the International Staff in­
cluding personnel services, the maintenance o f the head­
quarters, the provision o f conference, interpretation and
translation facilities and the production and distribution
of internal documents.

Office of Fina ncial Control

The Financial Controller is appointed by the Council and
is responsible for the call-up o f funds and the control o f
expenditures within the framework o f the Civil and Mili­
tary Budgets and in accordance with N A T O ’s financial
regulations. His Office consists o f a Budget and Treasury
Service and an Internal Control Service.

Office of the Chairman of the Budget Committees

The Chairman o f the Budget Committees is provided by
one of the member countries. His position is nationally
funded in order to maintain the independence o f the
Budget Committees. He has a small staff provided by the
International Secretariat.

151
 International Board of Auditors
The accounts o f the various N A T O bodies and those
relating to expenditure under N A T O ’s common-funded
Infrastructure programme are audited by an International
Board o f Auditors. The Board is composed of govern­
ment officials from auditing bodies in member countries.
They have independent status and are selected and remu­
nerated by their respective countries. They are appointed
by and are responsible to the Council.

N ew Structures
The adaptation o f the Alliance to its new roles and
missions in the post-Cold War era is an evolutionär)1
process calling for progressive changes in the structures
and functions o f the International Staff and International
Military Staff. These changes are being carried out in
conjunction with adjustments and a rationalisation of
committee structures and responsibilities, as well as the
formation o f a number o f new permanent or temporary
bodies to oversee the implementation o f decisions taken
by the N orth Atlantic Council in relation to the Alliance’s
new tasks.
The process described above is a continuing one, allow­
ing the Alliance to adapt to new circumstances as they
arise. The m ost significant elements o f the modified struc­
ture o f N A T O are described below.
The N orth Atlantic Council has established a number
o f new com m ittees and groups. These are described in
Part II (The M achinery o f N A T O ).
M odifications to practical arrangements at NATO
Headquarters, including the provision o f on-site office
facilities for PFP Partner countries, are also being under­
taken. The offices, formally inaugurated in June 1994,
are located in a new building which has been named the
Manfred W örner Wing, in honour o f the late Secretary
General o f N A T O .
On the military side o f N A T O , a number o f structural

152
changes in the organisation have also been made and others
are under consideration. They include the following:
— The establishment o f a Military Cooperation W ork­
ing Group (M C W G ) to coordinate cooperation activi­
ties undertaken under the authority o f the N A TO
Military Authorities.
— The establishment o f a Military Transitional Issues
Wo. king Group (M T IW G ) which provides a forum
for the Military C om m ittee to address issues relating
to the practical im plem entation o f the Combined Joint
Task Forces (CJTF) concept.
— The creation o f an A d H oc Planning Coordination
Group (A H PC G ), to address the coordination o f A lli­
ance plans in specific fields such as peacekeeping and
crisis management with those o f other nations and
institutions.
Other measures under consideration include the restructur­
ing of the Com m unications and Inform ation D ivision o f
the IMS, together with existing com m unications agencies,
following the conclusion o f a com prehensive study on ‘C3’
(Communications, Com m and and Control) matters.
Changes have also been made in N A T O ’s Integrated
Military Command Structure, follow ing the reduction o f
the number o f Major N A T O Com m ands from three to
two and changes in force requirements resulting from
new tasks undertaken by the Alliance. These develop­
ments are described in subsequent sections o f Part III.

Production and Logistics O rganis ations

There are a number o f Production and Logistics Organisa­
tions established by N A T O and responsible to the North
Atlantic Council for carrying out specific tasks. W hile
there are differences in their mandates, funding, financial
authority and m anagement, they all report to a Board o f
Directors or Steering C om m ittee responsible for supervis­
ing their activities. They include the follow ing organisa­
tions and agencies:

153
The Central Europe Operating Agency (CEOA) -
responsible for the 24-hour operation o f the Central
Europe Pipeline System (CEPS) and its storage and
distribution facilities. Headquarters: Versailles,
France.
The N A T O Com m unications and Information Sys­
tems Agency (N A C ISA ) - responsible for the planning
and implementation o f the N A T O Integrated Commu­
nications and Information System (NICS). Headquar­
ters: Brussels, Belgium.
The N A T O Air Com m and and Control Systems Man­
agement Agency (N A C M A ) - responsible for the
planning and im plementation o f a NA TO air com­
mand and control system supporting all air opera­
tions, in place o f the former N A T O Air Defence
Ground Environment (N A D G E ) system. Headquar­
ters: Brussels, Belgium.
The N A T O M aintenance and Supply Agency
(N A M S A ) - responsible for the logistics support of
selected weapons systems in the national inventories of
two or more N A T Ô nations, through the common pro­
curement and supply o f spare parts and the provision
o f maintenance and repair facilities. Headquarters:
Luxembourg.
The N A T O AEW &C Programme Management
Agency (N A P M A ) - responsible for the planning and
implementation o f the N A T O Airborne Early Warn­
ing and Control System and Modernisation Pro­
grammes. Headquarters: Brunssum, The Nether­
lands.
The N A T O E F A Developm ent, Production and Logis­
tics M anagem ent Agency (N E F M A ) - responsible for
the developm ent, production and logistics aspects of
the N A T O European Fighter Aircraft. Headquarters:
Unterhaching, Germany.
The N A T O M ulti-R ole Com bat Aircraft Development
and Production M anagem ent Agency (NAMMA)-
responsible for managing the development and
production o f the N A T O M R C A (Tornado). Head-
 quarters: U nterhaching, Germany.
— NATO Hawk M anagem ent Office (N H M O ) - respon­
sible for product improvement programmes relating
to the HAW K surface-to-air missile system. Headquar­
ters: Rueil-M almaison, France.
— NATO Helicopter for the 1990s (NH9O) Design, D e­
velopment, Production and Logistics Management
Organisation (N A H E M O ) - responsible for managing
the development and production o f the NH9O. Head­
quarters: Aix-en-Provence, France.

National M ilitary Representatives

The members o f the M ilitary Com m ittee (Chiefs o f Staff)
are represented at N A T O Headquarters by senior officers
acting as Military Representatives, each supported by a
national staff varying in size.
The Military Representatives constitute the Military
Committee in Permanent Session. France is represented
by a Military M ission to the Military Com m ittee.

The M ilitary Committee

The Military Com m ittee is responsible to the North Atlan­
tic Council, Defence Planning Com m ittee and Nuclear
Planning Group for the overall conduct o f the military
affairs of the Alliance. It provides for the maximum
consultation and cooperation between member nations
on military matters relating to the Treaty and is the
primary source o f military advice to the Secretary General
and to the North Atlantic Council, Defence Planning
Committee and Nuclear Planning Group.
The Presidency o f the Military Com m ittee rotates
among the nations annually in the order o f the English
alphabet.
The Chairman o f the M ilitary Com m ittee chairs both
the Chiefs o f Staff and permanent sessions. He is elected
by the Chiefs o f Staff normally for a three-year term.

155
He is the spokesman and representative o f the Committee
and directs its day-to-day business. He represents the
Military Committee at meetings o f the North Atlantic
Council, the Defence Planning Com m ittee and the Nuclear
Planning Group, providing advice on military matters. The
Chairman is assisted by the Deputy Chairman and by the
Director o f the International Military Staff.
By virtue o f his office, the Chairman o f the Military
Committee also has an important public role and is the
senior military spokesman for the Alliance in its contacts
with the press and media. He undertakes official visits
and representational duties on behalf o f the Military
Committee both in N A T O countries and in countries
with which N A T O is developing closer contacts on the
basis o f the dialogue, partnership and cooperation estab­
lished within the overall framework o f the North Atlantic
Cooperation Council and the Partnership for Peace
programme.
The intensification o f military contacts and cooperative
activities taking place include consultations o f the Mili­
tary Committee meeting at Chiefs o f Staff level with
Cooperation Partners; other meetings o f the Military
Committee and other military bodies with Cooperation
Partners; further visits and exchanges; and participa­
tion by military and civilian representatives from the
Partner countries in courses at the N A TO Defense
College in R om e and the N A T O (SHAPE) School
at Oberammergau.

Th e International M ilitary Staff

The Military Com m ittee is supported by an integrated
International Military Staff (IM S) m ade up of military
personnel seconded from national military establishments
and o f supporting civilian personnel. Members of the
International M ilitary Staff have a similar status within
the Organisation as the International Staff but come
under the administrative authority o f the Director of
the International M ilitary Staff or the Head of the

156
independent N A T O agency within which they are em ­
ployed. The national military status o f personnel sec­
onded from national armed forces is not affected by their
temporary secondm ent to N A T O .
The International M ilitary Staff is headed by a Director
of three star rank who is nom inated by the member
nations and is selected by the Military Committee. He
may be from any one o f the member nations, but he must
be of a different nationality from the Chairman o f the
Military Committee. The D irector is assisted by six Assist­
ant Directors o f flag or general officer rank and the
Secretary o f the International M ilitary Staff.
As the executive agent o f the Military Committee, the
International M ilitary Staff is tasked with ensuring that
the policies and decisions o f the Military Com m ittee are
implemented as directed. In addition, the International
Military Staff prepares plans, initiates studies and recom­
mends policy on matters o f a military nature referred to
NATO or to the M ilitary Com m ittee by national or
NATO authorities, com m anders or agencies. In the frame­
work of the W ork Plan for D ialogue, Partnership and
Cooperation established by the N orth Atlantic Cooper­
ation Council, and military work plans adopted by the
Military Committee, the IM S is also actively involved
in the process o f cooperation with the countries o f
Central and Eastern Europe within the N A C C as well as
under the Partnership for Peace (PFP) initiative.

Organisation of the International M ilitary S taff

The Intelligence Division is responsible for assessing the
strengths and disposition o f military forces which could
represent a risk to N A T O ’s security interests and for
keeping the Military Com m ittee, the Council and Defence
Planning Committee informed o f developments. The D ivi­
sion coordinates the production and dissemination o f
NATO agreed intelligence, including intelligence policy
and basic intelligence docum ents. N A T O has no independ­
ent intelligence gathering function or capacity o f its own

157
but acts as a central coordinating body to collate
and disseminate intelligence provided by national auth­
orities.
The Plans and Policy Division serves as the focal poinl
for all policy and planning matters o f specific interest to
the Military Committee. This includes providing staff
support to the Military Com m ittee in military matters
concerning the N A T O Strategic Concept, politico-mili­
tary matters, long-term conceptual thinking, cooperative
security, peacekeeping, N A C C and PFP activities, arms
control and disarmament. The D ivision also participates
on behalf o f the Military Com m ittee in N A T O ’s defence
planning process; and develops and represents the views
o f the Military Committee and the Major NATO Com­
manders on military policy matters in various NATO
forums.
The Operations Division provides staff support to the
Military Committee in matters concerning current opera­
tional plans; the N A T O force posture and the organisa­
tional structure o f N A T O Com m ands and military head­
quarters; the military contribution to the management of
contingency reactions to international crises where
N A T O interests are involved; the prom otion and coordi­
nation o f multinational training and exercises; and the
coordination o f efforts towards an effective NATO elec­
tronic warfare operational capability and associated
training and exercises. The Operations Division also
serves as the focal point between the NA TO Military
Authorities and the nations in developing plans, pro­
grammes and procedures for conventional arms control
verification and implementation. The D ivision also pro­
vides support to the N A T O Air D efence Committee and
has responsibility within the IM S for air defence
matters.
The Logistics and Resources Division is responsible lo
the Military Com m ittee for logistics, infrastructure, finan­
cial and manpower matters. The D ivision acts as the
focal point for staffing and coordinating all military
planning and management matters in these areas and

158
 N A T O M ilit a r y S t r u c t u r e
M IL IT A R Y C O M M IT T E E
MC
I N T E R N A T IO N A L M IL IT A R Y S T A F F
IM S
BRUSSELS BELGIUM

S U P R E M E A L L IE D S U P R E M E A L L IE D C A N A D A U.S
C O M M A N D E R E U R O PE COM M ANDER R E G IO N A L PL A N N IN G 1
(SA C E U R ) A T L A N T IC GROUP
(SA C L A N T ) (C U S R P G ) !

SHAPE
CASTEAU BELGIUM NORFOLK U.S.A ARLINGTON U.S.A |

NATO International Military Staff

1326-94
liaises with N A T O Civil Emergency Planning Committees
and Agencies concerning civil support for the military
side.
The Communications and Information Systems Division
provides staff support to the Military Committee on
N A T O military policy and operational requirements re­
lated to N A T O Com m unications and Information Sys­
tems, including com m unications and computer security,
leasing o f PTT services, military frequency management
and interoperability o f tactical communications. The Divi­
sion also provides support to the N A T O Communications
and Information Systems Committee, and to the
Brussels-based specialised Military Telecommunications
and Com m unications and Information Systems (CIS)
Agencies listed later in this chapter. Restructuring of the
Comm unications and Information Systems Division and
o f related agencies is being undertaken following the
com pletion o f a comprehensive N A T O study on Com­
mand, Control and Com m unications.
The Armaments and Standardization Division provides
staff support to the Military Com m ittee on matters con­
cerning the developm ent and assessment o f NATO mili­
tary policy and procedures for armaments and related
standardization activities and acts as the focal point for
staffing and coordination o f military needs in these areas.
The Division is also the focal point within the Inter­
national Military Staff for all research and technology
matters.
The Secretariat supports the Military Committee and
provides administrative support to the divisions within
the International Military Staff.
The N A T O Situation Centre was designed to assist
the N orth Atlantic Council, the Defence Planning Com­
mittee and the Military Com m ittee in fulfilling their
respective functions in the field o f consultation during
peace, in exercises, and during periods o f tension and
crisis. It serves as a focal point within the Alliance for
the receipt, exchange, and dissem ination o f political, mili­
tary, and econom ic intelligence and information. The

160
Situation Centre m onitors political, military, and econ­
omic matters o f interest to N A T O and N A T O member
countries on a 24-hour basis; supervises and operates
NATO’s communications; provides facilities for the rapid
expansion o f consultation and staff activity during peri­
ods of tension and crisis; maintains and updates back­
ground information needed during such periods; and
supports briefings through the production and presenta­
tion of visual aids.

The Role of Allied M ilitary Forces

The major changes which have taken place in the security
environment have enhanced the role o f political dialogue
and cooperation and increased the scope for resolving
crises by political means. However, Alliance policies also
call for the maintenance o f a military capability sufficient
to prevent war and to provide for effective defence and
an overall capabilty to m anage successfully crises affect­
ing the security o f its members. The primary role o f
Alliance military forces therefore remains unchanged:
namely to guarantee the security and territorial integrity
of member states. In the new strategic environment this
role must be fulfilled in a manner which takes account o f
diverse and multi-directional risks rather than a single
threat.
The organisation o f Alliance forces ensures that they
remain fully capable o f performing the different functions
which could be required o f them whatever the situation -
peace, crisis or war. Their role in peace is to guard
against risks to the security o f Alliance members and to
contribute towards the maintenance o f stability and bal­
ance in Europe and the preservation o f peace. Through
their participation in confidence-building activities such
as those designed to enhance transparency and to im­
prove communication, and their role in the verification
of arms control agreements, they contribute to N A T O ’s
goals of improving dialogue and cooperation throughout
Europe.

161
 Secondly, in the event o f crises which might lead to a
military threat to the security o f Alliance members, their
role is to be able to com plem ent and reinforce political
actions and contribute to the management o f such crises
and to their peaceful resolution. They therefore have to
have the capability to respond in a measured and timely
fashion to crisis situations. Thirdly, since the possibility
o f war cannot be ruled out altogether however unlikely il
might be, Alliance forces have to provide the essential
insurance against potential risks, at the minimum level
necessary to prevent war o f any kind and, should aggres­
sion occur, to restore peace and the territorial integrity of
member states.
The maintenance o f an adequate military capability
and clear preparedness to act collectively in the common
defence therefore remain central to the Alliance’s security
objectives. This central tenet o f Allied defence is embod­
ied in practical arrangements that enable the Allies lo
benefit from the political, military and resource advan­
tages o f collective defence. These arrangements are based
on an integrated military structure and on cooperation
and coordination agreements with member states. Key
features o f the integrated structure include collective force
planning; com m on operational planning; multinational
formations; the stationing o f forces outside home terri­
tory, where appropriate on a mutual basis; crisis manage­
ment and reinforcement arrangements; procedures for
consultation; com m on standards for equipment, training
and logistics; joint and com bined exercises; and infrastruc­
ture, armaments and logistics cooperation. All member
countries assign forces to the Integrated Military Com­
mand Structure with the exception o f Iceland (which has
no military forces) and France and Spain, to which
separate cooperation and coordination arrangements
apply.
The Alliance’s Strategic Concept, adopted by NATO
Heads o f State and G overnm ent at the Rome Summit
Meeting in N ovem ber 1991, emphasises the defensive
nature o f collective defence and the indivisibility of

162
allied security. However it recognizes that the military
dimension o f N A T O remains an essential factor in
achieving its wider security objectives. The military di­
mension is provided by a com bination o f nuclear and
conventional forces. Both the above categories o f forces
have a political as well a military role. The fundamental
purpose of the nuclear forces o f the Alliance, in particu­
lar, is political: to preserve peace and stability, to pre­
vent coercion and any kind o f war, and to contribute
to countering the threat o f proliferation. In the present
circumstances the likelihood o f the Alliance being forced
to contemplate the em ploym ent o f nuclear weapons for
its defence is extremely remote. However, nuclear forces
continue to fulfil an essential role by ensuring uncer­
tainty in the mind o f any potential aggressor about the
nature of the A llies’ response to military aggression.
They demonstrate that aggression o f any kind is not a
rational option. The supreme guarantee o f the security
of the Allies is provided by the strategic nuclear forces
of the Alliance, particularly those o f the United States.
The independent nuclear forces o f the United Kingdom
and France, which have a deterrent role o f their own,
contribute to the overall deterrence and security o f the
Allies.

New Force Structur es

NATO’s Strategic Concept calls for force structures
which will enable the Alliance to respond effectively to
the changing security environment by providing the
forces and capabilities needed to deal with a wide spec­
trum of risks and contingencies. This includes the capabil­
ity to undertake crisis management and crisis prevention
operations, including peacekeeping, while continuing to
defend the security and territorial integrity o f member
states.
At the Brussels Summit in January 1994, Alliance
leaders called for the continued adaptation o f N A T O ’s
political and military structures and procedures in order

163
to enable the Alliance’s m issions to be conducted more
efficiently and flexibly. They also recognized the need to
strengthen the European pillar o f the Alliance by facilitat­
ing the use o f N A T O ’s military capabilities for NATO
and European/W E U operations; and assisting the partici­
pation o f non-N A T O partners in joint peacekeeping op­
erations and other contingencies as envisaged under the
Partnership for Peace.
Accordingly they endorsed the concept o f Combined
Joint Task Forces as a means o f facilitating contingency
operations, including operations with nations outside the
Alliance. They directed the N orth Atlantic Council, with
the advice o f the N A T O M ilitary Authorities and in
coordination with the W E U , to develop this concept and
to establish the necessary capabilities.
Detailed work has continued on the implementation of
the concept, with a view to providing separable but not
separate military capabilities that could be employed by
N A T O or the W EU.

Force Reductions
Changes in the peacetime strength and readiness levels of
N A T O ’s military forces, agreed in 1993 as part of the
transition to new force structures, led to reductions of up
to 25 per cent in overall planned peacetime strength, com­
pared to 1990 force levels. These included:
— a 25 per cent reduction in the total number o f Alliance
ground com bat units and a reduction o f over 45 per
cent in the peacetime strength o f N A T O ’s land forces
in the Central R egion, with a large proportion of the
total land force requirement being met by mobilisable
units;
— a reduction o f over 10 per cent in the number of
naval com bat units, including aircraft earners, cruis­
ers, destroyers, frigates and submarines assigned to
N A T O and normally deployed within the NATO
area;

164
— a decrease o f over 25 per cent in the total number o f
combat aircraft assigned to N A T O and stationed in
Europe, with a 45 per cent reduction o f air forces in
the Central and Northern R egions and a 25 per cent
reduction in air force reinforcements from North
America.
Since 1993, the A lliance has undertaken a further review
designed to establish the capabilities and forces required,
both for collective defence and to accomplish N A T O ’s
new roles and m issions, in the light o f the changing
political and strategic environment and the potential
risks which the Alliance may have to confront. This
has resulted in additional force reductions in some
areas.

Charact eristics of M ilitary F orc es under the New Force

Structure

The changed circumstances o f European security which

have paved the way for substantial reductions in the size
and levels o f readiness o f N A T O forces have also led to
other modifications in the manner in which forces are
maintained and organised. W hile providing for a higher
proportion o f N A T O ’s main defence forces to be kept at
lower levels o f readiness than in the past, the new struc­
ture places increased emphasis on flexibility, mobility
and the continuing need for force m odernisation. The
importance o f m obilisable reserves and o f augmentation
capacity as a whole has likewise increased. The reorganisa­
tion of forces within N A T O ’s Integrated Military C om ­
mand structure, which is described in the follow ing pages,
reflects the above characteristics as well as the enhanced
role of multinational forces.

Comp ositio n of Forces

Broadly speaking, forces available to N A T O com e into
three categories: im m ediate and rapid reaction forces,

165
main defence forces, and augmentation forces
Reaction forces are versatile, highly mobile ground, air
and maritime forces maintained at high levels o f readiness
and available at short notice for an early military response
to a crisis. The reaction forces available to the Alliance
consist o f Immediate Reaction Forces and Rapid Reaction
Forces.
Immediate Reaction Forces consist o f land, air and
maritime com ponents. The Immediate Reaction Force
(Land) (IRF(L)) will replace the existing ACE Mobile
Force (Land) (A M F(L)). The Immediate Reaction Force
(Air) (IR F(A )) will be selected and deployed from high
readiness air squadrons assigned by nations. The Immedi­
ate Reaction Forces (Maritime) (IR F (M )) are composed of:
— the Standing N aval Force Atlantic (STANAV­
FO R LA N T),
— the Standing N aval Force Mediterranean (STANAV-
FO R M ED ),
— and the Standing N aval Force Channel (STANAV-
FO R C H A N ).
Rapid Reaction Forces also consist o f land, air and
maritime com ponents. The A C E Rapid Reaction Corps
(A R R C ) is the land com ponent. The air and maritime
com ponents will be selected and deployed from high
readiness units assigned by nations.
Main defence forces form the major element o f the new
force structure. These include active and mobilisable
ground, air and maritime forces able to deter and defend
against coercion or aggression. These forces comprise
multinational and national form ations at varying levels
o f readiness, including som e at a high state o f readiness,

1In accordance with the Alliance’s Strategic Concept, Allied forces

must be structured in a way which enables their military capability to
be augmented or built up when necessary by reinforcement, reconstitut­
ing forces or mobilising reserves. Reserve forces therefore play an
important role in the whole spectrum o f NATO’s defence structure
and in the event of crisis, would be required to take up positions and
carry out tasks alongside regular forces.

166
which could be em ployed for crisis management. Some
main defence air forces have an interregional reinforce­
ment role. There are now four m ultinational main defence
corps in N A TO ’s Central R egion: one Danish-German,
one Dutch-German and two Germ an-United States. In
addition, an agreement has been concluded setting out
arrangements under which the European Corps, consist­
ing of units from Belgium, France, Germany, Luxem­
bourg and Spain, would be made available to N A T O in
times of crisis.
Augmentation forces consist o f other forces at varying
degrees of readiness and availability which can be used to
reinforce any N A T O region or maritime area for deter­
rence, crisis management or defence.

Availability and Readiness of Forces

The majority o f the military forces available to N A TO
are provided by the conventional forces o f member coun­
tries participating in the integrated military structure.
They are essentially o f two kinds: those which come
under the operational com m and or operational control
of a Major N A T O Com m ander when required, in accord­
ance with specified procedures or at prescribed times;
and those which nations have agreed to assign to the
operational com m and or operational control o f a Major
NATO Commander at a future date.
Some of the above terms have precise military defini­
tions. The terms ‘com m and’ and ‘control’, for example,
relate to the nature o f the authority exercised by military
commanders over the forces assigned to them. When
used internationally, these terms do not necessarily have
the same implications as they do when used in a purely
national context. In assigning forces to N A T O , member
nations assign operational com m and or operational con­
trol, as distinct from full com m and over all aspects o f the
operations and administration o f those forces. These
latter aspects continue to be a national responsibility and
remain under national control.

167
 In general, m ost N A T O forces remain under full na­
tional command in peacetime. Exceptions to this rule are
the integrated staffs in the various N A T O military head­
quarters; parts o f the integrated air defence structure,
including the Airborne Early Warning and Control Force
(AWACS); som e com m unications units; and the Standing
Naval Forces as well as other elements o f the Alliance’s
Reaction Forces. These are described later in this
chapter.
Future adjustments relating to the availability and
readiness o f N A T O forces will continue to reflect the
strictly defensive nature o f the Alliance. As in the pasl,
the A lliance’s political authorities continue to exercise
close control over the deploym ent and employment of
N A TO forces at all times.

NATO’s I ntegrat ed C ommand Structure

As N A T O implements its new force structure, it is
also streamlining its com m and arrangements (see below).
The principal feature o f the new command structure
is the reduction in the number o f Major NATO Com­
mands from three to two: Allied Command Europe
and Allied Command Atlantic. Allied Command Channel
(A C C H A N ) was disbanded on 1 June 1994 and.its re­
sponsibilities have been absorbed into Allied Command
Europe. Other changes include the reorganisation of three
Major Subordinate Com m ands within Allied Command
Europe, which are now responsible for the Southern,
Central and N orth West Regions.
The Integrated Com m and Structure which results from
the above changes is as follows:
The strategic area covered by the N orth Atlantic Treaty
is divided between two Major N A T O Commands (Euro­
pean and Atlantic) and a Regional Planning Group for
Canada and the United States.
The Major N A T O Commanders are responsible for
the development o f defence plans for their respective
areas, for the determination o f force requirements and

168
for the deployment and exercise o f the forces under their
command or control. Their reports and recommendations
regarding the forces assigned to them and their logistic
support are referred to the N A T O Military Committee.
The forces under their authority have distinct functions
to perform in order to guarantee the security and territo­
rial integrity o f member states in peacetime, crisis or war.
Military direction is provided by the N A T O Military
Committee. The manner in which their forces are organ­
ised reflects the need to ensure that they are at all times
able to perform these functions, through measured and
timely responses, at the minimum level necessary for
effectiveness and credibility, in accordance with the over­
all objectives o f N A T O ’s Strategic Concept.

The Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR)

The primary task o f SA C E U R , under the overall political
authority o f the N orth Atlantic Council an d /o r Defence
Planning Committee, is to contribute to preserving the
peace, security and territorial integrity o f Alliance
member states. S A C E U R is responsible for identifying
and requesting the forces required to promote stability,
contribute to crisis management and provide effective
defence in accordance with his mandate. In the event o f
aggression, he is responsible for taking all military meas­
ures, within the capability and authority o f Allied Com ­
mand Europe, to demonstrate Alliance solidarity and
preparedness to maintain the integrity o f Allied territory;
to safeguard freedom o f the seas and econom ic lifelines;
and to preserve or restore the security o f Allied Command
Europe.
SACEUR also has responsibility for developing the
capabilities and maintaining the force readiness needed
to contribute to crisis management, peace support,
humanitarian aid and protection o f the vital interests o f
the Alliance. He makes recommendations to N A T O ’s
political and military authorities on any military matter
which might affect his ability to carry out his responsibili­

169
ties and has direct access to the Chiefs o f Staff, the De­
fence Ministers and Heads o f Governm ent o f the NATO
nations.
Like the Chairman o f the Military Committee, the
Supreme Allied Commander, Europe, also has an impor­
tant public profile and is the senior military spokesman
for SHAPE. Through his own activities and those of his
public inform ation staff he maintains regular contacts
with the press and media and undertakes official visits
within N A TO countries and in the countries with which
N A TO is developing dialogue, cooperation and partner­
ship. He is also responsible for developing military con­
tacts with N A T O ’s N A C C and PFP Partners and for
implementing military aspects o f the Partnership for
Peace falling within his com petence.

Allied Command Europe (ACE)

The Headquarters o f A llied Command Europe (ACE) is
SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe)
which is located at Casteau, near M ons, Belgium.
The task o f Allied Com m and Europe is to safeguard
the area extending from the northern tip o f Norway to
Southern Europe, including the whole o f the Mediter­
ranean, and from the Atlantic coastline to the eastern
border o f Turkey. This equates to nearly two million
square kilometres o f land, more than three million square
kilometres o f sea, and a population o f about 320 million
people. In the event o f crisis, the Supreme Allied Com­
mander Europe becom es responsible for implementing
military measures to defend, preserve the security, or
restore the integrity, o f Allied Command Europe within
the framework o f the authority given to him by the
Alliance’s political authorities.
Within Allied Com m and Europe, there are three Major
Subordinate Com m ands responsible to the Supreme
Allied Commander Europe:
(a) Allied Forces N orth W est Europe (AFNORTH-

170
 WEST): High W ycom be, United Kingdom .
The area o f this Com m and encom passes Norway,
the United K ingdom and the adjacent seas. The Com ­
mander is a British four-star general. H is command
comprises three Principal Subordinate Commands
(PSC):
— Allied Air Forces N orth Western Europe (AIR-
NORTHW EST): High W ycom be, United
Kingdom;
— Allied N aval Forces N orth Western Europe
(NAVNO RTH W EST): N orthw ood, United
Kingdom;
— Allied Forces Northern Europe (A FN O R T H ): Sta­
vanger, Norway;
(b) Allied Forces Central Europe (A FC EN T): Brunssum,
The Netherlands.
The A F C E N T area extends from the south o f the
AFNORTHW EST area to the southern German
border. The Com m ander is a German four-star gen­
eral. His com m and comprises three Principal Subordi­
nate Commands (PSC):
— Allied Land Forces Central Europe (L A N D ­
CENT): Heidelberg, Germany;
— Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AIRCENT):
Ramstein, Germany:
— Allied Forces Baltic Approaches (BALTAP) (re­
porting to C IN C E N T for air and land forces and
to C IN C N O R T H W E ST for maritime and mari­
time air forces): Karup, Denmark;
(c) Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSO UTH):
Naples, Italy.
AFSOUTH covers an area o f som e four million
square kilometres including Italy, Greece, Turkey,
the Mediterranean Sea from the Straits o f Gibraltar
to the coast o f Syria, the Sea o f Marmara and the
Black Sea. The region is physically separated from the
AFCENT region by non-N A T O countries (Switzer­
land and Austria). The Commander o f A FSO U T H is

171
 an American four-star admiral. His Command com­
prises six Principal Subordinate Commands (PSC):
— Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LAND-
SOUTH): Verona, Italy;
— Allied Land Forces South Central Europe
(L A N D SO U T H C E N T ): Larissa, Greece (yet to
be activated);
— Allied Land Forces South Eastern Europe (LAND-
SOUTHEAST): Izmir, Turkey;
— Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIR-
SOUTH): N aples, Italy;
— Allied N aval Forces Southern Europe (NAV-
SOUTH): N aples, Italy;
— Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern
Europe (STR IK FO R SO U T H ): Naples, Italy.
A number o f headquarters below PSC level are retained by
nations as a link between N A T O and national forces and to
act as sub-PSC N A T O headquarters in crisis and war. The
peacetime facilities and operation and maintenance costs
for these headquarters are generally funded nationally.
Those staffs or com m ands responsible to the Supreme
Allied Commander Europe dealing principally with Reac­
tion Forces comprise:
— ACE R eaction Forces Planning Staff (ARFPS):
SHAPE, Belgium;
— Reaction Forces Air Staff (RF(A)S): Kalkar, Germany;
— N A T O Airborne Early W arning Force (NAEWF):
Geilenkirchen, Germany;
— A C E Rapid R eaction Corps (ARRC): Rheindahlen,
Germany;
— M ultinational D ivision (Central) (M ND(C)): Rhein­
dahlen, Germany;
— M ultinational D ivision (South) (M ND(S)): (yet to
be activated, location to be determined);
— Standing Naval Force M editerranean (STANAV-
FO R M ED );
— Standing Naval Force Channel (STANAVFOR-
CHAN);

172
— ACE M obile Forces, Land (AM F(L)): Heidelberg,
Germany.

ACE Reaction Forces Planning S ta ff (A RFPS)

The ARFPS is directly responsible to SA C E U R for plan­
ning activities o f the Allied Com m and Europe Reaction
Forces. It is collocated with SH A PE near M ons, Belgium,
and is directed by a three-star general as C hief o f Staff. It
encompasses som e 60 staff personnel and coordinates
operational, exercise and force planning aspects o f ACE
Reaction Forces. It became fully operational in April
1993.

The Reaction Forces A ir S ta ff (RFAS)

The RFAS was created to facilitate detailed planning for
Reaction Forces Air. The staff o f approximately 80 per­
sonnel is located at Kalkar, Germany and is headed by a
three-star German Air Force general as Director. The
staff does not have a com m and function and the Director
is responsible to the C hief o f Staff o f the A R FPS. The
staff became fully operational in April 1993.

NATO Airborne E arly Warning Force (N A E W F )

The NATO Airborne Early W arning Force was procured
following a N A TO D efence Planning Com m ittee decision
in December 1978 to acquire a N A T O -ow ned Airborne
Early Warning air defence capability to provide air surveil­
lance and com m and and control for all N A T O com ­
mands. The N A T O A EW Force (N A E W F ) is the largest
commonly funded acquisition programme undertaken by
the Alliance.
The NAEW F is a fully operational, multinational force
consisting o f two com ponents: the E-3A com ponent
which comprises 18 N A T O E-3A aircraft and operates
from a Main Operating Base (M OB) at Geilenkirchen in
Germany; and the E-3D com ponent which consists o f
seven UK-owned and operated E-3D aircraft based at
RAF Waddington in the United Kingdom . It provides an
air surveillance and early warning capability which greatly

173
enhances effective com m and and control o f NATO forces
by enabling data to be transmitted directly from Airborne
Warning and Control System (AW ACS) aircraft to com­
mand and control centres on land, sea or in the air. Each
aircraft is equipped with sophisticated radar systems capa­
ble o f detecting aircraft at great distances over large
expanses o f territory.

The A C E Rapid Reaction Corps (A R R C )

The A R R C is the land com ponent o f the ACE Rapid
Reaction Forces. Its role is to be prepared for employ­
ment throughout Allied Command Europe (ACE) to
augment or reinforce local forces in a NATO country
whenever necessary. Its peacetime planning structure in­
cludes 10 divisions plus corps troops from 12 NATO
nations, allowing a rapid response to a wide range of
eventualities. Its broad spectrum o f capabilities enables
forces to be tailored appropriately to multi-faceted and
unpredictable risks.
The operational organisation, com position and size of
the A R R C would depend on the type o f crisis, area of
crisis, its political significance, and the capabilities and
availability o f regional and local forces. The transportabil­
ity o f com ponents, the availability o f lift assets, the
distances to be covered and the infrastructure capabilities
o f the receiving member nation will also play a significant,
determining role. The A R R C Headquarters could
deploy up to four divisions and corps troops. The major
units to be made available to the A R R C will consist of:

— national divisions from Germany, Greece, Turkey,

and the United States. The Spanish FA R (Fuerza de
Accion Rapida) may also be available under special
coordination agreements;
— framework divisions under the lead o f one nation:
one British with an Italian component; one British
with a Danish com ponent; and one Italian with a
Portuguese component;
— the M ultinational D ivision in the Central Region

174
 (MN D (C )) including Belgian, D utch, German, and
British units;
— the M ultinational D ivision in the Southern Region
(MND(S)) including Greek, Italian and Turkish
units;
— corps troop units - predom inantly British but with
significant contributions from other participating
Allies.
The Headquarters o f the A R R C is m ultinational. It is
located in Rheindahlen, Germany. The Headquarters o f
ihe ARRC and the two M ultinational D ivisions are under
command and control o f the Supreme Allied Commander
Europe (SACEUR) in peacetime, but the remaining divi­
sions and units com e under S A C E U R ’s operational con­
trol after being deployed. The A R R C was activated in
October 1992 and will be fully operational by 1995. The
commander o f the A R R C is a British three-star general.

Immediate Reaction Forces (M aritim e)

There are two M aritime Immediate Reaction Forces oper­
ating in ACE. The Standing N aval Force Mediterranean
(STANAVFORMED) consists o f destroyer/escort ships
and provides the core o f S A C E U R ’s multinational mari­
time force in periods o f tension or crisis. A Standing
Naval Force for mine countermeasures (ST A N A V FO R -
CHAN), consisting o f minehunters and minesweepers,
operates primarily in the A F N O R T H W E ST area and
provides N A TO with a continuous mine countermeasures
capacity. Both are under the operational com m and o f
SACEUR. They can be deployed N A TO -w ide, when
required.
These forces provide N A T O with a continuous naval
presence and are a constant and visible reminder o f the
solidarity and cohesiveness o f the Alliance. They provide
an immediately available deterrent force and make an
important contribution to the A lliance’s operational
capabilities.
The Commanders o f the Standing Naval Forces are

175
naval officers from the participating nations, normally of
the rank o f C om m odore in the case o f the Standing
N aval Force M editerranean and the rank o f Commander
for the Standing N aval Force Channel.
The Standing N aval Force M editerranean (STANAV-
F O R M E D ) was established in April 1992, replacing the
former N aval On-Call Force for the Mediterranean (NAV-
O C F O R M E D ) created in 1969. It is com posed of destroy­
ers and frigates contributed by Germany, Greece, Italy,
The N etherlands, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom
and the U nited States. Ships o f other NATO nations
participate from time to time.
The Standing N aval Force Channel (STANAVFOR-
C H A N ) was com m issioned in M ay 1973. Belgium, Ger­
many, The Netherlands and the U nited Kingdom are
regular contributors to the force. D anish and Norwegian
ships are am ong the naval forces o f other nations which
also join the force from time to time.

The A C E M obile Force (A M F)

The A M F was created in 1960 as a small multinational
force which could be sent at short notice to any threat­
ened part o f Allied Com m and Europe. Its role was to
demonstrate the solidarity o f the Alliance and its ability
and determination to resist all forms o f aggression against
any member o f the Alliance. Exercises designed to train
and test the force were held each year in Northern and
Southern Europe. The A M F was deployed for the first
time in a crisis role in January 1991, when its air compo­
nent was sent to south-east Turkey during the Gulf War,
as a visible dem onstration o f N A T O ’s collective solidarity
in the face o f a potential threat to Allied territory. The
land com ponent o f the force, consisting o f a brigade­
sized formation o f about 5,OOO men, was composed of
units assigned to it by eight N A T O nations.
The com position o f the A M F is being adapted to meet
the requirements o f its new role as part o f NATO’s
Immediate Reaction Forces (IR F). The new force consists
o f air and land elements (IR F (A ) and IRF(L)) to which

176
most NATO allies contribute. It becom es operational in
1995.
The Headquarters o f the A M F is at Heidelberg,
Germany.

The Supreme Allied C o mmander Atlantic (SACLANT)

The Supreme Allied Com m ander Atlantic prepares de­
fence plans for his com m and, conducts joint and com ­
bined training exercises, sets training standards and deter­
mines the establishment o f units; and advises NATO
military authorities on his strategic requirements.
The primary task o f Allied Com m and Atlantic is to
contribute to security in the whole Atlantic area by
safeguarding the A llies’ sea lines o f com m unication, sup­
porting land and am phibious operations, and protecting
the deployment o f the Alliance’s sea-based nuclear
deterrent.
Like SACEUR, S A C L A N T has direct access to Chiefs
of Staff, Defence M inisters and Heads o f Government.

Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT)

The Headquarters o f Allied Command Atlantic
(ACLANT) is in N orfolk, Virginia, U SA .
Allied Command Atlantic extends from the N orth Pole
to the Tropic o f Cancer and from the coastal waters o f
North America to those o f Europe and Africa, including
Portugal, but not including the Channel and the British
Isles.
Under the revised force structures, A C L A N T retains
the general characteristics o f its former structure. H ow ­
ever, the number o f Island Com m ands at Principal Subor­
dinate Commander level is being reduced to one - Island
Commander Iceland (ISC O M IC E LA N D ). Savings are
being achieved through internal reorganisation.
Within A CLANT, the Major Subordinate Command
structure responsible to the Supreme Allied Commander
Atlantic is as follows:

177
 the Western Atlantic Com m and, comprising as Princi­
pal Subordinate C om m ands, the Submarine Force
Western Atlantic Area Command; the Ocean Sub­
Area Command; and the Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area
Command;
— the Eastern Atlantic Com m and, comprising the Mari­
time Air Eastern Atlantic Area; the Northern Sub­
Area; the Central Sub-Area; the Submarine Forces
Eastern Atlantic Area; and the Island Command of
Iceland (ISC O M ICELAND);
— the Striking Fleet Atlantic Com m and, comprising the
Carrier Striking Force, the Anti-Submarine Warfare
Striking Force and the A m phibious Striking Force;
— the Submarines Allied Com m and Atlantic;
— the Iberian Atlantic Command;
— the Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAV­
FO R LA N T).
The Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAVFOR­
LAN T) was established in 1967 and is composed of
destroyer or frigate class ships drawn from the navies of
member countries. Ships from Canada, Germany, The
Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States
form the permanent membership o f the force. They are
joined periodically by naval units from Belgium, Den­
mark, Norway, Portugal and Spain. The force carries out
a programme o f scheduled exercises, manoeuvres, and
port visits and can be rapidly deployed to a threatened
area in times o f crisis or tension. The concept of the
Standing N aval Force Atlantic was subsequently applied
to the Standing Naval Force Channel and the Standing
Naval Force Mediterranean (see above).

Canada- United S tates Regional Planning Group

The Canada-US Regional Planning Group, which covers
the N orth American area, develops and recommends to
the Military Committee plans for the defence of the
Canada-US Region. It meets alternately in one of these
two countries.

178
 M ilitary Agencies and Organisations
In addition to the com m and structures described above,
there are a number o f military agencies and research or
training establishments responsible to the Military Com ­
mittee and/or the M ajor N A T O Commanders.
The Advisory Group fo r Aerospace Research and Develop­
ment (AGARD) was formed in 1952 and became an agency
under the Military Com m ittee in 1966. Its task is to
foster and improve the interchange o f information relat­
ing to aerospace research and developm ent between the
NATO nations. A G A R D also provides scientific and
technical advice and assistance to the N A T O Military
Committee in the field o f aerospace research and develop­
ment, with particular regard to military applications. The
Headquarters o f A G A R D is located in Paris.
The Military Agency f o r Standardization (M A S) is the
principal military agency for standardization within
NATO. Formed in London in 1951, its purpose is to
facilitate operational, procedural and materiel standardi­
zation among member nations to enable N A T O forces to
operate together in the m ost effective manner. Cooper-
alion between international technical expert groups and
the MAS is effected through the N A T O Standardization
Group and by liaison with N A T O ’s International Staff
and International M ilitary Staff. Since January 1970 the
MAS has been housed within N A T O Headquarters in
Brussels.
The NATO Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee
(.NEWAC) was established in 1966 to support the Military
Committee, the M ajor N A T O Commanders and the na­
tions by acting as a specialist multinational body to
promote on a tri-service basis an effective N A T O elec­
tronic warfare capability. It m onitors progress achieved
nationally and within the Integrated Military Command
Structure in implementing measures which improve
NATO’s electronic warfare capabilities. N E W A C is com ­
posed of representatives o f each N A T O country and o f
the Major N A TO Commanders. The Chairman o f the

179
Committee and the Secretary are permanently assigned
to the Operations D ivision o f the International Military
Staff (IM S).
The N A T O Training Group (N T G ) has responsibility
within N A T O for consolidation o f training on a multina­
tional basis. The G roup’s objectives are to improve and
expand existing, and to initiate new, multinational train­
ing arrangements between member nations. The NTG
reports to the N A T O Military Committee.
The Com m ittee o f the Chiefs o f M ilitary M edical Services
in N A T O (C O M E D S ), formerly known as EUROMED
and part o f the E U R O G R O U P (disbanded at the end of
1993), was established as a com m ittee under the responsi­
bility o f the N A T O Military C om m ittee in January 1994.
Composed o f the highest military medical authorities of
member nations, it acts as a central point for develop­
ment, coordination and advice to the Military Committee
in this field.
The M ilitary Com m ittee M eteorological Group (MCMG]
is responsible for advising the Military Committee on
meteorological matters affecting N A T O and to make
appropriate recommendations. The M C M G also acts as
the coordinating agency o f the M ilitary Committee for
all military meteorological policies, procedures and tech­
niques within N A TO .
Six specialised M ilitary Telecommunications and Com­
munications and Information System s (CIS) Agencies
provide the Military Com m ittee with expert technical
advice on military matters within their own fields of
competence.
These are:
— Allied Com m unications and Computer Security
Agency (ACCSA)
— Allied Long Lines Agency (A LLA )
— Allied Radio Frequency Agency (A R F A )
— Allied Tactical Com m unications Agency (ATCA)
— Allied D ata Systems Interoperability Agency
(A D SIA )

180
— Allied Naval C om m unications Agency (ANCA).

The permanent staffs o f these bodies, with the exception

of ANCA staff located in London, are drawn from the
NATO International Military Staff and are collocated in
Brussels.
In addition, the Military Committee is advised on CIS
matters by the N A T O CIS Committee (N A C ISC ), which
also reports to the N orth Atlantic Council and Defence
Planning Committee. The N A C ISC is assisted in its work
by the Com m unications Systems Working Group
(CSWG) and the Information Systems W orking Group
(ISWG).
The SH APE Technical Centre is located in the Hague
and operates under the policy direction o f the Supreme
Allied Commander Europe. Its task is to provide scientific
and technical advice and assistance to SH APE and to
undertake research, studies, investigations, development
projects and operational tests for Allied Command
Europe. Initially limited to air defence problems, its scope
was widened in 1963 to cover all military matters pertain­
ing to Allied Com m and Europe.
Its current programme is directed in particular towards
three major areas o f concern to Allied Command Europe:
force capability and force structure, including the effects
of new weapons technology; com m and and control, in­
cluding application o f autom ated data processing; and
communications, including concept formulation, systems
engineering and operations support.
The SACLANT Undersea Research Centre
(,SACLANTCEN) was com m issioned in 1959 at La
Spezia, Italy and formally became a N A T O military
organisation in 1963. The task o f the Centre is to provide
scientific and technical advice and assistance to
SACLANT in the field o f anti-submarine warfare and
mine countermeasures. The Centre carries out research
and limited developm ent (but not engineering or manufac­
turing) in these fields, including oceanography, opera­
tional research and analysis, advisory and consultancy

181
work, and exploratory research. In July 1986, under the
auspices o f SA C L A N T C E N , the first ship to be funded
jointly by N A T O countries, the 3,200-ton undersea re­
search vessel A L L IA N C E, was officially launched at La
Spezia. The ship became operational in May 1988.
The N A T O Defense College was established in 1951 in
Paris and moved to R om e in 1966. Under the direction
o f the Military Com m ittee, assisted by an independent
Advisory Board, the College provides courses for officers
and civilian officials from member countries expected to
be appointed to key posts within N A TO or in their
national administrations. Since 1991 provision has also
been made for participation in courses at the NATO
Defense College by officers and officials from the Alli­
ance’s Cooperation Partners. The Commandant of the
College is an officer o f at least Lieutenant General rank
appointed for a three-year period. The Commandant is
assisted by a Faculty comprising one civilian and two
military deputies and at least eight faculty advisers.
Courses include lectures and discussions, team studies,
committee work and instructional tours to the United
States and Canada and to European member countries.
Course requirements include com petence in a specialised
field and a thorough knowledge o f English or French.
The NA TO (SH A P E ) School located at Oberammergau,
Germany, is one o f the key centres for training military
and civilian personnel serving in the Atlantic Alliance. Il
has its origins in 1953, when the Special Weapons Branch
o f the U .S. Army School at Oberammergau initiated
courses on strategy and related developments in conven­
tional and nuclear w eapons for allied officers and senior
civilians. In 1966, the Special W eapons Branch became
the N A T O W eapons Systems Department and was placed
under the operational control o f SA C EU R . The curricu­
lum was expanded and additional courses were intro­
duced. In 1973, the Department became the NATO Weap­
ons Systems School. The School remained under the
operational control o f SA C E U R , but was designated as a
separate, joint service, m ultinational United States

182
Europe Command (U SE U C O M ) activity. The N A TO
School received its charter and present name in 1975. Its
courses are continually revised and updated to reflect
current developments in Allied Command Europe and in
NATO as a whole.
Since 1953, more than 50,000 officers, noncom m is­
sioned officers and civilians from all allied and national
military commands within the N A T O area have attended
courses at the school. Each year som e 32 courses are
taught to about 5,700 students covering topics such as
weapons employment; nuclear, biological and chemical
defence; electronic warfare; com m and and control; m obi­
lisable forces; m ultinational forces; peacekeeping; environ­
mental protection; crisis management; and basic N A TO
orientation.
The expanded role o f the school is reflected in its staff
and faculty. It em ploys 93 military and civilian personnel
from all services from 14 N A T O countries: Belgium,
Canada, Denmark, Germany, France, Greece, Italy, The
Netherlands, N orw ay, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the
United Kingdom and the U nited States.
To ensure that students are kept abreast o f the most
current information on Alliance matters, faculty members
remain in close touch with N A T O , SHAPE, other Allied
Command Europe headquarters and national capitals
and commands. Students and faculty members also re­
ceive regular presentations from visiting political leaders
and civilian and military experts. Since 1993 this
has included speakers from a number o f non-NATO
countries.
Since 1992 several courses have been open to attend­
ance by students from Central and Eastern Europe and
other OSCE countries. Courses are being expanded and
further developed for the purpose o f improving dialogue
and cooperation between the Alliance and these nations.
The school is under the operational control o f
SACEUR. A board o f advisers, consisting o f members o f
the SHAPE staff, provides assistance and guidance. Ger­
many and the United States European Command contrib­

183
ute facilities and logistic support but the school relies on
tuition fees from students to offset its operating costs. It
is essentially self-supporting.
Further information on the N A TO School can be
obtained from the N A T O School (SHAPE), 82487 Ober­
ammergau, Germany (Tel. 4 9 /8 8 22 70 92 - Fax 491
88 22 10 35).
The N A T O Communications and Information Systems
( CIS) School provides advanced training for civilian and
military personnel in order to qualify them for operating
and maintaining N A T O ’s com m unications and informa­
tion systems. The School also provides Officer training
and orientation courses and has recently initiated CIS
courses for N A T O ’s Cooperation Partners.
The School is supported by the Italian Ministry of
Defence through the Italian Air Force Training Brigade
at Latina with which it is collocated. It operates as a
training establishment for both Major N A TO Commands
and receives administrative support from AFSOUTH. It
is responsible to the N A T O Communications and Infor­
mation Systems Operating and Support Agency
(NACO SA).
Further information on the N A T O CIS School can be
obtained from N A C O SA , B-7O1O M ons, SHAPE Bel­
gium. (Tel. 32/65 44 39 94 - Fax 3 2/65 44 38 31), or from
N A TO CIS School, O4O1O Borgo Piave, Latina, Italy
(Tel. 39/77 36 771 - Fax 3 9 /7 7 36 62 467).

184
 PA R T IV

THE WIDER
INSTITUTIONAL
FRAMEWORK
‘The challenges we will fa c e in this new Europe cannot be
comprehensively addressed by one institution alone, but
only in a fram ew ork o f interlocking institutions tying to­
gether the countries o f Europe and North America. Conse­
quently, we are working towards a new European security
architecture in which N A TO , the CSCE, the European
Community, the W E U and the Council o f Europe comple­
ment each other. Regional fram ew orks o f cooperation will
also be important. This interaction will be o f the greatest
significance in preventing instability and divisions that could
result from various causes, such as economic disparities
and violent nationalism .'

Extract from the Rom e Declaration on Peace and Cooper­

ation issued by the Heads o f State and Government
participating in the meeting o f the North Atlantic Council
in Rom e o n 7-8 N ovember 1991.

186
 THE O RGANISA T IO N FOR S E C U R IT Y A N D
COOPERA T IO N IN E U R O P E (O S C E ) 1

Origins o f the O SC E
The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE), formerly known as the Conference on Security
and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), was initially a
political consultative process involving participating states
from Europe, Central Asia and North America. It became
anOrganisation in January 1995.
Launched in 1972, the CSCE process led to the adop­
tion of the Helsinki Final Act in 1975. This document
encompassed a wide range o f commitments on principles
governing relations between participating states, on meas­
ures designed to build confidence between them, on re­
spect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and
on cooperation in econom ic, cultural, technical and scien­
tific fields.
In accordance with the Helsinki Final Act, it was
decided to continue and deepen the CSCE process. To
this end, Review Conferences were held in Belgrade
(1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Vienna (1986-1989) and
Helsinki (March-July 1992). The fifth Review Conference
was held in Budapest from 10 October to 2 December
1994, concluding with a meeting o f CSCE Heads o f
State and Government on 5-6 December. During the

' List o f p a r t ic i p a tin g s l a t e s :

Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Bulgaria. Canada, Croatia, Cyprus. Czech Republic,
Denmark. Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Holy
See. Hungary. Ireland, Iceland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia.
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco,
The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Fed­
eration, San Marino, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Ukraine, United King­
dom, Uzbekistan, United States o f America, Yugoslavia (suspended
from activities). The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is an
observer.

187
intervening periods there have also been meetings of
experts on a number o f different topics.
Significant landmarks in the evolution o f the CSCE
process include the 1986 Stockholm Document on Confi­
dence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs), ex­
panded and improved in the Vienna 1990 and Vienna
1992 Docum ents. A further stage in this process was
reached at the Review Conference in Budapest with the
adoption by the CSCE Forum for Security Cooperation
o f the Vienna Docum ent 1994 which subsumed the earlier
Stockholm and Vienna D ocum ents. The Vienna Docu­
ment 1994 notably includes D efence Planning and a
Programme for Military Contacts and Cooperation. Addi­
tional docum ents were adopted by the Forum addressing
the G lobal Exchange o f Military Information; Principles
Governing C onventional Arms Transfers; and Stabilising
Measures for Localised Crisis Situations.

The Council o f Foreign Ministers

On 21 Novem ber 1990, the CSCE Summit Meeting of
Heads o f State and Governm ent o f the then 34 participat­
ing states adopted the Charter o f Paris for a New Europe.
The Charter established the Council o f Foreign Ministers
o f the CSCE as the central forum for regular political
consultations. It also established the Committee of Senior
Officials, which reviews current issues, prepares the work
o f the Council and carries out its decisions, as well as
three permanent institutions o f the CSCE: a secretariat in
Prague (later subsumed into the general secretariat in
Vienna), a Conflict Prevention Centre in Vienna, and an
Office for Free Elections in Warsaw (subsequently re­
named the Office for D em ocratic Institutions and Human
Rights (O D IH R )).
A t the opening o f the CSCE Summit in Paris, on 19
Novem ber 1990, 22 members o f N A T O and the former
Warsaw Pact signed the far-reaching CFE Treaty which
limits conventional forces in Europe from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Ural M ountains. The Treaty entered into
force on 9 N ovem ber 1992.

188
 On 19 June 1991, the first meeting o f the Council o f
Foreign Ministers took place in Berlin. The Council
adopted a mechanism for consultation and cooperation
with regard to emergency situations in the area covered
by the CSCE. This m echanism has been used in the case
of the former Y ugoslavia and that o f N agorno-
Karabakh.
On “*0 January 1992, at the second meeting o f the
Council o f Foreign M inisters in Prague, it was decided
that the functioning o f the different CSCE institutions
should be streamlined. The exchanges highlighted the
particular need for im proving the conflict prevention
capabilities o f the CSCE.
At the Stockholm m eeting o f the Council o f Foreign
Ministers on 14 Decem ber 1992, a C onvention on C oncili­
ation and Arbitration within the CSCE was adopted. It
was also decided to establish the post o f Secretary G en­
eral. NATO Foreign M inisters welcom ed these measures
in their communiqué o f 10 June 1993 and pledged to help
in the further developm ent o f interaction and cooperation
between NATO and the CSCE.
The Council o f Foreign Ministers endorsed new organi­
sational changes at their meeting in R om e on 1 December
1993, including the establishm ent o f the Permanent C om ­
mittee - the first permanent body o f the CSCE for politi­
cal consultation and decision-m aking - and the creation
of a single general secretariat, both located in Vienna.
Foreign Ministers also expressed their concern about the
number and scale o f regional conflicts and reaffirmed
their commitment to the resolution o f these conflicts,
particularly in the former Y ugoslavia. They took steps to
improve the capabilities o f the CSCE in crisis manage­
ment and conflict prevention and agreed that relations
with other ‘European and Transatlantic Organisations’
should be developed.

'The Challenges o f Change ’

At the conclusion o f the Helsinki F ollow -U p M eeting on
9 July 1992, the H eads o f State and Government o f the

189
CSCE participating states adopted the Helsinki Summit
Declaration entitled ‘The Challenges o f Change’. The
Declaration reflected agreement on strengthening CSCE
institutions, establishing a High Commissioner on Na­
tional M inorities and developing a structure for early
warning, conflict prevention and crisis management, in­
cluding fact-finding and rapporteur missions.
In the same timeframe, the participating states decided
to establish a CSCE Forum for Security Cooperation in
Vienna under whose auspices new negotiations on amis
control, disarmament and confidence and security-build­
ing now take place. The Forum was inaugurated on 27
September 1992. In N ovem ber 1993, the Forum for Secu­
rity Cooperation adopted four important documents ad­
dressing stabilizing measures for localised crisis situations;
principles governing conventional arms transfers; defence
planning; and military contacts and cooperation.
Also in the framework o f the Helsinki Summit Meeting,
on 10 July 1992, those states concerned signed the
CFE-1A Concluding Act introducing limitations on mili­
tary personnel as well as establishing additional stabilising
measures.
In accordance with the 1992 Helsinki Summit Declar­
ation, the CSCE has initiated a number o f official mis­
sions, for fact-finding, rapporteur and monitoring pur­
poses, for example, to K osovo, Sandjak, Vojvodina,
Skopje, Georgia, Estonia, Tajikistan, Moldova, Latvia
and Nagorno-Karabakh.
In September 1992, the CSCE began operating Sanctions
Assistance M issions (SA M ) in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia,
the Former Y ugoslav Republic o f Macedonia, Hungary
and Rom ania, to assist in m onitoring the implementation
o f U N -m andated sanctions against the Federal Republic
o f Yugoslavia (Serbia and M ontenegro).

'Towards a Genuine Partnership in a New Era’

The fifth CSCE Review Conference took place in Buda­
pest from 10 October to 2 Decem ber 1994, concluding

190
with a Summit M eeting on 5-6 December. The Budapest
Document 1994, ‘Towards a G enuine Partnership in a
New Era’, was published as well as a number o f other
declarations and decisions, including declarations on the
Fiftieth Anniversary o f the Termination o f World War
II, and on Baltic Issues.
A number o f institutional decisions were taken at Buda­
pest to strengthen the CSCE. These included the renaming
of the CSCE, which would in future be known as the
Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE), with effect from 1 January 1995; the scheduling
of the next meeting o f OSCE Heads o f State or Govern­
ment in Lisbon, in 1996, preceded by a preparatory
meeting; the scheduling o f meetings o f the Ministerial
Council (the central decision-m aking and governing body
of the OSCE, formerly known as the CSCE Council)
towards the end o f every term o f chairmanship, at the
level of Foreign Ministers; the replacement o f the Com mit­
tee of Senior Officials by the Senior Council, meeting at
least twice a year, as well as before the Ministerial Council
Meeting, and also convening as the Econom ic Forum;
the establishment o f the Permanent Council (formerly
Permanent Committee), meeting in Vienna, as the regular
body for political consultation and decision-making; and
the scheduling o f the review o f implementation o f all
CSCE commitments at a meeting to be held in Vienna
before each Summit.
The Budapest Summit also resulted in important deci­
sions on other matters, including regional issues. In the
context o f the intensification o f CSCE action in relation
to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, a number o f measures
were introduced to harmonise and coordinate current
initiatives, including the mediation efforts o f the Minsk
Group. CSCE states declared their political will to pro­
vide a multinational CSCE peacekeeping force following
agreement among the parties for cessation o f the armed
conflict. The Summit also issued policy statements on
Georgia and M oldova.
In addition to the further developm ent o f the capabilities

191
o f the CSCE in conflict prevention and crisis manage­
ment, an important chapter o f the Budapest Document
1994 contained an agreed politically binding Code of
Conduct on Politico-M ilitary A spects o f Security. This
document builds on the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter
o f Paris and the Helsinki D ocum ent 1992 and adds a
significant new dimension to the achievements of the
CSCE.
The Budapest Summit took additional steps to rein­
force the work o f the CSCE Forum for Security Cooper­
ation building on the Vienna D ocum ent 1994 and other
documents and measures adopted by the Special Commit­
tee o f the Forum since September 1992. Decisions taken
at Budapest also addressed principles governing non-pro­
liferation; discussions within the CSCE on a Common
and Comprehensive Security M odel for Europe for the
21st Century; the Hum an Dim ension; the Economic Di­
mension; and the Mediterranean.
Alliance interaction with the OSCE process and institu­
tions is discussed in Part I.
Further information can be obtained from the OSCE
Secretariat, Kártner Ring 5-7, A - 1010 Vienna, Austria.
Tel. 43/1 514 36 0; Fax 4 3 /1 514 36 99. The Secretariat
also maintains an office in Prague: OSCE Secretarial
Rytirska 31, 110 00 Prague 1, Czech Republic.

TH E E U R O P E A N U N IO N ( EU)
The European U nion was established on the basis of the
Treaty o f R om e signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Nether­
lands. In 1973 they were joined by Denmark, Ireland and
the United Kingdom; in 1981 by Greece; and in 1986 by
Spain and Portugal.
Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the European
U nion on 1 January 1995, follow ing referendums endors­
ing accession to the EU held in June, October and Novem­
ber 1994, respectively. Accession negotiations were also
successfully com pleted by N orw ay but in a national refer­

192
endum held on 27-28 Novem ber 1994, 52.5 per cent o f
Norwegian voters opposed membership o f the European
Union.
The European Com m unity (EC) has developed from
the merger o f the European Coal and Steel Community,
founded on 18 April 1951, with the European Economic
Community and the European Atom ic Energy Com mu­
nity (EURATOM) founded in 1957 under the Treaty o f
Rome.
At the Maastricht European Council on 9 and 10
December 1991, the Heads o f State and Government o f
the Community countries adopted a Treaty on Political
Union, and a Treaty on Econom ic and M onetary Union,
which together form the Treaty on European U nion. The
Treaty came into force follow ing ratification by all par­
ties, on 1 November 1993.
Following the ratification o f the Treaty o f Maastricht,
new structures and procedures came into force and the
former European Com m unity was subsumed into the
European Union. The E U is com posed o f three ‘pillars’.
The first, known as the Community pillar, is based upon
the Treaties o f Paris and R om e, as modified by the 1986
Single European Act. The other two pillars, newly created
by the Treaty on European U nion, deal primarily with
inter-governmental cooperation, as distinct from cooper­
ation within the Com m unity pillar which is governed by
Community legislation. The second pillar is that o f the
Common Foreign and Security Policy which is in the
process of being developed. The Treaty on European
Union refers to the Western European U nion as an
integral part o f the developm ent o f the European Union
and requests the W E U to elaborate and implement deci­
sions and actions o f the U nion which have defence impli­
cations. The third pillar which is being developed relates
lo cooperation within the U nion in the spheres o f civil
and criminal law and o f hom e affairs.
At the meeting o f W E U Member States which took
place in Maastricht at the same time as the meeting o f the
European Council, a declaration was issued inviting mem­

193
bers o f the European U nion to accede to the WEU or
to become observers, and inviting other European mem­
bers o f N A T O to becom e associate members of the
W EU.
The Treaty on Euro pean U nion makes provision fora
further inter-governmental conference to be held in 1996
to evaluate achievements; and for a report evaluating the
progress made and experience gained in the field of
foreign and security policy to be presented to the Euro­
pean Council at that time.
In June 1993 the European Council announced that
the countries o f Central and Eastern Europe which
had signed ‘Europe Agreements’ with the Union would
eventually be invited to becom e E U members. It is
now accepted that 10 countries o f Central and Eastern
Europe are so eligible, including the three Baltic countries
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and Slovenia. At the
Corfu European Council o f June 1994 it was agreed
that the next phase o f enlargement should also include
Cyprus and M alta. A further stage in the process of
enlargement was reached at the Essen European Council
o f December 1994 which decided on a strategy aimed at
preparing the eligible countries for accession to the Euro­
pean Union.
Within the first ‘Com m unity’ pillar o f the Union referred
to above there are five main institutions. The Commission
is responsible for drawing up and initiating legislation and
policy, as well as over-seeing the implementation of legisla­
tion. In addition, it acts as the guardian of European
Community law and is able to refer cases to the Union’s
Court o f Justice. It is the U n ion ’s executive body, consist­
ing o f 20 Commissioners nom inated by the member states,
and is appointed for a period o f five years.
The EU Council acts on proposals from the Commission
and is the U n ion ’s primary decision-making body. Its
competence extends across all three pillars o f the Union.
The Council is com posed o f ministers o f the governments
o f the Member States. Ministerial meetings are prepared
by the Permanent Representatives o f the Member States.

194
 The European P arliament scrutinises Community legis­
lation and where applicable has to give its assent for
legislation to becom e law. After the ratification o f the
Treaty on European U nion, there are now several areas
in which the European Parliament has the right o f
co-decision with the Council. Direct elections to the
European Parliament com m enced in June 1979. It
now has 567 members and this figure will increase after
Austria, Finland and Sweden have joined in 1995.
The final arbiter on Com m unity law is the Court of
Justice. Its judges, one from each member state, plus a
President, settle disputes over the interpretation and appli­
cation of Community law and have the power to overturn
decisions deemed to be contrary to the Treaties establish­
ing the Community. Its judgem ents are binding on the
Commission, on national governments, and on firms and
individuals.
The Court of Auditors com pletes the list o f the main
institutions o f the E U . Its job is to oversee the financial
aspects of the Com m unity, to ensure that money is not
misspent and to highlight cases o f fraud.
The process o f creating a Single European Market
began in 1986 with the Single European Act, which came
into effect at the beginning o f 1993. Its purpose is to
enable goods, services, capital and people to move freely
within the territory o f the European Union. In all,
the Union has the com petence to act in a total o f 17
policy areas including the right o f free movement as
envisaged under the Single Market; as well as transport,
competition laws and taxation, econom ic and monetary
issues, social policy, developm ent matters and environ­
mental issues.
In the international context, agreements have been
made between the U nion and other countries o f the
Mediterranean area, in the Middle East, in South
America and in Asia. Seventy African, Caribbean and
Pacific countries now belong to the Lomé Convention.
The Union also maintains a continuing dialogue on
political and econom ic issues o f mutual interest and

195
engages in direct negotiations on trade and investment
issues with the United States, particularly in the context
o f the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT).
Since the outbreak o f the crisis in the former Yugosla­
via and the disintegration o f the federal state of Yugoslavia,
the European Union has played an important role in
efforts to bring about peace to the region and to channel
humanitarian aid to the war-stricken communities
affected by the conflict. The London Conference on
Yugoslavia held in August 1992, chaired jointly by the
Secretary General o f the United Nations and by the
Prime Minister o f the United Kingdom (then President
of the European Council), represented a new departure
for the EU in the field o f foreign policy and the first
combined EU-United Nations international operation.
Senior officials nominated by the United Nations and
the EU are acting jointly as peace negotiators and chair­
men of the continuing Geneva Conference on the
former Yugoslavia established at the London
Conference.
Further information can be obtained from the
Director-General for Information and Communica­
tion (DG X), European Union, 200 rue de la Loi,
1049 Brussels, Belgium. Tel. 32/2 299 11 11; Fax
32/2 299 90 14.

TH E W E ST E R N E U R O P E A N U N IO N ( WEU)
The Western European Union has existed in its present
form since 1954 and today includes 10 European coun­
tries - Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxem­
bourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United
Kingdom. It has a Council and Secretariat formerly lo­
cated in London and based in Brussels since January
1993, and a Parliamentary Assembly in Paris. The WEU
has its origins in the Brussels Treaty o f Economic, Social
and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence
o f 1948, signed by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, The

196
Netherlands and the United Kingdom. With the signature
of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949, the exercise o f the
military responsibilities o f the Brussels Treaty Organisa­
tion or Western Union was transferred to the North
Atlantic Alliance.
Under the Paris Agreements o f 1954, the Federal Re­
public of Germany and Italy acceded to the Brussels
Treaty and the Organisation was renamed the Western
European Union. The latter continued in being in fulfil­
ment of the conditions and tasks laid down in the Paris
Agreements.
The Western European Union was reactivated in 1984
with a view to developing a common European defence
identity through cooperation among its members in the
security field and strengthening the European pillar of
the North Atlantic Alliance.
In August 1987, during the Iran-lraq War, Western
European Union experts met in The Hague to consider
joint action in the G ulf to ensure freedom o f navigation
in the oil shipping lanes o f the region; and in October
1987 WEU countries met again to coordinate their mili­
tary presence in the G ulf following attacks on shipping in
the area.
Meeting in The Hague in October 1987, the Ministerial
Council of the Western European Union, made up of
Foreign and Defence Ministers o f the member countries,
adopted a ‘Platform on European Security Interests’ in
which they solemnly affirmed their determination both
lo strengthen the European pillar o f NATO and to pro­
vide an integrated Europe with a security and defence
dimension. The Platform defined the Western European
Union’s relations with NATO and with other organisa­
tions, as well as the enlargement o f the WEU and the
conditions for the further development o f its role as a
forum for regular discussion o f defence and security
issues affecting Europe.
Following the ratification o f the Treaty o f Accession
signed in November 1988, Portugal and Spain became
members of the Western European Union, in accordance

197
with the decisions taken the previous year to facilitate its
enlargement. A further step was taken in November 1989
when the Council decided to create an Institute for Secu­
rity Studies, based in Paris, with the task of assisting in
the development o f a European security identity and in
the implementation o f The Hague Platform.
At the end o f 1990 and during the Gulf War in January
and February 1991, coordinated action took place among
WEU nations contributing forces and other forms of
support to the coalition forces involved in the liberation
o f Kuwait.
A number o f decisions were taken by the European
Council at Maastricht on 9-10 December 1991 on the
common foreign and security policy o f the European
Union, and by the member states o f the Western Euro­
pean Union on the role o f the WEU and its relations
with the European Union and the Atlantic Alliance.
These decisions were welcomed by the North Atlantic
Council when it met in Ministerial Session on 19 Decem­
ber. They included extending invitations to members of
the European Union to accede to the WEU or to seek
observer status, as well as invitations to European
member states o f NATO to become associate members;
agreement on the objective o f the WEU of building up
the organisation in stages, as the defence component of
the European Union, and on elaborating and implement­
ing decisions and actions o f the Union with defence
implications; agreement on the objective o f strengthening
the European pillar o f the Atlantic Alliance and the role,
responsibilities and contributions o f WEU member states
in the Alliance; affirmation o f the intention of the WEU
to act in conformity with positions adopted in the Alli­
ance; the strengthening o f the W EU’s operational role;
and the relocation o f the WEU Council and Secretariat
from London to Brussels. A number o f other proposals
were also examined including a new role for the WEU in
armaments cooperation. In this context, European De­
fence Ministers subsequently decided to dissolve the Inde­
pendent European Programme Group (IEPG) and to

198
transfer its functions to the W EU.2 The publicity and
EUROCOM functions o f the former EUROGROUP
were also transferred to the WEU at the beginning of
1994.
Provisions established in accordance with the decisions
reached at Maastricht will be re-examined at the Inter-
Govemmental Conference to be held in 1996, in the light
of the progress and experience acquired, including the
evolution of the relationship between the WEU and the
Atlantic Alliance.

Petersberg Declaration
On 19 June 1992, the Foreign and Defence Ministers
of WEU member states met near Bonn to strengthen
further the role o f the WEU and issued the ‘Petersberg
Declaration’. This set out, on the basis o f the Maastricht
decisions, the guidelines for the organisation’s future
development. In the Declaration, WEU members pledged
their support for conflict prevention and peacekeeping
efforts in cooperation with the CSCE and with the United
Nations Security Council. As part o f the efforts to
strengthen the operational role o f WEU, it was decided
that a WEU Planning Cell should be set up, and to call
on member governments to make military units available
to the Organisation. The Declaration also covered the
enlargement o f WEU and the definition o f the rights and
obligations of the other European states which are mem­
bers of the European Union and NATO, as future mem­
bers, observers or associate members.
As part of their cooperation with Central and Eastern
European countries, the WEU Council o f Ministers in­
vited the Foreign and Defence Ministers o f eight states
(Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland,
Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia) to establish a ‘Forum of
Consultation’, which met for the first time at ambassado­
rial level on 14 October 1992 in London.

1This group is now known as the W estern European Arm aments

Group (WEAG).

199
 At the Rome Ministerial meeting on 20 November 1992,
WEU members agreed to enlarge the organisation and
invited Greece to become the tenth member, subject to
parliamentary ratification. Iceland, Norway and Turkey,
as member countries o f NATO, were granted Associate
Member status; and Denmark and Ireland, as members of
the European Union, became Observers. Following their
accession to the European Union on 1 January 1995, and
after completion o f parliamentary procedures, Austria,
Finland and Sweden became WEU Observers.
Kirchberg Declaration
On 9 May 1994, at a meeting in Luxembourg, the
WEU Council o f Ministers issued the ‘Kirchberg Declar­
ation’, according the nine Central and Eastern Euro­
pean members o f the Forum o f Consultation the status
o f ‘Associate Partners’ (as distinct from the Associate
membership o f Iceland, Norway and Turkey). With the
creation o f this new status, the Forum of Consultation
was suspended.
The Kirchberg meeting thus created a system of vari­
able geometry with three different levels of membership,
plus observer status:
— Members (All WEU members are also members both
o f NATO and o f the EU)
— Associate Members (NATO but not EU members)
— Associate Partners (neither NATO nor EU members)
— Observers (Members o f NATO and/or of the EU)
On 21 May 1992, the Council o f the Western European
Union held its first formal meeting with the North Atlan­
tic Council at NATO Headquarters. In accordance with
decisions taken by both Organisations, the meeting was
held to discuss the relationship between the two Organisa­
tions and ways o f strengthening practical cooperation as
well as establishing closer working ties between them.
The Secretary General o f the WEU now regularly attends
ministerial meetings of the North Atlantic Council, and
the NATO Secretary General is invited to WEU minis­
terial meetings.
200
 In July 1992 the member countries o f the WEU decided
to make available naval forces for monitoring compliance
in the Adriatic with U N Security Council Resolutions
against the Federal Republic o f Yugoslavia (Serbia and
Montenegro). Similar measures were also taken by the
North Atlantic Council in Ministerial Session in Helsinki
on 10 July 1992, in coordination and cooperation with
the operation decided by the WEU.
At a joint session on 8 June 1993, the North Atlantic
Council and the Council o f the Western European Union
approved the concept o f combined NA T O /W EU em­
bargo enforcement operations under the authority of the
Iwo Organisations. A single commander was appointed
to head the combined NA T O /W EU task force in the
Adriatic. The implementation o f this decision is described
inmore detail in Part I.
On 5 April 1993, the WEU Council of Ministers
decided to provide assistance to Bulgaria, Hungary and
Romania in their efforts to enforce the U N embargo
on the Danube. The assistance took the form o f a civil­
ian police and customs operation coordinated with
other organisations, in particular the EU and the
CSCE.
An important step towards closer cooperation between
NATO and WEU was taken during the January 1994
NATO Summit, when the 16 member countries o f the
Alliance gave full support to the development of a Euro­
pean Security and Defence Identity and to the strengthen­
ing of the European pillar of the Alliance through the
WEU as the defence component o f the European Union.
In order to avoid duplication o f capabilities, NATO has
agreed to make its collective assets available, on the basis
of consultations in the North Atlantic Council, for WEU
operations undertaken by the European Allies in imple­
menting a Common Foreign and Security Policy. In
addition, Heads o f State and Government endorsed the
concept of Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) as a
means of facilitating contingency operations. This con­
cept is to be implemented in a manner that provides

201
separable but no t separate military capabilities that could
be employed by NATO or the WEU, in situations affect­
ing European security in which NATO itself is nol
involved.
WEU Foreign and Defence Ministers met in the Minis­
terial Council of the WEU on 14 November 1994 al
Noordwijk, in The Netherlands, with the participation of
the nine Associate Partner countries. In the Noordwijk
Declaration issued at the conclusion of their meeting,
WEU Ministers endorsed a policy document containing
preliminary conclusions on the formulation of a Common
European Defence Policy (CEDP), indicating their aim
to develop this document into a comprehensive CEDP
statement in the perspective o f the Intergovernmental
Conference of 1996. The Noordwijk Declaration, inter
alia, also stressed the intention o f WEU Ministers to
continue to work in close association with the North
American Allies, emphasising the indivisibility of the
security of the Alliance and o f Europe as a whole and the
shared foundation of values and interests on which the
transatlantic partnership rests. Further aspects of
progress highlighted in the Noordwijk Declaration in­
cluded cooperation with Associate Partners and Associate
Members; cooperation between the WEU and the EU;
WEU support for the CSCE; and the work of the Western
European Armaments Group (WEAG).
WEU Ministers also discussed the short and longer
term conditions for bringing an end to ongoing regional
armed conflicts, particularly in the context of recent
developments with respect to the former Yugoslavia.
Finally, the WEU Ministerial Council endorsed the
appointment of Ambassador José Cutileiro of Portugal
as the new Secretary General o f WEU.
Further information can be obtained from: Western
European Union, Secretariat-General, 4 rue de la
Régence, lOOO Brussels, Belgium. Tel. 32 / 2 500 44 11:
Fax 32/2 511 32 70. Western European Union Assembly,
43 avenue du Président Wilson, 75775 Paris Cedex 16,
France. Tel. 33/14 72 35 432; Fax 33/14 72 04 543.

202
Western European Institute for Security Studies, 43
avenue du Président Wilson, 75775 Paris Cedex 16,
France. Tel. 33/14 72 35 432; Fax 33/14 72 08 178. ’

The EUROGROUP and the Independent European

Programme Group (IEPG)
The EUROGROUP acted as a grouping of European
governments within the framework o f NATO from 1968
to 1993. Following the decision o f EUROGROUP
Defence Ministers, on 24 May 1993, the training and
EUROMED activities o f the EUROGROUP were trans­
ferred to NATO. The publicity and EUROCOM func­
tions of the Group were transferred to the WEU and the
EUROGROUP itself was disbanded on 1 January 1994.
The Independent European Programme Group (IEPG)
was formed in 1976 as the forum through which Euro­
pean member nations o f NATO could discuss and formu­
late policies designed to achieve greater cooperation in
armaments procurement. On 4 December 1992, European
Defence Ministers decided to dissolve the IEPG and to
transfer its functions to the WEU. The cooperative logis­
tics functions o f EUROLOG have also been transferred
to the WEU.

THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE

The Council of Europe was established on 5 May 1949,
‘to achieve a greater unity between its members for the
purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and
principles which are their common heritage and facilitat­
ing their economic and social progress’.3 The Council’s
overall aim is to maintain the basic principles o f human
rights, pluralist democracy and the rule o f law and en­
hance the quality o f life for European citizens.
The Council o f Europe has 34 member countries
including Hungary which joined in 1990; Poland in

1The Statute of the Council o f E urope. C hapter I, Art. I .

203
1991; Bulgaria in 1992; Estonia, Lithuania, Slovenia,
the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania which joined
in 1993; Andorra which joined in 1994; and Latvia which
joined in February 1995. The Council is composed of a
Committee of Ministers, in which agreements are reached
on common action by governments, and a 239 member
Parliamentary Assembly, which makes proposals for new
activities and serves, more generally, as a parliamentary
forum. Some o f the Council o f Europe’s activities are
open to non-member states. For example, Albania, Bela­
rus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav
Republic o f Macedonia, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine
have special guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly.
More than 150 inter-governmental conventions and
agreements have been concluded by the Council, chief
among which are the Convention for the Protection of
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the European
Cultural Convention, and the European Social Charter.
The Organisation further promotes cooperation to
improve education; the safeguarding of the urban and
natural environment; social services, public health, sport
and youth activities; the development of local democracy;
the harmonisation o f legislation, particularly in the light
o f technical developments, and the prevention of compu­
ter crime. The Council o f Europe is presently working on
a Convention for Protection o f National Minorities as an
additional protocol to the European Convention on
Human Rights.
Further information can be obtained from: Council of
Europe, F-67075 Strasbourg, France. Tel. 33/88 41 2033,
Fax 33/88 41 27 45.
 PART V

NON-GO VERNMENTAL
ORGANISATIONS
 The N orth Atlantic Assembly
Alliance cohesion is substantially enhanced by the sup­
port of freely elected parliamentary representatives. The
North Atlantic Assembly (NAA) is the inter-parliamen­
tary forum of the 16 member countries o f the Alliance. It
brings together European and North American legislators
to debate and discuss issues o f common interest and
concern. The Assembly is completely independent of
NATO but constitutes a link between national parlia­
ments and the Alliance which encourages governments to
take Alliance concerns into account when framing na­
tional legislation. It also acts as a permanent reminder
that intergovernmental decisions reached within NATO
are ultimately dependent on political endorsement in
accordance with the due constitutional process o f demo­
cratically elected parliaments.
Delegates to the North Atlantic Assembly are nomi­
nated by their parliaments according to their national
procedures on the basis o f party representation in the
parliaments. The Assembly therefore represents a broad
spectrum of political opinion. It comprises 188 parliamen­
tarians, each country’s delegation being mainly deter­
mined by the size o f its population.
The Assembly meets twice a year in Plenary Session.
Meetings are held in national capitals on a rotational
basis at the invitation o f national parliaments. The Assem­
bly functions through five committees: Political; De­
fence and Security; Economic; Scientific and Technical;
and Civilian Affairs. These are both study groups and
major forums for discussion. The committees study and
examine all major contemporary issues arising in their
respective fields o f interest. They meet regularly through­
out the year and report to the Plenary Sessions of the
Assembly. There is a Secretariat with a staff of 30 people,
based in Brussels, which is responsible for the organisa­
tion of NAA reports.
The primary purpose o f the Assembly is educative and
consensus-building. It allows Alliance legislators to

207
convey national preoccupations and concerns and to
inform each other o f the very different national and
regional perspectives that exist on many key issues of
mutual interest. Similarly, members o f the Assembly are
able to use the experience and information gained through
participation in its activities when exercising their roles
within national parliaments, and thus ensure that Alliance
interests and considerations are given maximum visibility
in national discussions. The Assembly also constitutes an
important touchstone for assessing parliamentary and
public opinion on Alliance issues and through its delibera­
tions provides a clear indication o f public and parliamen­
tary concerns regarding Alliance policies. In this sense
the Assembly plays an indirect but important role in
policy formation. Recommendations and resolutions of
the Assembly are forwarded to national governments,
parliaments, other relevant organisations and to the Sec­
retary General o f NATO who formulates replies based
on discussions within the North Atlantic Council.
During the last three years, the N A A has opened its
doors to the parliaments o f Central and Eastern Europe
(CEE). Fourteen countries (Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria,
Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and
Ukraine) now attend and participate actively in the Assem­
bly’s meetings under a status accorded to their representa­
tives known as ‘associate delegate’. Thus NAA commit­
tees now involve participants from 30 countries as op­
posed to the 16 countries previously represented as mem­
bers of NATO. A number o f other countries also send
delegations o f parliamentary observers to meetings of the
Assembly, notably Japan, Australia and Morocco.
Relations with Central and Eastern European countries
have been coordinated under the so-called Rose-Roth
Initiative, initiated in 1990 by Congressman Charlie Rose,
then President o f the Assembly and later Head of the
United States House o f Representatives Delegation to
the NAA, and his colleague Senator Bill Roth. The
initiative has three aspects:

208
1 The active participation o f CEE parliamentarians in
the biannual meeting o f the Assembly;
2. The holding o f special Rose-Roth seminars at regular
intervals on subjects o f specific interest to parliamen­
tarians from CEE countries. These are organised in
cooperation with member parliaments or the parlia­
ments of CEE countries and ensure a regular dialogue
among legislators on issues o f common concern. Since
the commencement o f the initiative, 22 such seminars
have been held;
3. The programme also supports the development of
parliamentary staff through two-week training pro­
grammes or short periods spent at the Assembly’s
Secretariat. This programme is designed for parliamen­
tary staff working for Foreign Affairs or Security
Committees or in other fields o f international relations.
The aims of the Rose-Roth Initiative are:
— to integrate and involve parliamentarians from CEE
countries in Assembly activities;
— to promote a sense o f partnership and cooperation at
the legislative level;
— to improve mutual understanding among legislators
of their various problems and perspectives;
— to provide CEE parliamentarians with information
on current issues;
— to promote the development o f appropriate civil-mili­
tary relations in CEE countries by helping CEE legisla­
tors to become more knowledgable about security
issues; and by demonstrating the relationship that
exists in Alliance countries between parliamentarians,
civil servants and military officials;
— to provide CEE legislators with practical expertise
and experience in parliamentary practices and
procedures;
— to help the development o f a parliamentary staff
structure in CEE parliaments in order to provide
parliamentarians with the kind o f assistance available
to their Western counterparts.

209
The N A A ’s outreach programme is separate from, but
reinforces, the work of the North Atlantic Cooperation
Council (NACC) and the Partnership for Peace (PFP)
initiative. Particular emphasis is placed on helping to
achieve a key PFP objective, namely the establishment of
democratic control of armed forces. Assembly activities
aim to provide the expertise, experience and information
that will help CEE parliamentarians to become more
effective in influencing the development o f national de­
fence policies and in ensuring that the control of their
armed forces is fully democratic.
Further information on the North Atlantic Assembly
may be obtained from the International Secretariat of
the North Atlantic Assembly, Place du Petit Sablon 3,
B-1OOO Brussels. Tel. 32/2 513 28 65; Fax 32/2 514 18
47.

The Atlantic Treaty Association (ATA)

Voluntary associations affiliated to the Atlantic Treaty

Association (ATA) support the activities o f NATO and
o f individual governments to promote the objectives of
the North Atlantic Treaty.
The objectives o f the Atlantic Treaty Association are:
— to educate and inform the public concerning the aims
and goals o f the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation;
— to conduct research on the various purposes and activi­
ties related to the Organisation;
— to promote the solidarity o f the peoples in the North
Atlantic area;
— to develop permanent relations and cooperation
between its national member committees or
associations.
An Atlantic Education Committee (AEC) and an Atlantic
Association o f Young Political Leaders (AAYPL) are
active in their own fields.

210
 The following national voluntary organisations are
members of the ATA:

BELGIUM ITALY
The Belgian Atlantic Association Italian Atlantic Com mittee
Hôpital Militaire Reine Astrid Piazza di Firenze 27
Blok El Bure au 650 00186 Rome
Rue Bruyn
1120 Brussels

CANADA LU XEM BO URG

The Atlantic Council o f C anada Luxem bourg Atlantic Com mittee
6Hoskin Avenue BP 805 2018
Toronto Luxem bourg
Ontario M5S 1H8

DENMARK N E TH ER LA N D S
Danish Atlantic Association N etherlands A tlantic Com mittee
Ryvangs Aile I Laan van M eerdervoort
Postbox 2521 96 2 5 17 AR The Hague
2100 Copenhagen 0

FRANC E N O RW A Y
French Association for the Norwegian A tlantic Com m ittee
Atlantic Community Fridtjof Nansens Plass 6
10 rue Crevaux 0160 Oslo I
75116 Paris

GERMANY PORTUGAL
The German Atlantic Society Portuguese A tlantic Com mittee
Am Burgweiher 12 Av. Infante Santo 42, 6e
5300 Bonn I 1300 Lisbon

GREECE SPA IN
Greek Association for Atlantic Spanish Atlantic Association
and European Cooperation Fernanflor 6-5B
I60A Ioannou D rossopoulou Str 28014 M adrid
112 56 Athens

ICELAND TU RK EY
Association of Western Turkish Atlantic Com mittee
Cooperation Kuleli Sokak No: 4 4 / 1
PO Box 28 121 G aziosm anpasa
Reykjavik 06700 A nkara

211
U N ITED K IN G D O M
Atlantic Council o f the
United Kingdom
Atlantic House.
8A Lower G rosvenor Place
London S W IW 0E N
U N IT E D STATES
The A tlantic Council of the Uniled
States
910 17th St.. N.W ., 10th Floor
W ashington D C 20006

Since October 1992, the Atlantic Club of Bulgaria has

been associated with the Atlantic Treaty Association, ini­
tially as an observer and later as an ‘associate member'
(Address: 29 Slavyanska Street, Sofia 1000).
Further information concerning the Atlantic Treaty
Association may be obtained from the Secretary General
of the ATA at 10 rue Crevaux, 75116 Paris. Tel. 33/
14 55 328 80.

The Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers (CIOR)

The Interallied Confederation o f Reserve Officers is a
non-governmental, non-political, non-profit organisa­
tion. Known by its French acronym CIOR, the Confed­
eration was formed in 1948 by the Reserve Officers
Associations o f Belgium, France and The Netherlands.
All existing national reserve officer associations of
NATO-member nations now belong to the Confedera­
tion. It represents more than 800,000 reserve officers and
aims to inculcate and maintain an interallied spirit among
its members and to provide them with information about
NATO developments and activities. It also aims to con­
tribute to the organisation, administration and training
of reserve forces in NATO countries and to improve
their motivation, capabilities, interoperability and mutual
confidence through common and exchange training
programmes.
The Confederation maintains close liaison with appro­
priate national defence organisations and with N ATO
military authorities and develops international contacts
between reserve officers. Its members are active in profes­
sional, business, industrial, academic and political circles
in their respective countries and contribute individually

2 12
to the improvement o f public understanding of NATO
and the strengthening o f public suppo r t for its policies.
The chief executive of the Confederation is an elected
President who serves in that office for a period of two
years. He is assisted by a Secretary General and an
Executive Committee composed o f delegates from a ll
national member associations. The head of each national
delegation is also a Vice-President of the Confederation.
The Interallied Confederation of the Medical Reserve
Officers (CIOM R ) is affiliated to the CIOR.
Member associations of the CIOR:

BHLGIUM GERM ANY

Union Royale Nationale des
Officiers de Réserve de Belgique
(U RNO R/K NVRO -BE)
Rue des Petits Carmes 24
B-1000 Bruxelles
Tel.: 32/2 701 3115
Verband der Reservisten der
Deutschen Bundeswehr
(VdRBw)
Provinzialstrasse 91
D-53127 Bonn
Tel.: 49/ 22 82 59 090

CANADA GREECE
The Conference of Defence The Supreme Pan-Hellenic
Associations of C anada (CDA) Federation o f Reserve Officers
PO Box 893 (SPFRO )
Ottawa 100 Solonos Street
Ontario K IP 5P9 GR-10680 Athens 144
Tel.: 1/613 99 23 379 Tel.: 3 0 / 1 362 50 21

DENMARK IT A L Y
Reserveofficers Foreningen i Unione Nazionale Ufficiali in
Danmark (ROID) Congedo d'Italia (U N U C I)
GL. Hovedragt Via N om entana 313
Kaslellcl. 1-00162 Rome
DK-2100 Copenhagen Tel.: 39/6 854 87 95
Tel.: 45/33 14 16 01

FRANCE LU XEM BO URG

Union Nationale des Officiers de Amicale des Anciens Officiers de
Réserve de France (U N O R /F R ) Réserve Luxembourgeois
12, Rue Marie Laurencin (A N O RL)
F-75012 Paris 124 A Kiem
Tel.: 33/1 43 47 40 16 L-8030 Strassen

213
TH E N ETH ER LA N D S
Koninklijke Vereniging van
Nederlandse Reserve Officieren
(K V N RO )
Postbus 96820
NL-2509 s'G ravenhage
Tel.: 31/70 31 62 940
NORW AY
N orske Reserveoffiserers Forbund
(N R O F)
Oslo Mil. Akershus
N 0-0015 Oslo 1
Tel.: 47/22 56 33 70
SPAIN
Federation o f Spanish Reserve
Associations (FO R E)
A erodrom o de La Nava
C orral de Ayllon
Segovia 28018
Tel.: 34/1661 6041
TU RK EY
Turkiye Emekli
Subaylar Denegi
Selanik cadessi 3416
Kizilay - A nkara
Tel.: 90/312 418 48 72
U N IT E D K IN G D O M
The Reserve Forces Association
o f the United Kingdom (RFA)
Centre Block
Duke of Y ork's Headquarters
Chelsea
G B -L ondon SW3 4SG
Tel.: 44/71 73 06 12 22
U N IT E D STATES
The Reserve Officers Association
of the United States (R O A)
1 C onstitution Avenue NE
W ashington DC 20002
Tel.: 1/202 47 92 200

The CIOR and CIOMR have a liaiso n office al

NATO Headquarters situated within the International
Military Staff. Further information about the Confedera­
tions may be obtained from the CIOR/CIOMR Liaison
Office, NATO /IM S/P& P, B-l 110 Brussels, Tel. 32/2 728
52 95.

214
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX I
MEMBERS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC COUNCIL
H onorary President'
Mr. Eric Derijcke (B e lgium)

Chairman
Secretary General o f NATO
D eputy Chairman
Mr. Sergio Balanzino (Italy) (Deputy Secretary General)

Permanent Representatives on the North A tlantic Council

Belgium Mr. Alain Rens

Canada M r. John Anderson
Denmark Mr. G u n n ar Riberholdt
France M r. G érard Errera
Germany Dr. Herm ann Freiherr von Richthofen
Greece M r. V assilis Zafiropoulos
Iceland M r. T horsteinn Ingolfsson
Italy Mr. G iovanni Jannuzzi
Luxembourg M r. Paul Schuller
Netherlands Mr. Lam berl Willem Veenendaal
Norway M r. Leif Mevik
Portugal M r. A ntonio M artins da Cruz
Spain M r. C arlos M iranda
Turkey M r. T ugay ôzçeri
United Kingdom M r. John Goulden
United States M r. R obert E. H unter

' An honorary position held in rotation each year by a Foreign M inister

of one of the m ember countries.

2 19
 A P P E N D I X II
SECRETARIES GENERAL OF NATO
¡952-1957 Lord Ismay (United Kingdom)
1957-1961 Paul-Henri Spaak (Belgium)
1961-1964 Dirk U . Stikker (Netherlands)
1964-1971 Manlio Brosio (Italy)
1971-1984 Joseph M .A.H. Luns (Netherlands)
¡984-1988 Lord Carrington (United Kingdom)
1988-1994 Manfred Worner (Germany)
1994 Willy Claes (Belgium)

221
 A P P E N D I X III
MEMBERS OF THE MILITARY COMMITTEE
Chairman
Field Marshal Sir Richard Vincent (United Kingdom)
(Army)'

D eputy Chairman
(to be appointed)

Military Representatives to the N A T O M ilitary C om m ittee in Permanent

Session

Belgium Ll.Gen. R . Hoeben (Air Force)

Canada Vice-Admiral R.E. George (Navy)
Denmark Lt.Gen. C. Hvidt (Air Force)
Germany Lt.Gen. K. W iesmann (Army)
Greece Vice-Admiral A. Vennis (Navy)
Italy Lt.Gen. G . Degli Innocenti (Air Force)
Luxembourg Lt.Col. G. Lenz (Army)
Netherlands Lt.Gen. H .W .M . Satter (Air Force)
Norway Lt.Gen. D . P. Danielsen (Army)
Portugal Lt.Gen. M. Alvarenga (Air Force)
Spain Lt.Gen. Santiago Valderas C anestro (Air
Force)
Turkey Lt.Gen. H. Ózkòk (Army)
United Kingdom Air M arshall Sir John Cheshire (Air Force)
United States Lt.Gen. T. M ontgom ery (Army)

Chief, French
Military Mission Gén. de Corps aérien J.P. Pelisson (Air Force)

International M ilitary S ta ff
Director: Ll.Gen. G .J. Folm er (N etherlands) (Army)

1In December 1994, the Chiefs o f Defence o f N A TO m em ber nations

selected General Klaus N aum ann, C hief o f Defence o f Germ any, to be
the next Chairman o f the M ilitary Com mittee. He will take up his
appointment in 1996.

223
 APPENDIX IV
PRINCIPAL OFFICIALS OF THE NATO
INTERNATIONAL STAFF
Deputy Secretary General
Ambassador Sergio Balanzino (Italy)

Assistant Secretary General f o r P olitical A ffairs

Ambassador G ebhardl von M oltke (Germ any)

Assistant Secretary G eneral f o r Defence Planning and Policy

Mr. Anthony Cragg (U nited Kingdom )

Assistant Secretary General f o r Defence Support

Mr. N .W. Ray (United States)

Assistant Secretary General f o r Infrastructure, L ogistics and Civil

Emergency Planning
Vice-Admiral Herpert van Foreest (N etherlands)

Assistant Secretary General f o r Scientific and Environm ental A ffairs

Dr. Jean-Marie C adiou (France)

Executive Secretary
Mr. Leo Verbruggen (N etherlands)

Director o f the Private Office

Dr. Klaus Scharioth (Germ any)

Director o f Information an d Press

Mr. C.F. Prebensen (Norw ay)

225
 A P P E N D IX V
MAJOR NATO COMMANDERS

Su p re m e Allied Com m ander Europe, SA CEU R

Gen. George A. Joulwan

Supreme Allied Com mander Atlantic, SA CLA N T

Gen. John J. Sheehan

A P P E N D IX VI
PRINCIPAL OFFICIALS OF THE NATO
INTERNATIONAL MILITARY STAFF
Director of the International M ilitary S ta ff
Li.Gen. G.J. Folm er (Netherlands)

Assistant Director, Intelligence Division

Brig. Gen. F. Kikiras (Greece)

Assistant Director, Plans and P olicy Division

Maj.Gen. G. Bastien (Belgium)

Assistant Director, Operations Division

Maj.Gen. H. K. Bromeis (Germany)

Assistant Director, L ogistics Division

Maj.Gen. J. J. C. N. de Vries (Netherlands)

Assistant Director, Communications and Information S ystem s Division

Maj.Gen. L. O. Feliu (Spain)

Assistant Director, Arm am ents and Standardization Division

Maj.Gen. G . B. Ferrari (Italy)

Secretary o f the International M ilitary S ta ff

AirCdre P.O. Sturley (U nited Kingdom)

Representative o f S A C E U R (S A C E U R E P )
Maj.Gen. C .Ahnfeldt-M ollerup (D enm ark)

Representative o fS A C L A N T (SA C L A N T R E P E U R )
Vice-Admiral M. P. G retton (United Kingdom )

227
 A P P E N D I X VII
PRINCIPAL NATO AGENCIES
agard NACMA
Adviso ry Group for Aerospace N A TO ACCS M anagem ent
Research & Development Agency
7 rue Ancelle 8 rue de Genève
92200 Neuilly sur Seine 1140 Brussels
France Belgium
Director General M anager
Mr. J.H. Wild M r. R.A. Giacom o
Tel. 33/1 47 38 57 00 Tel. 32/2 728 41 11
Fax 33/1 47 38 57 99 Fax 32/2 728 87 77

CEOA NAHEMA
Cenlral Europe Operating Agency NA TO Helicopter (NH9O) Design,
BP 552 Developm ent, Production and
78005 Versailles Logistics M anagem ent Agency
France Le Q uatuor - B ât . A
Tel. 33/1 39 24 49 OO 42 route de Galice
Fax 33/1 39 55 65 39 13082 Aix-en-Provence - Cedex 2
France
General M anager
MAS Ll.Gen. G. Gianetti
Military Agency for Tel. 33/42 95 92 OO
Standardization Fax 33/42 64 30 50
NATO Headquarters
1110 Brussels
Belgium NAMMA
Chairman NA TO M RCA Development &
Maj.Gen. G . B. Fe rrari Production M anagem ent Agency
Tel. 33/2 728 41 11 Inselkam m erstrasse 12+ 14
Fax 33/2 728 57 18 82008 U nterhaching
G erm any
G eneral M anager
NACISA Dr. H . Rühle
NATO Communications & Tel. 49/89 666 800
Information Systems Agency Fax 49/89 666 80 555
8 rue de Genève
1140 Brussels
Belgium
Director General
Mr. W. Krauss
Tel. 32/2 728 41 II
Fax 32/2 728 87 70

229
NAM SA NHM O (HAWK)
N A TO M aintenance & Supply N A TO Hawk Management Odia
Agency 26 rue Gallieni
8302 Capellen 92500 Rueil-MalmaisonCedex
L uxem bourg France
G eneral M anager A cting Genera! Manager
M r . R .W.A. Zweerts Gen. S. Rossetto
Tel. 352/30 85 851 Tel. 33/1 47 08 75 00
Fax 352/30 87 21 Fax 33/1 47 52 10 99

NAPM A SACLANTCEN
N A TO A irborne Early W arning & SA CLA N T Undersea Re search
C ontrol Program me Centre
M anagem ent Agency Viale San Bartolomeo, 400
A kerstraat 7 19026 San Bartolomeo
6445 CL Brunssum Italy
N etherlands D irector
G eneral M anager D r.D . Bradley
Brig.Gen. F. Lübbe Tel. 39/187 540
Tel. 31/45 26 22 22 Fax 39/187 524 600
Fax 31/45 26 43 73

STC
ND C SH A PE Technical Centre
N A TO Defense College Oude Waalsdorperweg, 61
Viale della Civiltà del Lavoro 38 P.O. Box 174
00144 Rom a N L -2501 C D ’s Gravenhage
Italy Netherlands
Commandant D irector
Lt. G eneral R. Evraire M r. L. D. Diedrichsen
Tel. 39/6 592 37 41 Tel. 31/70 31 42 100
Fax 31/70 31 42 111

NEFMA
N A TO EFA Development,
Production & Logistic
M anagem ent Agency
Inselkam m erstrasse 12+ 14
82008 U nterhaching
G erm any
GeneraI M anager
Maj. Gen. I .S. Buruaga
Tel. 49/89 666 800
Fax 49/89 666 80 555

230
 A P P E N D I X VIII
THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY
Washington DC, 4 April 1949

The Parties to this T reaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and
principles of the C harter o f the United N ations and their desire to live
in peace with all peoples and all governments.
They are determined to safeguard the freedom, com m on heritage and
civilisation of their peoples, founded on the principles o f democracy,
individual liberty and the rule o f law.
They seek to prom ote stability and well-being in the N orth Atlantic area.
They are resolved to unite their efTorts for collective defence and for
the preservation of peace and security.
TTiey therefore agree to this N orth Atlantic Treaty:

A R T IC L E !
The Parties undertake, as set forth in the C harter of the United
Nations, to settle any international disputes in which they may be
involved by peaceful means in such a m anner that international peace
and security, and justice, are not endangered, and to refrain in their
international relations from the threat or use o f force in any m anner
inconsistent with the purposes of the U nited Nations.

A R T IC L E 2
The Parlies will contribute tow ard the further developm ent o f peaceful
and friendly international relations by strengthening their free institu­
tions, by bringing about a better understanding o f the principles upon
which these institutions are founded, and by prom oting conditions of
stability and well-being. They will seek to eliminate conflict in their
international economic policies and will encourage econom ic collabora­
tion between any or all o f them.

A R T IC L E 3
In order more effectively to achieve the objectives o f this Treaty, the
Parlies, separately and jointly, by means o f continuous and effective
self-help and m utual aid, will m aintain and develop their individual and
collective capacity to resist arm ed attack.

A R T IC L E 4
The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of
them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security o f any
of the Parties is threatened.

231
 A R T IC L E 5
The Parties agree that an arm ed attack against one or more of them in
Europe or N orth America shall be considered an attack against them
all; and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occur
each of them, in exercise o f the right o f individual or collective self­
defence recognised by Article 51 o f the C harier of the United Nations,
will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individu­
ally and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems
necessary, including the use o f arm ed force, to restore and maintain the
security o f the N orth Atlantic area.
Any such arm ed attack and all m easures taken as a result thereof
shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures
shall be term inated when the Security Council has taken the measures
necessary to restore and m aintain international peace and security.

A R T IC L E 6'
F or the purpose o f Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the
Parties is deemed to include an arm ed attack:
— on the territory o f any o f the Parties in Europe or North America,
on the Algerian D epartm ents o f France2, on the territory of Turkey
or on the islands under the jurisdiction o f any of the Parlies in the
N orth A tlantic area north of the T ropic o f Cancer;
— on the forces, vessels, or aircraft o f any o f the Parties, when in or
over these territories or any other area in Europe in which occupation
forces o f any o f the Parlies were stationed on the date when the
Treaty entered into force or the M editerranean Sea or the Nort|i
Atlantic area north o f the T ropic of Cancer.

A R T IC L E 7
The T reaty does not alTect, and shall not be interpreted as affecting, in
any way the rights and obligations under the Charier of the Parties
which are m em bers o f the United N ations, or the primary responsibility
o f the Security Council for the m aintenance of international peace and
security.

A R T IC L E 8
Each Party declares that none o f the international engagements now in
force between it and any other o f the Parties or any third slate is in

1 As am ended by Article 2 o f the Protocol to the N orth A t l a n t ic Treaty

on the accession o f Greece and Turkey.
2 On 16 January 1963, the Council noted that insofar as the former
Algerian D epartm ents o f France were concerned, the relevant clauses
of this Treaty had become inapplicable as from 3 July 1962.

232
conflict with the provisions o f this Treaty, and undertakes not to enter
into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty.

A R T IC L E 9
The Parlies hereby establish a council, on which each o f them shall be
represented, to consider m atters concerning the im plem entation o f this
Treaty. The council shall be so organised as to be able to meet
promptly at any time. The council shall set up such subsidiary bodies
as may be necessary; in particular it shall establish immediately a
defence committee which shall recom mend m easures for the implementa­
tion of Articles 3 and 5.

A R T IC L E 10
The Parties may, by unanim ous agreement, invite any other European
slate in a position to further the principles o f this T reaty and to
contribute to the security o f the N o rth A tlantic area lo accede lo this
Treaty. Any slate so invited may become a Party to the T reaty by
depositing its instrum ent o f accession with the G overnm ent o f the
United States of America. The G overnm ent o f the U nited Stales o f
America will inform each o f the Parties o f the deposit o f each such
instrument of accession.

A R T IC L E 1 1
This Treaty shall be ratified and its provisions carried out by the Parties
in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The instru­
ments of ratification shall be deposited as soon as possible with the
Government of the U nited States o f America, which will notify all the
other signatories of each deposit. The T reaty shall enter into force
between the states which have ratified it as soon as the ratifications of
the majority of the signatories, including the ratifications o f Belgium,
Canada, France, Luxembourg, the N etherlands, the U nited Kingdom
and the United Slates, have been deposited and shall come into effect
with respect to other states on the date o f the deposit o f their
ratifications.3

A R T IC L E 12
After the Treaty has been in force for ten years, or at any time
thereafter, the Parties shall, if any of them so requests, consult together
for the purpose of reviewing the Treaty, having regard for the factors
Ihen affecting peace and security in the N orth A tlantic area, including
the development of universal as well as regional arrangem ents under the

’The Treaty came into force on 24 August 1949, after the deposit of
the ratifications o f all signatory states.

233
C harter o f the United N ations for the m aintenance of international
peace and security.

A R T IC L E 13
After the T reaty has been in force for twenty years, any Parly may
cease to be a Party one year after its notice o f denunciation has been
given to the G overnm ent o f the U nited Stales o f America, which will
inform the G overnm ents o f the other Parties o f the deposit of each
notice o f denunciation.

A R T IC L E 14
This T reaty, o f which the English and French texts are e qually authentic,
shall be deposited in the archives o f the Governm ent of the United
States o f America. Duly certified copies thereof will be transmitted by
that G overnm ent to the G overnm ents o f the other signatories.

234
 APPENDIX IX
THE ALLIANCE’S STRATEGIC CONCEPT
Agreed by the Heads o f S tate and Government
participating in the meeting o f the North Atlantic
Council in Rom e on 7-8 November 1991

1. At their meeting in L ondon in July 1990, N A T O ’s Heads o f State

and Government agreed on the need to transform the Atlantic Alliance
to reflect the new, m ore prom ising, era in Europe. While reaffirming
the basic principles on which the Alliance has rested since its inception,
they recognised that the developm ents taking place in E urope would
have a far-reaching im pact on the way in which its aims would be met
in future. In particular, they set in hand a fundam ental strategic review.
The resulting new Strategic Concept is set out below.

P A R T I - T H E S T R A TEG1C C O N T E X T
The N ew S trategic Environment
2. Since 1989, profound political changes have taken place in Central
and Eastern Europe which have radically improved the security environ­
ment in which the N o rth A tlantic Alliance seeks to achieve its objectives.
The USSR’s former satellites have fully recovered their sovereignty.
The Soviet Union and its Republics are undergoing radical change. The
three Baltic Republics have regained their independence. Soviet forces
have left Hungary and Czechoslovakia and are due to complete their
withdrawal from Poland and G erm any by 1994. All the countries that
were formerly adversaries o f N A T O have dism antled the W arsaw Pact
and rejected ideological hostility to the West. They have, in varying
degrees, embraced and begun to implement policies aimed at achieving
pluralistic democracy, the rule o f law, respect for hum an rights and a
market economy. The political division o f E urope th at was the source
of the military confrontation o f the Cold W ar period has thus been
overcome.
3. In the West, there have also been significant changes. Germ any has
been united and remains a full m em ber o f the Alliance and o f European
institutions. The fact that the countries o f the E uropean Com munity
are working towards the goal o f political union, including the develop­
ment of a European security identity, and the enhancem ent o f the role
of the WEU, are im portant factors for European security. The strength­
ening of the security dimension in the process o f European integration,
and the enhancement o f the role and responsibilities o f European
members of the Alliance are positive and m utually reinforcing. The
development o f a European security identity and defence role, reflected
in the strengthening o f the European pillar within the Alliance, will not

235
only serve the interests o f the European states but also reinforce
the integrity and effectiveness o f the Alliance as a whole.
4 . Substantial progress in arm s control has already enhanced stability
and security by lowering arm s levels and increasing military transpar­
ency and m utual confidence (including through the Stockholm CDE
agreement o f 1986, the IN F Treaty o f 1987 and the CSCE agreements
and confidence and security-building measures o f 1990). Implementation
o f the 1991 STA RT Treaty will lead to increased stability through
substantial and balanced reductions in the field o f strategic nuclear
arms. Further far-reaching changes and reductions in the nuclear forces
o f the United States and the Soviet U nion will be pursued following
President Bush’s Septem ber 1991 initiative. Also o f great importance is
the Treaty on Conventional Arm ed Forces in E urope (CFE), signed at
the 1990 Paris Summit; its im plem entation will remove the Alliance's
numerical inferiority in key conventional weapon systems and provide
for effective verification procedures. All these developments will also
result in an unprecedented degree o f m ilitary transparency in Europe,
thus increasing predictability and m utual confidence. Such transparency
would be further enhanced by the achievem ent o f an Open Skies
regime. There are welcome prospects for further advances in amis
control in conventional and nuclear forces, and for the achievement of
a global ban on chemical weapons, as well as restricting de-stabilising
arm s exports and the proliferation o f certain weapons technologies.
5. The CSCE process, which began in Helsinki in 1975, has already
contributed significantly to overcom ing the division of Europe. As a
result o f the Paris Summit, it now includes new institutional arrange­
m ents and provides a contractual fram ework for consultation and
cooperation that can play a constructive role, complementary to that of
N A TO and the process o f E uropean integration, in preserving peace.
6 . The historic changes that have occurred in Europe, which have
led to the fulfilment o f a num ber o f objectives set out in the Harmel
R eport, have significantly improved the overall security of the Allies.
The m onolithic, massive and potentially imm ediate threat which was
the principal concern o f the Alliance in its first forty years has disap­
peared. On the other hand, a great deal o f uncertainty about the future
and risks to the security o f the Alliance remain.
7 . The new Strategic C oncept looks forw ard to a security environment
in which the positive changes referred to above have come to fruition.
In particular, it assum es both the com pletion o f the planned withdrawal
o f Soviet m ilitary forces from C entral and Eastern Europe and the full
im plem entation by all parties o f the 1990 C F E Treaty. The implementa­
tion o f the Strategic Concept will thus be kept under review in the light
o f the evolving security environm ent and in particular progress in
fulfilling these assum ptions. F urther adaptation will be made to the
extent necessary.

Security Challenges an d Risks

8. The security challenges and risks which N A TO faces are dilTerenl
in nature from what they were in the past. The threat o f a simultaneous,

236
full-scale attack on all o f N A T O ’s E uropean fronts has effectively been
removed and thus no longer provides the focus for Allied strategy.
Particularly in C entral E urope, the risk o f a surprise attack has been
substantially reduced, and m inim um Allied warning time has increased
accordingly.
9. In contrast with the predom inant threat o f the past, the risks to
Allied security th at rem ain are m ulti-faceted in nature and m ulti-direc­
tional, which m akes them hard to predict and assess. N A T O m ust be
capable of responding to such risks if stability in E urope and the
security of Alliance m em bers are to be preserved. These risks can arise
in various ways.
10. Risks to Allied security are less likely to result from calculated
aggression against the territory o f the Allies, but rather from the
adverse consequences o f instabilities th at m ay arise from the serious
economic, social and political difficulties, including ethnic rivalries and
territorial disputes, which are faced by m any countries in C entral and
Eastern Europe. T he tensions which m ay result, as long as they remain
limited, should not directly threaten the security and territorial integrity
of members o f the Alliance. They could, however, lead to crises inimical
to European stability and even to arm ed conflicts, which could involve
outside powers o r spill over into N A T O countries, having a direct effect
on the security o f the Alliance.
11. In the particular case o f the Soviet U nion, the risks and uncertain­
ties that accompany the process o f change cannot be seen in isolation
from the fact that its conventional forces are significantly larger than
those of any other E uropean State and its large nuclear arsenal com para­
ble only with th at o f the U nited States. These capabilities have to be
taken into account if stability and security in Europe are to be
preserved.
12. The Allies also wish to m aintain peaceful and non-adversarial
relations with the countries in the Southern M editerranean and Middle
East. The stability and peace o f the countries on the southern periphery
of Europe are im portant for the security o f the Alliance, as the 1991
Gulf war has shown. This is all the m ore so because o f the build-up o f
military power and the proliferation o f w eapons technologies in the
area, including weapons o f mass destruction and ballistic missiles capa­
ble of reaching the territory o f some m em ber states o f the Alliance.
13. Any armed attack on the territory o f the Allies, from whatever
direction, would be covered by Articles 5 and 6 o f the W ashington
Treaty. However, Alliance security m ust also take account o f the global
context. Alliance security interests can be affected by other risks o f a
wider nature, including proliferation o f weapons o f mass destruction,
disruption of the flow o f vital resources and actions o f terrorism and
sabotage. A rrangem ents exist within the Alliance for consultation
among the Allies under Article 4 o f the W ashington T reaty and, where
appropriate, coordination o f their efforts including their responses to
such risks.
14. From the point o f view o f Alliance strategy, these different risks
have to be seen in different ways. Even in a non-adversarial and

2 37
cooperative relationship, Soviet m ilitary capability and build-up poten­
tial, including its nuclear dimension, still constitute the most significant
factor o f which the Alliance has to take account in maintaining the
strategic balance in Europe. The end o f East-W est confrontation has,
however, greatly reduced the risk o f m ajor conflict in Europ e . On the
other hand, there is a greater risk o f different crises arising, which could
develop quickly and would require a rapid response, but they are likely
to be o f a lesser m agnitude.
15. Two conclusions can be drawn from this analysis of the strategic
context. The first is that the new environm ent does not change the
purpose or the security functions o f the Alliance, but rather underlines
their enduring validity. The second, on the other hand, is that the
changed environm ent offers new opportunities for the Alliance to frame
its strategy within a broad approach to security.

P A R T I I - A L L I A N C E O B JE C T IV E S A N D S E C U R I T Y FUNCTIONS
The Purpose o f the Alliance
16. N A T O ’s essential purpose, set out in the W ashington Treaty and
reiterated in the L ondon D eclaration, is to safeguard the freedom and
security o f all its members by political and m ilitary means in accordance
with the principles o f the United N ations C harier. Based on common
values o f democracy, hum an rights and the rule o f law, the Alliance
has worked since its inception for the establishm ent of a just and
lasting peaceful order in Europe. This Alliance objectiv e remains
unchanged.

The N ature o f the A lliance

17. N A TO embodies the transatlantic link by which the security of
N orth America is perm anently tied to the security o f Europe. It is the
practical expression o f effective collective effort am ong its members in
support o f their comm on interests.
18. The fundam ental operating principle o f the Alliance is thal of
comm on comm itm ent and m utual cooperation am ong sovereign stales
in support of the indivisibility o f security for all o f its memberc.
Solidarity within the Alliance, given substance and effect by NATO's
daily work in both the political and m ilitary spheres, ensures that no
single Ally is forced to rely upon its own national efforts alone in
dealing with basic security challenges. W ithout depriving member stales
o f their right and duty lo assum e their sovereign responsibilities in the
field of defence, the Alliance enables them through collective effort lo
enhance their ability to realise their essential national security
objectives.
19. The resulting sense o f equal security am ongst the members of the
Alliance, regardless o f differences in their circumstances or in their
national m ilitary capabilities relative to each other, contributes lo
overall stability within E urope and thus to the creation of conditions
conducive to increased cooperation both am ong Alliance members and
with others. It is on this basis that mem bers o f the Alliance, together

238
with o ther nations, are able to pursue the developm ent o f cooperative
structures of security for a E urope whole and free.

The Fundamental T asks o f the Alliance

20. The means by which the Alliance pursues its security policy to
preserve the peace will continue to include the m aintenance o f a military
capability sufficient to prevent w ar and to provide for effective defence; an
overall capability to m anage successfully crises affecting the security o f its
members; and the pursuit o f political elTorts favouring dialogue with other
nations and the active search for a cooperative approach to European
security, including in the field o f arm s control and disarm am ent.
21. To achieve its essential purpose, the Alliance perform s the follow­
ing fundamental security tasks:
I. To provide one o f the indispensable foundations for a stable security
environment in E urope, based on the growth o f dem ocratic institu­
tions and com m itm ent to the peaceful resolution o f disputes, in which
no country would be able to intim idate or coerce any European
nation or to impose hegemony through the threat or use o f force.
II. To serve, as provided for in Article 4 o f the N orth A tlantic Treaty,
as a transatlantic forum for Allied consultations on any issues that
alTecl their vital interests, including possible developments posing
risks for m em bers’ security, and for appropriate coordination of
their efforts in fields o f com m on concern.
III. To deter and defend against any threat o f aggression against the
territory of any N A T O m em ber state.
IV. To preserve the strategic balance within Europe.
22. Other European institutions such as the EC, W EU and CSCE also
have roles to play, in accordance with their respective responsibilities
and purposes, in these fields. The creation o f a E uropean identity in
security and defence will underline the preparedness o f the Europeans
lo lake a greater share o f responsibility for their security and will help
lo reinforce transatlantic solidarity. However the extent o f its m ember­
ship and of its capabilities gives N A TO a particular position in that it
can perform all four core security functions. N A TO is the essential
forum for consultation am ong the Allies and the forum for agreement
on policies bearing on the security and defence com m itm ents o f its
members under the W ashington Treaty.
23. In defining the core functions o f the Alliance in the terms set out
above, member states confirm that the scope o f the Alliance as well as
(heir rights and obligations as provided for in the W ashington Treaty
remain unchanged.

PART I I I - A BR O AD A P P R O A C H TO S E C U R IT Y
P rotecting P eace in a N ew Europe
24. The Alliance has always sought to achieve its objectives of
safeguarding the security and territorial integrity o f its members, and
establishing a just and lasting peaceful order in Europe, through both

239
political and m ilitary means. This com prehensive approach remains the
basis o f the Alliance’s security policy.
25. But what is new is that, with the radical changes in the security
situation, the opportunities Tor achieving Alliance objectiv es through
political means are greater than ever before. It is now possible to draw
all the consequences from the fact that security and stability have
political, economic, social, and environm ental elements as well as the
indispensable defence dimension. M anaging the diversity of challenges
facing the Alliance requires a broad approach to security. This is
reflected in three m utually reinforcing elements o f Allied security policy;
dialogue, cooperation, and the m aintenance o f a collective defence
capability.
26. The Alliance’s active pursuit o f dialogue and cooperation, under­
pinned by its comm itm ent to an effective collective defence capability,
seeks to reduce the risks o f conflict arising out o f misunderstanding or
design; to build increased m utual understanding and confidence among
all E uropean states; to help m anage crises affecting the security of the
Allies; and to expand the opportunities for a genuine partnership
am ong all E uropean countries in dealing with common security
problems.
27. In this regard, the Alliance's arm s control and disarmament
policy contributes both to dialogue and to cooperation with other
nations, and thus will continue to play a m ajor role in the achievement
o f the Alliance’s security objectives. The Allies seek, thro ugh arms
control and disarm am ent, to enhance security and stability at ihe
lowest possible level o f forces consistent with the requirements of
defence. Thus, the Alliance will continue to ensure that defence and
arm s control and disarm am ent objectives remain in harmony.
28. In fulfilling its fundam ental objectives and core security functions,
the Alliance will continue to respect the legitimate security interests of
others, and seek the peaceful resolution o f disputes as set forth in the
C harter o f the United Nations. The Alliance will prom ote peaceful and
friendly international relations and support dem ocratic institutions. In
this respect, it recognises the valuable contribution being made by other
organizations such as the European C om m unity and the CSCE, and
that the roles o f these institutions and o f the Alliance are
complementary.

Dialogue
29. The new situation in E urope has m ultiplied the opportunities for
dialogue on the part o f the Alliance with the Soviet Union and the
other countries o f C entral and Eastern Europe. The Alliance has
established regular diplom atic liaison and m ilitary contacts with Ihe
countries o f Central and Eastern E urope as provided for in the London
Declaration. The Alliance will further prom ote dialogue through regular
diplom atic liaison, including an intensified exchange of views and
inform ation on security policy issues. T hrough such means the Allies,
individually and collectively, will seek to m ake full use of the unprec­
edented opportunities afforded by the growth o f freedom and democ­

240
racy throughout E urope and encourage greater m utual understanding
of respective security concerns, to increase transparency and predictabil­
ity in security affairs, and thus to reinforce stability. The military can
help to overcome the divisions o f the past, not least through intensiñed
military contacts and greater m ilitary transparency. The Alliance’s
pursuit of dialogue will provide a foundation for greater cooperation
throughout Europe and the ability to resolve differences and conflicts
by peaceful means.

Cooperation
30. The Allies are also com m itted to pursue cooperation with all
slates in Europe on the basis o f the principles set out in the C harter o f
Paris for a New Europe. They will seek to develop broader and
productive patterns o f bilateral and m ultilateral cooperation in all
relevant fields o f E uropean security, with the aim, inter alia, o f prevent­
ing crises or, should they arise, ensuring their effective m anagement.
Such partnership between the members o f the Alliance and other
nations in dealing with specific problem s will be an essential factor in
moving beyond past divisions tow ards one E urope whole and free. This
policy of cooperation is the expression o f the inseparability o f security
among European states. It is built upon a com m on recognition am ong
Alliance members that the persistence o f new political, economic or
social divisions across the continent could lead to future instability, and
such divisions must thus be diminished.

C ollective Defence
31. The political approach to security will thus become increasingly
important. Nonetheless, the m ilitary dimension remains essential. The
maintenance o f an adequate m ilitary capability and clear preparedness
to act collectively in the com m on defence remain central to the Alliance’s
security objectives. Such a capability, together with political solidarity,
is required in order to prevent any attem pt at coercion or intim idation,
and to guarantee that m ilitary aggression directed against the Alliance
can never be perceived as an option with any prospect o f success. It is
equally indispensable so that dialogue and cooperation can be under­
taken with confidence and achieve their desired results.

M anagem ent o f Crisis an d Conflict Prevention

32. In the new political and strategic environm ent in Europe, the
success of the Alliance’s policy o f preserving peace and preventing war
depends even m ore than in the past on the effectiveness o f preventive
diplomacy and successful m anagem ent o f crises affecting the security of
its members. Any m ajor aggression in E urope is m uch more unlikely
and would be preceded by significant warning time. T hough on a much
smaller scale, the range and variety o f other potential risks facing the
Alliance are less predictable than before.
33. In these new circum stances there are increased opportunities for
the successful resolution o f crises at an early stage. The success of
Alliance policy will require a coherent approach determ ined by the

241
Alliance’s political authorities choosing and coordinating appropriate
c r isis m anagem ent m easures as required from a range of political and
other measures, including those in the m ilitary ñeld. Close control by
the political au th o r ities o f the Alliance will be applied from the outset
and at all stages. A ppropriate consultation and decision-making proce­
dures are essential to this end.
34. The potential o f dialogue and cooperation within all of Europe
must be fully developed in order to help to defuse crises and to prevent
conflicts since the Allies’ security is inseparably linked to that of all
other states in Europe. T o this end, the Allies will support the role of
the CSCE process and its institutions. O ther bodies including the
E uropean Com m unity, W estern E uropean U nion and United Nations
may also have an im portant role to play.

P A R T IV -G U ID E L IN E S FOR DEFENCE
Principles o f Alliance S tra teg y
35. The diversity o f challenges now facing the Alliance thus requires a
broad approach to security. The transform ed political and strategic
environm ent enables the Alliance to change a num ber of important
features o f its m ilitary strategy and to set out new guidelines, while
reaffirming proven fundam ental principles. A t the London Summit, it
was therefore agreed to prepare a new m ilitary strategy and a revised
force posture responding to the changed circumstances.
36. Alliance strategy will continue to reflect a num ber o f fundamental
principles. The Alliance is purely defensive in purpose: none of its
w eapons will ever be used except in self-defence, and it does not
consider itself to be anyone’s adversary. The Allies will maintain military
strength adequate to convince any potential aggressor that the use of
force against the territory o f one o f the Allies would meet collective and
effective action by all o f them and that the risks involved in initiating
conflict would outweigh any foreseeable gains. The forces of the Allies
m ust therefore be able to defend Alliance frontiers, to stop an aggres­
so r’s advance as far forw ard as possible, to m aintain or restore the
territorial integrity o f Allied nations and to term inate war rapidly by
making an aggressor reconsider his decision, cease his attack and
withdraw. The role o f the Alliance’s m ilitary forces is to assure the
territorial integrity and political independence o f its member stales, and
thus contribute to peace and stability in Europe.
37. The security o f all Allies is indivisible: an attack on one is an
attack on all. Alliance solidarity and strategic unity are accordingly
crucial prerequisites for collective security. T he achievement of the
Alliance’s objectives depends critical ly on the equitable sharing of roles,
risks and responsibilities, as well as the benefits, o f common defence.
The presence o f N o rth American conventional and US nuclear forces in
Europe remains vital to the security o f E urope, which is inseparably
linked to that o f N o rth America. As the process o f developing a
European security identity and defence role progresses, and is reflected
in the strengthening o f the E uropean pillar within the Alliance, the

242
European members o f the Alliance will assume a greater degree o f the
responsibility for the defence o f Europe.
38. The collective nature o f Alliance defence is em bodied in practical
arrangements that enable the Allies to enjoy the crucial political, m ilitary
and resource advantages o f collective defence, and prevent the renation­
alisation of defence policies, w ithout depriving the Allies o f their sover­
eignly. These arrangem ents are based on an integrated m ilitary structure
as well as on cooperation and coordination agreements. Key features
include collective force planning; com m on operational planning; m ulti­
national formations; the stationing o f forces outside home territory,
where appropriate on a m utual basis; crisis m anagem ent and reinforce­
ment arrangements; procedures for consultation; com m on standards
and procedures for equipm ent, training and logistics; joint and
combined exercises; and infrastructure, arm am ents and logistics
cooperation.
39. To protect peace and to prevent w ar or any kind o f coercion, the
Alliance will m aintain for the foreseeable future an appropriate mix of
nuclear and conventional forces based in E urope and kept up to date
where necessary, although at a significantly reduced level. Both elements
are essential to Alliance security and cannot substitute one for the
other. Conventional forces contribute to w ar prevention by ensuring
that no potential aggressor could contem plate a quick or easy victory,
or territorial gains, by conventional means. T aking into account the
diversity of risks with which the Alliance could be faced, it must
maintain the forces necessary to provide a wide range o f conventional
response options. But the Alliance’s conventional forces alone cannot
ensure the prevention o f war. N uclear weapons m ake a unique contribu­
tion in rendering the risks o f any aggression incalculable and unaccept­
able. Thus, they remain essential to preser v e peace.

The Alliance's N ew Force Posture

40. At the L ondon Sum m it, the Allies concerned agreed to move
away, where appropriate, from the concept o f forw ard defence towards
a reduced forward presence, and to m odify the principle o f flexible
response to reflect a reduced reliance on nuclear weapons. The changes
stemming from the new strategic environm ent and the altered risks now
facing the Alliance enable significant m odifications to be m ade in the
missions of the Allies’ m ilitary forces and in their posture.

The M issions o f Alliance M ilita ry Forces

41. The prim ary role o f Alliance m ilitary forces, to guarantee the
security and territorial integrity o f m em ber states, remains unchanged.
But this role m ust take account o f the new strategic environm ent, in
which a single massive and global threat has given way to diverse and
multi-directional risks. Alliance forces have different functions to per­
form in peace, crisis and war.
42. In peace, the role o f Allied m ilitary forces is to guard against risks
to the security o f Alliance members; to contribute tow ards the m ainten­
ance of stability and balance in E urope; and to ensure that peace is

243
preserved. They can contribute to dialogue and cooperation throughout
Europe by their participation in confidence-building activities, including
those which enhance transparency and improve communication; as well
as in verification o f arm s control agreements. Allies could, further, be
called upon to contribute to global stability and peace by providing
forces for United N ations missions.
43. In the event o f crises which m ight lead to a military threat to the
security o f Alliance members, the Alliance’s m ilitary forces can comple­
ment and reinforce political actions within a broad approach to security,
and thereby contribute to the m anagem ent o f such crises and their
peaceful resolution. This requires that these forces have a capability for
measured and timely responses in such circumstances; the capability to
deter action against any Ally and, in the event that aggression takes
place, to respond to and repel it as well as to reestablish the territorial
integrity o f m ember slates.
44. While in the new security environm ent a general war in Europe
has become highly unlikely, it cannot finally be ruled out. The Alliance's
military forces, which have as their fundam ental mission to protect
peace, have to provide the essential insurance against potential risks al
the minimum level necessary to prevent war o f any kind, and, should
aggression occur, to restore peace. Hence the need for the capabilities
and the appropriate mix o f forces already described.

Guidelines f o r the Alliance's Force Posture

45. To implement its security objectives and strategic principles in the
new environm ent, the organisation o f the Allies’ forces must be adapted
to provide capabilities that can contribute to protecting peace, managing
crises that affect the security o f Alliance members, and preventing war,
while retaining at all times the m eans to defend, if necessary, all Allied
territory and to restore peace. The posture o f Allies’ forces will conform
to the guidelines developed in the following paragraphs.
46. The size, readiness, availability and deploym ent of the Alliance’s
m ilitary forces will continue to reflect its strictly defensive nature and
will be adapted accordingly to the new strategic environment including
arm s control agreements. This m eans in particular;
(a) that the overall size o f the Allies' forces, and in many cases their
readiness, will be reduced;
(b) that the m aintenance o f a com prehensive in-place linear defensive
posture in the central region will no longer be required. The
peacetime geographical distribution o f forces will ensure a sufficient
military presence throughout the territory o f the Alliance, includ­
ing where necessary forward deploym ent o f appropriate forces.
Regional considerations and, in particular, geostrategic differences
within the Alliance will have to be taken into account, including the
shorter warning times lo which the northern and southern regions
will be subject com pared with the central region and, in the southern
region, the potential for instability and the military capabilities in
the adjacent areas.

244
 47. To ensure that at this reduced level the Allies’ forces can play an
effective role both in m anaging crises and in countering aggression
against any Ally, they will require enhanced flexibility and mobility and
an assured capability for augm entation when necessary. F or these
reasons:
(a) Available forces will include, in a limited but militarily significant
proportion, ground, air and sea imm ediate and rapid reaction
elements able to respond lo a wide range o f eventualities, m any of
which are unforeseeable. They will be o f sufficient quality, quantity
and readiness to deter a limited attack and, if required, to defend
the territory o f the Allies against atlacks, particularly those launched
without long w arning time.
(b) The forces o f the Allies will be structured so as to permit their
military capability to be built up when necessary. This ability to
build up by reinforcem ent, by mobilising reserves, or by reconstitut­
ing forces, m ust be in proportion lo potenlial threats to Alliance
security, including the possibility - albeit unlikely, but one that
prudence dictates should not be ruled out - o f a m ajor conflict.
Consequently, capabilities for timely reinforcem ent and resupply
both within E urope and from N orth America will be o f critical
importance.
(c) Appropriate force structures and procedures, including those that
would provide an ability to build up, deploy and draw down forces
quickly and discrim inately, will be developed to perm it measured,
flexible and timely responses in order to reduce and defuse tensions.
These arrangem ents must be exercised regularly in peacetime.
(d) In the event o f use o f forces, including the deployment o f reaction
and other available reinforcing forces as an instrum ent o f crisis
management, the Alliance’s political authorities will, as before,
exercise close control over their employm ent at all stages. Existing
procedures will be reviewed in the light o f the new missions and
posture o f Alliance forces.

C haracteristics o f Conventional Forces

48. It is essential th at the Allies’ m ilitary forces have a credible ability
lo fulfil their functions in peace, crisis and war in a way appropriate lo
ihe new security environm ent. T his will be reflected in force and
equipment levels; readiness and availability; training and exercises;
deployment and em ploym ent options; and force build-up capabilities,
all of which will be adjusted accordingly. The conventional forces o f the
Allies will include, in addition to imm ediate and rapid reaction forces,
main defence forces, which will provide the bulk o f forces needed to
ensure the Alliance’s territorial integrity and the unimpeded use o f their
lines of communication; and augm entation fo rces, which will provide a
means of reinforcing existing forces in a particular region. M ain defence
and augmentation forces will comprise both active and mobilisable
elements.
49. Ground, m aritim e and air forces will have to cooperate closely

245
and combine and assist each other in operations aimed at achieving
agreed objectives. These forces will consist o f the following:
(a) Ground for ces, which are essential to hold or regain territory. The
majority will normally be at lower states o f readiness and, overall,
there will be a greater reliance on m obilisation and reserves. All
categories o f ground forces will require dem onstrable combat effec­
tiveness together with an appropriately enhanced capability for
flexible deployment.
(b) M aritim e forces, which because o f their inherent mobility, flexibility
and endurance, m ake an im portant contribution to the Alliance's
crisis response options. Their essential missions are to ensure sea
control in order to safeguard the Allies’ sea lines o f communication,
to support land and am phibious operations, and to protect the
deployment o f the Alliance’s sea-based nuclear deterrent.
(c) Air forces, whose ability to fulfil their fundam ental roles in both
independent air and com bined operations - counter-air, air interdic­
tion and offensive air support - as well as to contribute to surveil­
lance, reconnaissance and electronic w arfare operations, is essential
to the overall effectiveness o f the Allies’ m ilitary forces. Their role
in supporting operations, on land and at sea, will require appropri­
ate long-distance airlift and air refuelling capabilities. Air defence
forces, including m odem air com m and and control systems, are
required to ensure a secure air defence environm ent.
50. In light o f the potential risks it poses, the proliferation of ballistic
missiles and weapons o f mass destruction should be given special
consideration. Solution o f this problem will require complementary
approaches including, for example, export control and missile defences.
51. Alliance strategy is not dependent on a chemical warfare capabil­
ity. The Allies remain com m itted to the earliest possible achievement of
a global, comprehensive, and effectively verifiable ban on all chemical
weapons. But, even after im plem entation o f a global ban, precautions
o f a purely defensive nature will need to be m aintained.
52. In the new security environm ent and given the reduced overall
force levels in future, the ability to work closely together, which will
facilitate the cost effective use o f Alliance resources, will be particularly
im portant for the achievement o f the missions o f the Allies’ forces. The
Alliance’s collective defence arrangem ents in which, for those concerned,
the integrated m ilitary structure, including m ultinational forces, plays
the key role, will be essential in this regard. Integrated and multinational
E uropean structures, as they are further developed in the context of an
emerging European Defence Identity, will also increasingly have a
similarly im portant role to play in enhancing the Allies’ ability to work
together in the com m on defence. Allies’ efforts to achieve maximum co­
operation will be based on the com m on guidelines for defence defined
above. Practical arrangem ents will be developed to ensure the necessary
m utual transparency and com plem entarity between the European secu­
rity and defence identity and the Alliance.
53. In order to be able to respond flexibly to a wide range of possible

246
contingencies, the Allies concerned will require effective surveillance
and intelligence, flexible com m and and control, mobility within and
between regions, and appropriate logistics capabilities, including trans­
port capacities. Logistic stocks m ust be sufficient to sustain all types of
forces in order to perm it effective defence until resupply is available.
The capability o f the Allies concerned to build up larger, adequately
equipped and trained forces, in a timely m anner and to a level appropri­
ate to any risk to Alliance security, will also m ake an essential contribu­
tion to crisis m anagem ent and defence. This capability will include the
ability to reinforce any area at risk within the territory o f the Allies and
lo establish a m ultinational presence when and where this is needed.
Elements of all three force categories will be capable o f being employed
flexibly as part of both intra-E uropean and transatlantic reinforcement.
Proper use of these capabilities will require control o f the necessary
lines of com m unication as well as appropriate support and exercise
arrangements. Civil resources will be o f increasing relevance in this
context.
54. For the Allies concerned, collective defence arrangem ents will rely
increasingly on m ultinational forces, com plem enting national comm it­
ments to NATO. M ultinational forces dem onstrate the Alliance’s re­
solve to maintain a credible collective defence; enhance Alliance cohe­
sion; reinforce the transatlantic partnership and strengthen the E uro­
pean pillar. M ultinational forces, and in particular reaction forces,
reinforce solidarity. They can also provide a way o f deploying more
capable formations than m ight be available purely nationally, thus
helping lo make m ore efficient use o f scarce defence resources. This
may include a highly integrated, m ultinational approach to specific
tasks and functions.

C haracteristics o f Nuclear Forces

55. The fundamental purpose o f the nuclear forces o f the Allies is
political: to preserve peace and prevent coercion and any kind o f war.
They will continue to fulfil an essential role by ensuring uncertainty in
the mind of any aggressor about the nature o f the Allies’ response to
military aggression. They dem onstrate that aggression o f any kind is
not a rational option. The suprem e guarantee o f the security o f the
Allies is provided by the strategic nuclear forces o f the Alliance, particu­
larly those o f the U nited States; the independent nuclear forces o f the
United Kingdom and France, which have a deterrent role of their own,
contribute to the overall deterrence and security o f the Allies.
56. A credible Alliance nuclear posture and the dem onstration of
Alliance solidarity and com m on com m itm ent to war prevention con­
tinue to require widespread participation by E uropean Allies involved
in collective defence planning in nuclear roles, in peacetime basing of
nuclear forces on their territory and in com m and, control and consulta­
tion arrangements. N uclear forces based in E urope and com m itted to
NATO provide an essential political and m ilitary link between the
European and the N orth Am erican m em bers o f the Alliance. The
Alliance will therefore m aintain adequate nuclear forces in Europe.

247
These forces need to have the necessary characteristics and appropriate
flexibility and survivability, to be perceived as a credible and elTeclive
element o f the Allies’ strategy in preventing war. They will be main­
tained at the minimum level sufficient to preserve peace and stability.
57. The Allies concerned consider that, with the radical changes in
the security situation, including conventional force levels in Europe
m aintained in relative balance and increased reaction times, NATO's
ability to defuse a crisis through diplom atic and o ther means or, should
it be necessary, to m ount a successful conventional defence will signifi­
cantly improve. The circumstances in which any use o f nuclear weapons
might have to be contem plated by them are therefore even more
remote. They can therefore significantly reduce their sub-strategic nu­
clear forces. They will m aintain adequate sub-strategic forces based in
Europe which will provide an essential link with strategic nuclear
forces, reinforcing the transatlantic link. These will consist solely of
dual capable aircraft which could, if necessary, be supplemented by
offshore systems. Sub-strategic nuclear weapons will, however, not be
deployed in norm al circumstances on surface vessels and attack subma­
rines. There is no requirem ent for nuclear artillery or ground-launched
short-range nuclear missiles and they will be eliminated.

P A R T V - C O N C L U S IO N
58. This Strategic Concept reaffirms the defensive nature of the
Alliance and the resolve o f its m em bers to safeguard their security,
sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Alliance’s security policy is
based on dialogue; cooperation; and effective collective defence as
m utually reinforcing instrum ents for preserving the peace. Making full
use o f the new opportunities available, the Alliance will maintain
security at the lowest possible level o f forces consistent with the require­
ments o f defence. In this way, the Alliance is making an essential
contribution to prom oting a lasting peaceful order.
59. The Allies will continue to pursue vigorously further progress in
arm s control and confidence-building m easures with the objective of
enhancing security and stability. They will also play an active part in
prom oting dialogue and cooperation between states on the basis of the
principles enunciated in the Paris C harter.
60. N A T O ’s strategy will retain the flexibility to reflect further
developments in the politico-m ilitary environm ent, including progress
in the moves tow ards a E uropean security identity, and in any changes
in the risks to Alliance security. F o r the Allies concerned, the Strategic
Concept will form the basis for the further developm ent o f the Alliance’s
defence policy, its operational concepts, its conventional and nuclear
force posture and its collective defence planning arrangements.

248
 APPENDIX X
WORK PLAN FOR DIALOGUE, PARTNE R SHIP
AND COOPE R ATION 1994/1995
Issued at the meeting o f the North A tlantic Cooperation
Council
held at N A T O Headquarters, Brussels,
2 December ¡994
*

Introduction
The Foreign Ministers and Representatives o f the m ember countries of
the North Atlantic C ooperation Council, with the participation of
observer countries, have agreed lo the following revision of the W ork
Plan for 1994 which will also be valid for 1995. It builds on the
foundations and principles o f dialogue, partnership and cooperation
already established, in particular at the Rom e Summit in N ovem ber
1991, the Brussels Summit in January 1994 and N A C C Ministerial
meetings. Partnership for Peace (PFP) topics and activities to be con­
ducted in the N A CC fram ework are, in accordance with the rules and
procedures set out in the P F P Fram ew ork Docum ent and other relevant
PFP documents, subject to further consideration in that context.

POLITICAL AND SECURITY RELATED MATTERS

Topics
1 Specific political and security related m atters, including regional
security issues;
2 Conceptual approaches to arm s control, disarm am ent and non-prolif­
eration, including the security of new non-nuclear weapon states
and the general problem s o f security related to nuclear issues;
3 Strengthening the consultative and cooperation process;
4 Practical cooperation with CSCE on security issues.
Activities
1 Consultations at Am bassadorial level, including on specific issues in
brainstorming form at;
2 Regular and, as events dictate, ad hoc consultations o f the Political
Committee with C ooperation Partners, including as appropriate
with experts;
3 Early consultations, particularly on regional tensions with a poten­
tial lo grow into crisis;
4 Informal political consultations between N A TO and individual P art­
ner countries, as appropriate;
5 Meetings of Regional Experts G roup with experts from Partner
countries once a year;
6 Briefing of Cooperation Partners, including at the P artner’s request
when possible, on decisions taken by the N o rth A tlantic Council

249
 and other im portant developm ents in the Alliance having direct
bearing o n security and stability;
7 C ontinuation of sem inars and experts meetings with CFE Cooper­
ation Partners on im plem entation o f the C FE treaty;
8 Building on current program m e o f jo in t multilateral inspection
teams and joint inspector/escort training for CFE Cooperation
Partners, including a C F E C ourse for verification teams’ inspectors
to be held in the Schooling Centre in K om orni Hradek;
9 C ontinuation o f support to C FE C ooperation Partners in connecting
to and in utilising VERITY.

P O LICY PLAN NING C O N SU LTA TIO N S

Topic
1 M id- and long-term foreign and security policy issues.
A ctivity
1 A meeting o f N A T O ’s A tlantic Policy Advisory G roup with Cooper­
ation Partners in 1995 in Slovakia.

E C O N O M IC ISSU ES
A D E F E N C E C O N V E R S IO N (IN C L U D IN G IT S HUM AN
D IM E N S IO N )

Topics
1 Conversion and social stability; integration into the civilian economy
o f the m anpow er potential used in the m ilitary and the armaments
industry;
2 Econom ic aspects pertaining to restructuring armaments production
sites and m ilitary garrisons and to privatisation of military
industries;
3 Conversion experiences (in particular in the field of armaments
production) and conversion planning.
A ctivities
1 C ontinued developm ent by the Economics Directorate of the data­
base on technical expertise in defence conversion with a view to its
practical use in C ooperation Partner countries;
2 Development of defence conversion pilot projects supported by
nations with a view to prom oting cooperation between industries of
Allied and C ooperation Partner countries;
3 O rganisation o f workshops on practical defence conversion activi­
ties, with particular focus on problem s encountered in restructuring
m ajor arm am ents production centres and military installations, with
participation o f local business and adm inistrations and of defence
industries (in 1995 to be held in a C ooperation Partner country);
4 Enlarged Economic Com m ittee meetings, as agreed, on topics related
to defence conversion, including a meeting with the Industrial Plan­
ning Com m ittee to discuss relevant issues related to defence conver­
sion.

250
B. SEC U R ITY A SPECTS O F E C O N O M IC D E V E L O P M E N T

Topics
1 Economic and ecological consequences o f defence-related environ­
mental degradation;
2 Economic and ecological consequences o f nuclear disarmam ent;
3 Economic aspects o f m igration and refugees affecting security and
stability;
4 Consequences o f the im plem entation of UN m andated economic
sanctions on socio-economic aspects o f regional stability.
Activities
1 W orkshops/reinforced meetings on the above themes;
2 Economic Com m ittee with C ooperation Partners sem inar on impact
and human consequences o f defence-related environm ental degrada­
tion and on econom ic and ecological aspects o f nuclear disarm am ent
supported, as necessary, by Science/CCM S C om m ittees’ Experts.
3 Annual N A TO Economics Colloquium to be organised by the
Economics D irectorate on ‘Status o f Economic Reform s in C ooper­
ation Partner C ountries in the m id- 1990s: O pportunities, C on­
straints, Security Im plications.’

C. DEFENCE E X P E N D IT U R E S !D E F E N C E B U D G E T S A N D
TH EIR R E L A T IO N S H IP W IT H T H E E C O N O M Y

Topic
1 Interrelationship between defence expenditures/budgets and the
economy.
Activities
1 Seminar on Legislative Oversight o f N ational Defence Budgets to be
held in an Allied country;
2 Enlarged Economic Com m ittee meetings, as agreed, on the economic
aspects of topics related to defence expenditures/defence budgets.

SC IE N C E

Topics
1 Participation o f C ooperation Partner scientists in N A TO science
programmes giving em phasis lo priority areas o f interest to N A TO
and Cooperation Partners;
2 Ways and means o f enhancing the output o f scientific cooperation
programmes.
Activities
1 Meeting o f the Science Com m ittee with counterparts from C ooper­
ation Partner countries at least once a year, including holding the
1995 regular annual m eeting o f the N A TO Science Com m ittee with
Cooperation Partners in Budapest;

251
 2 Participation o f scientists from Cooperation Partner countries in
Advanced Study Institutes (ASI) and Advanced Research Work­
shops (ARW ) as well as the holding o f such meetings in Cooperation
Partner countries;
3 Participation o f scientists from C ooperation Partner countries in the
Collaborative Research G rants, Linkage G rants and Science
Fellowships;
4 Sending proceedings, in hardcopy or computerized formal, of
N A T O ’s scientific meetings to a central library in each Cooperation
Partner country and dissem inating other literature on the Science
Program m e to scientists in C ooperation Partner countries;
5 Sponsoring visits o f experts to C ooperation Partner demonstration
projects and providing other assistance in initiating such projects;
6 Sponsoring visits o f experts from Cooperation Partner countries
invited by project directors in N A TO m em ber countries;
7 Assisting C ooperation Partners through the use o f NATO’s network
o f referees and experts;
8 Examining how com puter netw orks can facilitate contacts and pro­
m ote m ore effective cooperation am ong scientists through the use of
N etw orking Infrastructure G rants and N etworking Supplements to
Linkage G rants.

C H A LL E N G E S O F M O D E R N SO C IET Y (CCMS)

Topics
1 Defence-related and disarm am ent-related environmental issues;
2 Pilot studies o f interest to C ooperation Partners.
Activities
1 M eeting o f the Com m ittee on the Challenges of Modem Society
with counterparts from C ooperation P artner countries at least onœ
a year;
2 Participation o f C ooperation Partners’ experts in pilot study meet­
ings, w orkshops, conferences, seminars, and holding pilot study
m eetings in C ooperation Partner countries;
3 Dissem ination o f inform ation on CCM S pilot studies, workshops,
conferences and seminars, as well as approved reports lo Cooper­
ation Partners;
4 On-going pilot study topics to be pursued as agreed;
5 Active consideration o f new pilot study proposals made by either
N A TO or C ooperation Partner countries.

IN FO R M A TIO N
Topics
1 C ontribution to increased understanding o f NATO and its policies
and to a m ore informed debate on security matters;
2 E xploration o f m em bers’ expectations including public expectations
o f the inform ation program m e;

252
 3 Dissemination of information by electronic means.
Activities
1 Meetings o f the Com m ittee on Inform ation and C ultural Relations
(CICR) with C ooperation Partners;
2 Information about N A T O and its policies will be made available to
target audiences in C ooperation P artner countries, including selected
institutions and organisations, inter alia through embassies o f
NATO member countries serving as contact points and other diplo­
matic liaison channels;
3 Continue and further intensify inform ation-related cooperation with
institutions established by C ooperation P artner countries interested
and able to provide the necessary facilities, support personnel and
services;
4 Support the establishm ent o f new N A TO -related Inform ation Cen­
tres by Cooperation P artner countries within the context o f available
resources;
5 Visits to N A TO by target groups;
6 Sponsorship o f a num ber o f experts from C ooperation Partner
countries to attend security-related sem inars in Allied countries;
7 Co-sponsorship with C ooperation Partners o f sem inars/w orkshops
in Cooperation Partner countries;
8 Presentations by N A T O speakers in C ooperation P artner countries;
9 Democratic Institutions Fellowships (individual and institutional
support);
10 Increased dissem ination o f N A TO docum entation and inform ation
materials in languages o f C ooperation Partners.

PEA C EK EEPIN G

PFP Topics and Activities'

Topic
1 Cooperation in Peacekeeping (Conceptual, Planning and O pera­
tional) within the fram ework o fP M S C /A d Hoc G roup on C ooper­
ation in Peacekeeping.
Activities
I Development o f a com m on understanding o f operational concepts
and requirements for peacekeeping:
— to exchange views on concepts, term inology and national doc­
trines on peacekeeping, within the N A C C /P F P framework;
— to hold a sem inar on legal aspects o f peacekeeping in Spring
1995;
— to broaden and deepen contacts and cooperation with the United
Nations and CSCE on peacekeeping issues, and to encourage

'Topics and activities will be implemented according to guidelines set

out in the document NACC-D(94)3.

253
 exchanges o f inform ation on this subject with other concerned
bodies, such as the E uropean Com mission, and the Western
E uropean Union;
— civil-military interface: to be taken forw ard as an aspect of work
on hum anitarian aspects o f peacekeeping operations;
— public relations: a sem inar to be held during 1995.
2 C ooperation in planning for peacekeeping activities:
— com m and and control: discussion in the Technical Sub-Group
(TSG), reinforced by experts;
— cooperation in planning: further work to await developments in
other fora;
— identification o f assets: further work in the TSG at this stage
needs to await further developm ent o f the UN standby
arrangem ents.
3 Developm ent o f a com m on technical basis in peacekeeping:
— com m unications: support for expert group work lo develop a
concept o f com m unications and a feasibility study for a communi­
cations database;
— equipm ent implications: possible expert-level discussions of equip­
m ent requirem ents, including critical interoperability issues;
4 Peacekeeping training, education, and exercises:
— support for expert group w ork on peacekeeping course
repertoire;
— consideration by TSG o f P F P /N A C C jo in t exercise after-action
reports, and o f similar reports offered by nations concerning
relevant bilateral and m ultilateral exercises conducted in the
spirit o f PFP;
— consolidation and analysis o f lessons learned in all PFP-related
peacekeeping exercises.
5 Logistics aspects of peacekeeping:
— update the Com pendium o f Lessons Learned, based on national
inputs;
— briefings on the U N peacekeeping logistics manual and the new
SH A PE logistics course.

D E FE N C E PLA N N IN G ISSU E S AND M ILITA RY MATTERS

NACC
Topic
1 Air defence-related m atters, for aspects related to NACC.
A ctivity
1 Enlarged N A D C sessions to consult on air defence aspects of agreed
m utual interest.

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PFP Topics and A ctivities1
Topics
1 Defence planning and budgeting;
2 Defence policy/strategy/m ilitary doctrine;
3 The structure, organisation and roles o f Defence Ministries;
4 The structure and organisation o f the arm ed forces including com ­
mand structure;
5 Reserve forces and m obilisation;
6 Personnel issues;
7 Democratic control over the arm ed forces and prom otion of civil-
military relations in a dem ocratic society;
8 Legal framework for m ilitary forces;
9 Education and training:
— Language training.
— Military education and training.
— Training for crisis m anagem ent.
— Training on radio frequency managem ent.
— Training for environm ental issues.
10 Planning, organisation and m anagem ent o f national defence procure­
ment programmes:
— Governmental organisation for defence equipm ent procurem ent.
— Defence procurem ent planning systems and project m anagem ent
concepts.
— Contracting procedures and methods.
11 Command and control systems and procedures, including com m uni­
cations and inform ation systems and interoperability aspects.
12 Air Defence-related m atters:
— Air Defence concepts and terminology.
— Air emergency and cross-border air movements.
— Air Defence training concepts.
13 Standardisation and interoperability:
— Materiel and technical aspects o f standardisation and
interoperability.
— Procedures and in-service equipm ent in peacekeeping, search
and rescue, hum anitarian and other agreed exercises and
operations.
— Military medicine.
14 Logistic issues, in particular logistics aspects o f peacekeeping;
15 Crisis management;
16 Exercises in peacekeeping, search and rescue, hum anitarian opera­
tions, other exercises and related activities;
17 Cooperation in the field o f Arm s C ontrol and D isarm am ent;3
'PFP topics and activities are subject to further consideration in the
PFP context. Exercise term s and definitions used in the N A C C W ork
Plan may therefore differ from those used in Individual Partnership
Programmes.
’In the context of the Partnership W ork Program m e, only conceptual
issues referring to conventional arm s control are considered.

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18 Aerospace Research and Development;
19 Radio Spectrum M anagem ent:
20 C oordination of P FP M i l itary activities.
A c tiv itie s
I PFP exercises:
The overa l l goal o f training and exercises between NATO and
Partners is lo develop cooperative m ilitary relations in order lo
strengthen the abi l ity to carry out com bined missions in the field of
Peacekeeping.
Peacekeeping activities may include a range o f exercises, such as
M ap Exercises, Staff Exercises, Field T raining Exercises, Command
Post Exercises, Com m unications Exercises and Logistic Exercises,
Similar exercises should be organised in other fields such as Search
and Rescue. H um anitarian O perations, and other areas as may
subsequently be agreed.'
Exercises will be preceded as necessary by seminars, study periods
and workshops to ensure maximum training benefit from the exercise
itself. Exercises represent the capstone o f a comprehensive pro­
gramme and will be the final highlight to evaluate training and
interoperability in an operational environm ent.
The following exercises are proposed for 1995:
L a n d E x e rc ise s:
LI C E N T R A L E C LEC TIC - A CPX lo form HQs and conduct
peacekeeping operations based on outcom e of workshop (bat­
talion level exercise) scheduled for 16-20 October on Partner
territory.
L2 L A N D EX - FTX exercise peacekeeping and humanitarian aid
operations at platoon level, on Partner territory.
L3 C O O PE R A T IV E B R ID G E 95 a C P X /F T X for training and
exercising o f selected basic m ilitary peacekeeping skills and stafT
procedures at individual, platoon and com pany level for a
limited num ber of N A T O /P F P contingents participating in a
NA TO -led, regim ental/brigade sized task force. 18-30 June, on
Partner territory.
L4 L A N D EX (ESPERIA 1995) - land-based exercise dealing with
peacekeeping operations enhancing m ilitary interoperability.
com pany/platoon level. May 1995, T or Di Nebbia Range South­
ern Italy. (Requires further coordination with Major NATO
Com m anders.)
L5 A possible land-based exercise in continental US is under study
with a potential for SA CLA N T involvement.
M a r itim e E xe rc ise s:
M l 2 to 3 day N A T O /P F P sem inar-type logistic exercise (Coopera-
1 The following abbreviations are used: M ap Exercise (MPX); Field
Training Exercise (FTX); Com m and Post Exercise (CPX): Maritime
Exercise (M A REX ); Land Exercise (LA N D EX ): Peacekeeping (P):
H um anitarian (H); Search and Rescue (SAR).

256
 live S u pport 1995 COSUP 1995) lo be planned and conducted
by SACLANT. preferably prior to the first 1995 PFP m aritim e
livex. Locations to be determined.
M2 Naval Exercise in N orth N o rwegian waters. Barents Sea. under
the responsibility of SA CLA N T probably in Spring/Sum m er
1995.
M3 MAREX - a live exercise featuring basic training and exercise
of maritime surface and m aritim e air forc e s in peacekeeping
scenario. Septem ber , in the Baltic.
M4 MAREX - live exercise to exercise m aritim e em bargo opera­
tions in addition to a dem onstration o f N on-com batant Evacua­
tion Operation (NEO) could be provided. Black Sea.
M5 MAREX - Standing Naval Force M editerranean (SN FM ) exer­
cise SAR procedures and train for Passing Exercises (PASSEXs)
during port visit.
M6 MAREX (CLASSICA 1995) - an air/m aritim e exercise dealing
with peacekeeping operations including assistance, search and
rescue at sea. em bargo, in June/July 1995. Central East M editer­
ranean Sea (requires further coordination with MNCs).
Oilier E xercises'.
01 PCM 1995 - a Crisis M anagem ent Exercise (CM X) highlighting
briefings and discussion o f Crisis M anagem ent practices and
experience, as well as consultations on a hypothetical conflict
affecting N A CC and PFP countries and Allies. 25-27 Oclober.
al NATO HQ.
02 CPX A a Com m and Post Exercise (CPX) to exercise staffs in
NATO procedures for decision making process on military
action in a peacekeeping operation.
03 SHAPEX - a conference to determine the range o f missions
implied by peace support operations and identify the most
effective political and m ilitary contribution by NA TO and PFP
nations.
04 PFP Exercise - a conference/w orkshop lo familiarise with exer­
cise program m ing and planning process and coordinate ACE
PWP exercise activities for 1996/1997, in close coordination
with the Partnership C oordination Cell.
05 Invitation to N A C Sea Day.
06 BALTAP PFP EX ERCISE: PFP peacekeeping exercise 6- 12
October 1995. involving land, m aritim e and air forces. Zealand
group of Islands. Denm ark. (Requires further coordination with
MNCs.)
07 Other exercises and related activities: on a case-by-case basis,
appropriate phases of a num ber of exercises within the existing
NATO program m e may be opened lo PFP Partners; proposals
in this regard have been forwarded by the N M As and are under
consideration by the N A TO political authorities.
- Examples o f national exercises under PFP:
— In the course of 1995. SAR exercise with active participation of

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 o ne o r tw o P F P P a rtn e rs a n d / o r co m p leted by observers pro­
g ram m e accessible to o th e r A llies an d P artn ers conducted in
Belgium .
— In v ita tio n o f P F P observers a n d / o r p a rtic ip a n ts during the train­
ing o f B E L B A T for d ep lo y m en t in fo rm er Yugoslavia. The
exercise lasts ± I week (3 tim es a year). A ± 3 days visil plus
p resen tatio n s to be set up for observers by the Arm y Personnel
D ivision.
— In v ita tio n o f P F P o bservers to tra in in g o f B R IT B A T for deploy­
m en t in fo rm er Y ugoslavia an d P F P p a rtic ip a n ts in UK Uniled
N a tio n s M ilitary O bserver courses.
— R o m a n ia n m u ltin atio n al P F P F T X ‘C O N F ID E N C E 1995’, lo
be co n d u cted o n R o m a n ia n te rrito ry w ith the participation of
su b u n its (p la to o n level) from N A T O a n d P a rtn e r nations and
ob serv ers (S ep tem ber 1995). T o en h an ce th e interoperability and
th e cap ab ility o f actin g in co m m o n in th e fram ew ork of Peace
S u p p o rt O p eratio n s.
— R o m a n ia n m u ltin a tio n a l m aritim e P F P exercise ‘BLACK SEA
1995’. T o b e held in the R o m a n ia n te rrito ria l sea adjacent lo
M A N G A L IA h a rb o u r; Ju n e 1995; each p articip atin g stale with
a vessel ( N A T O /P a r tn e r n atio n s). T o establish compatible and
viable fo rm s o f c o o p e ra tio n reg ard in g th e m ain naval operations
in th e field o f P ,H ,S A R ; o b se rv er a c c o m m o d a tio n on-shore.
— B u lg arian m u ltin a tio n a l P F P m aritim e exercise, 1995, in the
Black Sea.
3 E xam ples o f n a tio n a l exercises w ithin th e spirit o f PFP:
— B A L T O P S 1995 (p h ase I): U S m aritim e exercises in June (by
in v itatio n ). Exercise p u rp o se is to en h an ce navy-to-navy conlacts,
c o o p e ra tio n , an d in tero p erab ility w ith N o rth e rn E uropean Allies
an d E astern E u ro p e a n B altic Sea litto ral stales. Activities include
se am an sh ip a n d sm all b o a t o p e ra tio n s, un d erw ay replenishment,
p erso n n el exchanges, m an o eu v rin g , S A R dem onstrations, medi­
cal exchanges, a n d at-sea rendez-vous.
— Q u a rte rly Black Sea Passex: M a ritim e exercise w ith navies of US,
R o m a n ia a n d B ulgaria. T h ree are envisaged. Activities include
p o rt calls, se am an sh ip an d m a n o eu v rin g , an d S A R practice.
— U S /U k ra in e P eacekeeping Exercise: B ilateral com m and post exer­
cise in th e U k rain e, w ith b rig ad e staffs an d below as well as a
co m p an y size u n it from b o th n a tio n s in the field. Planned for
A p ril-M ay 1995, the exercise will involve approxim ately 200-250
p erso n n el p er n atio n .
— M edical Exercises C e n tral a n d E astern E u ro p e (MEDCEUR):
P lan n ed fo r U S, A lb an ia a n d B ulgaria in th e first and second
q u a rte rs o f 1995. T hese events pro v id e jo in t medical and civic
actio n assistan ce to h o st-n a tio n m ilita ry an d civilian medical
p erso n n el. A ctivities include m ass casu alty , evacuation, and emer­
gency m edicine tra in in g a n d techniques, as well as medical,
d en tal, an d im m u n isatio n tre a tm e n t a t local facilities.
— R o m a n ia n T actical R iver E xercise ‘D A N U B E 1995’ (August

258
 1995). E ach p a rtic ip a tin g sta te ( N A T O /P a r tn e r N a tio n s) w ith 1
river vessel. T o im p rove c o o p e ra tio n fo r river o p e ra tio n s in th e
field o f P ,H ,S A R a n d /o r e m b arg o m o n ito rin g . A cco m m o d atio n
for o bservers (o n -sh ore).
4 Other m ilitary activities, including:
— C ourses at th e N A T O D efense C ollege, R o m e;4
— C ourses at th e N A T O S chool (S H A P E ), O b eram m erg au ;4
— N A T O T ra in in g G ro u p C ourses;
— V arious o th e r co u rses a t different locations;
— M e e tin g s/W o rk sh o p s/S e m in a rs/C o n fe re n c e s;
— M ilitary A gency for S ta n d a rd isa tio n (M A S ) W o rk in g P arty
Sem inars;
— A ctivities o f th e A dvisory G ro u p fo r A ero sp ace R esearch an d
D evelopm ent (A G A R D ), subject to political ap p ro v al.
5 Specific c o o p e ra tio n activities in the field o f defence p ro cu re m e n t
and sta n d ard izatio n will be ta k e n fo rw ard u n d e r th e auspices o f the
Conference o f N a tio n a l A rm a m e n ts D irecto rs (C N A D ) w ith the
aim of:
— P ro m o tin g tran sp a re n c y in defence p lan n in g a n d b u d g etin g
processes;
— S u p p o rtin g jo in t p lan n in g , tra in in g an d exercises in the fields o f
peacekeeping, search an d rescue an d h u m a n ita ria n o p eratio n s;
— D evelopm ent, o ver th e longer term , o f in tero p erab ility o f N A T O
and P a rtn e r arm ed forces.
These activities will in clude m u ltin atio n al ex p ert team s, technical
workshops, se m in a rs/sy m p o sia a n d special m eetings o f ex p ert g roups.
6 Specific c o o p e ra tio n activities to be developed u n d e r the d irectio n o f
the Senior N A T O L o gistics C onference (S N L C ) in the field o f
logistics (concepts a n d p ro ced u res), including m eetings, courses an d
exchanges o f in fo rm a tio n an d experience betw een logistic experts.
7 Under th e auspices o f the N A T O C o m m u n icatio n s an d In fo rm atio n
System C o m m ittee (N A C IS C ) specific activities will aim a t p ro m o t­
ing com m on u n d e rsta n d in g o f co n cep ts, policy an d p lan n in g , an d
cooperation to im p ro v e in tero p erab ility in the C o m m u n icatio n and
Inform ation S ystem s (C IS) area. T hese activities will co n sist o f jo in t
meetings, w o rk sh o p s, sem in ars an d expert talks.
8 Under the aegis o f the N A T O A ir D efence C om m ittee (N A D C ),
specific c o o p e ra tio n activities will e n d e a v o u r to ad d ress the com m on
understanding o f air defence concepts an d p h ilo so p h y in b ro ad
terms as well as a ir defence p lan n in g aspects in general. T hese
activities will co n sist o f o n e o r tw o w o rk sh o p s, possibly a sem inar
and group o f ex p erts sessions.
9 The N A T O E co n o m ic C o m m ittee to organise an activity aim ed at
prom oting tra n sp a re n c y o f defence b u d g e ts/e x p e n d itu re s, possibly
involving p ro ced u res fo r eco n o m ic analyses o f defence e x p en d itu re
data.

‘ Organisation o f these activities will ta k e in to acc o u n t agreed N A C C

implementation principles.

259
 C IV IL E M E R G E N C Y P L A N N IN G - H U M A N IT A R IA N
A S S IS T A N C E

NACC
Topic
1 O rg a n isa tio n , role a n d fu n ctio n o f Civil E m ergency Planning in
p rev en tin g an d re sp o n d in g lo em ergencies an d disasters, and aim,
p rin cip les an d p ro ced u res o f civil-m ilitary c o o p e ra tio n in pre-disaster
p rep ared n ess arra n g e m e n ts a n d in resp o n d in g to emergencies and
d isasters.
Activity
1 E n la rg ed m eetings o f th e S C E P C to exchange inform ation and
experience o n th e o rg an isatio n , role a n d function o f C E P in disaster
p rev en tio n and d isaster response, including civil-military
c o o p e ra tio n .
PFP Topics and Activities'
Topic
1 Civil E m ergency P rep aredness.
Activities
1 E x ch an g e o f in fo rm a tio n a n d expertise lo assist in the development
o f civil em ergency p rep ared n ess in cluding legislation and civil aspects
o f crisis m an ag em en t, d isa ster p rev en tio n an d disaster management
an d h u m a n ita ria n assistance.
2 U n d e r the a u th o rity o f th e S enior Civil E m ergency Planning Commit­
tee, activities will consist o f m eetings, sem inars, courses and ex­
c h an g es o f in fo rm a tio n a n d experiences.

A IR T R A F F IC M A N A G E M E N T

NACC
Topic
1 C iv il-m ilitary c o o rd in a tio n o f a ir traffic m anagem ent.
Activity
1 E n larg ed C E A C P len ary sessions an d , as required, subordinate
g ro u p m eetings to im prove civil-m ilitary c o o rd in a tio n o f the princi­
ples a n d p ractice o f a ir traffic m an ag em en t.
PFP Topics and Activities'
1 A ir traffic m an ag em en t co n tro l:
— C iv il-m ilitary airsp ace c o o rd in a tio n .
— M u ltin a tio n a l air exercise plan n in g .

5 P F P top ics an d activities a re subject to fu rth e r consideration in the

P F P co n tex t.

260
Activity
1 Under the sup erv isio n o f the C om m illee for E u ro p ean A irspacc C o ­
ordination (C E A C ). a sem inar, a w o rk sh o p an d jo in t experts m eet­
ings will ad d ress the challenges to the civil an d m ilitary c o o rd in a tio n
of air traffic m an ag em en t, possible technical c o lla b o ra tio n s an d the
means lo p ro m o te fu rth e r N A T O /P F P co m p atib ility in this field,
including train in g .

* * *

ANNEX
LIST OF SPE C IF IC IT EM S S U B S U M E D U N D E R AG REED
T O P IC S A N D ACTIVITIES

The Annex is co m p lem en tary to the W ork P lan a n d co n ta in s a list o f

specific and detailed p ro p o sa ls o f p a rtic u la r interest to on e o r several
Partners or Allies. T h ese are an e la b o ra tio n o f som e general topics an d
activities included in th e W o rk P lan for the a tte n tio n by relevant fora.
The Annex is n o t in ten d ed to be exhaustive o r com prehensive. It is
understood th at these p ro p o sals will be c arrie d o ut in h arm o n y w ith the
ongoing w ork in o th e r fo ra, including in the C S C E an d the C ouncil o f
Europe.

POLITICAL A N D SE C U R IT Y -R E L A T E D M A T TER S

I Possible su b -to p ics could include: ‘C onflicts an d issues arising from

ethnic and m in o rity pro b lem s affecting security in a ch anging
Europe'. (Topic !)'

E C O N O M IC IS S U E S
A . DEFENCE C O N V E R SIO N (IN C LU D IN G IT S H U M A N
D IM E N SIO N )
1 Sub-topic m ight include: "Problem o f th e h u m an facto r in the
defence con v ersio n process in regions e n d an g ered by unem p lo y ­
ment'. (Topic I)
2 Possible topics for discussion at th e enlarged E conom ic C om m ittee
might be:
— internal m ig ra tio n from D efence to o th e r sectors o f the econom y:
— intellectual p ro p e rty rig h ts in co n n ectio n w ith in d u stry re stru c tu r­
ing and defence co n version:
(Activity 4)
3 Possible topics fo r w o rk sh o p s /se m in a rs o n defence conversio n m ight
be:

'The topics an d activities show n in p aren th esis at the end o f each

paragraph refer lo th e lopics an d activities listed in the W o rk Plan.

261
 — In te rn a tio n a l se m in a r on ‘D em ilitarisatio n & Disarmament in
T ra n sitio n : S o cio -E co n o m ic C o n seq u en ces’, M insk, February
1995; P rin cip al sp o n s o r in B elarus: M in istry o f Economy;
— In te rn a tio n a l sem in ar on ‘D efence C o n v ersio n in East European
C o u n tries: P ro b le m s & P ro sp e c ts’, M insk, 1995; Principal spon­
so r in Belarus: M in istry o f D efence;
— S y m posium o n th e possibilities o f harm o n isin g conversion strate­
gies to be held in B udapest, H u n g a ry , in the second half of 1995;
— S em in ar o n p a rtn e rs h ip experiences o f conversion, to be held in
1995 in P o lan d .
(A ctivity 3)
4 Possible su b jects include:
— E x ch an g e o f experiences in co n v ersio n o f factories and scientific
cen tres o f D efence In d u strial Base (D IB );
— M eetin g o f ex p erts for exchange o f views and working out
p ro p o sa ls on co n v ersion.
( Topic 3)

S C IE N C E
1 P o ssib le them es fo r fu tu re discussion u n d e r priority areas of the
Science C o m m ittee m ight be:
— D isa rm a m e n t technologies: scientific p ro b lem s related to disarma­
m en t tech n o lo g ies in cluding th e disposal o f nuclear, biological
an d chem ical w eap o n s a n d defence in d u stry conversion;
— E n v iro n m en tal security: scientific p ro b lem s related to the environ­
m en t in clu d in g th e reclam atio n o f c o n ta m in a te d military sites,
regional en v iro n m en tal pro b lem s a n d n a tu ra l and man-made
d isasters;
— H ig h technology: scientific p ro b lem s related to high technology
in clu d in g in fo rm a tio n science, m aterials science, biotechnology
an d energy co n serv a tio n a n d su p p ly (non-nuclear);
— Science a n d tech nology policy: p ro b lem s related to human re­
so u rces inclu d in g science policy, technology transfer, innovation,
m an ag em en t, intellectual p ro p e rty rig h ts an d career mobility
(e.g. th e red ep lo y m en t o f defen ce-in d u stry scientists);
— C o m p u te r netw o rking: strategies to en h an ce the scientific dia­
logue b etw een N A T O co u n tries a n d C o o p e ra tio n Partner coun­
tries using c o m p u te r netw orking.
( Topic /)
2 Possible to p ics fo r A SI a n d A R W m eetings m ight include:
— In te rn a tio n a l sem in ar on ‘R o le o f In te rn a tio n a l Scientific Sl
T ech n ical C o o p e ra tio n in S u p p o rtin g the Development of
Science in M ed iu m & Sm all-Size E u ro p e a n C ountries’, Minsk,
1995; P rin cip al sp o n so r in B elarus: M inistry o f Education 4
Science.
(A ctivity 4)

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 CH A LL EN G E S O F M O D E R N SO C IE T Y (C C M S)
1 Pilot study top ics lo be p u rsu ed include:
— E nvironm ental asp ects o f reusing fo rm er m ilitary lands;
— Protecting civil p o p u la tio n s from toxic m aterial spills d u rin g
m ovem ents o f m ilitary goods;
— C ross-border en v iro n m en tal p ro b lem s e m a n a tin g from defence-
related in stallatio n s an d activities;
_ Defence en v i ro n m e n ta l expectations;
— M anagem ent o f in d u strial toxic w astes an d su b stan ce research;
— Air pollu tio n tra n s p o rt an d d iffusion o v er co a sta l u rb a n areas;
— Deprived u rb a n areas;
— E valuation o f d e m o n stra te d an d em erging rem edial actio n tech ­
nologies fo r th e tre a tm e n t o f c o n ta m in a te d lan d an d g ro u n d w ater;
— Indoor a ir q u ality (P h ase II);
— M ethodology, fo calisatio n , ev alu atio n an d scope o f the e n v iro n ­
mental im p act assessm ent;
— New ag ricu ltu ral technologies;
— Pollution p rev en tio n strateg ies for su stain ab le developm ent;
— Use o f sim u lato rs as a m eans o f reducing en v iro n m en tal d am ag e
caused by m ilita ry activities.
(Activity 4)
I Possible new pilo t stu d y to p ics include th e follow ing:
— Seismic p ro tectio n o f in stallatio n s th a t are high risk as sources
of radioactive, chem ical an d bacteriological c o n ta m in a tio n as a
result o f fires, floods, explosions, etc.;
— Seismic p ro te c tio n o f buildings an d in stallatio n s su p p o rtin g vital
services such as m edical, w ater, a n d energy su p p ly system s;
— Environm ental c o n sid eratio n s in th e re stru c tu rin g o f econom ic
and defence activities;
— Prevention, sim u latio n an d m an ag em en t o f n u clear accidents
resulting from e a rth q u a k e s in general o r accid en tal c o o lan t loss
in particular;
— T reatm ent o f n av al b ase o il-c o n ta m in a te d w astew ater;
— Defence-related c o m m u n ic a tio n an d tra n s p o rt system s.
(Activity 5)

IN F O R M A T IO N
1 The following possible topics for co -sp o n so red sem in ars w ould be
forwarded to th e a p p ro p ria te N A T O bodies fo r co n sid eratio n a c c o rd ­
ing to agreed p rocedures:
— Seminar on R o m a n ia n -H u n g a ria n experiences in im plem enting
the O pen Skies b ilateral ag reem en t to ta k e place in R o m a n ia in
1995;
— Seminar o n ‘th e N a tio n a l S ecurity Policy o f R o m a n ia w ithin the
present E u ro p ean a n d regional geo -strateg ic e n v iro n m e n t’;
— International se m in a r T e rr o r is m & O rg an ised C rim e: N ew
Threats lo In te rn a tio n a l & N a tio n a l S ecurity’, M insk, A pril

263
 1995; P rin cip al sp o n so r in B elarus: D evelopm ent & Security
R esearch In stitu te;
— In te rn a tio n a l S em inar ‘F o rm a tio n o f Civil Society in Post-Totali­
ta ria n C o u n trie s & P ro b lem s o f D em o cratic C ontrol of Armed
F o rc e s’, M in sk , 1995, principal sp o n so r in Belarus: National
In stitu te o f H u m an ities.
(Activity 7)

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 APPENDIX XI
PARTN ERSHIP FOR PEACE
INVITATION
Issued by the Heads o f State and Government
participating in the Meeting o f the North Atlantic
Council held at N A T O Headquarters,
Brussels on 10-11 January 1994

We, the H ead s o f S ta te a n d G o v e rn m e n t o f th e m em b er co u n tries o f

the North A tla n tic A llian ce, b u ild in g o n th e close a n d lo n g stan d in g
partnership am o n g th e N o r th A m erican a n d E u ro p e a n Allies, a re
committed to en h a n c in g security a n d sta b ility in th e w hole o f E urope.
We therefore w ish to stre n g th e n ties w ith th e d e m o c ra tic sta te s to o u r
East. We reaffirm th a t th e A lliance, as p ro v id ed fo r in A rticle 10 o f the
Washington T re a ty , rem ain s o p e n to th e m em b ersh ip o f o th e r E u ro p e a n
slates in a p o sitio n to fu rth e r th e prin cip les o f th e T re a ty a n d to
contribute to th e se cu rity o f th e N o rth A tla n tic are a . W e expect an d
would welcome N A T O ex p an sio n th a t w ould reach to dem o cratic
stales to o u r E ast, a s p a r t o f a n e v o lu tio n a ry process, ta k in g in to
account political a n d secu rity d ev elo p m en ts in th e w hole o f E urope.
We have to d a y la u n c h e d a n im m ed iate an d p ractical p ro g ra m m e th a t
will transform th e re la tio n sh ip betw een N A T O a n d p a rtic ip a tin g states.
This new p ro g ram m e goes bey o n d d ia lo g u e a n d c o o p e ra tio n to forge a
real partnership - a P a rtn e rs h ip fo r P eace. W e th e re fo re invite th e o th er
states particip atin g in th e N A C C a n d o th e r C S C E co u n tries able an d
willing to c o n trib u te to th is p ro g ra m m e , to jo in w ith us in th is p a r t­
nership. A ctive p a rtic ip a tio n in th e P a rtn e rs h ip fo r P eace will play
an im portant role in th e e v o lu tio n a ry process o f the ex p an sio n o f
NATO.
The P artn ersh ip fo r P eace, w hich will o p e ra te u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f
Ihe North A tlan tic C o u n c il, will forge new security relatio n sh ip s be­
tween the N o rth A tla n tic A lliance a n d its P a rtn e rs for Peace. P a rtn e r
stales will be invited by th e N o r th A tla n tic C o u n c il lo p a rtic ip a te in
political and m ilitary b o d ies a t N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs w ith respect to
Partnership activities. T h e P a rtn e rs h ip will ex p a n d a n d intensify political
and military c o o p e ra tio n th ro u g h o u t E u ro p e , increase sta b ility , dim inish
threats lo peace, a n d b u ild stre n g th e n e d relatio n sh ip s by p ro m o tin g the
spirit of practical c o o p e ra tio n a n d co m m itm en t to d em o cratic principles
that underpin o u r A llian ce. N A T O will c o n su lt w ith an y active p artici­
pant in the P a rtn e rsh ip if th a t p a rtn e r perceives a direct th re a t to its
territorial integrity, po litical in d ep en d en ce, o r security. A t a pace an d
scope determ ined by th e cap ac ity a n d desire o f th e ind iv id u al p a rtic ip a t­
ing stales, we will w o rk in co n crete w ays to w a rd s tra n sp a re n c y in
defence budgeting, p ro m o tin g d e m o c ra tic c o n tro l o f defence m inistries,
joint planning, jo in t m ilita ry exercises, a n d c re a tin g a n ability to o p erate

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w ith N A T O forces in such fields as p eacekeeping, search and rescue
a n d h u m a n ita ria n o p e ra tio n s, a n d o th e rs as m ay be agreed.
T o p ro m o te closer m ilita ry c o o p e ra tio n a n d interoperability, we will
p ro p o se, w ithin th e P a rtn e rs h ip fram ew o rk , peacekeeping field exercises
b eg in n in g in 1994. T o c o o rd in a te jo in t m ilita ry activities within the
P artn ersh ip , we will invite sla te s p a rtic ip a tin g in the P artnership to send
p e rm an en t liaison officers to N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs a n d a separate
P a rtn e rsh ip C o o rd in a tio n Cell a t M o n s (B elgium ) lh a t would, under
th e a u th o rity o f th e N o r th A tla n tic C o u n c il, c a rry o u t the military
p lan n in g necessary to im plem ent th e P a rtn e rs h ip program m es.
Since its in cep tio n tw o years ag o , th e N o r th A tlan tic Cooperation
C o u n cil h as g reatly ex p an d ed th e d e p th an d scope o f its activities. We
will co n tin u e to w o rk w ith all o u r N A C C p a rtn e rs to build cooperative
relatio n sh ip s acro ss th e en tire sp e ctru m o f th e A llian ce’s activities. With
th e ex p an sio n o f N A C C activities an d th e e s tab lish m en t o f the Partner­
sh ip fo r P eace, we h av e decided to o ffer p e rm a n e n t facilities at NATO
H e a d q u a rte rs fo r p erso n n el from N A C C co u n trie s a n d other Partner­
sh ip fo r P eace p a rtic ip a n ts in o rd e r to im p ro v e o u r w orking relation­
sh ip s a n d facilitate clo ser c o o p e ra tio n .

PARTNERSHIP FOR PEACE

FRAMEWORK DOCUM ENT

1. F u rth e r to th e in v itatio n ex ten d ed by the N A T O H eads of Stale

an d G o v e rn m e n t a t th e ir m eetin g on 10-11 Ja n u a ry 1994, the member
sta te s o f th e N o rth A tla n tic A lliance a n d th e o th e r sta te s subscribing to
th is d o cu m en t, resolved to d eep en th e ir political a n d m ilitary ties and to
c o n trib u te fu rth e r to th e stre n g th e n in g o f security w ithin the Euro-
A tla n tic area, h ereb y estab lish , w ithin th e fram ew o rk o f the North
A tla n tic C o o p e ra tio n C o u n cil, th is P a rtn e rs h ip fo r Peace.
2. T h is P a rtn e rsh ip is estab lish ed as a n ex p ressio n o f a jo in t conviction
th a t stab ility a n d secu rity in th e E u ro -A tla n tic a re a can be achieved only
th ro u g h c o o p e ra tio n an d c o m m o n actio n . P ro te c tio n a n d promotion of
fu n d a m e n ta l freed o m s a n d h u m a n rights, a n d safeg u a rd in g o f freedom,
ju stice, a n d peace th ro u g h d em o cracy are sh a re d values fundamental lo
th e P a rtn ersh ip . In jo in in g the P a rtn e rs h ip , th e m em b er States of the
N o r th A tlan tic A llian ce a n d th e o th e r S tates su b scrib in g to this Docu­
m en t recall th a t th ey a re c o m m itte d lo th e p re se rv a tio n o f democratic
societies, th eir freed o m fro m co ercio n a n d in tim id a tio n , a n d the mainten­
an ce o f th e p rin cip les o f in te rn a tio n a l law . T h ey reaffirm their commit­
m en t to fulfil in g o o d faith th e o b lig a tio n s o f th e C h a rte r o f the United
N a tio n s a n d th e p rin cip les o f the U n iv ersal D e c la ra tio n on Human
R ig h ts; specifically, to refrain fro m th e th re a t o r use o f force against the
te rrito ria l in teg rity o r p o litical in d ep en d en ce o f an y State, to respect
existing b o rd e rs a n d to settle d isp u tes by peaceful m eans. They also
reaffirm th eir co m m itm e n t to th e H elsinki F in a l A ct an d all subsequent
C S C E d o cu m en ts an d to th e fulfilm ent o f th e co m m itm en ts and obliga­
tio n s th ey have u n d e rta k e n in th e field o f d isa rm a m e n t an d arm s control.

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3. The o th er sta te s su b scrib in g to this d o c u m en t will c o o p e ra te w ith the
North A tlan tic T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n in p u rsu in g the Following
objectives:
(a) facilitation o f tra n sp a re n c y in n a tio n a l defence p lan n in g a n d b u d g et­
ing processes;
(b) ensuring d e m o c ra tic c o n tro l o f defence forces;
(c) m aintenance o f th e cap ab ility a n d readiness to c o n trib u te , subject
to co n stitu tio n al c o n sid e ra tio n s, to o p e ra tio n s u n d e r th e a u th o rity
of the U N a n d / o r th e responsibility o f th e C S C E ;
(d) Ihe dev elo p m en t o f co o p e ra tiv e m ilitary relatio n s w ith N A T O , for
the p u rp o se o f jo in t p lan n in g , train in g , a n d exercises in o rd e r to
strengthen th eir ab ility to u n d e rta k e m issions in th e fields o f peace­
keeping, search a n d rescue, h u m a n ita ria n o p e ra tio n s, an d o th e rs as
may subseq u en tly b e agreed;
(e) the d evelopm ent, o v er th e lo n g er term , o f forces th a t are b e tte r able
to operate w ith th o se o f the m em bers o f the N o rth A tlan tic
Alliance.
4. The o th er su b scrib in g sta te s will p ro v id e to the N A T O A u th o rities
Presentation D o cu m en ts identifying the steps they will ta k e to achieve
the political g o als o f th e P a rtn e rs h ip a n d the m ilitary an d o th e r assets
that might be used fo r P a rtn e rs h ip activities. N A T O will p ro p o se a
programme o f P a rtn e rs h ip exercises an d o th e r activities co n sisten t w ith
the Partnership’s objectives. B ased on th is p ro g ra m m e a n d its P re sen ta­
tion D ocum ent, each su b scrib in g sta te will develop w ith N A T O an
individual P a rtn e rsh ip P ro g ra m m e .
5. In p rep arin g a n d im p lem en tin g th eir ind iv id u al P a rtn e rsh ip P ro ­
grammes, o th er su b scrib in g sta te s m ay, a t th eir ow n expense a n d in
agreement w ith th e A llian ce an d , as necessary, relevant Belgian a u th o ri­
ties, establish th eir ow n liaison office w ith N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs in
Brussels. T his will facilita te th eir p a rtic ip a tio n in N A C C /P a rtn e rs h ip
meetings an d activities, a s well as certain o th e rs by in v itatio n . T h ey will
also make av ailab le p erso n n el, assets, facilities a n d capabilities necessary
and ap pro p riate fo r carry in g o u t th e ag reed P a rtn e rsh ip P rog ram m e.
NATO will assist th em , as a p p ro p ria te , in fo rm u latin g a n d executing
their individual P a rtn e rs h ip P ro g ram m es.
6. The o th er su b scrib in g sta te s accept the follow ing u n d erstandings:
— those w ho en v isag e p a rtic ip a tio n in m issions referred to in p a ra g ra p h
3(d) will, w here a p p ro p ria te , tak e p a rt in related N A T O exercises;
— they will fu n d th eir ow n p a rtic ip a tio n in P a rtn e rs h ip activities, an d
will en d eav o u r o th erw ise to sh a re th e b u rd e n s o f m o u n tin g exercises
in which they ta k e p art;
— they m ay send, a fte r a p p ro p ria te ag reem en t, p e rm a n e n t liaison
officers to a se p a ra te P a rtn e rs h ip C o o rd in a tio n Cell a t M o n s
(Belgium) th a t w o u ld , u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f the N o r th A tlan tic
Council, carry o u t th e m ilita ry p la n n in g necessary to im plem ent th e
Partnership p ro g ram m es;
— those p articip atin g in p la n n in g a n d m ilitary exercises will have
access to certain N A T O technical d a ta relevant to intero p erab ility ;

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— b u ild in g u p o n th e C S C E m easures on defence planning, the other
su b scrib in g sta te s an d N A T O c o u n trie s will exchange information
o n th e step s th a t have been ta k e n o r a re being taken lo promote
tra n sp a re n c y in defence p la n n in g a n d b u d g etin g an d lo ensure the
d em o cratic c o n tro l o f arm ed forces;
— th ey m ay p a rtic ip a te in a reciprocal exchange o f information on
d efence p la n n in g an d b u d g etin g w hich will be developed wilhin the
fram ew o rk o f th e N A C C /P a rtn e rs h ip for Peace.
7. In k eeping w ith th eir co m m itm en t to th e objectives o f this Partner­
sh ip fo r Peace, th e m em b ers o f the N o r th A tlan tic A lliance will:
— d ev elo p w ith th e o th e r su b scrib in g sta te s a planning and review
p ro cess lo p ro v id e a basis for identifying a n d evaluating forces and
cap ab ilities th a t m ig ht be available by them fo r m ultinational train­
ing, exercises, a n d o p e ra tio n s in c o n ju n c tio n w ith Alliance forces;
— p ro m o te m ilitary a n d political c o o rd in a tio n a t N A T O Headq uarters
in o rd e r to p ro v id e d irectio n a n d guid an ce relevant to Partnership
activities w ith th e o th e r su b scrib in g states, including planning, train­
ing, exercises a n d th e dev elo p m en t o f d octrine.
8. N A T O will co n su lt w ith an y active p a rtic ip a n t in the Partnership if
th a t P a rtn e r perceives a direct th re a t to its territo rial integrity, political
in d ep en d en ce, o r security.

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 A P P E N D IX XII
DECLAR ATION OF THE HEADS OF STATE AND
GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATING IN THE
MEETING OF THE NORTH ATL ANTIC COUNCIL
HELD AT NATO HEADQUARTERS, BRUSSELS,
O N 10-11 J ANUARY 1994
1. We, the H e a d s o f S la te a n d G o v e rn m e n t o f th e m em b er co u n tries
of the N o rth A tla n tic A lliance, h av e g a th e re d in B russels to renew o u r
Alliance in light o f th e h isto ric tra n s fo rm a tio n s affectin g th e en tire
continent o f E u ro p e. W e w elcom e th e new clim ate o f c o o p e ra tio n th a t
has emerged in E u ro p e w ith th e en d o f th e p e rio d o f g lobal c o n fro n ta ­
tion em bodied in th e C o ld W a r. H o w ev er, w e m u st also n o te th a t o th e r
causes o f in stab ility , te n sio n a n d conflict h av e em erged. W e th erefo re
confirm the e n d u rin g v alid ity a n d in d isp en sab ility o f o u r A lliance. It is
based on a stro n g tra n s a tla n tic link, th e ex p ressio n o f a sh a re d destiny.
It reflects a E u ro p e a n S ecu rity a n d D efence Id e n tity g ra d u a lly em erging
as (he expression o f a m a tu re E u ro p e . I t is reach in g o u t to estab lish new
patterns o f c o o p e ra tio n th ro u g h o u t E u ro p e . I t rests, a s also reflected in
Article 2 o f th e W a s h in g to n T re a ty , u p o n close c o lla b o ra tio n in all
fields.
Building o n o u r d ecisio n s in L o n d o n a n d R o m e a n d on o u r new
Strategic C o n cep t, w e a re u n d e rta k in g in itiativ es designed to c o n trib u te
lo lasting peace, sta b ility , a n d w ell-being in th e w hole o f E u ro p e, w hich
has always been o u r A llian ce’s fu n d a m e n ta l goal. W e h ave agreed:
— to adapt fu rth e r th e A llian ce’s political a n d m ilitary stru c tu re s to
reflect b o th th e full sp e ctru m o f its roles a n d th e develo p m en t o f the
emerging E u ro p e a n S ecurity a n d D efence Id en tity , a n d en d o rse the
concept o f C o m b in e d Jo in t T a sk F orces;
— lo reaffirm th a t th e A lliance rem ain s o p en to th e m em b ersh ip o f
other E u ro p ean co u n tries;
— to launch a m a jo r in itiativ e th ro u g h a P a rtn e rs h ip fo r P eace, in
which we invite P a rtn e rs to jo in us in new political a n d m ilitary
efforts to w o rk alo n g sid e th e A lliance;
— lo intensify o u r effo rts a g ain st the p ro life ra tio n o f w eapons o f m ass
destruction an d th e ir m ean s o f delivery.
2. We reaffirm o u r stro n g co m m itm e n t to th e tra n sa tla n tic link,
which is the b ed ro ck o f N A T O . T h e c o n tin u e d su b stan tial presence o f
United States forces in E u ro p e is a fu n d am en tally im p o rta n t aspect o f
that link. All o u r co u n trie s wish to c o n tin u e th e direct involvem ent o f
the United S tates a n d C a n a d a in th e security o f E u ro p e. W e n o te th a t
this is also th e expressed w ish o f th e new dem ocracies o f the E ast,
which see in th e tra n sa tla n tic link an irrep laceab le pledge o f security
and stability fo r E u ro p e as a w hole. T h e fuller in teg ratio n o f the
countries o f C e n tra l a n d E astern E u ro p e an d o f th e form er Soviet

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U n io n in to a E u ro p e w hole a n d free c a n n o t be successful without the
s tro n g a n d active p a rtic ip a tio n o f all A llies on b o th sides of the
A tlan tic.
3. T o d ay , we confirm a n d renew this link betw een N o rth America
a n d a E u ro p e dev elo p in g a C o m m o n F o reig n a n d Security Policy and
ta k in g o n g reater resp o nsibility on defence m atters. W e welcome the
e n try in to force o f th e T re a ty o f M a a stric h t an d the launching of
the E u ro p ean U n io n , w hich will stren g th en the E u ro p ean pillar of the
A lliance an d allow it to m ake a m o re c o h e re n t contributio n to the
security o f all th e Allies. W e reaffirm th a t th e A lliance is the essential
fo ru m fo r c o n su lta tio n a m o n g its m em bers a n d the venue for agreement
o n policies b earin g o n th e security an d defence com m itm ents of Allies
u n d er th e W ash in g to n T reaty .
4. W e give o u r full su p p o rt to th e d ev elo p m en t o f a European
S ecurity a n d D efence Id en tity w hich, as called for in the Maastricht
T re a ty , in the longer term perspective o f a co m m o n defence policy
w ithin th e E u ro p ean U n io n , m ight in tim e lead to a com m on defence
co m p atib le w ith th a t o f th e A tlan tic A lliance. T h e emergence of a
E u ro p e a n S ecurity a n d D efence Id e n tity will stren g th en the European
p illar o f th e A lliance w hile reinforcing the tra n sa tla n tic link and will
en ab le E u ro p ean A llies to la k e g re a te r responsibility fo r their common
security a n d defence. T h e A lliance a n d the E u ro p e a n Union share
c o m m o n strateg ic interests.
5. W e su p p o rt stren g th en in g th e E u ro p e a n p illar o f the Alliance
th ro u g h th e W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n , w hich is being developed as the
defence c o m p o n e n t o f th e E u ro p e a n U n io n . T h e A lliance’s organisation
a n d reso u rces will be ad ju ste d so a s to facilita te this. W e welcome the
close an d g row ing c o o p e ra tio n betw een N A T O a n d th e W E U that has
been achieved o n th e basis o f agreed principles o f com plem entarity and
tran sp aren cy . In fu tu re contingencies, N A T O a n d the W E U will consult,
in cluding as n ecessary th ro u g h jo in t C o u n cil m eetings, on how to
ad d ress such contingencies.
6. W e th erefo re sta n d ready to m ak e collective assets o f the Alliance
av ailab le, o n th e basis o f c o n su lta tio n s in th e N o rth A tlantic Council,
fo r W E U o p e ra tio n s u n d e rta k e n by the E u ro p e a n A llies in pursuit of
th eir C o m m o n F o reig n an d S ecurity Policy. W e su p p o rt the develop­
m en t o f se p ara b le b u t n o t se p a ra te capab ilities w hich could respond lo
E u ro p e a n req u irem en ts a n d c o n trib u te to A lliance security. Better Euro­
p ean c o o rd in a tio n a n d p la n n in g will also stren g th en the European
p illar an d th e A lliance itself. In te g ra te d a n d m u ltin atio n al European
stru ctu res, as th ey a re fu rth e r developed in th e co n tex t o f an emerging
E u ro p ean S ecurity a n d D efence Id en tity , will also increasingly have a
sim ilarly im p o rta n t role to play in en h an cin g the A llies’ ability to work
to g eth er in th e co m m o n defence an d o th e r tasks.
7. In p u rsu it o f o u r co m m o n tra n s a tla n tic security requirements,
N A T O increasingly will be called u p o n to u n d e rta k e m issions in addi­
tio n to th e tra d itio n a l a n d fu n d a m e n ta l task o f collective defence of its
m em bers, w hich rem ain s a co re fu n ctio n . W e reaffirm ou r olTer to
su p p o rt, o n a case by case basis in acco rd a n c e w ith o u r own procedures,

270
peacekeeping a n d o th e r o p e ra tio n s u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f the U N
Security C o uncil o r th e resp o n sib ility o f th e C S C E , in cluding by m ak in g
available A lliance reso u rces a n d expertise. P a rtic ip a tio n in an y such
operation o r m ission will rem ain su b ject to decisions o f m em b er sta te s
in accordance w ith n a tio n a l c o n stitu tio n s.
8. A gainst th is b a c k g ro u n d , N A T O m u st c o n tin u e the a d a p ta tio n o f
its com m and a n d force s tru c tu re in line w ith req u irem en ts fo r flexible
and timely resp o n ses c o n ta in e d in the A llian ce’s S tra te g ic C o n c ep t. W e
also will need to stre n g th e n th e E u ro p e a n p illar o f the A lliance by
facilitating th e use o f o u r m ilita ry capab ilities fo r N A T O an d
E uropean/W E U o p e ra tio n s, a n d assist p a rtic ip a tio n o f n o n -N A T O
partners in jo in t p eacek eep in g o p e ra tio n s a n d o th e r contingencies as
envisaged u n d er th e P a rtn e rs h ip fo r Peace.
9. T herefore, we d ire c t th e N o r th A tla n tic C ouncil in P erm an en t
Session, w ith th e ad v ice o f th e N A T O M ilitary A u th o ritie s, to exam ine
how the A llian ce’s p o litical a n d m ilita ry stru c tu re s a n d p ro ced u res
might be d eveloped a n d a d a p te d to c o n d u c t m o re efficiently a n d flexibly
the Alliance’s m issio n s, in clu d in g peacekeeping, as well as to im prove
cooperation w ith th e W E U a n d to reflect th e em erg in g E u ro p e a n
Security an d D efence Id en tity . A s p a r t o f th is process, we en d o rse the
concept o f C o m b in ed J o in t T a sk F o rc e s as a m ean s to facilitate c o n tin ­
gency o p eratio n s, in clu d in g o p e ra tio n s w ith p a rtic ip a tin g n a tio n s o u t­
side the A lliance. W e h av e d irected th e N o r th A tla n tic C o u n cil, w ith
the advice o f th e N A T O M ilitary A u th o ritie s, to develop this co n cep t
and establish th e n ecessary cap ab ilities. T h e C o u n c il, w ith the advice o f
Ihe N A TO M ilitary A u th o ritie s, a n d in c o o rd in a tio n w ith th e W E U ,
will work o n im p le m e n ta tio n in a m a n n e r th a t p rovides se p ara b le b ut
not separate m ilitary cap ab ilities th a t co u ld be em ployed by N A T O or
the WEU. T h e N o rth A tla n tic C o u n c il in P e rm a n e n t Session will re p o rt
on the im p lem en tatio n o f these decisions to M in isters a t th e ir next
regular m eeting in Ju n e 1994.
10. O ur ow n secu rity is in se p a ra b ly linked to th a t o f all o th e r sta te s
in Europe. T h e c o n s o lid a tio n a n d p re se rv a tio n th ro u g h o u t th e c o n tin e n t
of dem ocratic societies a n d th eir freed o m fro m an y form o f coercion o r
intimidation are th e re fo re o f direct a n d m a te ria l co n cern to us, as they
are to all o th e r C S C E sta te s u n d e r th e co m m itm e n ts o f the H elsinki
Final Act an d th e C h a rte r o f P aris. W e rem ain deeply co m m itted to
further stren g th en in g th e C S C E , w hich is the only o rg a n isa tio n co m p ris­
ing all E u ro p ean a n d N o r th A m erican co u n tries, as a n in stru m en t o f
preventive d ip lo m acy , conflict p rev en tio n , c o o p e ra tiv e security, a n d the
advancement o f d em o cracy an d h u m an rights. W e actively su p p o rt the
efforts to en h an ce th e o p e ra tio n a l cap ab ilities o f th e C S C E fo r early
warning, conflict p re v e n tio n , a n d crisis m an ag em en t.
11. As p a rt o f o u r o v erall effo rt to p ro m o te preventive d ip lo m acy , we
welcome the E u ro p e a n U n io n p ro p o sa l fo r a P act o n S tability in
Europe, will c o n trib u te to its e la b o ra tio n , a n d look fo rw ard to the
opening conference w hich will ta k e place in P aris in th e S pring.
12. Building o n th e close a n d lo n g -stan d in g p a rtn e rs h ip am o n g the
North A m erican a n d E u ro p e a n A llies, we a re co m m itted to en h an cin g

27 1
security an d stab ility in the w hole o f E u ro p e . W e therefore wish to
stren g th en ties w ith th e d em o cratic sta te s to o u r E ast. W e reaffirm Ihal
th e A lliance, as p ro v id ed fo r in A rticle 10 o f th e W ashington Treaty,
rem ain s o p en to m em b ersh ip o f o th e r E u ro p e a n sta te s in a position to
fu rth e r th e p rinciples o f the T re a ty a n d to c o n trib u te to the security of
th e N o rth A tla n tic area. W e expect an d w o u ld w elcom e N A T O expan­
sio n th a t w o uld reach to d em o cratic sta te s to o u r E a st, as part of an
ev o lu tio n ary process, ta k in g in to acc o u n t political an d security develop­
m en ts in th e w hole o f E u rope.
13. W e have decided to lau n ch a n im m ed iate an d p ractical programme
th a t will tra n sfo rm th e re la tio n sh ip betw een N A T O a n d participating
states. T h is new p ro g ra m m e goes bey o n d d ialo g u e an d cooperation to
forge a real p a rtn e rsh ip - a P a rtn e rs h ip fo r P eace. W e invite the other
sta te s p a rtic ip a tin g in th e N A C C , a n d o th e r C S C E countries able and
w illing to c o n trib u te to th is p ro g ram m e, to jo in w ith us in this Partner­
ship. A ctive p a rtic ip a tio n in th e P a rtn e rs h ip fo r P eace will play an
im p o rta n t role in th e ev o lu tio n ary process o f the ex p an sio n o f NATO.
14. T h e P a rtn e rsh ip fo r Peace, w hich will o p e ra te u n d e r the authority
o f th e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil, will forge new security relationships
betw een th e N o rth A tla n tic A lliance a n d its P a rtn e rs fo r Peace. Partner
sta te s will be invited by the N o r th A tla n tic C o u n c il to participate in
po litical an d m ilita ry bodies a t N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs w ith respect to
P a rtn ersh ip activities. T h e P a rtn e rs h ip will e x p a n d a n d intensify political
an d m ilitary c o o p e ra tio n th ro u g h o u t E u ro p e , increase stability, diminish
th re a ts to peace, an d b u ild stren g th en ed relatio n sh ip s by promoting Ihe
sp irit o f p ractical c o o p e ra tio n an d co m m itm en t to dem ocratic principles
th a t u n d erp in o u r A lliance. N A T O will co n su lt w ith an y active partici­
p a n t in th e P a rtn ersh ip if th a t p a rtn e r perceives a direct threat to its
te rrito ria l in teg rity , po litical independence, o r security. A t a pace and
scope d eterm in ed by th e cap ac ity a n d desire o f th e individual participat­
ing slates, we will w o rk in co n crete w ays to w a rd s transparency in
defence b u d g etin g , p ro m o tin g d em o cratic c o n tro l o f defence ministries,
jo in t p lan n in g , jo in t m ilitary exercises, a n d c re a tin g a n ability to operate
w ith N A T O forces in such fields as p eacekeeping, search and rescue
an d h u m a n ita ria n o p e ra tio n s, an d o th e rs as m ay be agreed.
15. T o p ro m o te closer m ilita ry c o o p e ra tio n an d interoperability, we
will p ro p o se, w ith in th e P a rtn e rs h ip fram ew o rk , peacekeeping field
exercises b eg in n in g in 1994. T o c o o rd in a te jo in t m ilitary activities
w ithin th e P artn ersh ip , we will invite sta te s p a rtic ip a tin g in the Partner­
sh ip to send p e rm an en t liaison officers to N A T O H eadquarters and a
se p ara te P a rtn e rsh ip C o o rd in a tio n Cell a t M o n s (B elgium ) th at would,
u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f the N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil, carry out the
m ilitary p lan n in g n ecessary to im plem ent the P a rtn e rs h ip programmes.
16. Since its in cep tio n tw o years ag o , th e N o rth A tlan tic Cooperation
C o u n cil h as g reatly ex p an d ed th e d e p th an d scope o f its activities. We
will co n tin u e to w o rk w ith all o u r N A C C p a rtn e rs to build cooperative
relatio n sh ip s acro ss th e en tire sp e ctru m o f th e A lliance’s activities. With
th e ex p an sio n o f N A C C activities an d th e estab lish m en t o f the Partner­
sh ip fo r Peace, we have decided to o ffer p e rm a n e n t facilities at NATO

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Headquarters fo r p erso n n el from N A C C co u n trie s a n d o th e r P a rtn e r­
ship for P eace p a rtic ip a n ts in o rd e r to im p ro v e o u r w o rk in g re latio n ­
ships and facilitate clo ser c o o p e ra tio n .
17. P ro liferatio n o f w eap o n s o f m ass d e stru c tio n an d th eir delivery
means co n stitu tes a th re a t to in te rn a tio n a l security a n d is a m a tte r o f
concern to N A T O . W e h av e d ecid ed to intensify an d ex p an d N A T O ’s
political an d defence efTorts a g a in st p ro life ra tio n , ta k in g in to a c c o u n t
the work alread y u n d erw ay in o th e r in te rn a tio n a l fo ra a n d in stitu tio n s.
In this regard, we d irect th a t w o rk begin im m ediately in a p p ro p ria te
fora o f the A llian ce to d ev elo p a n o v erall policy fram ew o rk to co n sid er
how to rein fo rce o n g o in g p re v en tio n efTorts a n d h o w to reduce the
proliferation th re a t a n d p ro te c t a g a in st it.
18. W e a tta c h cru cial im p o rta n c e to th e full a n d tim ely im p lem en ta­
tion of existing a rm s c o n tro l a n d d isa rm a m e n t ag reem en ts a s well as to
achieving fu rth e r p ro g re ss o n key issues o f arm s c o n tro l a n d d isa rm a ­
ment, such as:
— the indefinite a n d u n c o n d itio n a l ex tension o f th e T re a ty o n N o n ­
Proliferation o f N u c le a r W eap o n s, a n d w o rk to w a rd s a n en h an ce d
verification regim e;
— the early e n try in to fo rce o f th e C o n v e n tio n o n C hem ical W eap o n s
and new m easu res to stre n g th e n th e B iological W eap o n s
Convention;
— the n eg o tiatio n o f a u niversal a n d verifiable C o m p reh en siv e T est
Ban T reaty;
— issues o n th e ag e n d a o f th e C S C E F o ru m fo r S ecurity C o o p e ra tio n ;
— ensuring th e in teg rity o f th e C F E T re a ty a n d full co m p lian ce w ith
all its p rovisions.
19. W e co n d em n all a c ts o f in te rn a tio n a l terro rism . T h ey c o n stitu te
flagrant v io latio n s o f h u m a n dig n ity a n d rig h ts a n d are a th re a t to the
conduct o f n o rm a l in te rn a tio n a l relatio n s. In a cco rd an ce w ith o u r
national legislation, w e stress th e need fo r th e m o st effective c o o p e ra tio n
possible to p rev en t a n d su p p ress th is scourge.
20. We reaffirm o u r su p p o rt fo r political a n d eco n o m ic refo rm in
Russia an d w elcom e th e a d o p tio n o f a new c o n s titu tio n a n d the h o ld in g
of dem ocratic p a rlia m e n ta ry electio n s by th e people o f th e R u ssian
Federation. T h is is a m a jo r step fo rw a rd in th e estab lish m en t o f a
framework fo r th e d ev elo p m en t o f d u ra b le d e m o c ra tic in stitu tio n s. W e
further w elcom e th e R u s sia n g o v e rn m e n t’s firm co m m itm en t to d e m o ­
cratic and m a rk e t refo rm a n d to a refo rm ist foreign policy. T hese are
important fo r secu rity a n d sta b ility in E u ro p e. W e believe th a t an
independent, d e m o c ra tic , sta b le a n d n u clear-w eap o n s-free U k ra in e
would likewise c o n trib u te to security a n d sta b ility . W e will c o n tin u e to
encourage an d su p p o rt th e refo rm processes in b o th co u n trie s a n d to
develop c o o p e ra tio n w ith th em , a s w ith o th e r c o u n trie s in C e n tra l an d
Eastern E urope.
21. T he situ a tio n in S o u th e rn C a u c a su s co n tin u e s to be o f special
concern. W e co n d e m n th e use o f force fo r te rrito ria l gains. R espect fo r
the territorial in teg rity , in d ep en d en ce a n d so vereignty o f A rm en ia,

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A zerb aijan a n d G eo rg ia is essential to the establishm ent o f peace,
stab ility a n d c o o p e ra tio n in th e region. W e call u p o n all states t o join
in te rn a tio n a l effo rts u n d er the aegis o f th e U n ited N ations and the
C S C E aim ed at so lving existing problem s.
22. W e re ite ra te o u r co n v ictio n th a t security in E urope is greatly
alTected by security in th e M e d ite rra n e a n . W e stro n g ly welcome the
ag reem en ts recently co n clu d ed in th e M id d le E ast peace process which
offer a n h isto ric o p p o rtu n ity fo r a peaceful a n d lastin g settlem ent in the
area. T h is m u ch -aw aited b re a k th ro u g h h as h a d a positive impact on the
overall situ a tio n in th e M e d ite rra n e a n , th u s o p en in g th e way to consider
m easu res to p ro m o te d ialo g u e, u n d e rsta n d in g a n d confidence-building
betw een th e co u n tries in the region. W e direct th e C ouncil in Permanent
Session to c o n tin u e to review the overall situ a tio n , a n d we encourage all
effo rts co n d u civ e to stre n g th e n in g regional stability.
23. A s m em b ers o f th e A lliance, we d e p lo re the co n tin u in g conflict in
th e fo rm er Y u g o slav ia. W e c o n tin u e to believe th a t the conflict in
B osnia m u st b e settled at th e n e g o tiatin g ta b le a n d n o t on the battlefield.
O n ly th e p arties can b rin g peace to th e fo rm e r Y ugoslavia. Only they
can agree to lay d o w n th e ir arm s an d en d th e violence which for these
m an y m o n th s h as o nly served to d e m o n s tra te th a t n o side can prevail in
its p u rsu it o f m ilita ry v ictory.
24. W e are u n ited in su p p o rtin g th e e ffo rts o f th e U n ited Nations and
th e E u ro p e a n U n io n to secure a n e g o tia te d settlem en t o f the conflict in
B osnia, ag reeab le to all p arties, a n d w e c o m m e n d th e European Union
A ctio n P lan o f 22 N o v em b er 1993 to secure such a negotiated settle­
m en t. W e reaffirm o u r d e te rm in a tio n to c o n trib u te to the implementa­
tio n o f a viab le settlem en t reach ed in g o o d faith. W e commend the
fro n t-lin e sta te s fo r th e ir key role in en fo rc in g sa n ctio n s against those
w h o c o n tin u e to p ro m o te violence a n d aggression. W e welcome the
c o o p e ra tio n b etw een N A T O a n d the W E U in m aintaining sanctions
en fo rc em en t in th e A d riatic.
25. W e d en o u n ce th e v io latio n s by the p a rtie s o f the agreements they
h av e alread y signed to im p lem en t a ceasefire a n d to perm it the unim­
ped ed delivery o f h u m a n ita ria n assista n ce to th e victim s o f this terrible
conflict. T h is situ a tio n c a n n o t be to le ra te d . W e urge all the parties to
respect th eir ag reem en ts. W e are d e te rm in e d lo elim inate obstacles to
th e acco m p lish m en t o f th e U N P R O F O R m a n d a te . W e will continue
o p e ra tio n s to en fo rce th e N o -F ly Z o n e o v er B osnia. W e call for the full
im p lem en tatio n o f th e U N S C R e so lu tio n s reg ard in g th e reinforcement
o f U N P R O F O R . W e reaffirm o u r read in ess, u n d e r the authority of the
U n ite d N a tio n s S ecu rity C o u n c il a n d in a cco rd an ce with the Alliance
d ecisions o f 2 a n d 9 A u g u st 1993, to c arry o u t a ir strikes in order to
p rev en t th e s tra n g u la tio n o f S arajev o , th e safe are a s an d other threat­
ened areas in B o sn ia-H erzeg o v in a. In th is c o n te x t, we urge the UN PRO­
F O R a u th o ritie s to d ra w u p u rg en tly p la n s to en su re th at the blocked
ro ta tio n o f th e U N P R O F O R c o n tin g e n t in S rebrenica can take place
a n d to ex am in e h o w th e a irp o rt a t T u zla ca n be op en ed for humanitar­
ian relief p u rp o ses.
26. T h e p ast five years have b r o u g h t h isto ric o p p o rtu n ities as well as

274
new uncertainties a n d in stabilities to E u ro p e. O u r A lliance h as m oved
lo adapt itself to th e new circum stances, an d to d a y we have tak en
decisions in key areas. W e h ave given o u r full su p p o rt to th e d ev elo p ­
ment of a E u ro p ean S ecurity an d D efence Identity. W e h ave endorsed
the concept o f C o m b in ed Jo in t T a sk F o rces as a m ean s to a d a p t the
Alliance to its fu tu re tasks. W e h ave o pened a new perspective o f
progressively closer relatio n sh ip s w ith th e c o u n trie s o f C e n tral an d
Eastern Europe a n d o f th e fo rm er Soviet U n io n . In d o in g all this, we
have renewed o u r A llian ce as a jo in t e n d e a v o u r o f a N o rth A m erica
and Europe p erm an en tly co m m itted to th eir co m m o n a n d indivisible
security. The challenges we face are m an y a n d serious. T h e decisions we
have taken today will b e tte r en ab le us to m eet them .

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 A P P E N D I X XI I I
KEY ARMS CONTR OL TREATIES AND
AGREEMENTS
(1963-1994)

The following is a chronology o f k ey arms control treaties and agree­

ments which are most relevant to NA TO member states and Cooperation
Partners.
1963 Partial T est Ban Treaty (PT B T )
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer
Space and Under Water. P arties to th e T re a ty agree to co n d u ct
nuclear w eap o n s tests, o r an y o th e r n u clear explosion, only u n d er­
ground. Signed 5 A u g u st 1963; en tered in to force 10 O cto b er
1963.
1967 Outer Space Treaty
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities o f States in the
Exploration o f Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies. P ro h ib its p lacing in o rb it a ro u n d th e E a rth , installing on
the m oon o r an y o th e r celestial b ody, o r otherw ise sta tio n in g in
outer space, n u clear o r o th e r w eap o n s o f m ass d estru ctio n . Signed
27 Ja n u ary 1967; en tered in to force 10 O c to b e r 1967.
1968 Non-Proliferation Treaty (N PT )
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation o f Nuclear Weapons. D esigned to
prevent the sp read o f n u clear w eapons, while p ro m o tin g the
peaceful uses o f n u clear energy. T h e re a re 179 states p arty to
the T reaty. O p en ed fo r sig n a tu re on 1 July 1968; en tered in to force
5 M arch 1970. O rig inally o f 25 years d u ra tio n , the T re a ty w as
extended by co n sen su s u n co n d itio n ally a n d indefinitely in M ay
1995.
1971 Seabed Treaty
Treaty on the Prohibition o f the Emplacement o f Nuclear Weapons
and other Weapons o f Mass Destruction on the Seabed and the
Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof. Signed 11 F e b ru a ry 1971;
entered into force 18 M ay 1972.
1972 Biological W eapons Convention (BW C)
Convention on the Prohibition o f the Development, Production and
Stockpiling o f Bacteriological (biological) and Toxin Weapons and
on Their Destruction. P arties to the C o n v e n tio n u n d e rta k e n o t to
develop, p ro d u ce, stockpile, o r acq u ire biological ag en ts o r toxins
“o f types an d in q u a n titie s th a t have n o justificatio n fo r p ro p h y la c ­
tic, protective, an d o th e r peaceful p u rp o se s” , as well as related
weapons an d m ean s o f delivery. S igned 10 A pril 1972; entered
into force 26 M a rc h 1975.

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1972 SALT I Interim Agreement
Interim Agreement Between the USA and U SSR on Certain Meas­
ures with Respect to the Limitation o f Strategic Offensive Arms.
F reezes ex isting ag g reg ate levels o f A m erican an d Soviet strategic
n u clear m issile lau n ch ers an d su b m a rin es until an agreement on
m o re co m p reh en sive m easures can be reached. Signed 26 May
1972; en tered in to force 3 O c to b e r 1972.
1972 ABM Treaty
Treaty Between the USA and U SSR on the Limitation of Anti-
Ballistic Missile Systems. L im its d ep lo y m en t o f U S and Soviet ABM
system s. Signed 26 M ay 1972; en tered in to force 3 O ctober 1972.
(A P ro to c o l o n th e L im itatio n o f A nti-B allistic Missile Systems,
fu rth er lim iting each P a rty to a single A B M system deployment
are a w as signed o n 3 July 1974; en tered in to force 24 May 1976.)
1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT)
Treaty Between the USA and U SSR on the Limitation o f Under­
ground Nuclear Weapons Tests. P ro h ib its underground nuclear
w eap o n s tests o f m o re th a n 150 k ilo to n s. Signed 3 July 1974;
en tered in to force 11 D ecem b er 1990.
1975 H elsinki Final Act
Concluding Document o f the Conference on Security and Cooper­
ation in Europe (CSCE). Signed by 35 n atio n s, it provides, inter
alia, fo r n o tificatio n o f m a jo r m ilitary m anoeuvres involving
m o re th a n 25,000 tro o p s a n d o th e r confidence-building measures.
Signed a n d en tered in to force 1 A u g u st 1975.
1976 Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (P N E T )
Treaty Between the USA and U SSR on Underground Nuclear
Explosions fo r Peaceful Purposes. L im its an y individual nuclear
ex p lo sio n carried o u t by the p arties o u tsid e U S an d Soviet weap­
o n s test sites to 150 k ilo to n s. Signed 28 M ay 1976; entered into
force 11 D ecem b er 1990.
1977 E N M O D Convention
Convention on the Prohibition o f M ilitary or Any Other Hoslih
Use o f Environmental Modification Techniques. Prohibits the hos­
tile use o f certain en v iro n m en tal m odification techniques having
w id esp read , lo n g -lasting a n d severe effects. Signed 18 May 1977;
en tered in to force 5 O c t o b e r 1978.
1979 SA L T II Treaty
Treaty Between the USA and U SSR on the Limitation o f Strategic
Offensive Arms. R eplaces the S A L T I In terim Agreement. Signed
18 Ju n e 1979; th e T re a ty never en tered in to force and w as super­
seded by S T A R T I in 1991.

278
1981 Inhumane W eapons Convention
Convention on the Prohibition or Restrictions on the Use o f Certain
Conventional Weapons Which M ay Be Deemed to Be Excessively
Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects. Signed by 35 states, it
includes th ree p ro to co ls. Signed 10 A pril 1981; en tered in to force
2 D ecem ber 1983.
1986 Stockholm Document
Document o f the Stockholm Conference on Confidence and
Security-Building Measures (C SB M s) and Disarmament in Europe.
C ontains a set o f six co n crete a n d m u tu ally com p lem en tary
CSBMS, in clu d in g m a n d a to ry g ro u n d o r aerial inspection o f
m ilitary activities, th a t im prove u p o n th o se c o n ta in e d in the
Helsinki F in al A ct. A d o p te d 19 S ep tem b er 1986; en tered into
force 1 Ja n u a ry 1987.
1987 INF Treaty
Treaty Between the United Stales o f America and the U SSR on
the Elimination o f Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range
Missiles. E lim in ates a n d b a n s all (U S a n d Soviet) g ro u n d -
launched b allistic an d cruise m issiles w ith a range cap ab ility o f
between 300 a n d 3,400 m iles (500 an d 5,500 km s). Signed 8
December 1987; en tered in to force 1 Ju n e 1988. F ully im ple­
mented 1 Ju n e 1991.
1990 Vienna Document 1990
Vienna Document 1990 o f the Negotiations on Confidence and
Security-Building Measures Convened in Accordance with the Rel­
evant Provisions o f the Concluding Document o f the Vienna Meeting
of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In c o rp o ­
rates S to ck h o lm D o c u m e n t o f 1986, a d d in g m easures related to
transparency o n m ilitary forces an d activities, im proved c o m m u n i­
cations an d c o n tacts, an d verification. A d o p te d 17 N o v em b er
1990; entered in to force I Ja n u a ry 1991. S u b seq u en tly subsum ed
by the V ienna D o cu m en t 1992.
1990 CFE Treaty
Treaty on Conventional A rm ed Forces in Europe. Sets ceilings from
the A tlantic to th e U rals on key a rm a m e n ts essential for c o n d u c t­
ing surprise a tta c k a n d in itiatin g large scale offensive op eratio n s.
Signed by th e 22 N A T O a n d W arsaw P act sta le s 19 N o v em b er
1990 ; applied p ro v isio n ally as o f 17 July 1992. E n tered in to force
9 N ovem ber 1992. T o be im plem ented w ithin 40 m o n th s o f entry
into force.
Final Document o f the Extraordinary Conference o f the States
Parlies to the Treaty on Conventional Arm ed Forces in Europe
(Oslo Final Document). E n ab les im p lem en tatio n o f th e C F E T re a ty
in the new in te rn a tio n a l situ a tio n follow ing th e disso lu tio n o f the
Warsaw P act a n d th e Soviet U n io n . N o tes the 15 M ay 1992
Agreement in T a sh k e n t a m o n g the successor states o f the U S S R

279
 w ith te rrito ry w ithin the area o f ap p licatio n o f th e C F E Treaty,
ap p o rtio n in g a m o n g them the o b lig atio n s a n d rig h ts o f the USSR,
m ak in g th em p arlies lo the T reaty . S igned an d entered into force
5 Ju n e 1992.

1991 S T A R T I
Treaty Between the USA and the U SSR on the Reduction and
Limitation o f Strategic Offensive Arms. E stablishes significantly
reduced lim its fo r in te rc o n tin e n ta l ballistic m issiles an d their associ­
ated lau n ch ers a n d w arh ead s; su b m a rin e-lau n ch ed ballistic missile
lau n ch ers an d w arh ead s; an d heavy b o m b ers an d th eir armaments
inclu d in g lo n g -ran g e n u clear air-lau n ch e d cruise missiles. Signed
31 Ju ly 1991; E n te red in to force on 5 D ecem ber 1994.
Protocol to the Treaty Between the USA and the USSR on the
Reduction and Limitation o f Strategic Offensive Arms (Lisbon
S T A R T Protocol o f 28 M ay 1992). E nables im plem entation of the
S T A R T I T re a ty in the new in te rn a tio n a l situ atio n following the
d isso lu tio n o f th e Soviet U n io n . T h e p ro to co l constitutes an
am en d m en t to an d is an integral p a r t o f th e S T A R T Treaty and
pro v id es fo r R u ssia, B elarus, U k ra in e , a n d K a z a k h sta n to succeed
to th e Soviet U n io n ’s o b lig atio n s u n d e r th e T reaty . Also, Belarus,
K a z a k h sta n an d U k rain e co m m it them selves lo accede to the
N u c le a r N o n -P ro life ra tio n T re a ty (N P T ) a s non-nuclear weapons
sta le s in th e sh o rtest possible tim e. In accom panying letters they
co m m it them selves to elim in ate all n u clear w eap o n s from their terri­
to ry w ithin seven years. B elarus acceded to the N P T in July 1993,
K a z a k h sta n in F e b ru a ry 1994, an d U k rain e in D ecem ber 1994.

1991 U N Register o f Conventional Arms Transfers

In tro d u c e s g reater o p enness an d sim plifies m o n ito rin g of excessive
arm s b u ild -u p in an y o n e co u n try . T h e R egister requests all
p a rtic ip a tin g sta te s to record th eir im p o rts an d exports of certain
m a jo r w eap o n s system s an d to su b m it this inform ation by 30
A pril o f th e follow ing year. C re a te d by a resolution of the UN
G en eral A ssem bly on 10 D ecem b er 1991; m em bers were called on
lo su b m it th eir in fo rm atio n beg in n in g 30 A pril 1993. (To dale,
m o re th a n 60 c o u n trie s have p rovided in fo rm atio n .)

1992 Vienna Document 1992

Vienna Document 1992 o f the Negotiations on Confidence and
Security-Building Measures Convened in Accordance with the Rel­
evant Provisions o f the Concluding Document on the Vienna Meet­
ing o f the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
In c o rp o ra te s th e V ienna D o cu m en t 1990, ad d in g further measure
related to tra n sp a re n c y reg ard in g m ilitary forccs and activities,
an d c o n stra in ts o n m ilitary activities. E x p an d s the zone of applica­
tio n fo r C S B M s to include the te rrito ry o f U S S R successor states
w hich w ere b ey o n d the tra d itio n a l zone in E urope (i.e. all of
K a z a k h sta n , K y rg y zstan , T a jik ista n , T u rk m en ista n and Uz­
bek istan ). A d o p te d 4 M a rch 1992; en tered in to force 1 May 1992.

280
1992 Treaty on Open Skies
Com m its m em b er n a tio n s in E u rasia a n d N o rth A m erica to open
their airspace, o n a recip ro cal basis, p erm ittin g the overflight o f
their territo ry by u n a rm e d o b se rv atio n a irc ra ft in o rd e r to
strengthen confidence an d tra n sp a re n c y w ith respect to th eir m ili­
tary activities. Signed an d applied p ro visionally 24 M a rch 1992;
will enter in to force a fte r 20 sta te s h ave d eposited in stru m en ts o f
ratification.

1992 CFE 1A
Concluding A ct o f the Negotiations on Personnel Strength o f Con­
ventional A rm ed Forces in Europe. C F E sta te s p arties declare
national lim its o n th e p erso n n el stren g th o f th eir co n v en tio n al
armed forces in th e A tlan tic to the U rals area. Signed 10 July
1992; entered in to force 17 July 1992. T o be im plem ented w ithin 40
months o f en try in to force.

1993 Chemical W eapons Convention (CW C)

Convention on the Prohibition o f the Development, Production,
Stockpiling and Use o f Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruc­
tion. A n agreem en t d ra fte d by th e 39 n a tio n s o f th e C o nference
on D isarm am en t to b a n chem ical w eap o n s w orldw ide. O pened
for signature in P aris on 13 Ja n u a ry 1993 (to d a le , it h as been
signed by m o re th a n 150 n atio n s). It will e n ter in to force 180 days
after d eposit o f th e 6 5th in stru m en t o f ratificatio n , b u t n o earlier
than 13 Ja n u a ry 1995.

1993 START II
Treaty between the United States o f America and the Russian
Federation on Further Reduction and Limitation o f Strategic Of­
fensive Arms. F u rth e r reduces U S an d R u ssian strateg ic offen­
sive arm s by elim in atin g all M IR V ed IC B M s (including all
'heavy' IC B M s) a n d reducing th e overall to ta l o f w arh ead s for
each side to b etw een 3,000 a n d 3,500. Signed 3 Ja n u a ry 1993;
will en ter in to force follow ing ratificatio n by the U S an d
Russia an d a fte r e n try in to force o f th e S T A R T I T re a ty o f
1991.'

1994 Trilateral Nuclear Agreement

Trilateral Statem ent by the Presidents o f the US, Russia and
Ukraine. D etails th e p ro ced u res to tra n sfe r U k ra in ia n n u clear
warheads to R u ssia a n d asso ciated co m p en satio n a n d security
assurances. Sets o u t sim u ltan eo u s actio n s to tra n sfe r SS-19 an d

' A number o f b ilateral safety, security a n d d isa rm a m e n t agreem ents

have been entered in to betw een N A T O m em b er sta te s a n d th e succes­
sor stales to th e Soviet U n io n w ith n u clear w eapons on th eir te rrito ry
(Belarus, K aza k h stan , R u ssia, U k rain e) to facilitate the safe storage,
removal o r d estru ctio n o f nu clear w eap o n s u n d e r th e term s o f relevant
arms control ag reem en ts (S T A R T I an d II a n d the N P T ).

281
SS-24 w arh ead s from U k ra in e lo R u ssia for dism antling and lo
p ro v id e co m p en satio n lo U k ra in e in the form o f fuel assemblies
for n u clear p o w er sta tio n s, as well as security ass u rances lo
U k rain e, o n ce S T A R T I en ters in to force an d U kraine becomes a
n o n -n u clear w eap o n sta le p arty to the N u c le a r Non-Proliferation
T re a ty (N P T ). Signed in M oscow , 14 Ja n u a ry 1994.

282
 APPENDIX XIV
ABBREVIATIONS IN COMMON USE1

ABM
Anli-Ballistic M issile (T reaty 1972)
ACCHAN
Allied C om m and C h an n el

ACE
Allied C om m and E u ro p e
ACLANT
Allied C om m and A tlan tic
ACCS
Air Com m and an d C o n tro l System
ADP
Automated D ata P rocessing
AEW
Airborne Early W arn in g
AFCENT
Allied Forces C e n tral E u ro p e
AFNORTH
Allied Forces N o rth e rn E u ro p e
AFNORTHW EST
Allied Forces N o rth W est E urope
AFSOUTH
Allied Forces S o u th ern E u ro p e
AIRCENT
Allied Air Forces C e n tra l E u ro p e
AIRNORTHW EST
Allied Air Forces N o rth W estern E u ro p e
AGARD
Advisory G ro u p Tor A ero space R esearch an d D evelopm ent
AMF
ACE Mobile F orce

'This list includes acro n y m s o f new ly established com m ittees an d

groups and a b b rev iatio n s for o th e r expressions w hich are in frequent
use. However , all acro n y m s used w ithin N A T O are n ot necessarily
included.

283
APAG
A tla n tic Policy A d v iso ry G ro u p
ARFPS
A C E R e actio n F o rc es P lan n in g S taff

ARRC
A C E R a p id R eactio n C o rp s
ASW
A n ti-S u b m arin e W a rfa re
ATA
A tla n tic T re a ty A sso ciation
AW ACS
A irb o rn e W a rn in g a n d C o n tro l System

BALTAP
A llied F o rc es B altic A p p ro ach es
BM EW S
B allistic M issile E arly W a rn in g System
BTW C
Biological an d T o x in W eap o n s C o n v e n tio n (1972)

CA PS
C o n v e n tio n a l A rm am en ts P lan n in g System
CAS
C lo se A ir S u p p o rt
CBM
C o n fid en ce B uilding M e asu re
CCMS
C o m m ittee o n th e C h allenges o f M o d e m Society
CDE
C o n feren ce o n S ecurity an d C onfidence B uilding M easures and Disarma­
m e n t in E u ro p e
CEAC
C o m m itte e fo r E u ro p e a n A irsp ace C o o rd in a tio n
CEDP
C o m m o n E u ro p e a n D efence Policy
CEE
C e n tra l a n d E astern E u ro p e
CENTAG
C e n tra l A rm y G ro u p , C e n tra l E u ro p e
CEOA
C e n tra l E u ro p e O p e ra tin g A gency

284
CEP
Civil Emergency P lan n in g

CEPS
Central E u ro p e P ipeline System

CFE
Conventional A rm ed F o rc es in E u ro p e (T reaty 1990)

CFE 1A
Concluding A ct o f th e N e g o tia tio n s on P ersonnel S tre n g th o f th e C o n v e n ­
tional A i.iied F o rces in E u ro p e T re a ty (1992)

CFSP
Common F oreign a n d S ecurity Policy

CHANCOM
Channel C o m m ittee

CIS
Commonwealth o f In d e p e n d e n t S tates

CIS
Communications a n d In fo rm a tio n System s

CJTF
Combined Jo in t T a sk F o rc e

CNAD
Conference o f N a tio n a l A rm am en ts D irecto rs

COMEDS
Committee o f th e C hiefs o f M ilitary M edical Services in N A T O

CONMAROPS
Concept o f M a ritim e O p e ra tio n s
CPC
Conflict P revention C e n tre
CPX
Command P o st Exercise
CSBM
Confidence an d S ecu rity -B uilding M easure
CSCE
Conference on S ecurity an d C o o p e ra tio n in E u ro p e (as o f Ja n u a ry
1995, renam ed O rg a n isa tio n fo r S ecurity a n d C o o p e ra tio n in E u ro p e
(OSCE))
CST
Conventional S tab ility T a lk s
CUSRPG
Canada-US R eg io n al P lan n in g G ro u p

285
cwc
C h em ical W eap o n s C o n v e n tio n (1993)
DCA
D u a l-C a p a b le A irc raft

DGP
S en io r D efence G r o u p o n P ro liferatio n
D PC
D efence P lan n in g C o m m ittee
DRC
D efence R eview C o m m ittee

EC
E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ity
ECCM
E lectro n ic C o u n te r-C o u n te rm e a su re s
ECM
E lectro n ic C o u n term easu res
EFA
E u ro p e a n F ig h ter A ircra ft
EM P
E le ctro -M ag n e tic Pulse
ESA
E u ro p e a n S pace A gency
ESD I
E u ro p e a n S ecurity an d D efence Id en tity
EU
E u ro p e a n U nio n
EUROGROUP
A cro n y m used fo r in fo rm al G ro u p o f N A T O E u ro p ean Defence Minis­
ters (dissolved 1993)
EW
E lectro n ic W a rfa re
EW G
E xecutive W o rk in g G ro u p
FSU
F o rm e r Soviet U n io n
GNW
G r o u p o n N u c le a r W eap o n s
HLG
H igh Level G ro u p

286
HLTF
High Level T ask F orce

IATA
International A ir T ra n s p o rt A ssociation
ICAO
Internationa l Civil A v iatio n O rg an isatio n

ICB
International C o m p etitiv e B idding
ICBM
Intercontinental B allistic M issile
IEPG
Independent E u ro p e a n P ro g ram m e G ro u p
IISS
International In stitu te fo r S trateg ic S tudies
IMS
International M ilitary StalT
INF
Interm ediate-Range N u c le a r F o rc es (T reaty , 1987)
IPP
Individual P a rtn e rsh ip P ro g ra m m e (P F P )
IRF
Immediate R e actio n F orces
JCP
Joint C om m ittee on P ro liferatio n
LANDCENT
Allied L and F o rces C e n tra l E u ro p e
LANDSOUTH
Allied L and F o rces S o u th ern E u ro p e
LANDSOUTH CEN T
Allied L and F o rc es S o u th C e n tra l E u ro p e
LA N D SO U TH EA ST
Allied L and F o rces S o u th E astern E u ro p e
LCC
Logistics C o o rd in a tio n C e n tre
MAREQ
Military A ssistance R e q u irem en t
MAS
Military A gency fo r S ta n d a rd iz a tio n
MBFR
Mutual and B alanced F o rc e R e d u ctio n s

287
MC
M ilitary C o m m ittee

MCM
M in e C o u n term easu res

MCMG
M ilitary C o m m ittee M e teo ro lo g ical G ro u p

M IL R E P
M ilitary R ep resen tativ e (to th e M C )

MNC
M a jo r N A T O C o m m a n d /M a jo r N A T O C o m m a n d e r

MOD
M in istry o f D efence

MOU
M e m o ra n d u m o f U n d e rsta n d in g

M SC
M a jo r S u b o rd in a te C o m m a n d /M a jo r S u b o rd in a te C om m ander

NAA
N o r th A tla n tic A ssem bly

NAC
N o rth A tla n tic C o uncil

NACC
N o r th A tla n tic C o o p e ra tio n C ouncil

N A C IS A
N A T O C o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d In fo rm a tio n S ystem s A gency

NACMA
N A T O A ir C o m m a n d an d C o n tro l System M a n a g e m e n t Agency

NADC
N A T O A ir D efence C o m m ittee

N A D EFCOL
N A T O D efence C ollege

NAEW F
N A T O A irb o rn e E arly W a rn in g F orces

NAHEM A
N A T O H elico p ter (N H 9 0 ) D esign, D ev elo p m en t, P ro d u c tio n and Logis­
tics M a n ag em en t A gency

N A M FI
N A T O M issile F irin g In sta lla tio n

288
NAMMA
NATO M u lli-R o le C o m b a t A irc ra ft D ev elo p m en t an d P ro d u c tio n M a n ­
agement A gency

NAMMO
NATO M u lti-R o le C o m b a t A ircra ft D ev elo p m en t an d P ro d u c tio n M a n ­
agement O rg an isatio n

NAMSA
NATO M a in te n an ce a n d S upply A gency

NAMSO
NATO M a in te n an ce an d S upply O rg an isatio n

NAPMA
NATO A irb o rn e E arly W arn in g a n d C o n tro l (A E W & C ) P ro g ram m e
Management A gency

NAPMO
NATO A irb o rn e E arly W a rn in g an d C o n tro l P ro g ram m e M a n ag em en t
Organisation
NAPR
NATO A rm am en ts P lan n in g Review
NATO
North A tlantic T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n
NA V N O RTH W EST
Allied N aval F o rces N o rth w e ste rn E u ro p e
NAVSOUTH
Allied N aval F o rces S o u th ern E u ro p e
NCCIS
NATO C o m m an d , C o n tro l a n d In fo rm a tio n System
NEFMA
NATO E u ro p ean F ig h ter A ircra ft D evelopm ent, P ro d u c tio n a n d L ogis­
tics M anagem ent A gency
NEFMO
NATO E u ro p ean F ig h te r A ircra ft (E F A ) D evelopm ent, P ro d u c tio n
and Logistics M a n ag em en t O rg an isatio n
NEWAC
NATO E lectronic W a rfa re A dvisory C o m m ittee
NHMO
NATO H A W K M a n ag em en t Office
NHPLO
NATO H A W K P ro d u c tio n an d L ogistics O rg an isatio n
NIAG
NATO In d u strial A d v iso ry G ro u p

289
N IC S
N A T O In te g ra te d C o m m u n ic a tio n s an d In fo rm a tio n System
NMR
N a tio n a l M ilitary R ep resen tativ e (lo S H A P E )
NORAD
N o r th A m erican A ir D efence System
N PG
N u clear P lan n in g G ro u p
N PLO
N A T O P ro d u c tio n an d L ogistics O rg an isatio n
N PT
T re a ty o n th e N o n -P ro life ra tio n o f N u c le a r W eap o n s (1968)

NSC
N A T O S upply C e n tre

NTG
N A T O T ra in in g G ro u p
OECD
O rg a n isa tio n fo r E co n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n a n d D evelopm ent

OPEC
O rg a n isa tio n o f P etro le u m E x p o rtin g C o u n tries

OSCE
O rg a n isa tio n fo r S ecurity a n d C o o p e ra tio n in E u ro p e (form erly CSCE)
OTAN
O rg a n isa tio n d u T ra ité de l’A tla n tiq u e N o rd
PA P S
P erio d ic A rm am en ts P lan n in g System

PC
P olitical C o m m ittee

PCC
P a rtn e rs h ip C o o rd in a tio n Cell
PERM REP
P e rm an en t R e p resen tativ e (to th e N A C )
PFP
P a rtn e rs h ip for Peace
PM SC
P o litic al-M ilitary S teering C om m ittee on P a rtn e rsh ip for Peace
P M S C /A H G
P o litic al-M ilitary S teering C o m m itte e /A d H o c G ro u p on Cooperation
in P eacekeeping

290
PNET
Peaceful N u clear E xp lo sio n T re a ty (1976)

PPCG
Provisional Policy C o o rd in a tio n G ro u p

PSC
Principal S u b o rd in a te C o m m an d

PTBT
Partial Test Ban T re a ty (1963)

PWP
Partnership W o rk P ro g ra m m e (P F P )

R&D
Research an d D ev elo p m en t

RFAS
Reaction F o rces A ir S ta ff
SACEUR
Supreme A llied C o m m a n d e r E u ro p e
SACLANT
Supreme A llied C o m m a n d e r A tlan tic
SACLANTCEN
SACLANT U n d ersea R esearch C e n tre
SALT
Strategic A rm s L im itatio n T alk s
SATCOM
Satellite C o m m u n icatio n s
SCEPC
Senior Civil E m ergency P lan n in g C om m ittee
SCG
Special C o n su ltativ e G ro u p
SDI
Strategic D efence In itiativ e
SGP
Senior P o litical-M ilitary G ro u p on P ro liferatio n
SHAPE
Supreme H e a d q u a rte rs A llied P ow ers E u ro p e
SLBM
Subm arine-Launched B allistic M issile
SLCM
Sea-Launched C ru ise M issile
SLWPG
Senior Level W eap o n s P ro te c tio n G ro u p

291
SN F
S h o rt-R a n g e N u c le a r F o rces
SP C
S en io r P olitical C o m m ittee
SR B
S en io r R e so u rce B o ard
STA N A G
S ta n d a rd iz a tio n A g reem ent
STA N AVFORCHAN
S tan d in g N a v a l F o rc e C h a n n el'
STA N A V FO RLA N T
S tan d in g N av al F o rc e A tlan tic
STA N A V FO RM ED
S ta n d in g N a v a l F o rc e M e d ite rran ean
STA R T
S tra te g ic A rm s R e d u ctio n T re a ty
STC
S H A P E T ech n ical C e n tre
S T R IK F O R S O U T H
N a v a l S trik in g a n d S u p p o rt F o rces S o u th ern E u ro p e
TLE
T re a ty L im ited E q u ip m en t
TNF
T h e a tre N u c le a r F o rces
TTBT
T h re sh o ld T est Ban T re a ty (1974)
UN
U n ited N a tio n s
U NCTAD
U n ited N a tio n s C o n ference on T ra d e a n d D evelopm ent
UNESCO
U n ited N a tio n s E d u catio n al, Scientific a n d C u ltu ra l O rganisation
UN PRO FO R
U n ited N a tio n s P ro te cti o n F orce
U NSC
U n ited N a tio n s S ecurity C ouncil
VCC
V erification C o o rd in a tin g C o m m ittee
W EU
W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n

292
WG
Working G ro u p
WHO
World H ealth O rg an isatio n
WMD
Weapons o f M ass D estru ctio n

293
 APPENDIX XV
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

1945
26 June T h e U n ited N a tio n s C h a rte r is signed a t San
F ran cisco.
6 August E x p losion o f H iro sh im a ato m ic bom b.

1946
5 March W in sto n C h u rc h ill’s ‘Iro n C u r ta in ’ speech at
F u lto n , M issouri.

1947
19 January T h e S o viet-sponsored C o m m u n ist ‘L u b lin -C o m m it­
tee’ m o n o p o lises po w er in P o lan d .
12 March P resid ent T ru m a n urges th e U n ited S tates ‘to su p ­
p o rt free peoples w ho are resisting a tte m p te d su b ju ­
g atio n by arm ed m in o rities o r by o u tsid e p ressu re’
(T ru m a n D o ctrin e).
5 June U n ited S tates S ecretary o f S late, G eo rg e C . M a r­
shall, a n n o u n c e s plans for the eco n o m ic re h a b ilita ­
tio n o f E u ro p e (M arsh all P lan).
22-27 Septem ber E stab lish m en t o f C o m in fo rm , th e o rg a n isa tio n for
th e ideological unity o f the Soviet bloc, follow ing
rejection o f M a rs h a ll A id by th e Soviet U n io n an d
its allies.

1948
22 January E rn est Bevin, U n ited K ingdom S ecretary o f S tate
fo r F o reig n A ffairs, speaking in the H ouse o f
C o m m o n s, p ro p o ses a form o f W estern U n io n .
T h e W estern U n io n D efence O rg a n isa tio n is subse­
q u en tly established by the D efence M inisters o f
th e B russels T re a ty P ow ers on 27-28 S eptem ber
1948.
22-25 F eb ru ary T h e C o m m u n ist P arty o f C zech o slo v ak ia gains
c o n tro l o f the g o v ern m en t in P rag u e th ro u g h a
c o u p d 'E ta t.
17 March S ig n atu re o f the B russels T re a ty o f E conom ic,
S ocial an d C u ltu ra l C o lla b o ra tio n a n d C ollective
Self-D efence by the F oreign M in isters o f Belgium ,
F ra n ce, L u x em b o u rg , the N eth e rla n d s an d the
U n ited K in g d o m . T h e T re a ty is o f 50 years
d u ra tio n .
11 June T h e U n ited S tates S enate a d o p ts the 'V an d e n b erg
R e so lu tio n ’, estab lish in g the basis for fu tu re US

295
1948-1950

asso ciatio n w ith regional a n d o th er collective ar­

ran g em en ts for security.
24 Ju n e B eginning o f the Berlin b lo ck ad e by the Soviet
U n ion.
28 Ju n e F o rm a l expulsion o f Y ugoslavia from Cominform.
6 July T a lk s on N o rth A tlan tic defence begin in Washing­
to n betw een the U n ited S tates, C an ad a and the
B russels T re a ty Pow ers.
2 5 -2 6 O c to b e r T h e C o n su lta tiv e C ouncil o f the Brussels Treaty
P ow ers a n n o u n ces ‘co m p lete agreem ent on the prin­
ciple o f a defensive p act for th e N o rth Atlantic'.
10 D ecem ber N eg o tia tio n s on the N o rth A tla n tic T reaty open in
W ash in g to n betw een the representatives of the
Brussels T re a ty P ow ers, C a n a d a and the United
S tates.

1949
15 M a rch T h e n eg o tiatin g p ow ers invite D enm ark, Iceland,
Italy, N o rw a y an d P o rtu g a l lo ad h ere to the North
A tlan tic T reaty .
2 A pril T h e g o v ern m en ts co n cern ed rep u d iate Soviet asser­
tio n s th a t the N o rth A tla n tic T re a ty is contrary to
the U n ited N a tio n s C h a rte r.
4 A pril T h e N o rth A tlan tic T re a ty is signed in Washing­
to n by B elgium , C a n a d a , D en m ark . France, Ice­
lan d , Italy, L u x em b o u rg , the Netherlands.
N o rw ay , P o rtu g a l, the U n ited K ingdom and the
U n ited Stales.
8 A pril T h e B russels T re a ty P ow ers. D enm ark, Italy and
N o rw ay , req u est U n ited S lates m ilitary and finan­
cial assistance.
4 M ay T h e L o n d o n T en -P o w er A greem ent sets up the
C o u ncil o f E u ro p e . In a u g u ra l m eeting o f the Coun­
cil at S tra sb o u rg tak es place on 10 August.
9 M ay T h e Berlin b lo ck ad e is lifted.
24 A ug u st T h e N o rth A tlan tic T re a ty en ters into force.
17 S ep tem b er F irsl session o f the N o rth A tlan tic Council in
W ash in g to n .
6 O cto b er M u tu a l D efence A ssistance A ct o f I94S is signed
by P resid en t T ru m a n .

1950
27 Ja n u a ry P resid en t T ru m a n ap p ro v es the plan for the inte­
g ra te d defence o f the N o rth A tla n tic area, releasing
5900,000,000 o f m ilitary aid funds.
9 M ay T h e F re n ch G o v e rn m e n t p ro p o ses the creation
o f a single a u th o rity to c o n tro l the production of
steel an d coal in F ra n ce an d G erm any, open for
m em b ersh ip lo o th e r co u n trie s (Schum an Plan).

296
1950-1952

25 June N o rth K o rean F orces atta c k the R e p u b lic o f S outh

K orea.
25 July F irst m eeting o f N A T O C ouncil D eputies in
L o n d o n ; A m b a ssa d o r C h a rles M . S po ffo rd .
U n ited S tates R e p resen tativ e to th e N o rth A tlan tic
C o u n cil, is elected P erm an en t C h a irm an .
24 O ctober F ren ch P rim e M inister, R ene Pleven, o u tlin es his
plan for a E u ro p ean unified arm y, including G e r­
m an co n tin g en ts, w ithin the fram ew ork o f N A T O .
19 D ecember T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil a p p o in ts G eneral
D w ighl D . E isenhow er lo be the first S uprem e
A llied C o m m a n d e r E u ro p e (S A C E U R ).
20 D ecember T h e B russels T re a ty P ow ers decide to m erge the
m ilita ry o rg a n isa tio n o f the W estern U nion into
th e N o rth A tlan tic T re a ty O rg an isatio n .

1951
15 February C o n ference convened by F ren ch G o v ern m en t on
the sellin g up o f a E u ro p ean A rm y o pens in Paris.
2 April A llied C o m m a n d E u ro p e becom es o p e ratio n al
w ith S uprem e H e a d q u a rte rs Allied P ow ers E u ro p e
(S H A P E ) located a l R o q u e n c o u rl, n e a r Paris.
18 April S ettin g up o f the E u ro p e a n C oal a n d Steel C o m m u ­
nity by Belgium . F ran ce, Italy. L u xem bourg, the
N eth erlan d s, an d the F ederal R ep u b lic o f
G erm an y .
3 May In c o rp o ra tio n o f the D efence C o m m ittee an d the
D efence F in an cial an d E conom ic C o m m ittee into
the N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil.
19 June T h e p arties to the N o rth A tlan tic T re a ty sign an
agreem ent on the sta tu s o f th eir forces.
20 September T h e m em b er co u n tries sign an agreem ent in O ttaw a
on the S ta tu s o f N A T O . N a tio n a l R ep resen tativ es
an d In te rn a tio n a l S ta ff (C ivilian S tatu s A greem ent).
9-11 O ctober F irst m eeting o f th e T e m p o ra ry C ouncil C o m m it­
tee (T C C ) in P aris, established by th e N o rth A tla n ­
tic C ouncil to reconcile the req u irem en ts o f collec­
tive security w ith the political an d econom ic c a p a ­
bilities o f the m em ber countries.
17-22 O ctober S ig n atu re in L o n d o n o f the p ro to co l to the N o rth
A tlan tic T reaty on the accession o f G reece an d
T u rk ey.
19 N ovem ber I n a u g u ra tio n o f the N A T O D efense C ollege, P aris
(tran sfe rred to R om e on O cto b er 10, 1966).

1952
30 January A p p o in tm e n t o f V ice-A dm iral L ynde D. M c C o r­
m ick (U n ited S tates) to be the first S uprem e Allied
C o m m a n d e r A tlan tic (S A C L A N T ).

297
1 9 5 2 -1 9 5 4

18 F e b ru a ry Greece and Turkey accede lo the North Atlantic

Treaty.
20-25 F e b ru a ry T h e N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil m eeting in Lisbon
reo rganises th e stru c tu re o f the Alliance and
N A T O becom es a p e rm a n e n t organisation with ils
h e a d q u a rte rs in P aris.
21 F e b ru a ry T h e C ouncil establishes a C h a n n el Com m and, and
a p p o in ts A dm iral Sir A rth u r Jo h n Power as the
first C o m m a n d e r-in -C h ie f C hannel (CINCHAN).
12 M arch L o rd Ism ay (U n ited K in g d o m ) is appointed Vice­
C h a irm a n o f the N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil and Sec­
re ta ry G en eral o f the N o rth A tlantic Treaty
O rg an isatio n .
10 A pril A llied C o m m a n d A tla n tic (A C L A N T ) becomes
o p e ra tio n a l, w ith h e a d q u a rte rs a t Norfolk, Vir­
ginia, U SA .
16 A pril N A T O op en s its p ro v isio n al headquarters at the
P alais de C h a illo t, P aris.
28 A pril F irs t m eeting o f th e N o rth A tlan tic Council in
p e rm a n e n t session in Paris.
27 M ay S ig n atu re in P aris o f the T re a ty setting up Ihe
E u ro p e a n D efence C o m m u n ity by Belgium,
F ra n ce, Italy, L u x em b o u rg , th e Netherlands and
th e F ed eral R e p u b lic o f G erm an y . (Following the
decision o f th e F re n ch N a tio n a l Assembly on 29
A u g u st 1954, th e T re a ty d id n o t com e into force).
28 A u g u st S ig n atu re in P aris by m em b er nations of the Alli­
an ce o f a P ro to c o l on th e S tatu s o f International
M ilitary H e a d q u a rte rs.

1953
5 M arch T h e d e a th o f S talin.
23 Ju ly K o re a n A rm istice signed a t P anm unjon.
8 A u g u st U S S R a n n o u n ces its possession o f the hydrogen
bo m b.
4 -8 D ecem b er C o n feren ce in B e rm u d a o f the H eads o f Govern­
m ent o f F ra n ce, the U n ited K ingdom and Ihe
U n ite d S tates, a tte n d e d by L ord Ism ay as observer
fo r N A T O .

1954
25 J a n u a ry - A b o rtiv e F o u r-P o w e r C o nference in Berlin on
18 F e b ru a ry G e rm a n re-unification.
7 M ay T h e U n ited K in g d o m a n d th e U nited Slates reject
th e U S S R ’s bid to jo in th e N o rth Allantic Treaty
O rg an isatio n .
17-18 June M eeting a t T h e H ag u e o f the C onstituent Confer­
ence o f th e A tla n tic T re a ty A ssociation sponsored
by th e In te rn a tio n a l A tla n tic Com m ittee.

298
1954-1957

29 August T h e F ren ch N a tio n a l A ssem bly decides against

ratificatio n o f the T re a ty settin g up the E u ro p ean
D efence C o m m u n ity (E D C ).
6 September O p en ing o f M a n ila C onference w hich culm inates
in th e signing o f the treaties settin g up S E A T O
(S o u th -E a st A sia T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n )1.
28 September- M eeting in L o n d o n o f the C onference o f N ine to
3 October seek an altern ativ e to th e E D C . ( P a rtic ip a tin g c o u n ­
tries: Belgium . C a n a d a , F ran ce, F ederal R epublic
o f G erm an y , Italy, L ux em b o u rg . N eth erlan d s.
U n ited K in g d o m a n d th e U n ited S lates.)
23 October S ig n atu re o f the P aris A greem ents. T h e F ederal
R e p u b lic o f G e rm a n y is invited to jo in N A T O ,
a n d Italy an d the F ederal R ep u b lic o f G erm an y
accede lo ih e W estern E u ro p ean U nion (W E U ).

1955
6 May T h e F ederal R ep u b lic o f G erm an y becom es a
m em b er o f N A T O .
14 May T h e U S S R concludes th e W arsaw T re a ty w ith
A lb an ia, B ulgaria, C zechoslovakia, E ast G erm an y .
H u n g ary , P o lan d an d R o m an ia.
18-23 July F irst C onference o f N A T O P arlia m e n ta rian s (since
N o v em b er 1966. th e N o rth A tlan tic A ssem bly) in
Paris.
30 December T h e U S S R signs a treaty w ith the regim e in East
G erm an y , g ran tin g it the prero g ativ es o f a State.

1956
24 February A t th e 20th C ongress o f the Soviel C o m m u n ist
Policy. K h ru sh ch ev d en o u n ces Stalin in a 'secret'
speech.
18 April D isso lu tio n o f C o m in fo rm .
28 June A n ti-regim e rio ts e ru p t a t P o zn an in P oland.
26 July E gypt n atio n alises the Suez C anal.
4 November Soviet su p p ressio n of H u n g arian p eo p le's
rebellion.
13 December T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil ap p ro v es the reco m ­
m e n d a tio n s co n tain ed in the R e p o rt o f the C o m m it­
tee o f T h ree on n o n -m ilitarv c o o p e ra tio n in
NATO. '

1957
25 M arch S ig n atu re o f thè R o m e T reaties setting up E u ra to m
an d th è E u ro p ean E conom ie C o m m u n ity .

1Member co u n tries: A u stralia. F ran ce. N ew Z ealan d . P ak istan . P hilip­

pines, T h ailan d . U n ited K ingdom an d U n ited Stales.

299
1957-1959

2-3 May M in isterial m eeting o f the N o rth A tlantic Council

in B onn. T h e C ouncil decides to intensify its efforts
in fav o u r o f G erm an re-unification by means of
free elections.
16 M ay P au l-H en ri S p aak (B elgium ) succeeds Lord Ismay
as S ecretary G en eral o f N A T O .
29 Ju ly S igning in Berlin o f a d e c la ra tio n by the govern­
m en ts o f F ra n ce, th e F ed eral R epublic of Ger­
m an y, the U n ited K in g d o m a n d the U nited States,
affirm ing the id en tity o f th eir policies with regard
to the re-unification o f G e rm a n y an d to European
security.
14 S ep tem b er T h e G en eral A ssem bly o f th e U n ited N ations con­
d em n s th e Soviet in terv en tio n in H ungary.
4 O cto b er T h e first Soviet S p u tn ik is launched.
16-19 D ecem b er A t a m eeting o f the N o rth A tlan tic Council in
P aris, H ead s o f G o v e rn m e n t reaffirm the principles
an d p u rp o ses o f th e A tlan tic Alliance.

1958
I Ja n u a ry E n try in to force o f th e T re a ty o f R om e setting up
th e E u ro p e a n E co n o m ic C o m m u n ity .
2 6 -2 9 M arch F irst m eeting o f N A T O Science Com m ittee.
15-17 A pril D efence M in isters o f th e N A T O countries meeting
in P aris reaffirm th e defensive character of the
N A T O strategy.
10 N o v em b er K h ru sh ch ev an n o u n c e s th a t the U SSR wishes to
te rm in a te th e F o u r-P o w e r A greem ent on the status
o f Berlin. (T he P lan w as rejected by the Western
P ow ers on D ecem b er 31.)
16-18 D ecem b er M in isterial m eeting o f the N o rth A tlantic Council.
T h e C o u n c il associates itself w ith the views ex­
pressed by the g o v ern m en ts o f F rance, the United
K in g d o m an d th e U n ite d S tates on Berlin and on
the rig h t o f th e W estern P ow ers to rem ain there.

1959
1 Ja n u a ry O v erth ro w o f the B atista regim e in C uba by Fidel
C a stro .
11 Ju n e O p en in g o f F o u r-P o w e r M eeting o f Foreign Minis­
ters in G en ev a (F ra n c e , th e U n ited Kingdom, the
U n ited S tales an d the U S S R ) on the German
q u estion.
19 August T h e B aghdad P act signed on 24 February 1955
becom es th e C e n tral T re a ty Organisation
(C E N T O ). F u ll m em bers: Ira n , Iraq, Pakistan,
T u rk e y an d th e U n ited K ingdom . Associate
m em ber: U n ited S tates. Its h ead q u arters is set up
in A n k a ra . (D issolved, 26 S eptem ber 1979).

300
1959-1961

20 November A u stria , D e n m ark , N o rw ay , P o rtu g a l, Sw eden,

S w itzerland a n d the U n ite d K in g d o m initial the
S to ck h o lm C o n v e n tio n estab lish in g th e E u ro p e a n
F ree T ra d e A sso ciatio n (E F T A )2.
15-22 D ecem ber In a u g u ra tio n o f th e new N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs at
th e P o rte D a u p h in e in Paris.

1960
15 M arch O p en in g o f the U n ited N a tio n s T en -P o w er D isa r­
m am en t C o m m ittee n eg o tiatio n s in G eneva. C o m ­
m u n ist sta le s w ith d raw on 27 June.
1 May A m erican U 2 airc ra ft is sh o t dow n over Soviet
territo ry .
19 May F re n ch , U n ited K ingdom an d U n ited S tates F o r­
eign M in isters re p o rt to th e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil
o n the b reak d o w n o f the P aris S um m it m eeting
w ith th e p a rtic ip a tio n o f th e U S S R on 16 M ay.
23 Septem ber K h ru sh ch ev a tte n d s the G en eral A ssem bly o f the
U n ited N a tio n s in N ew Y ork.
10 N ovem ber S u m m it m eeting in M oscow o f the C o m m u n ist
lead ers o f 81 co u n tries. A p p ro v al o f K h ru sh c h e v ’s
co n cep t o f peaceful co-existence.
14 Decem ber C o n v e n tio n for the E stab lish m en t o f th e O rg a n isa ­
tio n fo r E co n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n a n d D evelopm ent
(O E C D ) in place o f th e O E E C signed by 18 E u ro ­
p ean co u n tries a n d the U n ited S tates an d C a n ad a.
A u stralia, N ew Z e alan d a n d J a p a n subsequently
jo in the O rg an isatio n .

1961
12 April S oviet M a jo r Y u ri G a g a rin becom es the first m an
o rb ite d in space.
21 April D irk U. S tik k er (N eth erla n d s) succeeds P au l-H en ri
S p aak as S ecretary G en eral o f N A T O .
13 August E rection o f the Berlin W all.
13-15 D ecem ber A t a M inisterial m eeting o f the N o rth A tlan tic
C o u n cil in P aris, th e A lliance reaffirm s its position
on Berlin, stro n g ly c o n d em n in g the building o f the
W all, an d ap p ro v es the renew al o f dip lo m atic c o n ­
tacts w ith the Soviet U n io n lo determ in e w hether
a basis for n eg o tiatio n can be found. It also a n ­
n o u n ces the estab lish m en t o f a m obile task force.

2Finland becam e an asso ciate m em b er o f E F T A in 1961. Iceland

joined in 1970. D e n m a rk a n d th e U n ited K ingdom w ithdrew from
EFTA o n jo in in g th e E E C on 1 J a n u a ry 1973. P o rtu g a l w ithdrew
from E F T A o n 1 Ja n u a ry 1986.

301
1962-1963

1962
8 -2 0 Ja n u a ry T h e ‘A lliance C o n v e n tio n ’ o f citizens o f NATO
co u n trie s m eets a n d en d o rses the ‘Declaration of
P a ris’ in fa v o u r o f stren g th en in g the Alliance and
th e A tlan tic C o m m u n ity .
29 M arch E stab lish m en t o f the E u ro p e a n O rganisation for
the D ev elo p m en t a n d C o n s tru c tio n o f Space Vehi­
cle L au n ch ers (E L D O ). M em ber countries: Aus­
tra lia , Belgium , F ed eral R epublic o f Germany,
F ra n ce, Italy, N e th e rla n d s a n d U nited Kingdom.
10 A pril M acm illan an d K en n ed y ap p eal to Khrushchev
fo r ag reem en t on a test b a n treaty.
4 -6 M ay F o re ig n M in isters a n d D efence M inisters of the
N o rth A tla n tic A lliance review the circumstances
in w hich th e A lliance m ight be com pelled to have
reco urse to n u clear w eap o n s (A thens Guidelines).
14 Ju n e E stab lish m en t o f th e E u ro p e a n Space Research
O rg a n isa tio n (E S R O ). M em b er countries: Belgium,
D e n m a rk , F ra n ce, F ed eral R epublic o f Germany,
Italy , N e th e rla n d s, S pain, Sw eden, Switzerland,
a n d the U n ited K in g d o m . (E L D O and ESRO
m erged to becom e the E u ro p e a n Space Agency
(E S A ) on 31 M ay 1975.)
22 O c to b e r- P a rtia l b lo ck ad e o f C u b a by the US following
20 N o v em b er rev elatio n o f S oviet c o n stru c tio n o f missile bases
o n th e island; lifted follow ing Soviet agreement to
d ism an tle th e bases.
18-20 D ecem ber P re sid en t K en n ed y a n d P rim e M inister Macmillan
c o n fe r a t N a ssa u , B ah am as. T hey agree to contrib­
u te p a rt o f th eir strateg ic n u clear fo rces to
NATO.

1963
16 J a n u a ry F o llo w in g a sta te m e n t by the F ren ch Representa­
tive, th e C ouncil notes th a t in so far as the former
A lg erian D e p a rtm e n ts o f F ra n c e are concerned,
th e relev an t clauses o f th e N o rth A tlantic Treaty
b ecam e in ap p licab le as o f 3 July 1962.
20 Ju n e A g reem en t on a ‘h o t line’ betw een Washington
a n d M oscow is signed in G en ev a by the United
S tates a n d th e Soviet U n io n .
15-25 Ju ly T h e U n ited S tates, the U n ited K ingdom and the
Soviet U n io n initial a n agreem ent banning nuclear
tests in the a tm o sp h e re, in o u ter space and
u n d erw ater.
10 October T h e M oscow T re a ty on a p a rtia l nuclear test ban,
signed o n 5 A u g u st, com es in to force.
22-23 O ctober In a m ilita ry exercise (O p e ra tio n ‘Big Lift’), 14,500
A m erican soldiers are flow n from the United States

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lo G erm an y lo d em o n strate the a b i lity o f the

U n ited S tates to reinforce N A T O forces in E u ro p e
rap id ly in an em ergency.
22 N ovem ber P resident K ennedy is assassin ated in D allas. Texas.

1964
I August M a n lio B rosio (Italy) succeeds D irk S tik k er as
S ecretary G en eral o f N A T O .
14 O ctober K h ru shchev is rem oved from office. H e is replaced
by L eonid Brezhnev as G en eral S ecretary o f the
C P S U an d by Alexei K osygin as P rim e M inister.
16 O clober C h in a explodes its first ato m ic bom b.

1965
6 April T h e w o rld 's first com m ercial satellite 'E a rly B ird ' is
lau n ched by the U n ited States. Successfully tested
as first global co m m u n icatio n s system for tel­
ep h o n e, T V a n d telegraphic co m m u n icatio n s.
7 April Soviet an d E ast G erm an au th o ritie s block land
access to Berlin al intervals for one week w hen the
P arlia m e n t o f the F ederal R epublic o f G erm an y
h o ld s its p len ary session in W est B erlin's C ongress
H all.
23 April S oviet U n io n launches its first co m m u n icatio n s
satellite.
31 May-1 Ju n e M eeting o f N A T O D efence M inisters in P aris pays
spccial a tte n tio n lo the defence pro b lem s o f G reece
a n d T u rk ey , an d agrees to co n sid er a p ro p o sal for
im p ro v in g c o n su lta tio n an d exten d in g p a rtic ip a ­
tio n in the p lan n in g o f nu clear forces.
9 September A l a Press C onference P resident de G au lle a n ­
no u n ces lh a l F rench m ilitary in teg ratio n w ithin
N A T O w ould end by 1969.
20 O ctobcr T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil ap p ro v es the revised
m issions o f the M a jo r N A T O C o m m an d ers an d
the C a n a d a -U S R egional P lan n in g G ro u p .
14-16 D ecem ber T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil m eeting in M inisterial
session in P aris accepts new p ro ced u res designed
to im prove the an n u a l process o f review ing the
defence effo rts o f m em ber co u n tries a n d agreeing
u p o n th eir force co n trib u tio n s.

1966
10 March P resident de G au lle form ally a n n o u n ces F ra n ce's
in ten tio n o f w ith d raw in g from the in teg rated m ili­
tary stru c tu re o f the A lliance.
14 December T h e D efence P lan n in g C o m m ittee establishes the
N u c le a r D efence A ffairs C om m ittee an d the N u ­
clear P lan n in g G ro u p .

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1967-1969

1967
31 M arch O fficial o p en in g cerem o n y o f S H A P E at Casleau,
n ear M ons, Belgium .
6 -7 A pril F irst m eeting o f the N u c le a r P lanning Group in
W ash in g to n .
21 A pril M ilitary regim e takes over po w er in Greece.
14 Ju n e T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil m eeting in Luxem­
b o u rg review s the M id d le E ast situation following
the S ix-D ay W ar betw een Israel and its Arab
neig hbours.
16 O cto b er O fficial o p en in g o f new N A T O Headquarters in
Brussels.
12 D ecem ber T h e N u clear D efence A ffairs C om m ittee holds a
m eeting in B russels lo exam ine the R eport of the
N u c le a r P lan n in g G r o u p on strategic nuclear
forces, an lib allistic m issiles, the tactical use of nu­
clear w eapons, an d n a tio n a l participation in nu­
clear plan n in g .
13 -1 4 D ecem b er T h e N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil app ro v es the Harmel
R e p o rt on the F u tu re T a sk s o f the Alliance.
T h e D efence P lan n in g C o m m ittee ad o p ts NATO's
new strategic co n cep t o f flexible response and ap­
p r o ves the estab lish m en t o f a Standing Naval
F o rc e A tla n tic (S T A N A V F O R L A N T ).

1968
19 Ja n u a ry T h e U n ited S tates an d th e Soviet Union table a
d ra ft n u clear n o n -p ro life ra tio n treaty at Ihe
G en ev a D isa rm a m e n t C onference.
2 4 -2 5 Ju n e T h e M inisterial m eeting o f the N orth Atlantic
C o u n c il in R ey k jav ik . Iceland reviews current meas­
ures affecting access ro u tes to Berlin and issues a
D eclaratio n on M u tu a l a n d Balanced Force
R ed u ctio n s.
20-21 A u g u st Soviet. P olish, E ast G e rm a n , B ulgarian and Hun­
g arian tro o p s invade C zechoslovakia.
12 S ep tem b er A lb an ia ren o u n ces its m em b ersh ip o f the Warsaw
T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n .
13-14 N o v em b er F o rm a tio n o f the E u ro g ro u p .
15-16 N o v em b er T h e N o rth A tlan tic C o u n cil denounces Soviet ac­
tio n s in C zech o slo v ak ia as co n tra ry to the basic
p rinciples o f th e U n ited N a tio n s C h a rter and issues
a w arn in g to the U SSR .

1969
28 M ay E stab lish m en t o f the naval on-call force in the
M e d ite rra n e a n (N A V O C F O R M E D ).
8-10 December F irst m eeting o f the C o m m ittee on the Challenges
o f M o d e rn Society (C C M S ), established by ihe

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N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil on 6 N o v em b er, on the

basis o f a p ro p o sa l by recently elected U S P resident
N ix o n .

1970
5 M arch N u c le a r N o n -P ro life ra tio n T re a ty signed on 1 July
1968 com es in to force.
20 M arch F irst N A T O co m m u n icatio n s satellite launched
from C a p e K ennedy.
16 Aprii O p en in g in V ienna o f U S -U S S R n eg o tiatio n s on
strateg ic arm s lim ita tio n s (SA L T ).
11 J un e T h e D efence P lan n in g C om m ittee in M inisterial
session discusses the c o n tin u in g exp an sio n o f the
Soviet presence in the M e d ite rra n e a n a n d wel­
co m es th e activ atio n o f th e naval on-call force for
th e M e d ite rran ean .
2-4 D ecem ber A t M inisterial m eetings o f th e C ouncil a n d D efence
P lan n in g C om m ittee (D P C ) in B russels the U n ited
S tates an n o u n c e s th a t it will n o t reduce U S forces
in E u ro p e except in the co n tex t o f reciprocal E ast-
W est actio n . T h e D P C a d o p ts the study on ‘A lli­
an ce D efence in the ’70s’. T en E u ro p e a n co u n tries
a d o p t a special E u ro p ean D efence Im p ro v em en t
P ro g ram m e.

1971
2 February S econd N A T O co m m u n icatio n s satellite launched
from C a p e K ennedy.
1 O ctober Jo sep h L uns (N eth erla n d s) succeeds M a n lio B rosio
as S ecretary G en eral o f N A T O .
5-6 O ctober F o rm e r N A T O S ecretary G en eral, M an lio B rosio
is a p p o in te d to co n d u ct e x p lo ra to ry ta lk s on
m u tu a l a n d b alan ced force red u ctio n s w ith the
Soviet a n d o th e r interested governm ents.

1972
26 May S ig n atu re in M oscow o f interim ag reem en t on
strateg ic arm s lim itatio n s (S A L T ) a n d an ti-b allistic
m issile system s (A B M ).
30-31 M ay A t its M inisterial m eeting in B onn, th e N o rth
A tla n tic C ouncil agrees to sta rt m u ltin a tio n a l p re ­
p a ra to ry ta lk s for a C onference on S ecurity an d
C o o p e ra tio n in E u ro p e (C S C E ). M u ltila te ra l explo­
ratio n s on m u tu a l an d balan ced force red u ctio n s
(M B F R ) a re p ro p o sed by the co u n tries p a rtic ip a t­
ing in N A T O ’s in teg rated m ilitary stru ctu re.
3 June Q u a d rip a rtite A greem ent on Berlin signed by F o r ­
eign M in isters o f F ra n ce, U n ited K in g d o m , U n ited
S tates an d th e U S S R .

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1972-1976

21 N o v e m b e r O p en in g o f S A L T II n eg o tiatio n s in Geneva.
22 N o v e m b e r O p en in g in H elsinki o f m u ltilateral preparatory
talk s on a C S C E .
21 D ecem b er S ig n atu re in E ast Berlin o f the ‘Basic Treaty’ be­
tw een the F ed eral R e p u b lic o f G erm any and the
G e rm a n D em o c ra tic R epublic.

1973
I Ja n u a ry D e n m a rk , Ire la n d an d th e U n ited K ingdom join
th e E u ro p e a n E co n o m ic C o m m u n ity (EEC).
31 J a n u a r y - M u ltila te ra l e x p lo ra to ry talk s on MBFR in
29 Ju n e V ienna.
II M ay In a u g u ra tio n o f S ta n d in g N av al F orce Channel
( S T A N A V F O R C H A N ).
3 -7 Ju ly O p en in g o f C o n feren ce on Security and Cooper­
a tio n in E u ro p e (C S C E ) in H elsinki.
6 -2 4 O cto b er A ra b -lsra e li Y o m K ip p u r W ar.
30 O c to b e r N e g o tia tio n s o n M u tu a l an d Balanced Force Re­
d u c tio n s (M B F R ) open in V ienna.

1974
25 A pril M ilitary c o u p d ’E ta t in P o rtu g a l.
26 Ju n e N A T O H ead s o f G o v e rn m e n t m eeting in Brussels
sign a D e c la ra tio n o n A tla n tic R elations approved
a n d p u b lish ed by th e N o r th A tlantic Council in
O tta w a on 19 June.
23 Ju ly K o n s ta n tin o s K a ra m a n lis becom es Prim e Minister
o f G reece follow ing the resignation o f the military
g o v ern m en t.
14 A u g u st W ith d ra w a l o f G reek forces from integrated mili­
ta ry stru c tu re o f N A T O .
2 3 -2 4 N o v em b er P re sid en t F o rd a n d G en eral Secretary Brezhnev,
m eeting in V lad iv o sto k , agree on steps towards
lim ita tio n o f U S -U S S R strateg ic nuclear arms.

1975
31 M ay E L D O a n d E S R O m erge to becom e the European
S pace A gency (E S A ). M e m b er countries: Belgium,
D e n m a rk , F ra n c e , F ed eral R epublic o f Germany,
Italy, Irelan d , N e th e rla n d s, S pain, Sweden, Switzer­
lan d an d the U n ited K ingom .
31 J u ly - T h e H ead s o f S tate an d G overn m en t of the 35
1 A u g u st p a rtic ip a tin g sta le s sign th e C S C E Helsinki Final
A ct.

1976
2 1 -2 2 Ja n u a ry A t th e m eeting o f the N u clear Planning Group
(N P G ) in H a m b u rg , N A T O Defence Ministers

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1976-1979

d iscuss the c o n tin u in g increase in Soviet strategic

n u clear cap ab ilites a n d review p ro sp ects for sta b ili­
sa tio n th ro u g h SA L T .
2 F eb ru ary E stab lish m en t o f the In d e p e n d e n t E u ro p e a n P ro ­
g ram m e G r o u p w ith th e p a rtic ip a tio n o f all E u ro ­
p ean m em b er c o u n trie s o f N A T O to p rovide c o ­
o p e ra tio n in th e research, d ev elo p m en t an d p ro d u c ­
tio n o f defence eq u ip m en t.
20-21 M ay A t th e N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil in O slo, F oreign
M in isters review E ast-W est relatio n s an d progress
to w a rd s im p lem en tatio n o f F in al A ct o f C S C E
a n d d iscuss p ro sp ects for M B F R .
9-10 D ecem ber T h e N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil rejects p ro p o sa ls by
W arsaw T re a ty co u n tries lo renounce first use o f
n u clear w eap o n s an d lo restrict A lliance m em b er­
sh ip a n d calls for all C S C E sta le s to ren o u n ce ihe
th re a l o r use o f force including all types o f w eapons
in acco rd a n c e w ith th e U N C h a rte r a n d H elsinki
F in al A ct.

1977
10-11 M ay N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil m eeting in L o n d o n w ith
p a rtic ip a tio n o f newly elected U S P resident C a rte r
a n d o th e r H ead s o f S tate an d G o v ern m en t. In itia ­
tio n o f a lo n g -te rm defence p ro g ram m e.
4 October C S C E F o llo w -u p M eeting in B elgrade (4 O cto b er
1977-9 M a rc h 1978).
12 O ctober E stab lish m en t o f N P G H igh Level G ro u p on
th e a tre n u clear force m o d ern isatio n .

1978
30-31 M ay M eeting o f th e N o rth A tlan tic C o u n c il w ith p artici­
p a tio n o f H ead s o f S late a n d G o v ern m en t in
W ash in g to n .
31 O ctober- C S C E E x p e rts’ M eeting on the P eaceful S ettlem ent
11 December o f D isp u te s, M o n lreu x .
18 N ovem ber T h ird N A T O c o m m u n icatio n s satellite launched
from C a p e C a n a v e ra l, F lo rid a.
5-6 Decem ber A p p ro v a l o f A irb o rn e E arly W arn in g a n d C o n tro l
S ystem (A W A C S ).

1979
13 F eb ru ary - C S C E E x p erts' M eeting on M e d ite rrean C o o p e r­
26 March a tio n , V alleta.
11 April E stab lish m en t o f S pecial G ro u p to study arm s
c o n tro l asp ects o f th eatre n u clear system s. (T he
S pecial G r o u p co n clu d ed its w ork on 11 D ecem ber
1979).
18 June S A L T II ag reem en t signed in V ienna by P resident

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C a rte r a n d G en eral S ecretary Brezhnev. (The agree­

m en t w as n o t ratified by the U n ited States).
4 N o v em b er Seizure o f the U n ited S tates E m bassy in Teheran
an d 53 h ostages by Islam ic revolutionaries.
12 D ecem b er Special M eeting o f F o reig n an d Defence Ministers
in Brussels. ‘D o u b le -tra c k ’ decision on theatre nu­
clear force m o d ern isatio n including the deploy­
m en t in E u ro p e o f U S ground-launched Cruise
a n d P ershing II system s a n d a parallel and comple­
m e n tary arm s c o n tro l e ffo rt to obviate the need
fo r such dep lo y m en ts.
29 D ecem b er Special m eeting o f N o r th A tlan tic C ouncil follow­
ing Soviet invasion o f A fghanistan on 25-26
D ecem ber.

1980
24 Ja n u a ry M em bers o f the A lliance p articip atin g in the 12
D ecem b er 1979 S pecial M eeting establish the
Special C o n su lta tiv e G r o u p on arm s control involv­
ing th e a tre n u clear forces.
18 F e b ru a ry - CSCE F o ru m on Scientific Cooperation,
3 M a rch H am b u rg .
4 M ay D e a th o f P resid en t T ito o f Y ugoslavia.
31 A u g u st G d a n sk A g reem ents, leading to establishm ent and
official re co g n itio n o f in d ep en d en t Polish trade
u n io n ‘S o lid a rity ’.
11 S ep tem b er T u rk ish m ilitary lead ersh ip tak es over the adminis­
tra tio n o f th e co u n try .
22 S ep tem b er W a r b reak s o u t betw een Ira q an d Iran.
20 O cto b er R e -in teg ratio n o f G reek forces into the integrated
m ilitary stru c tu re o f the A lliance.
11 N o v em b er O p en in g o f C S C E F o llo w -u p M eeting in Madrid.
9 -1 2 D ecem b er M in isterial m eetings o f th e C ouncil and Defence
P lan n in g C o m m ittee reflect concern over the situ­
a tio n w ith re g a rd to P o la n d an d the continuing
Soviet o c c u p a tio n o f A fg h an istan .

1981
1 Ja n u a ry G reece becom es th e 10th m em b er o f the European
E co nom ic C o m m u n ity .
23 F e b ru a ry A b o rtiv e a tte m p t by rebel civil guards to over­
th ro w S p an ish c a re ta k e r governm ent.
27 O c to b e r S oviet su b m a rin e g ro u n d e d in Swedish territorial
w aters.
18 N o v em b er P resid en t R e a g a n an n o u n c e s new arm s control
in itiatives including interm ediate-range nuclear
force (IN F ) n e g o tia tio n s an d strategic arms reduc­
tio n talk s (S T A R T ).
30 Novem ber T h e U n ited S tates a n d the Soviet Union open

308
1981-1983

G en ev a n eg o tiatio n s on in term e d ia te-ran g e n uclear

forces (IN F ).
10-11 D ecem ber S ig n atu re o f th e P ro to co l o f A ccession o f S pain to
th e N o rth A tlan tic T reaty .
13 D ecem ber Im p o sitio n o f m a rtia l law in P oland.

1982
11 Ja n u ary Special M inisterial Session o f the N o rth A tlan tic
C o u n cil issues a D eclaratio n on E vents in P o lan d .
2 A pril- T h e F a lk la n d s C onflict.
14 June
30 M ay S pain becom es th e 16th m em ber o f the N o rth
A tlan tic T re a ty O rg an isatio n .
10 June S u m m it M eeting o f the N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil in
B onn. H ead s o f S tate a n d G o v e rn m e n t issue th e
B onn D eclaratio n settin g o u t the A lliance P ro ­
g ram m e for Peace in F reedom .
30 June O p en in g o f S trateg ic A rm s R e d u ctio n T alks
(S T A R T ) in G eneva.

1983
23 M arch P resident R e ag an a n n o u n ces a com p reh en siv e re­
search p ro g ram m e aim ed a t elim inating th e th reat
p osed by strateg ic n u clear m issiles (S trategic D e­
fense Initiative).
22 July E n d in g o f m artia l law in P o lan d . N ew laws rein ­
force g o v ern m en t co n tro ls.
1 Septem ber A S o uth K o re a n airlin e r w ith 269 people on b o a rd
is sh o t d o w n by Soviet air defence o ff the co ast o f
S ak h alin.
9 Septem ber C o n clu sio n o f C S C E F o llo w -u p M eeting in M a d rid .
25 Octo b er M ilitary in terv en tio n in G re n a d a by U n ited States
an d E ast C a rib b e a n forces.
25 O cto b er- P re p a ra to ry m eeting in H elsinki for S tockholm
11 N ovem ber C o n ference on S ecurity a n d C onfidence-B uilding
M easures a n d D isa rm a m e n t in E u ro p e (C D E ).
27 O ctober T h e M o n te b ello D ecision. D efence M inisters m eet­
ing in th e N A T O N u c le a r P lan n in g G r o u p in
M o n teb ello , C a n a d a an n o u n ce th eir decision to
w ith d raw a fu rth er 1,400 w arh ead s from E u ro p e,
b rin g in g the to ta l o f such w ith d raw als since 1979
to 2,400.
23 N ovem ber D eliveries o f G L C M c o m p o n e n ts to the U n ited
K in g dom m ark th e beginning o f N A T O 's in term e­
d ia te range n u clear force d ep lo y m en ts (IN F ).
D ecision by the Soviet U n io n to d isc o n tin u e the
c u rre n t ro u n d o f n eg o tiatio n s in G en ev a on
in term e d ia te-ran g e n u clear forces (IN F ).
8 D ecember C o n clu sio n o f th e c u rre n t ro u n d o f U S-Soviet

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1983-1985

G en ev a n e g o tia tio n s o n S trateg ic A rm s Reductions

(S T A R T ) w ith o u t a d a te being set by the Soviet
side fo r th eir resu m p tio n .
8 -9 D ecem b er F o re ig n M in isters m eeting in the M inisterial Ses­
sio n o f the N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil issue the Declar­
a tio n o f B russels expressing th eir determ ination to
seek a b alan ced a n d co n stru ctiv e relationship with
th e E ast a n d calling on th e Soviet U nion and other
W arsaw T re a ty c o u n trie s to respond.
13 D ecem b er F o rm a tio n o f a civilian g o vernm ent in Turkey
follow ing p a rlia m e n ta ry elections under a new
c o n s titu tio n .

1984
17 Ja n u a ry O p en in g o f th e S to ck h o lm C o nference on Security
an d C onfidence-B uilding M easures an d Disarma­
m en t in E u ro p e (C D E ).
21 M a rc h - C S C E E x p e rts’ M eetin g on the Peaceful Settlement
30 A pril o f D isp u te s, A thens.
31 M ay N A T O F o re ig n M in isters issue the Washingt on
S tatem en t on E ast-W est R elatio n s.
7 -9 Ju n e S u m m it m eeting in L o n d o n . H ead s o f Slate and
G o v e rn m e n t o f the seven m a jo r industrialised coun­
tries issue a d e c la ra tio n on E asi-W est Relations
a n d A rm s C o n tro l.
12 Ju n e F o re ig n M in isters o f th e seven countries of the
W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n m eeting in Paris decide
lo reactiv ate the W E U .
25 Ju n e L o rd C a rrin g to n (U n ite d K ingdom ) succeeds
Jo sep h L uns as S ecretary G en eral o f NA TO .
16-26 O cto b er C S C E S em in ar on E conom ic, Scientific and Cul­
tu ral C o o p e ra tio n in th e M ed ite rran ean , Venice.
2 6 -2 7 O cto b er F o reig n an d D efence M in isters o f the member
c o u n trie s o f the W estern E u ro p e a n U nion publish
th e ‘R o m e D e c la ra tio n ’ an n o u n c in g iheir decision
to in crease c o o p e ra tio n w ithin th e W E U .
7 D ecem b er P re se n ta tio n by th e S ecretary G eneral o f NATO
o f th e first A tla n tic A w ard to P er M arkussen (Den­
m a rk ), for his c o n trib u tio n over m any years to the
o b jectives o f th e A tlan tic A lliance.

1985
11 M a rch M ik h ail G o rb a c h e v becom es G eneral Secretary of
th e C o m m u n ist P arly o f the Soviet U nion follow­
ing th e d e a th o f K o n s la n tin C h ern en k o .
12 M arch T h e U n ite d S tates an d the U S S R begin new arms
c o n tro l n e g o tia tio n s in G en ev a , encompassing de­
fence a n d space system s, strateg ic nuclear forces
an d in term e d ia te-ran g e n u c le a r forces.

310
1985-1986

26 April T h e 1955 T re a ty o f F rie n d sh ip , C o o p e ra tio n an d

M u tu a l A ssistance, estab lish in g th e W arsaw T re a ty
O rg a n isa tio n , is exten d ed Tor 20 years by leaders
o f th e seven m em b er states.
7 M a y -17 Ju n e C S C E E x p e rts’ M eeting on H u m a n R ights,
O ttaw a.
15 O c to b e r- C S C E C u ltu ra l F o ru m in B udapest.
25 N ovem ber
12 N ovem ber P ro fesso r v an d e r Beugel (N e th e rla n d s) becom es
th e second recipient o f N A T O ’s A tlan tic A w ard
fo r o u tsta n d in g services to the A tla n tic A lliance.
19-21 N o v em b er A t the G en ev a S um m it, U n ited S tates P resident
R o n a ld R e ag an an d Soviet lead er M ikhail G o r ­
bach ev agree in prin cip le on a red u ctio n o f stra te ­
gic n u clear forces by 50 p er cent a n d on a n interim
I N F agreem ent.
21 N ovem ber P re sid en t R eag an re p o rts on his G en ev a talk s w ith
S oviet lead er M ik h a il G o rb a c h e v a t a special m eet­
ing o f th e N o r th A tla n tic C o u n c il w ith th e p a rtic i­
p a tio n o f H ead s o f S tate an d G o v e rn m e n t an d
F o re ig n M inisters.

1986
1 January P o rtu g a l an d S pain becom e m em bers o f th e E u ro ­
p ean E co n o m ic C o m m u n ity (E E C ).
12 M arch In a referen d u m o rg an ised by P rim e M in ister
F elipe G on zalez , S panish v o ters su p p o rt th e c o n tin ­
ued m em b ersh ip o f S pain in th e A tla n tic A lliance
w ith o u t p a rtic ip a tio n in N A T O ’s in teg rated m ili­
ta ry stru ctu re.
15 April In response to te rro rist a tta c k s a ttrib u te d to L ibya,
U n ited S lates forces a tta c k ta rg e ts in T rip o li an d
B enghazi.
15 A pril-2 6 M ay C S C E E x p e rts’ M eeting on H u m a n C o n ta c ts, Berne.
26 April N u c le a r accident a t th e C h e rn o b y l pow er sta tio n
in th e S oviet U n io n .
29-30 M ay F o reig n M in isters issue a S tatem en t o n the M in iste­
rial m eeting o f th e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil in H ali­
fax, C a n a d a , calling on th e Soviet U n io n lo jo in
th em in ta k in g ‘b o ld new ste p s’ to p ro m o te peace,
security a n d a p ro d u ctiv e E ast-W est dialogue. M in ­
isters establish a H igh-L evel T a sk F o rc e on C o n ­
v en tio n al A rm s C o n tro l.
22 September E n d o f S to ck h o lm C o n feren ce on C onfidence an d
S ecu rity-B uilding M e asu res an d D isa rm a m e n t in
E u ro p e (C D E ). C o n c lu d in g d o c u m e n t (d ated 19
S ep tem ber) includes m a n d a to ry m easures fo r notifi­
c a tio n , o b se rv atio n an d o n -site inspection o f m ili­
ta ry m an o eu v res o f p a rtic ip a tin g co u n tries.

311
1986-1987

13 O ctober A t a special session o f the N o rth A tlantic Council

a tte n d e d by F o re ig n an d D efence M inisters in
Brussels, U S S ecretary o f S tate S chultz briefs the
C o u ncil on the negative o u tc o m e o f th e Reykjavik
S u m m it o f 11-13 O ctober.
2 1 -2 2 O cto b er M in isterial m eeting o f N A T O ’s N uclear Planning
G r o u p in G leneagles. S co tlan d . D efence Ministers
express su p p o rt fo r P re sid en t R e ag an ’s arm s con­
tro l p ro g ram m e.
4 N o v em b er T h e th ird C S C E F o llo w -u p C onference opens in
V ienna.
24 N o v em b er P ro f. K arl K aiser (F ed eral R ep u b lic o f Germany)
receives the th ird A tla n tic A w ard for services to
th e A lliance.
11 D ecem ber N A T O F o reig n M in isters issue th e Brussels Declar­
a tio n o n C o n v e n tio n al A rm s C o n tro l calling for
n e g o tia tio n s on co n v en tio n al stability, aimed at
elim in atin g existing disp a rities from the Atlantic
to th e U ra ls a n d estab lish in g conventional stability
a t low er levels; a n d on fu rth e r confidence and
secu rity -b u ild in g m easures.

1987
26 Ja n u a ry S p ain resum es n e g o tia tio n s w ith its N A T O part­
n ers on the fu tu re role o f S panish forces with the
A lliance.
17 F e b ru a ry T a lk s o p en in V ienna betw een N A T O and Warsaw
T re a ty co u n trie s on a m a n d a te fo r negotiations on
co n v en tio n al forces in E u ro p e from the Atlantic to
th e U rals.
27 M arch N A T O S ecretary G en eral L o rd C arrin g to n , follow­
ing a n em ergency m eeting o f the N o rth Atlantic
C o u ncil, offers to use his g o o d offices to help lo
resolve th e d isp u te in the A egean betw een Greece
a n d T u rk ey .
4 Ju n e T h e p a rlia m e n t o f th e F ed eral R epublic of Ger­
m an y form ally en d o rses a p ro p o sa l calling for the
elim in atio n o f in term e d ia te-ran g e (IN F ) and
s h o rte r-ra n g e (S R IN F ) m issiles in E urope.
5 Ju n e T h e C a n a d ia n G o v e rn m e n t a n n o u n ces its decision
to redirect its co m m itm en t lo th e reinforcem ent of
E u ro p e from th e N o rth e rn to the C entral Region.
19 Ju n e C h a n c e llo r o f th e F ed eral R e p u b lic Helm ut Kohl
p ro p o se s th e fo rm a tio n o f a jo in t Franco-German
b rig ad e as the first step to w a rd s a jo in t European
fig hting force.
22 July Soviet lead er M ik h a il G o rb a c h e v announces Soviet
read in ess to elim in ate all interm ediate-range nu­
clear w eap o n s in cluding th o se deployed in the

3 12
1987

A sian p a rt o f the Soviet U n io n in th e co n tex t o f a

U n ited S tates-S oviet I N F treaty.
23 July Soviet n e g o tia to rs p resent a p ro p o sa l at th e U nited
S tates-S oviet G en ev a arm s c o n tro l n eg o tiatio n s ac­
cep tin g the principle o f a ‘d o u b le-zero o p tio n ’ elim i­
n a tin g Soviet a n d U S lan d -b ased in term e d ia te
ran g e ( L R IN F an d S R IN F ) m issiles on a global
basis.
20 August W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n ex p erts m eeting in T h e
H ag u e co n sid er jo in t actio n in the G u lf to ensure
freed om o f nav ig atio n in th e oil sh ip p in g lanes o f
th e region.
28-30 A u g u st U n ited S tates in sp e cto rs a tte n d m ilita ry m a n o e u ­
vres n ear M in sk , th e first such inspection to ta k e
place u n d e r th e provisions o f the S ep tem b er 1986
S to ck h o lm D o cu m en t.
5-7 O cto b er S oviet in sp e cto rs a tte n d N A T O exercises in
T u rk e y , th e first such inspection to tak e place in
a n A lliance c o u n try u n d er the p ro v isio n s o f the
S ep tem b er 1986 S to ck h o lm D o cu m en t.
27 October F o re ig n a n d D efence M in isters o f the seven
m em b er c o u n trie s o f th e W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n
a d o p t ‘T h e H ag u e P la tfo rm on E u ro p e a n Security
In te re sts’.
25 N ovem ber P re se n ta tio n o f N A T O ’s a n n u a l A tla n tic A w ard to
P ierre H arm el (B elgium ), a u th o r o f th e 1967
H arm el R e p o rt.
8 D ecember U S P resident R e ag an an d Soviet L ead er M ikhail
G o rb a c h e v , m eeting a t the beginning o f th eir 3-
d ay su m m it talks, sign the W ash in g to n IN F
T re a ty , elim in atin g on a g lobal basis lan d -b ased
in term e d ia te-ran g e n u clear m issiles.
9 December T h e U n ited S tates a n d th e Soviet U n io n reach
ag reem en t on m easu res allow ing the m o n ito rin g o f
n u clear explosions a t each o th e r’s test sites.
10 Decem ber A t th e end o f th eir 3-day su m m it m eeting in W ash ­
in g to n , U S P resid en t R e ag an an d Soviet L eader
M ik h a il G o rb a c h e v pledge d eep cu ts in strategic
a rm s a n d in stru ct n e g o tia to rs in G eneva to d ra ft
an ag reem en t in line w ith the 1972 A B M T reaty .
11 Decem ber T h e N o rth A tlan tic C ouncil m a rk s th e 20th a n n i­
v ersary o f th e H arm el rep o rt. T h e S ecretary o f
S tate o f th e U n ited S tales an d the F oreign M inis­
ters o f Belgium , F ed eral R epublic o f G erm an y ,
Italy , the N e th e rla n d s a n d the U n ited K ingdom
sign b ilateral ag reem en ts relatin g to the im plem en­
ta tio n o f th e I N F T re a ty a n d its on -site inspection
a n d v erification procedures.

313
1988

22 January E stab lish m en t o f a Jo in t S ecurity C ouncil by the

G o v e rn m e n ts o f th e F ed eral R epublic o f Germany
an d o f F ra n ce. T h e tw o G o v ern m en ts also sign an
ag reem en t relatin g to th e fo rm atio n o f a joint
F ra n c o -G e rm a n A rm y Brigade.
2-3 M arch S um m it m eeting o f the N o rth A tlantic Council in
B russels em phasises A llied unity an d reasserts the
co m m o n objectives a n d principles an d the continu­
ing validity o f A lliance policies. A Statem ent on
C o n v e n tio n a l A rm s C o n tro l is issued calling for
significant steps to b rin g a b o u t progress in eliminat­
ing co n v en tio n al force d isp a rities th ro u g h negotia­
tio n s o n co n v en tio n al stability.
15 M ay B eginning o f Soviet tro o p w ithdraw als from
A fg h an istan .
2 6 -2 7 M ay N A T O D efence M in isters com m ission the Execu­
tive W o rk in g G r o u p lo c o n d u c t a review o f roles,
risks a n d responsibilities sh a red by m em ber nations
in th e co n tex t o f th eir effo rts to sustain the credibil­
ity an d effectiveness o f collective security and
defence.
31 M ay D u rin g a five-day S u m m it m eeting in Moscow,
P resid en t R eag an an d G en eral Secretary Gor­
b achev exchange d o c u m e n ts im plem enting the re­
cen tly ratified D ecem b er 1987 IN F Treaty and
sign b ilateral ag reem en ts on n u clear testing and in
o th e r fields.
9 -1 0 Ju n e A t the first M in isterial m eeting o f the N orth Atlan­
tic C ouncil to be held in M a d rid , F oreign Ministers
review th e positive p rogress in E ast-W est relations
registered a t th e M oscow S um m it meeting, and
w elcom e th e ev o lu tio n o f the S panish contribution
to th e co m m o n defence.
24 Ju n e A n n o u n cem en t o f the fo rm a tio n o f a N A T O Com­
p o site F o rc e to reinforce N o rth e rn Norway in
p erio d s o f ten sio n o r h ostility, to replace the Cana­
d ia n C A S T B rigade w hich will be reassigned to the
C e n tral R egion in acco rd an ce w ith the plans of the
C a n a d ia n G o v ern m en t.
28 J u n e - T h e 19th C P S U C o n feren ce in M oscow sets in
1 July tra in a p ro g ra m m e o f political, constitutional and
legal reform s.
1 July M a n fred W o rn er, fo rm er M inister o f Defence of
th e F ed eral R e p u b lic o f G erm an y , succeeds Lord
C a rrin g to n as S ecretary G en eral o f N A TO .
20 A ugust E n try in to force o f a ceasefire in the G ulf War
b etw een Ira n a n d Ira q , in th e fram ew ork of UN
S ecurity C ouncil R e so lu tio n 598.

314
1988-1989

14 N o v em b er P o rtu g a l a n d S pain sign the T re a ty o f A ccession to

th e W estern E u ro p e a n U n io n .
5 D ecem ber P au l N itze, S pecial A dviser on A rm s C o n tro l to
P resid en t R eag an , receives the 1988 A tlan tic
A w ard.
7 D ecem ber P re sid en t G o rb a c h e v , in the co u rse o f a m ajo r
ad d ress to the U N G e n e ra l A ssem bly, a n n o u n ces
u n ilateral Soviet co n v en tio n al force red u ctio n s. A
m a jo r e a rth q u a k e in A rm en ia d ev astates several
cities a n d causes m assive loss o f life.
8 D ecem ber A lliance F oreign M in isters w elcom e Soviet red u c­
tio n s in co n v en tio n al forces an d publish a sta te ­
m en t o u tlin in g the A lliance’s p ro p o sals for fo rth ­
co m in g n eg o tiatio n s o n co n v en tio n al stab ility a n d
fu rth e r confidence a n d secu rity -b u ild in g m easures.

1989
7-11 Ja n u a ry 149 co u n trie s p a rtic ip a te in an in te rn a tio n a l C o n fe r­
ence on C hem ical W eap o n s in Paris.
18 Jan u ary P re sid en t G o rb a c h e v p rovides fu th er d etails o f in ­
ten d ed red u ctio n s in Soviet arm ed forces referred
to in his ad d ress to the U n ited N a tio n s on 7
D ecem b er 1988, a n n o u n c in g cu ts o f 14.2 p e r cent
in Soviet defence ex p en d itu re an d 19.5 per cen t in
th e p ro d u c tio n o f arm s a n d m ilitary eq u ip m en t.
19 Jan u ary C o n c lu sio n o f th e V ienna C S C E F o llo w -u p M e et­
ing a n d a d o p tio n o f a C o n c lu d in g D o c u m e n t in­
clu d in g m a n d a te s for new n e g o tia tio n s on C o n v e n ­
tio n al A rm ed F o rces in E u ro p e (C F E ) a n d new
n e g o tia tio n s on C onfidence an d S ecurity-B uilding
M easu res (C S B M s).
23-27 Ja n u a ry F u tu re red u ctio n s in co n v en tio n al forces an d m ili­
ta ry b u d g ets are a n n o u n c e d by the G e rm a n D em o ­
cratic R epublic, P o la n d , H u n g ary , C zechoslovakia,
an d B ulgaria. T hey are w elcom ed by A lliance c o u n ­
tries as c o n trib u tio n s to the red u ctio n o f co n v en ­
tio n a l force im b alan ces in E u ro p e.
2 February F in al m eeting o f the V ienna n e g o tia tio n s on
M u tu a l a n d B alanced F o rc e R ed u ctio n s.
11 F eb ru ary T h e C e n tral C o m m ittee o f the H u n g a ria n C o m m u ­
n ist P a rty en d o rses ‘g rad u al a n d ste ad y ’ tran sitio n
to a m u lti-p a rty political system .
15 F eb ru ary T h e Soviet U n io n co m p letes th e w ith d raw al o f m ili­
ta ry forces from A fg h an istan in acco rd an ce w ith
th e schedule a n n o u n c e d by P resid en t G o rb ach ev .
6 M arch F o re ig n M inisters o f C S C E sta te s m eet in V ienna
to m ark th e o p en in g o f new n e g o tia tio n s on C o n ­
v en tio n al A rm ed F o rces in E u ro p e (C F E ) am o n g

315
1989

the 23 m em bers o f N A T O a n d the W arsaw Treaty

O rg a n isa tio n an d on C onfidence an d Security­
B uilding M easu res a m o n g all 35 C S C E participat­
ing S tates.
26 M arch T h e first m u lti-c a n d id a te elections to the new
U S S R C o n g ress o f P eo p le’s D eputies result in
m a jo r set-b ack s for official P arly candidates in
m an y constituencies.
4 A pril T h e fo rtieth a n n iv ersary o f the signing o f the North
A tlan tic T re a ty is m ark ed by a special session of
th e N o rth A tla n tic C ouncil a n d o th er ceremonies
a t N A T O a n d in capitals.
5 A pril A g reem ents signed in W arsaw by G overnm ent and
o p p o sitio n n e g o tia to rs on m easures leading to po­
litical refo rm s in P o lan d including free elections
an d re g istratio n o f the b a n n e d trad e union move­
m en t S olidarity.
18 A p ril-2 3 M ay C S C E In fo rm a tio n F o ru m , L o n d o n .
12 M ay P resident B ush p ro p o ses "Open Skies' regime to
increase confidence a n d tran sp aren cy with respecl
to m ilita ry activities. T h e p ro p o sal envisages recip­
rocal o p en in g o f airsp ace an d acceptance of over­
flights o f n a tio n a l te rrito ry by participating
co u n tries.
2 9 -3 0 M ay S u m m it M eeting o f the N o rth A tlantic Council in
B russels a tte n d e d by H ead s o f S late and Govern­
m ent. A n n o u n c e m e n t by P resident Bush of major
new initiatives for c o n v en tio n al force reductions in
E u ro p e. A d o p tio n o f the A lliance's Comprehensive
C o n c ep t o f A rm s C o n tro l a n d D isarm am ent and
p u b licatio n o f a S um m it D eclaration.
30 M a y -2 3 Ju n e F irst m eeting o f the C S C E C onference on the
H u m an D im ension (C D H ) in Paris.
31 M ay D u rin g a visit to the F ederal R epublic o f Germany
P resident Bush outlines p ro p o sals for promoting
free elections an d pluralism in E astern Europe and
d ism an tlin g the Berlin W all.
3 4 Ju n e C hinese leaders use arm ed forces in Peking to
su p p ress u n arm ed stu d e n i-led p o p u lar demonstra­
tio n s in fav o u r o f d em o cracy , causing large-scale
loss o f life a n d leading to m ajo r unrest in other
cities, purges an d infringem ents o f basic rights.
4 an d 18 Ju n e F ree elections for th e Polish Senate and partial
elections involving 35 per cent o f seals in the Sejm
resu lt in m a jo r electoral success for Solidarity.
8 -9 Ju n e M in isterial M eeting o f th e D efence P la n n in g Com­
m ittee. D efence M in isters co n sid er implications for
defence p la n n in g o f W estern p roposals for reduc­
tion o f co n v en tio n al forces in E urope.

316
1989

16 June Im re N a g y , leader o f the 1956 H u n g a ria n revolu­

tio n w ho w as h anged in 1958, is reb u ried w ith full
h o n o u rs in B udapest.
19 June R e -o p en in g o f S trateg ic A rm s R e d u ctio n T alk s
(S T A R T ) in G eneva.
2 July D e a th o f v eteran Soviet F oreign M in ister an d
fo rm er P resident A ndrei G ro m y k o .
9 August A sta te m e n t is issued by N A T O 's S ecretary G e n ­
eral o n b e h a lf o f the A llies co n cern in g the situ atio n
o f ethnic T u rk s in B ulgaria, calling upon the B ul­
g arian g o v ern m en t to resp o n d positively lo appeals
to m eet its responsibilities in acco rd an ce with
C S C E com m itm ents.
24 August T ad eu sz M azow iecki becom es P rim e M inister o f
th e first n o n -co m m u n ist led g o v ern m en t in P o lan d
in 40 years. T h e Polish U nited W o rk ers' (C o m m u ­
n ist) P arty retain s fo u r m inistries.
10 S eptem ber H u n g ary o p en s its W estern b o rd er, en ab lin g large
n u m b ers o f E ast G e rm a n refugees lo leave the
c o u n try for d e stin a tio n s in the W est.
3 O ctober F o llo w in g the exodus o f 6,390 E ast G erm an citi­
zens from W estern em bassies in P rag u e on 1 O c to ­
ber, u n d er arra n g e m e n ts m ad e by the E ast G erm an
G o v e rn m e n t, som e 20,000 E ast G erm an em ig ran ts
co n g reg ate in the P rag u e a n d W arsaw em bassies
o f th e F ederal R epublic o f G e rm a n y .
6-7 O cto b er M ik h ail G o rb ach ev , atte n d in g 40th A nniversary
P a ra d e in E ast B erlin, urges reform s in th e G D R .
16 O ctober C S C E M eeting on E n v iro n m en tal P ro te ctio n in
Sofia.
18 O ctober E rich H o n eck e r, G en eral S ecretary o f the S ocialist
(C o m m u n ist) U nity P arty since 1971, is replaced
by E gon K ren z as leader o f the G e rm a n D e m o ­
cratic R e p u b lic as E ast G erm an citizens d e m o n ­
stra te for political refo rm a n d large n u m b ers o f
refugees co n tin u e to leave the G e rm a n D em o cratic
R e p u b lic th ro u g h P ra g u e an d B udapest.
23 O ctober T h e am en d ed c o n stitu tio n a d o p te d by th e H u n ­
g a ria n P arlia m e n t on 18 O c to b e r brings in to being
th e R ep u b lic o f H u n g a ry as a ‘free, d em o cratic,
in d ep en d en t legal sta te ’ an d opens the w ay for
m u ltip a rty elections in 1990.
1 N ovem ber R e sig n atio n o f th e E ast G e rm a n C a b in e t follow ing
rallies in m any cities calling for free elections an d
the a b o liti o n o f th e C o m m u n ist m o n o p o ly on
p o w er a n d calls from w ithin the P arty for m ajo r
ch an g es at the highest level. T h e m ove is follow ed
th e next day by the jo in t resignation o f th e ruling
P o litb u ro .

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9-10 N ovem ber O p en in g o f the B erlin W all. In an athm osphere of

p o litical u n c e rta in ty a n d a crisis o f authority in
E ast B erlin, E ast a n d W est B erliners tear down the
w all an d celeb rate the beginning o f the process of
un ification. F o llo w in g w idespread dem onstrati ons
a n d d e m a n d fo r political refo rm , the government
o f the G e rm a n D em o cratic R epublic announces
th e lifting o f trav el restrictio n s to the West and
sets up new cro ssin g points.
10 N o v em b er R em o v al o f T o d o r Z hiv k o v , B ulgarian Communist
P a rty lead er since 1954, follow ed by further sweep­
ing changes in th e p a rty leadership.
14 N o v em b er E ast G e rm a n P a rlia m e n t elects reform ist Hans
M o d ro w as P rim e M inister.
17 N o v em b er V io lent d isp e rsal o f P ra g u e stu d e n t dem onstrations
trig g ers p o p u la r m o v em en t ag ain st the government.
E m ergence o f Civic F o ru m , led by V aclav Havel.
20 N o v em b er M a ss d e m o n s tra tio n s in L eipzig voice popular call
fo r G e rm a n unification.
24 N o v em b er R e sig n atio n o f the C zechoslovak P arty leadership.
K arel U rb a n e k becom es G en eral Secretary and
invites d ialo g u e w ith Civic F o ru m .
3 D ecem b er R e sig n atio n o f new E ast G erm an Politburo and
C e n tral C o m m ittee am id revelations o f Communist
lead ersh ip ’s m isrule a n d c o rru p tio n .
4 D ecem b er N A T O S u m m it M eetin g in Brussels. US President
G eo rg e Bush briefs N A T O leaders on his talks
w ith Soviet P re sid en t G o rb a c h e v at the US-Soviet
S u m m it M eeting in M a lta on 2 -3 December, mark­
ing th e beg in n in g o f a new e ra o f cooperation.
T h e S u m m it M eetin g o f leaders o f the Warsaw
T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n in M oscow publishes a joint
sta te m e n t d e n o u n c in g th e 1968 invasion o f Czecho­
slo v a k ia by W arsa w P a c t forces an d repudiates the
B rezhnev D o c trin e o f lim ited sovereignty.
7 D ecem b er R e sig n atio n o f P re sid en t G u s ta v H u sak and forma­
tio n o f c o a litio n g o v ern m en t in Czechoslovakia.
N A T O ’s A tla n tic A w ard for 1989 is bestowed on
Sir M ichael H o w a rd , P re sid en t a n d co-founder of
th e In te rn a tio n a l In stitu te fo r Strategic Studies
(IISS).
11 D ecem b er P o p u la r d e m o n s tra tio n s in B ulgaria lead to the
p ro m ise o f free elections an d renunciation of ihe
lead ing role o f th e C o m m u n ist P arty.
14-15 D ecem b er M in isterial M eetin g o f the N o rth A tlantic Council
in Brussels. F o reig n M in isters review accelerating
P olitical ch an g e in C e n tra l an d E astern Europe.
19 D ecem b er S oviet F o re ig n M in ister E d u a rd Shevardnadze
visits N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs fo r talks with NATO

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S ecretary G en eral M a n fred W o rn er a n d P e rm a ­

nen t R ep resen tativ es o f N A T O co u n tries - the
first such visit by a M in ister o f a C e n tral o r E astern
E u ro p ean g overnm ent.
20 D ecem ber T r o o p s a n d police o p en fire on th o u sa n d s o f a n ti­
g o v ernm ent p ro te ste rs in the R o m a n ia n tow n o f
T im iso ara .
22 D ecem ber F all o f C eausescu regim e. N icolai C eausescu is
arre sted by th e R o m a n ia n arm ed forces an d ex­
ecu ted on 25 D ecem ber. T h e N a tio n a l S alvation
F ro n t h ead ed by Io n Iliescu tak es c o n tro l an d
pro m ises free elections.
29 D ecem ber T h e Polish P a rlia m e n t abolishes the leading role o f
th e C o m m u n ist P arty a n d restores th e c o u n try ’s
nam e as the R e p u b lic o f P oland.
V aclav H avel is elected P resident of
C zechoslovakia.

1990
15 Jan u ary B u lg arian g o v ern m en t abolishes the C o m m u n ist
P a rty ’s 4 4 -year m o n o p o ly on political pow er.
16 Ja n u a ry - 3 5 -n ation S em in ar on M ilitary D o ctrin es in V ienna
5 February in th e fram ew o rk o f the C S C E .
6 February In a n un p reced en ted speech to the P lenary Session
o f th e C e n tra l C o m m ittee o f the C P S U , M ikhail
G o rb a c h e v addresses m a jo r aspects o f his reform
p ro g ra m m e in cluding the a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e lead­
ing role o f th e C o m m u n ist P arty an d the in tro d u c ­
tio n o f political pluralism .
11-13 F e b ru a ry F o reig n M in isters o f N A T O an d W arsaw T re a ty
O rg a n isa tio n co u n tries, w ith observers fro m o th er
C S C E states, m eet in O tta w a a t the o p en in g o f the
‘O p en S kies’ C onference.
13 F ebruary O n th e m arg in s o f th e ‘O pen S kies’ C o nference in
O tta w a , ag reem en t is reached by the F oreign M inis­
ters co n cern ed to h o ld discussions on external a s ­
p ects o f the estab lish m en t o f G erm an unity in a
‘T w o P lus F o u r ’ fram ew ork.
N A T O an d W arsa w T re a ty O rg a n isa tio n F oreign
M in isters also agree on steps to en ab le a C F E
ag reem en t to be co n clu d ed in 1990.
3 March C zechoslovak F o re ig n M in ister Jiri D ienstbier
visits N A T O H e a d q u a rte rs fo r discussions w ith
N A T O S ecretary G en eral M a n fred W ö rn er.
8 March A t a m eeting a tte n d e d by C h a n cello r H elm et K ohl,
c o n su lta tio n s ta k e place in th e N o rth A tlan tic
C o u n cil on the p o sitio n o f the G o v e rn m e n t o f the
F ed eral R e p u b lic on dev elo p m en ts in G erm an y
an d related security m atters.

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11 M arch The L ithuanian Parliam ent voles to break away

from the Soviet U nion and regain its
independence.
17 March W arsaw T reaty O rganisation Foreign Ministers
m eeting in Prague support the continuation in
being of both N A TO and the W arsaw Pact.
18 March In their first free elections in 40 years the citizens
o f the G erm an Dem ocratic Republic give an over­
whelming m ajority to the conservative 'Alliance
for Germany", m arking a further key step in the
process o f the unification o f Germ any.
19 M arch- 11 April CSCE Conference on Econom ic Cooperation in
Europe, Bonn.
21 March K rzystof Skubiszewski, Foreign Minister of
Poland, visits N A TO H eadquarters for discussions
with Secretary G eneral M anfred W orner and Per­
m anent Representatives of N A TO countries.
26 March The Czechoslovak G overnm ent orders border in­
stallations along its frontiers with Austria and the
Federal Republic o f G erm any to be dismantled.
27 March Form al entry o f Portugal and Spain lo the WEU
on completion o f the ratification process.
7 April Elections in H ungary result in a decisive victory
for the H ungarian D em ocratic Forum (centre-right
party).
12 April The coalition governm ent o f the German Demo­
cratic Republic pronounces itself in favour of unifi­
cation with the Federal Republic o f Germany on
the basis o f Article 23 o f the Basic Law and the
m em bership o f the unified country in the North
A tlantic Alliance.
3 May President Bush announces the cancellation of mod­
ernisation program m es for nuclear artillery shells
deployed in E urope and for a 'follow-on' lo the
L A N C E short-range nuclear missile. He calls for
negotiations on US and Soviet short-range nuclear
missiles to begin shortly after a CFE treaty is
signed.
4 May The Latvian Parliam ent declares the independence
o f the Baltic Republic.
8 May The E stonian Parliam ent modifies the Republic's
name and constitution and restores its pre-war flag
and national anthem .
9-10 May N A TO Defence Ministers, meeting in the Nuclear
Planning G roup in K ananaskis. Canada, discuss
the implications o f political changes taking place
in E urope for N A TO 's security policy.
20 May Following elections in Rom ania, former Commu­
nist G overnm ent m em ber Ion Iliescu is elected

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President despite opposition accusations o f elec­

toral irregularities. The N ational Salvation Front
obtains a m ajority in Parliament.
22-23 M ay N A TO Defence Ministers, meeting in the Defence
Planning Com mittee, assess the implications for
N A TO security policy of the changes taking place
in E urope and initiate a review o f N A T O 's m ilitary
strategy.
H ungary's new Premier, Josef Antall. announces
his governm ent's intention to withdraw from the
W arsaw T reaty O rganisation following
negotiations.
30 May Boris Yeltsin is elected President o f the Russian
Republic in the third round o f elections.
30 M a y -2 June US-Soviet Summit Meeting in W ashington.
5 June Foreign M inisters of the 35 countries participating
in the second CSCE Conference on the Hum an
Dimension (CHD 2) in Copenhagen agree to
accord observer status to Albania.
7-8 June At the M inisterial Meeting o f the N orth Atlantic
Council at T urnberry in Scotland, Alliance Foreign
M inisters publish a 'M essage from T urnberry' in
which they express their determ ination to seize the
opportunities resulting from the changes in Europe
and extend to the Soviet Union and all other
European countries the hand of friendship and
cooperation.
8 June Parliam entary elections in Czechoslovakia. Civic
Forum and allied parties win a m ajority in the
Federal Assembly.
10 and 17 June Elections in Bulgaria result in a parliam entary
m ajority for the Bulgarian Socialist Party.
18 June N A TO announces the award o f 70 research fellow­
ships lor 1990/91 including 55 fellowships for re­
search on dem ocratic institutions awarded for the
first time to citizens o f both N A TO and Central
and Eastern E uropean countries.
28 June At the Copenhagen CSCE Conference on the
Hum an Dimension, Eastern European countries
(excluding Albania, which joined the CSCE process
in June 1991) commit them selves to m ultiparty
parliam entary democracy and to the rule o f law.
29 June Geza Jeszensky, Foreign M inister o f Hungary, is
received at N A TO H eadquarters by Secretary G en­
eral M anfred W orner.
2 July M onetary union is established between the Federal
Republic o f Germ any and the G erm an Dem ocratic
Republic.
T aro N akayam a, Foreign M inister o f Japan, is

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received by Secretary General M anfred Womer at

NA TO H eadquarters.
6 July N A TO H eads o f State and Governm enl meeting
in London publish the 'L ondon Declaration' on a
Transform ed N orth A tlantic Alliance. The Declar­
ation outlines proposals for developing cooper­
ation with the countries of Central and Eastern
Europe across a wide spectrum o f political and
m ilitary activity, including the establishment of
regular diplom atic liaison between those countries
and NATO.
10 July The Foreign M inister o f the Germ an Democratic
Republic, M arkus Meckel, visits NATO.
13-17 July NA TO Secretary G eneral M anfred Womer visits
M oscow at the invitation o f Foreign Minister
Shevardnadze for talks with the Soviet leadership
following publication o f the London Declaration.
16 July Chancellor Kohl and President Gorbachev agree
on m easures enabling G erm any to regain full sover­
eignty and to exercise its right to remain a full
mem ber o f the N orth Atlantic Alliance.
17 July Conclusion o f the T w o Plus F our’ Conference in
Paris on the unification o f Germ any.
18 July H ungarian Prime M inister Josef Antall visits
N A TO H eadquarters.
2 August Iraqi troops invade Kuw ait following a dispute
between the two countries on exploitation of oil
rights in the Gulf.
6 August The UN Security Council agrees unanimously on
wide-ranging sanctions against Iraq and demands
Iraqi withdrawal from the occupied territory of
Kuwait.
8 August The UN Security Council declares the Iraqi
announcem ent o f its de facto annexation of Kuwait
null and void.
10 August Special M eeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council at the
level o f Foreign M inisters for consultations and ex­
change of inform ation on developments in the Gulf.
22 August The legislature o f the G erm an Democratic Repub­
lic votes in favour o f the unification of the GDR
with the Federal Republic o f Germ any on 3 Octo­
ber 1990 and agrees to hold elections in the unified
country on 2 December 1990.
4 S ep tem b er The nine m em ber countries o f the Western Euro­
pean Union agree on guidelines for the coordina­
tion o f their naval operations in the Gulf region in
order lo reinforce the international embargo
against Iraq. A num ber o f W EU and other coun­
tries send forces to the area.

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5-8 Septem ber N A TO Secretary General M anfred W orner visits

the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic for discus­
sions with the President, Prime M inister and Presi­
dent o f the Parliam ent.
7 September C onsultations continue in the N orth Atlantic C oun­
cil on political, m ilitary and economic develop­
m ents in the G ulf in the framework o f the harm oni­
sation of allied policies and the comm itm ent o f the
Allies to work for the application of United N a­
tions resolutions in relation to the G ulf crisis.
10 September The United Stales Secretary o f State Jam es Baker
briefs a special meeting of the N orth Atlantic
Council in M inisterial session on the outcom e of
the US-Soviet sum m it meeting on the G ulf crisis.
12 September In a statem ent issued on the occasion o f the signing
o f the 'Tw o Plus F our T reaty' in Moscow, the
Alliance welcomes this historic agreement which
paves the way for the unification o f Germ any and
its return to full sovereignty.
13-15 September N A TO Secretary General M anfred W orner on his
first visit to Poland addresses the Sejm on the
historic opportunities for creating a durable order
o f peace and prosperity in Europe based on cooper­
ation and friendship.
14 September Initiation o f Allied consultations in N A T O ’s
Special Consultative G roup on future negotiations
on short-range nuclear forces as called for in the
London D eclaration.
In a statem ent condem ning the forced entry by
Iraqi soldiers into the residences o f N A TO embassies
in Kuwait, the Alliance calls upon Iraq to free those
seized and lo refrain from further aggressive acts.
24 September- CSCE M eeting on the M editerranean, Palma de
19 Oclober M allorca.
1-2 Oclober CSCE Conference o f Foreign M inisters in New
Y ork passes resolution condem ning Iraqi aggres­
sion against Kuwait.
3 October On the day o f G erm an unification the N orth A tlan­
tic Council m arks the occasion by a special meeting
and welcomes the united country as a full member
o f the Alliance.
15 October M ikhail G orbachev is awarded the 1990 Nobel
Peace Prize.
23 Oclober M r. Petre R om an, Prime M inister o f Rom ania, is
received at N A TO H eadquarters by Secretary G en­
eral M anfred W orner.
25-26 O clober Visit to N A TO by First Deputy M inister o f De­
fence and C hief o f the Soviet G eneral Staff, G en­
eral M.A. Moiseyev.

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26 O cto b er Dr. Lajos Fur, Defence M inister of the Republic

o f H ungary, visits NATO.
15 N o v em b er Mr. Luben G otsev. Foreign M inister of Bulgaria,
is received at N A TO H eadquarters by Secretary
General M anfred W orner.
17 N ovem ber CSCE negotiators adopt the 'Vienna Document'
on Confidence and Security-Building Measures
(CSBMs).
19 Novem ber In the fram ework o f the CSCE Summit Meeting in
Paris, the 22 m ember states o f NATO and the
W arsaw T reaty O rganisation sign a major Treaty
on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe and
publish a Joint Declaration on non-aggression.
21 N ovem ber CSCE H eads o f Slate and Governm ent publish the
C harter o f Paris for a New Europe and endorse
the adoption o f the Vienna Document on Confi­
dence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs).
22-25 N ovem ber NA TO Secretary General M anfred Worner visils
Hungary.
26-28 Novem ber The N orth A tlantic Assembly meeting in London
accords associate delegate status to parliamentar­
ians from the Soviet U nion, Bulgaria, Czechoslova­
kia, Hungary and Poland.
6-7 December M inisterial m eeting o f the Defence Planning Com­
m ittee and the N uclear Planning Group in Brus­
sels. Defence M inisters support UN Resolution
678 dem anding that Iraqi forces withdraw from
Kuwait by January 1991. They review progress in
developing a new strategic concept for NATO and
other steps being taken to adapt NATO forces to
the new strategic environm ent in Europe.
9 December Lech W alesa is elected President o f Poland.
11 December A lbania’s Com m unist Party announces the legalisa­
tion o f political opposition parties after 45 years of
one-party dictatorship.
13 December Rom anian Secretary o f State for Defence, General
V asile lonel visits NATO.
15 December At a Summit M eeting in Rome EC leaders open
Intergovernm ental Conferences on Economic and
M onetary U nion and Political Union.
17-18 D ecem ber Ministerial m eeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council
in Brussels. Foreign M inisters review progress
made since the July Sum m it Meeting in fulfilling
the objectives o f the L ondon Declaration and issue
a statem ent on the G ulf Crisis.
20 D ecem ber Soviet Foreign M inister E douard Shevardnadze
resigns, warning o f the risks of renewed dictator­
ship in the Soviet Union.

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2 January NA TO deploys aircraft o f the ACE Mobile Force

(A M F) lo south-east Turkey in an operational
role.
8 January Soviet troops are deployed around the Lithuanian
capital lo enforce m andatory conscription.
9 January At a Geneva meeting between the US and Iraqi
Foreign ministers. Iraq m aintains its refusal lo
w ithdraw ils forces from Kuwait.
11 January NA TO issues a statem ent urging Soviet authorities
to refrain from using force and intim idation in the
Baltic Republics.
15 January- CSCE Experts' Meeting on Peaceful Settlement of
8 Feb ruary D isputes in Valetla proposes establishment oT Dis­
pute Settlement Mechanism.
17 January Coalition forces launch air attacks against Iraq at
the beginning of the G ulf W ar. following Iraq's
refusal to withdraw from Kuwait in accordance
with UN Security Council Resolutions.
9 February Eighty-five per cent of those voting in a Lithuanian
plebiscite favour moves towards independence.
18 Feb rua ry W EU Secretary General Wim van Eekelen visits
N A TO for discussions with N A TO Secretary G en­
eral M anfred W orner in the framework of on­
going consultations on the development o f the
European Security and Defence Identity and co­
operation between N A TO and the W EU.
19 February An eleventh-hour Soviet peace plan for averting
the G ulf W ar falls short o f Allied dem ands for an
unconditional withdrawal o f Iraqi forces.
24 February Coalition forces begin ground offensive into
Kuwait.
25 February Representatives of the six countries o f the W arsaw
Pact convene in Budapest lo announce the dissolu­
tion o f ils m ilitary structure. The W arsaw Pact
Com m ittee o f Defence Ministers, its Joint Com ­
m and. and ils Military, Scientific and Technical
Council are disbanded.
27 February Czechoslovak Foreign M inister Jiri Dienslbier
visits NATO.
28 February Coalition forces liberate Kuwait. US President
George Bush suspends allied coalition com bat op­
erations. Iraq accepts unconditionally all 12 UN
resolutions relating lo the withdrawal o f its forces
from Kuwait.
3 March In referendums held in Estonia and Latvia, voles
favour independence by 77 per cent and 73 per
cent, respectively.
4 March T he Soviet legislature ratifies the Treaty perm itting

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G erm an unification, formally ending the authority

o f the quadripartite arrangem ents concerning Ger­
m any introduced after W orld W ar II.
6 M arch N A T O ’s Allied M obile Force is withdrawn from
T urkey following the end o f the G ulf War.
13 and 26 M arch Com pletion of United States withdrawal of
interm ediate-range nuclear forces (Pershing II and
Cruise missiles) from E urope in accordance wilh
the IN F Treaty.
21 M arch Visit to N A TO by the President o f the Czech and
Slovak Federal Republic, Vaclav Havel. President
Havel addresses the N orth Atlantic Council.
31 M arch Form al dissolution o f the m ilitary structures of the
W arsaw Pact.
5 April Inauguration in L ondon o f the European Bank for
R econstruction and Developm ent (EBRD), estab­
lished to assist Eastern E uropean countries and
the Soviet U nion in developing democracy and a
m arket economy.
23-24 April Visit by the C hairm an o f N A T O ’s Military Com­
mittee, G eneral Vigleik Eide, to the Czech and
Slovak Federal Republic.
25-26 April Conference on The F uture o f European Security
in Prague sponsored jointly by the Foreign Minis­
ter o f the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and
the Secretary G eneral o f NATO.
29 April N A T O ’s annual A tlantic A w ard is presented post­
hum ously to Senator G iovanni Malagodi of Italy.
30 April Visit to N A TO H eadquarters by Bulgarian Prime
M inister, D im itar Popov and Colonel General Mu-
tafchiev, M inister o f Defence.
7 M ay The Yugoslav Defence M inister declares that his
country is in a state o f civil war.
12 M ay Elim ination by the Soviet Union of remaining
SS20 missiles in accordance with the IN F Treaty.
21 May The US H ouse o f Representatives calls for a reduc­
tion o f US troop strength in Europe from 250,000
to 100,000 by 1995.
T he Supreme Soviet passes a bill liberalising
foreign travel and em igration.
23 May Visit to N A TO by Poland’s Defence Minister, Piotr
Kolodziejczyk.
28-29 May M inisterial M eetings o f N A T O ’s Defence Planning
C om m ittee and N uclear Planning Group. Minis­
ters agree inter alia on the basis of a new NATO
force structure.
28 M a y -7 Ju n e CSCE C ultural H eritage Symposium, Cracow.
1 Ju n e US and Soviet officials report resolution of out­
standing differences on the C F E Treaty.

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6-7 June N A T O Foreign M inisters meeting in Copenhagen,

issue Statem ents on Partnership with the Countries
o f Central and Eastern Europe, N A T O ’s Core
Security Functions in the New Europe, and the Res­
olution of Problems Concerning the C FE Treaty.
12-14 June N A TO Secretary General M anfred W orner pays
an official visit to the Republic of Bulgaria.
19 June A lbania becomes 35th CSCE participating State.
19-20 June M eeting o f CSCE Council, Berlin. Foreign M inis­
ters create a CSCE Emergency Mechanism allow­
ing for meetings o f Senior Officials to be called at
short notice subject to agreement by 13 States, and
endorse the V aletta R eport on the Peaceful Settle­
m ent o f Disputes.
20 June G erm an legislators vote to reinstate Berlin as the
country’s official capital.
25 June Parliam ents o f Slovenia and C roatia proclaim
independence.
28 June D issolution o f CO M ECO N .
1July The W arsaw pact is officially disbanded in accord­
ance with a protocol calling for a ‘transition to all-
European structures.’
1-19 July CSCE E xperts’ M eeting on N ational Minorities,
Geneva.
3 July Polish President Lech W alesa visits NATO.
4-5 July N A T O ’s Secretary General M anfred W om er visits
Rom ania.
30 July Russian President Boris Yeltsin signs a treaty with
L ithuania recognising its independence.
30-31 July US and Soviet Presidents proclaim their two-day
sum m it as opening a new era in bilateral relations
and sign ST A R T T reaty reducing strategic nuclear
weapons.
19 August Soviet President G orbachev is removed from office
in a coup and replaced by an ‘emergency com m it­
tee’. M eeting in emergency session, the N A TO
Council w arns the Soviet U nion o f ‘serious conse­
quences’ if it abandons reform. W estern aid pro­
gram m es are suspended.
Russian President Boris Yeltsin calls for a general
strike while loyalist tanks flying Russian flags posi­
tion themselves near the Russian parliam ent
building.
21 August M inisterial m eeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council.
Foreign M inisters review the political situation in
the Soviet U nion and publish a statem ent condem n­
ing the unconstitutional removal o f President G o r­
bachev and calling for the restoration o f dem o­
cratic reform.

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President G orbachev returns to Moscow as the

19 A ugust coup collapses and its leaders are ar­
rested. W estern leaders praise President Yeltsin’s
role in resisting the coup and lift a freeze on aid to
the Soviet U nion.
R om anian Foreign M inister Adrian Nastase visits
NA TO .
25 August The Soviet U nion announces a wholesale purge of
the M ilitary High Com m and. President Gorbachev
proposes that the C om m unist Party be disbanded
and resigns as its G eneral Secretary.
26 August President G orbachev indicates th at the demands of
secession-minded republics for independence can no
longer be resisted. EC countries agree to establish
diplom atic ties with the three Baltic states.
28 August President G orbachev appoints Boris Pankin,
form er A m bassador to Czechoslovakia, as Foreign
M inister, strips the K G B o f its troops and orders
an investigation o f its activities.
29 August Soviet legislators vote to suspend all activities of
the Com m unist Party.
5 Septem ber The Soviet Congress o f Peoples Deputies, before
disbanding, agrees to hand over key powers to the
Republics.
10 Septem ber- T hird CSC E M eeting o f the Conference on the
4 O ctober H um an D im ension, in Moscow. Estonia, Latvia
and L ithuania become participating CSCE States.
17 Septem ber Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are admitted to the
UN.
27 Septem ber US President Bush announces sweeping cuts in US
nuclear weapons and calls upon the Soviet Union
to do likewise. The US cuts include the destruction
o f all US ground-launched tactical nuclear missiles
and the removal o f nuclear cruise missiles from
subm arines and warships.
6 O ctober M eeting in Cracow, the Foreign Ministers of
Poland, H ungary and Czechoslovakia slate their
wish for their countries lo be included in NATO
activities.
President G orbachev announces the abolition of
Soviet short-range nuclear weapons and the re­
m oval o f all taclical nuclear weapons from ships,
subm arines and land-based naval aircraft.
17 O c to b e r N A T O Defence M inisters m eeting in Taormina,
Italy, announce reductions in the current NATO
stockpile o f sub-strategic nuclear weapons in
E urope by approxim ately 80 per cent.
21 O c to b e r Visit to N A TO by Soviet D eputy Foreign Minister
Deryabin.

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24-25 O cto b er Sem inar on C ivil/M ilitary C oordination o f Air

Traffic M anagem ent at N A TO with participation
from N A TO and C entral and Eastern European
countries.
28 October H ungarian Prime M inister Josef Antall visits
NA TO .
30 October The first Peace Conference on the M iddle East
opens in M adrid under the joint chairm anship o f
the U nited States and the Soviet Union.
4-15 November CSCE Expe rts’ Sem inar on Dem ocratic Institu­
tions, Oslo.
7-8 November Summit M eeting o f the N orth A tlantic Council in
Rom e. H eads o f State and G overnm ent publish
the Alliance’s new Strategic Concept and issue the
Rom e D eclaration on Peace and C ooperation.
11 November N A TO Secretary General M anfred W om er re­
ceives Polish Foreign M inister K rzystof Skubisze-
wski at NATO.
12 November Estonian Foreign M inister L ennart Meri is re­
ceived at N A TO .
Bulgarian Foreign M inister Stoyan Ganev visits
NATO.
14 November Bulgarian President Zhelyu Zhelev visits NATO.
25 November R om anian M inister o f N ational Defence Lt. G en­
eral Nicolae Spiroiu is received at N A TO .
I December In a referendum 90 per cent o f the voters in
U kraine opt for independence from the Soviet
Union.
8 December Representatives o f the three form er Soviet R epub­
lics o f Russia, Belarus and U kraine meet in Minsk
and agree to set up a Com m onw ealth o f Independ­
ent States to replace the Soviet Union.
9-10 December A t the M aastricht E uropean Council, H eads o f
State and G overnm ent o f the EC adopt treaties
(subject to ratification) on Econom ic and M on­
etary U nion and Political Union.
W EU M em ber States also meeting in M aastricht,
invite m em bers o f the E uropean U nion to accede
to the W EU or to become observers, and other
European m em bers o f N A TO to become associate
mem bers o f the W EU.
12-13 D ecem ber M inisterial m eeting o f the Defence Planning Com ­
m ittee in Brussels. Defence M inisters review m ajor
changes in force structures called for in the Alli­
ance’s new Strategic Concept, including substantial
reductions in troops and equipm ent.
13 December First D eputy Prime M inister o f Russia, Gennadij
Burbulis, visits N A T O for discussions with Sec­
retary G eneral M anfred W orner on the situation

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in the Soviet U nion following the foundation of

the Com m onw ealth o f Independent Stales by
Russia, U kraine and Belarus.
17 December During talks in Moscow President Yeltsin and
President G orbachev agree that the transition to
the Com m onw ealth o f Independent States would
take place at the end o f December 1991.
19 December M inisterial meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council
in Brussels. Foreign Ministers condemn the vio­
lence in Yugoslavia and pursue initiatives taken at
the Rom e Summit Meeting in November, inter
alia on N A TO assistance in providing humanitar­
ian aid to the Soviet Union.
20 December Inaugural meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Cooper­
ation Council attended by Foreign Ministers and
Representatives o f 16 N A TO countries and 9 Cen­
tral and Eastern E uropean countries. On the same
day, developm ents in Moscow mark the effective
end o f the USSR.
21 December Eleven o f the constituent republics of the former
Soviet U nion meet in Alma Ata and sign agree­
ments creating a new Commonwealth of Independ­
ent States.
25 December President G orbachev announces his resignation as
Soviet President and signs a Decree relinquishing
his function as Supreme Commander-in-Chief of
Soviet Forces.

1992
1 January Boutros Boutros-Ghali o f Egypt becomes Sec­
retary General o f the United Nations on the retire­
m ent o f Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru.
7-8 January N A TO participates in arrangements for airlifting
EC hum anitarian assistance to Moscow and St
Petersburg in aircraft provided by the Canadian
and G erm an governments.
8-10 January Meeting o f CSCE Senior Officials, Prague.
10 January At the first meeting of an informal High Level
W orking G roup established by the North Atlantic
C ooperation Council to discuss ratification and
im plem entation o f the C FE Treaty, agreement is
reached on a phased approach for bringing the
C FE Treaty into force.
2 2-23 Ja n u a ry A 47-nation international coordinating conference
in W ashington on assistance to the former Soviet
Union, sponsored by the United States, is attended
by N A T O ’s Secretary General Manfred Womer
and representatives o f other international
organisations.

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1992

28 January In his Slate o f the Union Address, US Presidenl

Bush proposes m ajor new arm s control and disar­
m am ent initiatives.
30 January The first Summit Meeting o f the 15 nation UN
Security Council is attended by Boris Yeltsin,
Presidenl o f the Russian Federation.
30-31 January Meeting o f CSCE Council o f Foreign M inisters in
Prague recognises the Russian Federation as the
continuation o f the legal personality of the form er
Soviet U nion and adm its 10 form er Soviet R epub­
lics as CSCE participating stales.
19 February Prime M inister o f Azerbaijan G asanov visits
NATO.
21 February M anfred W orner, Secretary General o f NATO,
visits Rom ania and opens a new Euro-A tlantic
C entre in Bucharest.
22-23 Fe b ru a ry Secretary General M anfred W orner visits Ukraine.
24-25 Fe b ru a ry Secretary G eneral M anfred W orner visits Russia.
26 February The Canadian Governm ent informs the Alliance
o f its decision to cancel plans to m aintain 1.100
C anadian forces in Europe after 1994, but confirms
its intention to fulfil other com m itm ents to the
Alliance and to its Integrated M ilitary Structure.
The N orth Atlantic Council, in a Statem ent on
Yugoslavia, appeals to all parties to respect cease­
fire arrangem ents in order to allow the deployment
o f a U N peacekeeping force.
27 Feb ruary- Mission o f experts sponsored by the Medical W ork­
24 March ing G roup o f the W ashington C oordinating C onfer­
ence on Assistance to the Com m onw ealth o f Inde­
pendent Slates visits 10 cities on board a N A TO
Boeing 707 to assess medical needs.
5-6 March Foreign M inisters o f D enm ark, Estonia, Finland.
G erm any, Latvia, Lithuania. Norway, Poland,
Russia and Sweden meeting in Copenhagen, a n ­
nounce the form ation o f the Council o f Baltic Sea
Slates.
10 March E xtraordinary Meeting o f the N orth Atlantic C o­
operation Council. Foreign M inisters and Repre­
sentatives o f the N A C C countries publish a W ork
Plan for Dialogue, Partnership and C ooperation.
11 March President o f the Italian Republic Francesco Cos-
siga visits NATO.
11-12 M arch Secretary G eneral M anfred W orner visits Poland
and opens a Sem inar on "Security in Central
Europe'.
13-16 M arch N A TO Secretary General M anfred W om er visits
the Baltic States at the invitation o f the G overn­
m ents o f Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania.

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24 M a rch Opening o f F ourth CSCE Follow-Up Meeting in

Helsinki. C roatia, Georgia and Slovenia become
CSCE participating States.
Signature o f Open Skies Treaty permitting over­
flights o f national territory on a reciprocal basis.
I April N A TO Defence M inisters meet with Cooperation
Partners and identify areas for further cooperation
in defence-related m atters.
8-10 April N A TO Economics Colloquium on External Econ­
omic Relations o f the C entral and Eastern Euro­
pean countries.
10 April First M eeting o f the N A TO Military Committee
in C ooperation Session with Chiefs of Defence
and Chiefs o f G eneral Staff o f Central and Eastern
E uropean States.
30 April N A T O ’s N aval On-Call Force for the Mediter­
ranean is replaced by a Standing Naval Force
M editerranean (STA N A V FO RM ED ).
4 May V isit to N A TO by Japanese Minister of State for
Defence, Mr. Sohei M iyashita.
7 May Meeting o f Russian Secretary o f State Gennady
Burbulis with Acting Secretary General of NATO
Am adeo de Franchis at N A TO Headquarters.
II M ay Visit o f the Foreign M inisters of Estonia, Latvia
and L ithuania to N A TO Headquarters.
11-12 May CEA C Sem inar with cooperation partners al
N A TO H eadquarters on civil/military coordina­
tion of air traffic managem ent.
15 May Agreements signed at the fifth Summit Meeting of
the leaders o f the Com m onw ealth of Independent
States in Tashkent include the apportionment of
rights and obligations between the eight former Sov­
iet states concerned with respect to the CFE Treaty.
20-22 May N A TO Defence Conversion Seminar with Cooper­
ation Partners.
21 May First form al m eeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council
with the Council o f the W estern European Union
at N A T O H eadquarters.
26-27 May M inisterial Meetings o f N A TO ’s Defence Planning
Com m ittee and N uclear Planning Group. Defence
Ministers discuss N A TO support for CSCE peace­
keeping activities.
4 June NA TO Foreign Ministers, meeting in Ministerial
Session in Oslo, announce their readiness to sup­
port conditionally peacekeeping activities under
the responsibility o f the CSCE on a case-by-case
basis. Foreign M inisters also issue statements on
the crisis in the territory o f the former Yugoslavia
and on the crisis in N agorno-K arabakh.

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5 June Foreign M inisters and Representatives of the coun­

tries participating in the N A CC, meeting in Oslo,
consult on regional conflicts and other m ajor secu­
rity issues. Georgia and A lbania are welcomed as
members o f the NA CC. Finland attends as
observer.
The Final Docum ent issued at the conclusion of
an E xtraordinary Conference held in Oslo in con­
junction with these meetings formally establishes
the obligations under the C FE Treaty o f the eight
countries o f the form er Soviet U nion with territory
in the area o f application o f the Treaty.
11-12 June Sem inar with C ooperation Partners conducted by
N A T O ’s Verification C oordinating Com m ittee on
im plem entation o f the C F E Treaty.
16 June Agreement is reached by US President Bush and
Russian President Yeltsin to cut nuclear w arheads
on strategic missiles significantly beyond the limits
o f the STA RT Treaty.
19 June Foreign and Defence M inisters o f W EU m ember
states meet at Petersburg, near Bonn, and issue a
D eclaration setting out guidelines for the O rganisa­
tion’s future development.
1-3 July High Level Sem inar on Defence Policy and M an­
agem ent at N A TO H eadquarters, attended by offi­
cials from 30 Allied and C ooperation Partner
countries.
2 July The U nited States notifies its Allies o f the comple­
tion o f the withdrawal from Europe o f land-
based nuclear artillery shells, LANCE missile war­
heads and nuclear depth bom bs, in accordance
with the initiative announced on 27 September
1991, as well as the removal o f all tactical nuclear
w eapons from US surface ships and attack
subm arines.
The Parliam ent o f K azakhstan approves the ratifi­
cation o f START.
8 July Visit to N A TO by M r. Leonid Kravchuk, Presi­
dent o f Ukraine.
10 July A t the conclusion o f the Helsinki CSCE Follow-
U p Conference at Summit Level, leaders o f the 51
participating nations approve a Final Docum ent
(‘The Challenges o f Change’) addressing, inter alia,
support for CSCE peacekeeping activities by
N A TO and other international organisations. The
Concluding Act o f the N egotiations on Personnel
Strength o f Conventional Arm ed Forces in E urope
(C FE 1A), is also signed.
The N orth A tlantic Council in M inisterial Session

333
1992

in Helsinki agrees on a N A TO maritime operation

in the A driatic in coordination and cooperation
with the operation by the W EU, to monitor compli­
ance with U N sanctions imposed on Serbia and
M ontenegro by Security Council Resolutions 713
and 757.
16 July W EU mem ber countries meet in Rome with repre­
sentatives o f Denm ark, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
N orw ay, and T urkey, to discuss steps towards
enlargement.
16-18 July Official visit to H ungary by the Secretary General
o f N A TO M anfred W om er.
17 July The C F E Treaty, signed on 19 November 1990,
enters into force provisionally, allowing verifica­
tion procedures to be implemented.
28 July Signing in Naples o f N A TO -Spanish coordination
agreement on air defence.
26-28 August L ondon Conference on Yugoslavia.
2 September The N orth A tlantic Council agrees on measures lo
m ake available Alliance resources in support of
U N , CSCE and EC efforts to bring about peace in
the form er Yugoslavia, including the provision of
resources for the protection o f humanitarian relief
and support for U N m onitoring of heavy
weapons.
3 Septem ber An Italian relief plane is shot down west of Sara­
jevo in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
8 Septem ber Czechoslovak Foreign M inister Jozef Moravcik
visits NATO.
12-13 September U N begins m onitoring of heavy weapons in
Bosnia-Herzegovina. N A TO Allies express readi­
ness to support the U N in this endeavour.
22 September The C SCE Forum for Security Cooperation (FSC),
established at the Helsinki Summit in July 1992, is
inaugurated in Vienna.
U N G eneral Assembly votes to exclude Serbia and
M ontenegro and rules that Belgrade must make an
application to be adm itted to the United Nations.
23 September Visit to N A TO by Lithuanian President, Vylautas
Landsbergis.
29 September The Swedish Foreign Minister, Margarelha af
Ugglas, is received at N A TO by Secretary General
M anfred W orner.
Foreign M inister o f Argentina, Guido di Telia,
visits N A TO for discussions with Secretary Gen­
eral M anfred W orner.
1 O ctober US Senate ratifies ST A R T Treaty cutting US and
Russian nuclear forces by one-third.
2 October N A T O ’s new Allied C om m and Europe (ACE)

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Rapid Reaction Corps (A RRC) is inaugurated at

Bielefeld, Germ any, by SA CEU R, General John
Shalikashvili.
7 October Visit to N A TO by Poland’s Prime M inister, Mrs.
H anna Suchocka.
14 October W EU Perm anent Council meets at Am bassadorial
level with eight Central and Eastern European
countries.
The N orth A tlantic Council authorises the use of
a N A TO airborne early warning force (AW ACS)
lo m onitor the U N -m andated ‘no-fly’ zone in effect
over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
20-21 October N A TO M inisters o f Defence meeting in the N u ­
clear Planning G roup (N PG ) at Gleneagles, Scot­
land, focus on the implications of the Alliance’s
role in peacekeeping activities for N A T O ’s collec­
tive defence planning. New political guidelines pro­
viding for reduced reliance on nuclear weapons are
also adopted.
28 October Finnish President M auno Koivisto meets with
N A TO Secretary G eneral M anfred W orner in
Brussels.
30 October The A tlantic Club o f Bulgaria is associated with
the A tlantic Treaty Association (ATA) as an
observer.
1-5 November Secretary G eneral M anfred W orner visits Belarus,
K azakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
3 November G overnor Bill Clinton, the Dem ocratic candidate,
wins the US Presidential election.
6 November N A TO supplies U N Protection Force in Bosnia-
Herzegovina with an operational headquarters, in­
cluding a staff o f some 100 personnel, equipm ent,
supplies and initial financial support.
9 November The C FE Treaty officially enters into force after
ratification by all 29 signatory slates.
16 November SA C EU R , G eneral John Shalikashvili, meets with
President Leonid Kravchuk during a visit lo
Ukraine.
20 November N A T O ’s Secretary General, M anfred W orner, is
invited for the first time to attend W EU Ministerial
meeting in Rome. Greece is invited to become the
10th W EU member; D enm ark and Ireland are
granted W EU observer status; and Turkey,
N orw ay and Iceland are granted W EU associate
mem ber status.
22 November Enforcement operations in support o f U N sanc­
tions by N A TO and W EU naval forces in the
Adriatic begin as an extension o f the m aritim e
m onitoring operations which began in July 1992.

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25 Novem ber E stonia’s President, L ennart Meri, visits NATO

H eadquarters.
27 N ovem ber N A TO Secretary General M anfred Worner visits
Russian troops stationed in form er East Germany.
4 December E uropean N A TO Defence Ministers decide to dis­
solve the IE PG and transfer its functions forthwith
to the W EU.
11 December Defence M inisters participating in NATO’s De­
fence Planning Com m ittee slate that support for
UN and CSCE peacekeeping should be included
am ong the missions o f N A TO forces and
headquarters.
14 December The Alliance com m em orates the 25th anniversary
o f N A T O ’s Harmel Report.
15 December UN Secretary G eneral Boutros Boulros-Ghali re­
quests access to N A TO contingency plans for possi­
ble m ilitary operations in form er Yugoslavia, in­
cluding enforcement o f the no-fly zone over Bosnia-
Herzegovina. establishm ent o f safe havens for civil­
ians in Bosnia, and ways to prevent the spread of
conflict to Kosovo and the Form er Yugoslav Re­
public o f M acedonia.
16 December Albanian President Sali Berisha meets with Sec­
retary General M anfred W orner at NATO
H eadquarters.
17 December At the M inisterial Session o f the North Atlantic
Council, Foreign M inisters announce their readi­
ness to back further action by the UN in former
Yugoslavia, and agree to strengthen Alliance coor­
dination in peacekeeping and develop practical
measures lo enhance the Alliance’s contribution in
this area.
18 December N A CC Foreign M inisters and representatives agree
to exchange experience and expertise on peacekeep­
ing and related m atters and issue the 1993 NACC
W ork Plan.

1993
I January The Czech Republic and the Republic of Slovakia
become independent stales.
3 January Presidents Bush and Yeltsin sign the START II
T reaty in Moscow, further reducing US and Rus­
sian strategic offensive arm s by eliminating all
their m ultiple warhead ICBM s and reducing their
strategic nuclear stockpiles by two-thirds.
13 Ja n u a ry The Chemical W eapons Convention (CWC), com­
pletely banning chemical weapons, opens f o r signa­
ture in Paris and is signed by 127 nations.

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14 January Allies agree on plans for enforcement of no-fly

zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina, if requested to do
so by the UN.
21 January Signature o f the agreement on conditions for em­
ploying the European Corps within the Alliance
framework by N A TO Supreme Allied Com m ander
Europe and the Chiefs o f Defence o f France and
Germ any.
26-27 January N A T O ’s Verification C oordinating Com mittee
holds a sem inar with Cooperation Partner coun­
tries on C ooperation in the Im plem entation o f the
C FE Treaty.
27 January W EU Secretary General Willem Van Eekelen
meets with Secretary General M anfred W orner at
N A TO headquarters for first time since W EU
transferred its offices lo Brussels on 18 January, lo
discuss practical cooperation between the two
organisations.
1 February N ursultan N azarbayev, President o f K azakhstan,
meets with the N A TO Secretary General al N A TO
H eadquarters.
4 February Belarus ratifies STA RT I Treaty.
17 February President o f Rom ania, Ion Iliescu, meets with Sec­
retary General M anfred W orner al N A TO H ead­
quarters.
23 February The Prime M inister o f Slovakia, Vladimir Meciar.
pays an official visit lo N A TO H eadquarters.
N A T O ’s CCM S, meeting for the first time in
formal session with C ooperation Partners, dis­
cusses, inter alia, the problem s o f cross-border
environm ental pollution.
24 February The N A TO Secretary General issues a statem ent
supporting the US decision lo undertake air drops
o f hum anitarian assistance in eastern Bosnia.
25 February N A TO conducts crisis m anagem ent procedural ex­
4 March ercise ('N A T O CM X 93').
26 February Special Ministerial meeting of the N orth Atlantic
Council at N A TO H eadquarters, with the participa­
tion o f the new US Secretary o f State, W arren
Christopher.
1-3 March On a visit lo the US, N A TO Secretary General
M anfred W orner meets with President Clinton,
Secretary o f Stale C hristopher, Secretary of De­
fence Aspin, and key congressional leaders.
4 March The President o f Italy, O scar Luigi Scalfaro, visits
NA TO H eadquarters.
8 March Greek Prime M inister Constantin M ilsotakis visits
N A TO H eadquarters.
8-9 M arch The Chairm an o f the N A TO M ilitary Committee,

337
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Field M arshall Sir R ichard Vincent, pays an offi­

cial visit to Albania.
9 M arch The Prime M inister o f Bulgaria, Lyuben Berov,
visits N A TO H eadquarters.
Czech Foreign M inister Josef Zieleniec visits
N A TO H eadquarters.
T he Foreign M inister o f Poland, Krzysztof Sku-
biszewski, visits N A TO Headquarters.
10 M arch The N orth A tlantic Council directs NATO Mili­
tary A uthorities to develop contingency options
for possible im plem entation of a U N peace plan
for Bosnia-Herzegovina.
15 M arch N orth K orea ejects inspectors from the Inter­
national Atom ic Energy Agency (IAEA) and an­
nounces its intention to withdraw from the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) regime.
16 M arch Italy conducts the first joint multinational CFE
inspection led by a N A TO member state with the
participation o f C ooperation Partners (Azerbaijan,
H ungary and Poland) to verify a declared site in
Rom ania.
18-20 M arch N A TO Secretary General M anfred Worner makes
an official visit to Albania.
26 M arch Czech Defence M inister Antonin Baudys meets
with the N A TO Secretary General and the Chair­
m an o f the M ilitary Committee at NATO
H eadquarters.
29 M arch M eeting of N A TO Defence Ministers with Cooper­
ation Partners to review progress in cooperation
on defence-related m atters, as well as lo exchange
views on broader security issues.
2 April The N orth A tlantic Council directs SACEUR to
take preparatory steps to implement UN Resolu­
tion 816, authorising enforcement of the no-fly
zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
3-4 April The first U S-Russian Summit between Presidents
Clinton and Yeltsin takes place in Vancouver.
12 April Beginning o f the N A T O operation to enforce the
no-fly zone over Bosnia-H erzegovina, under the
authority o f U N Security Council Resolution 816
and decided by the N orth Atlantic Council on
8 April. Fighter and surveillance aircraft from
several allied nations participate, as well as aircraft
from N A T O ’s A irborne Early Warning Force
(N A EW F).
19 A pril US search and rescue units join Russians in Siberia
in the first US-Russian joint training exercise on
Russian soil since the Second W orld War.
22 A pril U N Secretary G eneral Boutros Boutros-Ghali

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meets N A TO Secretary General M anfred W orner

in Brussels, to discuss the situation in form er Y ugo­
slavia, N A T O ’s role in peacekeeping and N A TO -
U N relations in general.
28 A p ril The M ilitary Com m ittee meets at C hief of
D efence/C hief o f G eneral Staff level with C ooper­
ation Partners at N A TO H eadquarters.
6 May US Secretary of State W arren Christopher visits
N A TO H eadquarters to discuss the Bosnia crisis.
17 May H ungarian Foreign M inister, D r. Geza Jeszensky,
visits N A TO H eadquarters.
Bosnian Serbs reject the Vance-Owen Peace Plan.
22 May Joint A ction Program m e on Bosnia-Herzegovina
announced by members o f the U N Security C oun­
cil (France, Russia, Spain, UK , US) to stop the
fighting, including provisions for ‘safe areas’.
24 May E urogroup Defence Ministers transfer Eurogroup
training activities and E U R O M E D to N A TO , and
Eurogroup publicity activities and EU R O C O M to
the W EU.
25-26 M ay D P C /N P G M inisterial meeting at N A TO H ead­
quarters, to discuss, inter alia, defence planning
implications o f support for U N and CSCE peace­
keeping activities and defence aspects o f the prolif­
eration o f w eapons o f mass destruction.
8 June A t the joint session o f the N orth Atlantic Council
and the Council o f the W estern E uropean U nion
at N A TO H eadquarters, the two organisations
approve a single com m and and control arrange­
m ent for the com bined N A T O /W E U naval opera­
tions in the A driatic for the enforcement o f the
U N em bargoes against Serbia and M ontenegro.
10 June At the M inisterial meeting o f the N orth Atlantic
Council in Athens, N A TO Foreign M inisters ofTer
to provide protective air power in case o f attack
against U N P R O F O R in the perform ance o f its
overall m andate, if so requested by the UN.
11 June N A C C Foreign Ministers, meeting in Athens, an­
nounce a program m e o f cooperation in prepara­
tion for joint peacekeeping activities in support o f
the U N and CSCE and publish a report by the
N A C C Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in
Peacekeeping.
18 June The U N Security Council approves deploym ent of
300 US troops to the form er Yugoslav Republic of
M acedonia to join the 700 U N troops already
there as a preventive m easure lo keep the Bosnian
conflict from spreading.
23 June E duard Shevardnadze, the Chairm an o f Parliam ent

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and H ead o f Slate o f Georgia pays an official visit

to N A TO H eadquarters.
2 8 -3 0 Ju n e The C hairm an o f the N A TO M ilitary Committee,
Field M arshall Sir R ichard V incent, visits the
Czech Republic.
30 J u n e -2 July N A C C High Level sem inar on peacekeeping is
held in Prague, to further the work of the NACC
Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in Peacekeeping.
30 June-2 July The 1993 Economics Colloquium is held at NATO
H eadquarters on the theme ‘Economic Develop­
ments in C ooperation Partner Countries from a
Sectoral Perspective’.
22 July Belarus formally accedes to the N PT as a non­
nuclear weapon state, in accordance with the 1992
Lisbon Protocol to STA RT I.
2 August At a special meeting on the situation in Bosnia-
Herzegovina, the N orth Atlantic Council an­
nounces immediate preparations for undertaking
stronger measures, including air strikes against
those responsible, if the strangulation of Sarajevo
and other areas continues, including wide-scale
interference with hum anitarian assistance.
9 August The N orth Atlantic Council approves the opera­
tional options for air strikes in Bosnia-Herzegovina,
as called for by the Council on 2 August to be
implemented on the authorisation o f the UN Sec­
retary General.
Albert II, King o f the Belgians, accedes to the
throne following the death o f King Baudouin I on
31 July.
16-18 August The Chairm an o f the M ilitary Committee, Field
M arshall Sir R ichard V incent, pays an official visit
to R om ania and M oldova.
31 August Russia completes the withdraw al o f its troops from
Lithuania.
I September N A TO Secretary General M anfred Worner meets
with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali
in Geneva to discuss prospects for a peaceful settle­
ment in Bosnia-Herzegovina and N A TO’s role in
support o f the U N ’s peacekeeping mission in the
form er Yugoslavia, as well as the development of
closer links between N A TO and the UN.
18 S ep tem b er U krainian Foreign M inister Anotoly Zlenko visits
N A TO H eadquarters.
20 S ep tem b er N A CC representatives meeting at NATO Head­
quarters issue a statem ent calling for an end to
fighting in Georgia and condem ning the cease-fire
violations o f the A bkhazian forces.

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21 September The C hief o f Defence o f the Czech Republic, M ajor

General Jiri Nekvasil, visits N A TO Headquarters.
Russian President Boris Yeltsin suspends parlia­
ment and calls for fresh elections on 11-12 Decem­
ber. Vice-President Alexander Rutskoi and the Par­
liam entary C hairm an Ruslan K hasbulatov urge the
arm ed forces to resist the suspension. They and
other hardliners occupy the Russian W hite House.
22 September T horvald Stoltenberg and Lord Owen, C o-C hair­
men o f the International Conference on the Form er
Yugoslavia, visit N A TO H eadquarters to discuss
the implementation of an eventual peace plan for
Bosnia-Herzegovina with the Secretary General
and the C hairm an o f the M ilitary Committee.
29 September Official visit o f the President of T urkm enistan.
S aparm urad Niyazov, lo N A TO H eadquarters.
4 October T roops loyal to Russian President Yeltsin pound
the W hite House, headquarters o f the Russian Par­
liament, with tanks and machine gun fire, ending
the occupation o f the building by parliam entarian
hardliners opposing President Yeltsin’s reform
program m e.
The Security Council extends the m andate of UN
peacekeepers in C roatia and Bosnia for six months.
It authorises the peacekeeping force in C roatia ‘to
take the necessary measures, including the use of
force, to ensure its security and its freedom of
movem ent'.
6-7 October N A TO Secretary General M anfred W orner, on a
visit lo the US, meets with President Bill Clinton
in W ashington, and with UN Secretary General
Boutros Boutros-Ghali in New York.
18 October The Prime M inister of the Republic o f Estonia,
M r. M art Laar, pays an official visit to NATO
Headquarters.
20-21 O ctober N A TO Defence Ministers meet in Travemiinde,
Germ any, to discuss informally a range o f subjects
including the Partnership for Peace proposal and
the C JT F concept and proliferation o f weapons of
mass destruction.
2-3 November The Chairm an o f the N A TO M ilitary Committee,
Field M arshal Sir Richard Vincent, pays an official
visit to Bulgaria, meeting with President Zhelyu
Zhelev.
4 N ovem ber The President o f the Slovak Republic, Michael
Kovac, pays an official visit to N A TO
H eadquarters.
15-17 N o v em b er N A TO 's Verification and C oordinating Committee

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1993-1994

conducts a sem inar at N A TO Headquarters with

N A C C P artner Countries on cooperation in the
verification and im plem entation of conventional
arm s control provisions, including the CFE
Treaty.
30 Novem ber N A TO Secretary G eneral M anfred Worner ad­
dresses the CSCE Council o f Foreign Ministers
m eeting in Rome.
2 December A t the M inisterial meeting o f the N orth Atlantic
Council, N A TO Foreign M inisters discuss the
concept o f Partnership for Peace and related
proposals, in preparation for the January 1994
Summit.
3 December A t the N A C C M inisterial, N A TO and NACC
Foreign M inisters approve a second report by the
N A C C Ad H oc G roup on Cooperation in Peace­
keeping, as well as the N A C C W ork Plan for
1994.
7 December E U R O G R O U P M inisters announce that several
subgroups will either be incorporated into NATO
or transferred to the W EU , and that the EURO­
G R O U P itself will cease to exist as of 1 January
1994.
8-9 December N A T O Defence M inisters meeting in the DPC/
N P G in Brussels discuss new defence tasks of the
Alliance, including support for UN and CSCE
peacekeeping, and the concept o f Combined Joint
T ask Forces. M inisters express their strong support
for the Partnership for Peace.
9 Decem ber N A T O Secretary G eneral M anfred Worner meets
with Russian President Boris Yeltsin in Brussels.
12 December First m ultiparty parliam entary elections in Russia
since 1917. A new constitution giving increased
power to the President is approved by 58.4 per
cent o f votes cast.
14 December Joint m eeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council and
the Council o f the W EU at ambassadorial level at
W EU H eadquarters in Brussels.

1994
10-11 January A t the Brussels Sum m it, Alliance Heads of Stale
and G overnm ent launch Partnership for Peace
(PFP), issuing an invitation to all NACC partner
countries and CSC E states able and willing to
participate. The P F P Fram ew ork Document is pub­
lished. The concept o f Com bined Joint Task
Forces is endorsed, as well as other measures lo
support the developm ent o f a European Security
and Defence Identity.

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1994

14 January The Presidents o f US, Russia and U kraine sign a

trilateral agreement in Moscow detailing proce­
dures for the transfer o f U krainian nuclear w ar­
heads to Russia and associated com pensation and
security assurances.
US President Clinton and Russian President
Yeltsin sign an accord bringing to an end the
targeting o f long-range nuclear missiles at each
o ther’s countries with effect from 30 May 1994.
18 January Elections for the Russian State Dum a (Parliam ent)
result in large gains for opponents o f President
Yeltsin.
20 January The President o f Bosnia-Herzegovina, Alija Izetbe­
govic, visits N A TO Headquarters.
24-27 January Second N A T O /C C M S International Conference
on the Role o f the M ilitary in Protecting the Ozone
Layer. Participants pledge to meet the deadlines set
by the M ontreal Protocol on Substances that De­
plete the Ozone Layer.
26 January R om ania’s Foreign M inister, T eodor Melescanu,
comes to N A TO H eadquarters to sign the Partner­
ship for Peace Fram ew ork Document.
27 January The President o f Lithuania, Algirdas Brazauskas,
pays an official visit to N A TO H eadquarters to
sign the PFP Fram ew ork Document.
A program m e o f m ilitary cooperation between
Russia and N A TO signed in Moscow, provides for
exchanges o f visits by senior com m anders and
military experts and for joint exercises and
training.
1 February Sergio Silvio Balanzino (Italy) succeeds Am bassa­
d o r A m adeo de Franchis as Deputy Secretary G en­
eral o f NATO.
2 February Polish Prime M inister W aldem ar Pawlak signs the
PFP Fram ew ork Docum ent at N A TO
H eadquarters.
3 February M r. Juri Luik, Estonian M inister o f Foreign Af­
fairs, signs the PFP Fram ew ork Docum ent at
N A TO H eadquarters.
The U krainian Parliam ent rescinds the conditions
attached to its earlier ratification of STA RT I on
18 N ovem ber 1993, authorising the government lo
exchange instrum ents o f ratification.
6 February U N Secretary G eneral Boutros Boutros-Ghali re­
quests N A TO to prepare for possible air strikes
against artillery positions in and around Sarajevo,
following a m ortar attack on a crowded m arket
place in the city with extensive loss o f life.
8 February H ungary’s M inister o f Foreign Affairs, Geza

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1994

Jeszenszky, visits N A TO H eadquarters to sign the

P F P Fram ew ork D ocum ent.
M r. Anatoly Zlenko, Foreign MinisterofUkraine,
signs the P F P Fram ew ork Docum ent at NATO
H eadquarters.
9 February The N orth A tlantic Council condem ns the continu­
ing siege o f Sarajevo and announces that heavy
weapons o f any o f the parties remaining in an area
within 20 kilometres o f the centre of the city after
20 February would be subject to NATO air strikes
conducted in close coordination with the UN Sec­
retary G eneral, consistent with the NAC’s deci­
sions o f 2 and 9 August 1993.
The Prime M inister o f Slovakia, Vladimir Meciar,
signs the P F P Fram ew ork Docum ent at NATO
H eadquarters.
14 February Mr. Zhelyu Zhelev, President o f Bulgaria, visits
N A TO H eadquarters where he signs the PFP
Fram ew ork Docum ent.
Latvian Prime M inister Vladis Birkavs signs
the PFP Fram ew ork Docum ent at NATO
Headquarters.
K azakhstan formally accedes to the NPT as a
non-nuclear weapon stale, in accordance with the
1992 Lisbon Protocol to STA RT I.
14-15 February The Chairm an o f the N A TO M ilitary Committee,
Field M arshall Sir R ichard V incent, pays an offi­
cial visit to Poland, under the auspices of the
N A C C program m e.
15 February The UK. and Russia agree to reprogramme their
nuclear missiles so that as o f 30 May 1994, they
are no longer targeted at one another.
21 February Following expiry o f the deadline o f 9 February lo
w ithdraw heavy weapons from the Sarajevo exclu­
sion zone, N A T O 's Secretary General announces
that, because the objectives were being met, UN
and N A TO officials had recommended not to use
air power al this stage.
23 February The President o f Albania, Sali Berisha, comes to
N A TO H eadquarters to sign the PFP Framework
Docum ent.
28 February F our warplanes violating the UN-mandaled no-fly
zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina are shot down by
Alliance jets.
4 M arch The first shipm ent o f 60 nuclear warheads are
transferred from the U kraine to Russia, under the
term s o f the T ripartite Statem ent o f 14 January
1993, between U kraine, Russia and the US.
10 M arch Vaclav Klaus, the Prim e M inister of the Czech

344
1994

Republic, signs the PFP Fram ew ork Docum ent at

N A TO H eadquarters.
14-17 M arch Field M arshall Sir R ichard Vincent, Chairm an of
the M ilitary Committee, pays an official visit to
Estonia, Latvia and L ithuania to discuss N A TO ’s
M ilitary C ooperation Program m e and the security
interests o f each country.
16 March T he President o f M oldova, Mircea Snegur, visits
N A TO H eadquarters lo sign the PFP Fram ew ork
D ocum ent.
23 March Alexander Chikvaidze, Foreign M inister of G eor­
gia, signs the PF P Fram ew ork Docum ent at
N A TO H eadquarters.
30 March T he Prime M inister o f Slovenia, Janez Drnovsek,
comes to N A TO H eadquarters to sign the PFP
Fram ew ork Docum ent.
10 April Following a request from the UN Force Com m and,
N A TO aircraft provide close air support to UN
personnel in G orazde, a UN -designated safe area in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, under the guidance o f a UN
forward air controller.
16 April A British Sea H arrier jet is shot down while on a
N A TO close air support mission lo protect U N ­
PR O FO R troops in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
22 April In a response lo a request o f 18 April by the UN
Secretary General, the N orth Atlantic Council
takes further decisions regarding the use o f air
power lo protect UN personnel throughout
Bosnia-Herzegovina and U N designated safe areas.
The Council also authorises air strikes unless all
Bosnian Serb heavy weapons are withdraw n by 27
April from an area within 20 kilometres of
Gorazde. This deadline also applies to any o f the
other UN -designated safe areas if they are attacked
by heavy weapons.
25 April P oland’s Defence Minister, Piotr Kolodziejczyk,
visits N A TO H eadquarters lo submit his country's
P F P Presentation Document.
27 April The N A TO Council, reviewing the implementation
o f its decisions o f 22 April concerning the situation
in and around G orazde and other safe areas in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, determines that there is gen­
eral compliance with the deadline.
The N A TO M ilitary Com m ittee meets in C ooper­
ation Session at Chiefs ofD efence/C hiefs of General
Staff level at N A TO H eadquarters.
27-29 A pril N A C C sem inar on Planning and M anagem ent of
N ational Defence Program m es is held in Budapest,
Hungary.

345
1994

28 A pril Opening ceremonies o f the Partnership Coordina­

tion Cell, collocated with SHAPE at Mons,
Belgium.
Defence M inister Gheorghe Tinea submits Roma­
nia’s PFP Presentation Document at NATO
H eadquarters.
4 May The President o f Azerbaijan, G aidar Aliyev, signs
the PFP Fram ew ork Document at NATO
H eadquarters.
9 May The Foreign M inister o f Sweden, Baroness Marga­
retha a f Ugglas, and the Foreign Minister of Fin­
land, M r. Heikki Haavisto, visit NATO Head­
quarters to sign the PFP Fram ew ork Document.
M eeting o f the W EU Council of Ministers in
Kirchberg, Luxem bourg, with Foreign and De­
fence M inisters o f Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
E stonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
Rom ania and Slovakia. A new status is agreed
whereby these countries become Associate Partners
o f the W EU.
10 May Finland and Sweden subm it their PFP Presentation
Docum ents to NATO.
T urkm enistan’s D eputy Prime Minister, Boris
Shikm uradov, signs the PFP Framework
D ocum ent at N A TO Headquarters.
11-14 May The Chairm an o f the N A TO Military Committee,
Field M arshall Sir R ichard Vincent, visits Slovakia
and Russia to meet with high ranking military and
civilian governm ent officials in both countries in
the context o f the NA CC.
17 M ay The Czech Republic subm its its PFP Presentation
Docum ent to NA TO .
24 May A t the D P C /N P G Ministerial meeting, NATO De­
fence M inisters review progress on the defence
implications o f PFP, the C JT F concept, counter­
proliferation and peacekeeping efforts.
Russian Defence M inister Pavel Grachev comes
to N A TO H eadquarters to brief NATO Defence
M inisters on R ussia’s new defence doctrine.
25 May N A TO Defence M inister meet with Defence Minis­
ters and Representatives o f Cooperation Partner
countries including, for the first time, those from
Finland, Sweden and Slovenia, under the auspices
o f PFP, to discuss cooperation in defence-related
m atters, including peacekeeping.
Slovakia and U kraine subm it their PFP Presenta­
tion Docum ents to NATO.
2 6 -2 7 M ay Inaugural Conference on a Pact on Stability in
Europe, in Paris. E uropean Foreign Ministers dis-

346
1994

cuss a new initiative aimed at averting conflicts

over borders and the rights o f m inorities, prom ot­
ing good neighbourly relations in C entral and East­
ern E urope, and strengthening regional cooper­
ation and dem ocratic institutions.
27 May T he Foreign M inister o f the Republic o f K aza­
khstan, K anet Saudabaev, visits N A TO H eadquar­
ters to sign the P F P Fram ew ork Docum ent.
1 June President A skar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan signs the
P F P Fram ew ork D ocum ent at N A TO H ead­
quarters.
3 June Deputy Secretary General Sergio Balanzino for­
mally opens the offices for Partners in the M anfred
W om er W ing at N A T O H eadquarters.
6 June Bulgaria and H ungary subm it their PF P Presenta­
tion D ocum ents to N A TO .
9 June N A TO Foreign M inisters meeting in Istanbul
review progress on the im plem entation o f the
Brussels Summit decisions, noting that 20 count­
ries had already joined PFP. M inisters adopt an
overall policy fram ework on the Alliance’s ap­
proach to the proliferation o f weapons o f mass
destruction.
10 June M inisterial meeting o f the N A C C in Istanbul. F o r­
eign M inisters issue a third R eport on Peacekeep­
ing by the Ad Hoc G roup on C ooperation in
Peacekeeping. Foreign M inisters from Finland,
Sweden and Slovenia also attend.
Lithuania subm its its P F P Presentation
Docum ent.
22 June Russian Foreign M inister Andrei Kozyrev visits
N A T O H eadquarters to sign the PFP Fram ew ork
D ocum ent and to hold discussions with the C oun­
cil. A Sum m ary o f Conclusions o f the discussions
is issued, setting in train the developm ent o f a far-
reaching cooperative N A T O /R ussia relationship
both within and outside PFP.
29 June The Special Representative o f the Secretary G en­
eral o f the U N , Yasushi Akashi, accom panied by
Lt. Gen. Bertrand de Lapresle, C om m ander o f the
U nited N ations Protection Forces (U N PR O F O R )
in form er Yugoslavia, and Lt. Gen. Sir Michael
Rose, C om m ander o f U N P R O F O R in Bosnia-
Herzegovina, visit N A TO H eadquarters to meet
with the Deputy Secretary General, Sergio
Balanzino.
29 J u n e - 1 July The annual N A TO Economics Colloquium takes
place, focusing on privatisation in the defence
industry.

347
1994

5 July Poland’s PFP Individual Partnership Programme

with N A TO is formally accepted.
Russia subm its its PFP Presentation Document.
8 July E stonia subm its its PF P Presentation Document.
11 July T he N orth A tlantic Council issues a statement
reiterating the willingness o f the Alliance to partici­
pate in the im plem entation of a peace agreement
in Bosnia-Herzegovina; and agreeing that steps
envisaged in the plan issued by Foreign Ministers
in Geneva on 5 July could result in the assumption
o f new tasks by the Alliance in former Yugoslavia
at the request o f the UN.
12 July The G erm an Federal C onstitutional Court clarifies
the constitutional basis for the deployment of
G erm an forces abroad, removing constitutional
objections to G erm an participation in UN, NATO
or W EU peacekeeping missions.
13 July The Foreign M inister o f Uzbekistan, Saidmukhtar
Saidkasim ov, and Defence M inister Rustam Ahme-
dov visit N A T O H eadquarters to sign the PFP
Fram ew ork Docum ent.
18 July Latvia subm its its PF P Presentation Document.
20 July Slovenia subm its its PF P Presentation Document.
5 August N A T O aircraft attack a target within the Sarajevo
Exclusion Zone at the request of UNPROFOR,
after Bosnian Serbs seize weapons from a UN
collection site near Sarajevo.
13 August D eath o f N A T O Secretary General Manfred
W om er in Brussels. Deputy Secretary General
Sergio Balanzino assumes duties as Acting Sec­
retary General.
18 August Com m em orative meeting o f the NAC in honour
o f the late Secretary General Manfred Womer.
22 August Sweden’s PFP Individual Partnership Programme
with N A T O is formally accepted.
31 August The last Russian troops leave Estonia, completing
their withdraw al from the three Baltic States.
1 September Russian troops leave Berlin, completing their with­
drawal from G erm an territory.
2-10 Septem ber The first joint US-Russian manoeuvres held on
Russian territory focus on peacekeeping training
exercises.
6 September M oldova subm its its PFP Presentation Document
to NA TO .
8 September The US, U K and France withdraw remaining
Allied troops from Berlin.
12-16 September The first joint training exercise under PFP (Coop­
erative Bridge) is held near Poznan, Poland,

348
1994

with participation by soldiers from 13 N A TO and

P artner nations.
13 September Lt. Gen. John Sheehan is appointed Supreme
Allied C om m ander Atlantic (SACLANT).
14 September R om ania's PFP Individual Partnership Pro­
gramm e with N A TO is formally accepted.
22 September Following an attack on an U N P R O F O R vehicle
near Sarajevo, N A TO aircraft carry out an air
strike against a Bosnian Serb lank, at the request
o f U N PR O F O R .
A lbania subm its its P F P P resentation Docum ent.
28 Septem ber- M aritim e PF P exercise Cooperative Venture takes
7 October place in the Skagerrak area o f the N orth Sea, with
N A TO and Cooperation P artner m aritim e forces
conducting peacekeeping, hum anitarian and search
and rescue operations.
29 September The N orth A tlantic Council, meeting at the level
o f Foreign M inisters in New Y ork, invites Willy
Claes, Belgian M inister o f Foreign Affairs, to
become Secretary General o f NATO.
29-30 September The Defence M inisters and Representatives o f the
16 Alliance nations meet in Seville, Spain, for
informal discussions on a range o f subjects o f
m utual interest and concern, including the situ­
ation in the form er Yugoslavia; peacekeeping and
the concept o f Com bined Joint Task Forces; de­
fence cooperation with Central and Eastern
E urope, including Partnership for Peace; and secu­
rity in the M editerranean.
5 October The M inister o f Foreign Affairs o f Arm enia,
Vahan Papazian, signs the P F P Fram ew ork D ocu­
m ent at N A TO H eadquarters.
5-7 October Sem inar on Peacekeeping and its Relationship to
Crisis M anagem ent at N A TO H eadquarters in
Brussels, with participation o f 38 countries in addi­
tion to other international organisations.
10 O ctober- CSCE Review Conference in Budapest.
2 December
12 October Finland’s PF P Individual Partnership Program me
with N A TO is formally accepted.
G erm an President R om an Herzog pays an official
visit to N A TO H eadquarters.
17 October Willy Claes, form er D eputy Prime M inister and
M inister o f Foreign Affairs of Belgium, succeeds
M anfred W orner as Secretary General o f NATO.
17 O ctober- The Alliance’s Rapid Reaction Corps (A RRC)
8 November holds exercises in Denm ark.
21-28 October The first PF P jo in t peacekeeping training exercise

349
1994

held on Allied territory - Cooperative Spirit -

takes place in the N etherlands, with participation
by 12 N A TO and P artner countries.
28 October N A TO and the U N issue a joint statem ent on the
use o f N A TO airpow er in Bosnia and Herzegovina
in support o f relevant U N resolutions.
N A TO Secretary G eneral Willy Claes addresses
the 40th General Assembly o f the Atlantic Treaty
Association in The Hague.
4 N ovem ber Ion Iliescu, President o f Rom ania, visits NATO
H eadquarters.
7 N ovem ber Special Joint M eeting o f allied N ational Armament
D irectors to address equipm ent implications of
peacekeeping operations.
11 Novem ber N A TO Secretary G eneral Willy Claes issues a state­
m ent on the announcem ent o f lim itations to United
States participation in O peration Sharp Guard.
14 Novem ber M eeting o f the W EU Council o f Ministers with
the participation o f Foreign and Defence Ministers
o f the 9 Associate P artner countries. Publication
o f the N oordw ijk D eclaration endorsing inter alia
prelim inary policy conclusions on the formulation
o f a C om m on E uropean Defence Policy.
15 N ovem ber H ungarian Foreign M inister Laszlo Kovacs and
Defence M inister Gyorgy Keleti visit NATO. Hun­
gary’s PFP Individual Partnership Programme
with N A TO is formally accepted.
21 N ovem ber N A TO aircraft attack the U dbina airfield in Serb-
held C roatia at the request o f and in close coordina­
tion with U N P R O F O R , in response to attacks
launched from U dbina against targets in the Bihac
area o f Bosnia-Herzegovina.
23 Novem ber Following attacks against N A TO aircraft, NATO
forces carry out an air strike on a surface-
to-air missile site south o f O toka, in accordance
with self-defence measures previously announced.
Slovakia’s PFP Individual Partnership Pro­
gramm e with N A TO is formally accepted.
24 N ovem ber The N orth A tlantic Council issues a statement
condem ning recent attacks on the U N safe area of
Bihac by Bosnian Serb and K rajinan Serb forces;
and announcing m easures being taken in support
o f U nited N ations negotiating efTorts.
25 N ovem ber Czech Vice-M inister o f Foreign Affairs Alexander
V ondra and Vice-M inister o f Defence Jiri Pospisil
visit N A TO . The Czech R epublic’s PFP Individual
Partnership Program m e with N A TO is formally
accepted.

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1994

Bulgarian Deputy Foreign M inister T odor

Tchourov visits NATO. Bulgaria’s PFP Individual
Partnership Program m e with N A TO is formally
accepted.
30 Novem ber Lithuanian Secretary o f State for Foreign Affairs,
M r. Albinas Januska visits N A T O . L ithuania’s
PFP Partnership Program m e with N A TO is for­
mally accepted.
1 December M inisterial Meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council
in Brussels.
M inisterial Meeting o f the N orth Atlantic Council
attended by Russian Foreign M inister Andrei
Kozyrev.
5 December Signature o f the N uclear N on-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) by President Kuchm a o f Ukraine, at the
CSCE Sum m it Meeting in Budapest.
5-6 December Summit M eeting o f CSCE Heads o f State and
Governm ent in Budapest, attended by N A TO
Secretary General Willy Claes.
The CSCE is renam ed the O rganisation for Secu­
rity and C ooperation in Europe (OSCE). The Buda­
pest D ocum ent 1994 “ Towards a Genuine Partner­
ship in a New E ra” is published.
14-15 December M inisterial M eetings of the Defence Planning
G roup and N uclear Planning G ro u p .

351
 A P P E N D IX X V I
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC DATA RELATING
TO NATO DEFENCE
1970-1994
The figures given in Table 1 represent payments actually
made or to be m ade during the course o f the fiscal year.
They are based on the N A TO definition o f defence expen­
ditures. In view o f the differences between this and na­
tional definitions, the figures shown may diverge consider­
ably from those which are quoted by national authorities or
given in national budgets. F or countries providing mili­
tary assistance, this is included in the expenditures figures.
For countries receiving assistance, figures do not include
the value o f items received. Expenditures for research
and development are included in equipm ent expenditures
and pensions paid to retirees in personnel expenditures.
France and Spain are members of the Alliance without
belonging to the integrated military structure; Spain,
however, participates in collective force planning. The
defence data relating to France are indicative only.
Iceland has no armed forces.

Re ader’s Guide
To avoid any ambiguity the fiscal year has been desig­
nated by the year which includes the highest num ber of
months: e.g. 1991 represents the fiscal year 1991/1992 for
Canada and U K and the fiscal year 1990/1991 for US.

Total figures are rounded up or down and may there­

fore differ from the sum o f their components.

Key: e estimate; . . not available; I break in continu­

ity o f series.

353
Table 1. Defence expenditure s o f N A T O countries
C ountry Currency unit 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
(million)

Current prices and exchange rates

Belgium* Belgian francs 37388 70899 115754 144183 155205 157919 '1 132819 129602 132088
D enm ark D anish kroner 2967 5355 9117 13344 16399 17091 17129 17390 17431
France French francs 32672 55872 110514 186715 231911 240936 238874 241199 246403
G erm any Deutschem arks 22573 37589 48518 58650 68376 65579 65536 60596 58320
Greece D rachm ae 14208 45936 96975 321981 612344 693846 835458 932995 1052760
Italy 1000 Italian lire 1562 3104 7643 17767 28007 30191 30813 32364 34179
Luxem bourg Luxem bourg 416 836 1534 2265 3233 3681 3963 3740 4135
francs
N etherlands D utch guilder 3909 7119 10476 12901 13513 13548 13900 13103 12904
N orw ay N o rwegian 2774 4771 8242 15446 21251 21313 23638 22929 24165
kroner
Portugal Escudos 12538 19898 43440 111375 267299 305643 341904 352504 378722
Spain Pesetas 350423 674883 922808 947173 927852 1054902 1020642
T urkey T urkish liras 6399 32833 203172 1234547 13865971 23656518 42319927 77716559 146637732
United Pounds sterling 2607 5571 11593 18301 22287 24380 22850 22686 22439
Kingdom
NATO Europe US dollars 111981 92218 186189 188211 193154 172317 167756
Canada Canadian dollars 1999 3360 5788 10332 13473 12830 13111 13293 12966
United States US dollars 79846 88400 138191 258165 306170 280292 305141 297637 286366
North
America US dollars 817S4 91704 143141 265731 317717 291490 315988 307941 295887
NATO total US dollars 255122 357949 503906 479701 509142 480258 463644
* F ro m 1992, defence ex p en d itu res reflect th e decision by th e Belgian G o vern m en t t o d em ilitarise the G en d arm erie.
T ab le 1. (continued)

Country Currency unit 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
(million)

1985 prices and exchange rates

Belgium* Belgian francs 92077 121248 145395 144183 142113 139922 ' 114290 109346 108598
D enm ark D anish kroner 12201 11934 13227 13344 13885 14110 13739 13687 13436
France French francs 130218 141656 171254 186715 194733 195848 189806 187345 188187
G erm any D eutschem arks 44029 53710 56772 58650 60653 55955 53108 47244 44373
Greece D rachm ae 129660 238472 244924 321981 290192 279705 293101 289151 293407
Italy 1000 Italian lire 13192 14722 15551 17767 18701 18348 18589 18673 18901
Luxem bourg Luxem bourg 1056 1498 2033 2265 2944 3215 3367 3080 3285
francs
N etherlands D utch guilder 10479 10882 11647 12901 13372 13017 12911 12013 11623
N orw ay N orw egian 10961 11091 12643 15446 16653 16097 17520 16646 17284
kroner
Portugal Escudos 149631 138698 116609 111375 138421 138744 136845 131981 134914
Spain Pesetas 603791 674883 646082 619724 570026 622024 573536
T urkey T urkish liras 412650 899319 1132939 1234547 1833609 1884924 1977998 2113111 2112556
U nited Pounds sterling 16522 16287 16468 18301 16596 16680 14870 14370 13934
Kingdom
NATO Europe US dollars 84509 92218 93309 91446 87251 84430 82795
C anada C anadian dollars 7129 6983 7732 10332 11094 10317 10429 10490 10141
U nited States US dollars 240211 179715 192288 258165 262024 227292 242410 228910 215579
North
America US dollars 245431 184828 197950 265731 270148 234848 250047 236592 223005
NATO total US dollars 282459 357949 363457 326294 337299 321023 305801

* From 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 2. G ross dom estic product and defence expenditures annual variation (%) (based on constant prices)
C ountry Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

G ross domestic
product
Belgium* 4.7 3.1 0.4 2.6 3.4 1.9 0.8 - 1.2 0.9
C anada 6.0 4.8 1.7 3.8 - 0 .2 - 1.7 0.8 2.8 4.6
D enm ark 3.3 3.7 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.2 4.0
France 4.5 3.8 1.5 2.9 2.4 0.6 1.1 - 1.0 2.0
G erm any 3.5 4.0 0.4 2.5 5.7 ; 11.7 2.1 - 1.2 1.5
Greece 6.5 5.3 0.5 1.7 - 1.1 3.3 0.9 0.5 0.9
Italy 3.4 5.0 0.7 3.2 2.1 1.2 0.7 - 0 .7 1.6
Luxem bou rg 5.1 2.5 1.3 4.6 3.2 3.1 1.9 1.0 1.5
N etherlands 4.0 3.4 - 0 .1 2.4 4.1 2.1 1.4 - 0 .2 0.6
N orw ay 4.7 5.2 2.0 2.2 1.7 1.6 3.3 1.6 3.2
Portugal 7.4 5.5 1.1 4.5 4.4 2.1 1.1 - 0 .4 2.0
Spain 6.4 2.5 1.0 4.5 3.6 2.2 0.8 - 1.0 1.3
Turkey 6.0 5.5 5.2 6.0 9.1 1.0 4.0 7.2 0.0
U nited Kingdom 3.1 2.8 1.0 3.8 0.4 - 2 .2 - 2 .0 1.9 2.4
U nited States 3.5 4.5 1.6 3.1 0.8 -1 .1 2.6 2.8 3.1
* F rom 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the G endarm erie .
Table 2 . (continued)

C ountry Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

Defence expenditures
Belgium* 4.9 4.4 0.1 1.4 - 1.2 - 1 .5 1 -1 8 .3 - 4 .3 - 0 .7
C anada - 1.1 2.0 6.4 2.1 1.6 - 7 .0 1.1 0.6 - 3 .3
D enm ark - 1 .6 2.6 0.2 1.0 0.3 1.6 - 2 .6 - 0 .4 - 1.8
France 1.2 4.3 3.0 1.1 0.2 0.6 -3 .1 - 1 .3 0.4
G erm any 5.3 0.5 1.2 - 0 .4 4.9 - 7 .7 -5 .1 - 11.0 -6 .1
Greece 6.2 4.6 8.0 - 3 .7 0.7 - 3 .6 4.8 - 1.3 1.5
Italy 5.4 - 0 .2 2.4 3.1 - 5 .3 - 1.9 1.3 0.5 1.2
L uxem bourg 6.6 3.9 3.8 7.5 4.5 9.2 4.7 - 8 .5 6.6
N etherlands 0.4 2.3 2.7 2.0 - 2 .6 - 2 .7 - 0 .8 - 7 .0 - 3 .3
N orw ay - 0 .6 2.4 2.6 1.6 0.8 - 3 .3 8.8 - 5 .0 3.8
Portugal 6.4 - 9 .5 0.1 4.7 2.0 0.2 - 1.4 - 3 .6 2.2
Spain 1.9 0.5 - 6 .9 - 4 .2 - 8 .0 9.1 - 7 .8
T urkey 7.1 7.6 1.0 6.5 15.0 2.8 4.9 6.8 0.0
U nited Kingdom - 0 .7 - 1.4 2.5 -3 .1 - 0 .7 0.5 - 10.9 - 3 .4 - 3 .0
U nited States - 7 .6 - 0 .7 6.0 2.0 - 2 .5 - 13.3 6.7 - 5 .6 - 5 .8
* From 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 3. Defence expenditures as % o f gross dom estic product
C ountry Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1 9 8 5 -8 9

Based on current prices

Belgium* 2.9 3.2 3.3 2.9 2.4 2.3 : 1-9 1.8 1.8
D enm ark 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9
France 3.9 3.8 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.4 3.3
G erm any 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.0 2.8 1 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.8
Greece 4.7 6.7 6.6 6.2 5.8 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.6
Ita ly 2.5 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.1
Luxem bourg 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1
Netherlands 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.2
N orw ay 3.3 3.1 2.9 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.4 3.1 3.2
Portugal 6.9 3.9 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.0
Spain 2.1 2.4 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.6
Turkey 3.4 4.4 4.0 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.1
U nited Kingdom 5.0 4.9 5.2 4.6 4.1 4.3 3.8 3.6 3.4
NA TO Europe 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.5
C anada 2.1 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7
U nited States 6.4 5.0 5.8 6.3 5.6 5.0 5.2 4.8 4.3
N orth America 6.1 4.7 5.4 5.9 5.3 4.7 4.9 4.5 4.1
NA TO total 4.6 4.7 4.1 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.3
* From 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G o vernm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 3. (continued)
Country Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

Based on constant prices

Belgium* 2.8 3.2 3.2 3.0 2.6 2.5 ; 2.0 1.9 1.9
D enm ark 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9
France 3.9 3.8 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.4 3.3
G erm any 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.0 2.8 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.8
Greece 4.7 6.7 6.6 6.2 5.8 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.6
Italy 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0
Luxem bourg 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2
N etherlands 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3
N orw ay 3.7 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.1 2.9 3.1 2.9 2.9
Portugal 6.9 3.9 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.9
Spain 2.1 2.4 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.6
T urkey 2.3 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
U nited Kingdom 5.8 5.1 5.3 4.5 4.0 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.4
N A TO Europe 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.5
C anada 2.4 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7
U nited States 7.1 5.4 5.9 6.3 5.7 5.0 5.2 4.8 4.4
N orth America 6.8 5.1 S.6 6.0 5.4 4.8 5.0 4.6 4.2
N A TO total 4.8 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.1 3.8 3.5

* From 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 4. G ross dom estic product and defence expenditures per capita in US $ * (1985 prices and exchange rates)
C ountry 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e

Gross domestic product

Belgium** 5781 6752 7798 8099 9346 9486 9526 9371 9414
D enm ark 8283 8894 9939 11350 12184 12303 12413 12416 12703
France 6948 7877 9005 9482 10687 10702 10795 10638 10689
G erm any 7377 8059 9503 10148 11557 : 10222 10436 10186 10178
Greece 2246 2793 3245 3366 3568 3639 3661 3659 3672
Italy 5098 5660 7020 7431 8690 8795 8861 8834 8965
Luxem bourg 6957 7562 8366 9419 11415 11582 11677 11671 11728
N etherlands 7014 7836 8611 8837 9959 10088 10152 1OO64 10057
N orw ay 8008 9726 12075 14OO9 14832 14992 15396 15570 15988
Portugal 1477 1766 2130 2145 2636 2678 2708 2697 2751
Spain 3206 3962 4111 4307 5297 5405 5440 5375 5406
Turkey 972 1154 1180 1351 1588 1570 1613 1656 1699
U nited K ingdom 6147 6726 7344 8073 9370 9119 9046 9196 9436
NA TO Europe 5341 5932 6721 7084 8048 7913 7923 7852 7928
C anada 9035 10928 12508 13795 15057 14586 13952 14013 14238
U nited States 13176 13916 15473 16786 18328 17920 18170 1 8513 18919
North America 12786 13631 15189 16502 18014 17598 17748 18062 18457
N A TO total 8320 9039 10191 10993 12219 11881 11966 12060 12274

* The 1994 population d ata used in this table have been calculated by applying the average annual grow th rate between 1988
and 1993 to 1993 figures.
** F rom 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 4. (continued)*

C ountry 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e

Defence expenditures
Belgium** 161 208 249 246 240 236 192 183 181
D enm ark 234 223 244 246 255 258 251 249 244
France 285 299 354 377 382 382 368 361 361
G erm any 247 295 313 326 326 238 224 197 184
Greece 107 191 184 235 207 197 206 202 204
Italy 129 139 144 163 173 169 171 172 173
Luxem bourg 52 70 94 104 130 140 145 132 139
Netherlands 242 240 248 268 269 260 256 237 227
N orw ay 329 322 360 433 457 439 475 449 464
Portugal 104 93 74 68 83 83 81 79 80
Spain 95 103 98 93 86 93 86
T urkey 22 43 49 47 62 63 64 67 65
U nited Kingdom 381 372 375 415 371 371 330 318 307
N A TO Europe 233 247 243 227 215 206 201
C anada 245 225 235 300 305 280 269 265 251
U nited States 1171 832 844 1079 1048 899 948 888 828
North America 1084 774 786 1005 977 840 880 825 769
N A TO total 460 562 550 478 489 461 435

* The 1994 population data used in this table have been calculated by applying the average annual grow th rate between 1988
and 1993 to 1993 figures.
** From 1992, defence expenditures reflect the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 5. D istribution o f total defence expenditures by category

C ountry Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

% devoted to personnel expenditures

Belgium 62.4 62.9 61.8 63.4 68.4 68.9 65.3 69.6 69.0
C anada 65.6 60.8 50.7 46.2 50.0 49.4 49.9 47.7 47.0
D enm ark 58.9 58.0 54.6 56.6 58.4 57.2 56.7 56.8 56.1
G erm any 50.5 49.8 46.6 48.9 52.1 56.6 58.6 60.2 60.0
Greece 66.8 57.6 54.6 60.5 64.1 64.4 61.4 62.2 63.0
Italy 59.9 61.9 59.1 57.8 61.6 64.1 63.7 62.9 62.7
Luxem bourg 82.2 85.5 77.5 76.9 79.6 70.6 75.8 77.3 78.5
N etherlands 65.4 61.2 55.3 52.8 53.9 55.2 57.5 59.4 58.6
N orw ay 52.1 52.9 48.8 43.9 43.3 46.3 43.8 36.0 35.8
Portugal 50.8 68.8 66.6 67.7 73.1 74.9 80.5 79.8 78.0
Spain 62.0 64.7 69.5 62.3 64.6
Turkey 66.7 47.6 45.3 37.1 48.3 48.5 48.7 54.5 46.2
U nited Kingdom 48.8 44.6 37.4 38.6 40.6 41.7 43.8 43.5 42.7
U nited States 32.8 42.0 41.9 37.0 36.6 43.2 39.3 38.8 38.3

% devoted to equipment expenditures

Belgium 10.7 11.7 13.8 12.1 7.9 8.2 8.2 7.0 7.1
C anada 7.3 9.0 17.8 19.7 17.0 18.1 18.6 19.2 19.6
D enm ark 16.4 18.4 16.9 14.0 14.9 15.8 17.8 14.6 14.0
G erm any 16.4 16.8 20.0 19.6 17.7 15.6 13.3 11.2 10.9
Greece 8.2 19.3 17.4 18.2 21.4 20.3 23.4 24.7 24.4
Italy 15.3 14.7 17.4 19.7 17.5 16.3 15.0 17.2 17.3
Table 5. (continued)

Country Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

Luxem bourg 1.5 1.9 1.8 3.5 3.2 5.4 4.6 2.8 2.8
N etherlands 12.8 18.0 20.5 19.8 17.9 15.6 14.2 14.0 15.2
Norw ay 15.2 16.0 19.4 21.7 22.6 22.0 24.4 27.6 26.7
Portugal 7.1. 2.2 5.5 7.6 10.3 8.5 2.2 7.2 8.1
Spain 12.7 12.9 10.9 13.5 13.3
T urkey 3.9 19.2 9.1 18.2 20.0 22.7 24.8 22.9 34.2
U nited Kingdom 16.6 21.6 26.2 24.8 17.9 19.4 18.1 26.0 26.1
U nited States 21.4 17.6 21.9 25.6 24.8 27.3 22.9 22.0 19.9

% devoted to infrastructure expenditures

Belgium 5.5 6.5 5.5 4.0 3.8 2.8 5.2 2.9 3.9
C anada 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.8 3.9 3.4 3.1 3.1 2.2
D enm ark 3.3 2.4 2.8 3.4 3.4 4.3 3.7 2.5 2.5
G erm any 6.3 6.3 5.4 5.9 5.9 4.9 4.5 4.6 5.1
Greece 5.8 5.3 2.8 2.2 2.1 1.7 2.4 2.6 0.6
Italy 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.3 2.7 2.5 2.5
Luxem bourg 4.9 3.2 10.3 7.3 7.0 14.8 10.6 11.8 8.0
N etherlands 2.8 3.2 3.7 5.2 5.9 6.2 5.8 4.6 4.5
Norw ay 4.4 4.3 5.0 8.2 9.8 9.5 9.8 8.2 8.4
Portugal 2.3 3.4 5.9 3.7 3.4 3.4 5.3 1.5 1.3
Spain 2.3 1.6 1.0 0.9 1.0
T urkey 5.5 7.3 13.2 5.4 3.2 2.8 3.5 2.9 2.0
U nited Kingdom 2.4 1.7 2.7 3.9 5.1 4.4 2.9 6.8 8.0
U nited Slates 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Table 5. (continued)

C ountry Average Average Average Average 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89

% devoted to other expenditures

Belgium 20.9 18.8 18.8 20.4 19.9 20.1 21.2 20.5 2O.O
C anada 24.0 27.3 29.0 31.9 32.2 32.2 31.8 29.9 31.2
D enm ark 21.2 21.0 25.7 25.8 23.4 22.7 21.8 26.1 27.4
G erm any 22.2 23.0 24.6 20.8 19.0 18.0 19.0 23.9 23.9
Greece 18.5 17.0 24.9 18.4 12.3 13.6 12.6 10.5 12.0
Italy 23.0 2 1.5 21.0 19.8 18.1 17.2 18.5 17.4 17.5
Luxem bourg 11.1 9.1 10.2 11.9 10.2 9.2 9.0 8.2 10.7
N etherlands 18.9 17.3 20.3 22.0 22.3 22.9 22.6 22.0 21.6
N orw ay 28.0 26.6 26.7 26.0 24.3 22.3 22.1 28.2 29.1
Portugal 37.9 25.1 21.9 19.7 13.1 12.9 11.9 14.4 12.5
Spain 23.0 20.8 2O.O 23.2 21.2
T urkey 22.6 23.7 30.1 38.4 28.5 26.0 23.O 19.7 17.5
U nited K ingdom 32.0 31.9 33.5 32.5 36.4 34.5 35.2 23.7 23.2
U nited States 44.1 36.8 34.5 36.1 4O.O 31.3 39.3 40.7 43.1
Table 6. A rm ed forces - A nnual average strength

C ountry 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994e

Military (thousand)
Belgium* 108 103 108 107 106 101 : 79 70 54
D enm ark 42 34 33 29 31 30 28 27 27
France 571 585 575 563 550 542 522 506 506
G erm any 455 491 490 495 545 457 442 398 360
Greece 178 185 186 201 201 205 208 213 214
Italy 522 459 474 504 493 473 471 450 435
Luxem bourg 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
N etherlands 112 107 107 103 104 104 90 86 79
N orw ay 37 38 40 36 51 41 42
Portugal 229 104 88 102 87 86 80 68 76
Spain 356 314 263 246 198 204 213
Turkey 625 584 717 814 769 804 704 686 736
U nited Kingdom 384 348 330 334 308 301 293 271 258
NA TO Europe 3504 3603 3510 3390 3159
C anada 91 78 82 83 87 86 82 76 73
U nited States 3294 2146 2050 2244 2181 2115 1919 1815 1719
North America 3385 2224 2132 2327 2268 2201 2001 1891 1792
NATO total 5636 5930 5778 5591 5159

* F rom 1992, m ilitary strength reflects the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent to demilitarise the Gendarm erie.
Table 6. (continued)

C ountry 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994c

Military and civilian personnel as % of labour force

Belgium* 3.1 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.5 : 2.0 1.8 1.4
D enm ark 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2
France 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4
G erm any 2.3 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.6 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.5
Greece 6.2 6.5 6.1 6.1 5.8 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.9
Italy 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.1
Luxem bourg 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
N etherlands 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4
N orw ay 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.3 2.9 2.5 2.5
Portugal 6.5 2.8 2.3 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.9
Spain 3.0 2.6 2.0 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.6
T urkey 4.4 18 4.8 4.8 3.9 4.1 3.6 3.5 3.7
U nited Kingdom 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4
NATO Europe 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.2
C anada 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7
U nited States 5.3 3.4 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.0
North America 5.0 3.2 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9
NATO total •• 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.2

* From 1992, m ilitary strength reflects the decision by the Belgian G overnm ent lo demilitarise the G endarm erie.
T H E NATO INTEGRATED DATA SERV ICE (NIDS)

During the past few years there has been a m ajor increase
worldwide in the use o f electronic mail as a means of
exchanging inform ation and providing easy access to
computerised databases. One of the networks which has
seen rapid expansion in this respect is IN T E R N E T - a
data network which brings together the facilities provided
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terminal linked via a modem to the network. IN T E R N E T
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In January 1993 N A TO began to make available infor­
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the CSCE). As other organisations and agencies in the
security field join the system, the range of data available is

367
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“ G opher” (a m enu driven database navigation tool) at
U R L :/ / GO PH ER.N A TO .IN T:7O / 1; and through WWW
(W orld W ide W ebb) at H T T P ://W W W .N A TO .IN T / . In­
ternet connections are widely available commercially at
low cost, on subscription. The only additional costs to
the user are local or inter-zonal telephone charges.
The data provided by N A TO through the N ID S is free
o f charge.
F u rther inform ation on these services can be obtained
from:
N ATO H eadquarters, 1110 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: 32-2 728 4599
Fax: 32-2 728 4579
E-M ail: N A T O D O C @ H Q .N A T O .IN T
F u rther inform ation on N A TO can also be obtained
from:
Office of Information and Press
NATO-OTAN
1110 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: 32-2 728 4413 Fax: 32-2 728 4579

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1255-94 NATO GRAP HICS STUDIO