CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

This chapter presents the determinants of motivational factors influencing

academic and athletic performances of College of Sports Exercise and Recreation

Student-Athletes in Bulacan State University. This chapter includes the introduction,

statement of the problem, significant of the study and scope and delimitation.

INTRODUCTION

Collegiate athletics had become an integral part of the student experience for both

athletes and non-athletes. According to Benford as cited by Tudor (2014) that varsity

player’s individual experiences have received considerable attention in the popular media

and literature as the pressures to perform both athletically and academically are vast. This

study shown that when a person has more responsibilities, s/he is forced to take control of

how his/her time is used and that person winds up accomplishing more and maintaining a

high performance level in both academics and athletics.

Student-Athlete are individuals in the university who render the duty of a student

and at the same time carrying the pressure of being an athlete. They are seen as heroes

during competitions by representing their schools. Individuals who fight for the honor of

the university in the field of sports. They are sleek people who can balance the two

aspects of academics and sports performances. Respect must be given to them because of

their sacrifices and latent function which they followed.

Motivation serves as jump starters for anyone. This thing is very important

specially to student athletes. Motivation can be divided into two types: intrinsic (internal)

motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation. Intrinsic refers to the factors such as
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feeling that make the varsity players to continue their athletic career despite of the odds

and it refers to motivation that is driven by enjoyment or satisfaction in the task itself or

creates enjoyment and exists within the individual, such as feeling of pride or joy.

Extrinsic refers to material things which facilitates the effort of the athletes, that can

range from uniforms to honoria or allowances. These refer to the performance of an

activity in order to attain an outcome external to the activity, such as financial awards.

Motivation is generally defined as that which explains the direction and

magnitude of behavior, or in other words, it explains what goals people choose to pursue

and how actively or intensely they pursue them (Keller, 2010). Motivation and

engagement are important factors that guide behavior and as a result, it is very important

for teachers to understand and use this knowledge in their teaching. By knowing how

intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and engagement relate to students and their learning,

the teacher is well placed to provide a more supportive environment for student learning

and their own teaching (Marsh, 2000). Motivation is not directly observable.

“Motivation is an internal state that causes people to behave in a particular way to

accomplish particular goals and purposes. It is possible to observe the outward

manifestations of motivation but not motivation itself”. For instance, the acquisition of

money may be an extrinsic motivator, but it is simply the manifestation of the internal

drive to meet intrinsic needs like purchasing food, paying rent for shelter, or acquiring

high social status. Motivation is not directly controllable. “Motivation is not something

that people do to others. Motivation occurs within people’s minds and hearts. Managers

can influence the motivational process, but they cannot control it” (Denhardt et al., 2008).

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 Intrinsic motivation refers to people’s spontaneous tendencies to be

curious and interested, to seek out challenges and to exercise and develop their skills and

knowledge, even in the absence of operationally separable rewards. Over the past four

decades, experimental and field research guided by Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has

found intrinsic motivation to predict enhanced learning, performance, creativity, optimal

development and psychological wellness. Intrinsic motivation refers to the spontaneous

tendency “to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s capacity, to

explore, and to learn” (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Extrinsic motivation is the tendency from individuals to perform activities in

order to obtain a separate outcome related to the activity, in other words, the individual is

moved by the external reward or rewards related to the complexion of such activity

(Ryan, 2000). The rewards can be either tangible or psychological. Extrinsic tangible

rewards often refer to monetary rewards, so in terms of business they are typically

denoted as salary, bonus and fringe benefits (among the most common). On the other

hand, psychological rewards refer to the intangible element or elements that drive an

individual to perform in a specific way, for example to seek approval or avoid fear

(Brown, 2007).

This tend to be important because sports office of universities and colleges

are having a hard time in encouraging the students to participate in sports in spite of the

benefits and scholarships that are being offered and provided for. the educators, there is a

challenge of improving the academic performance of students. However, there is a

common misconception that only academic performance matters. Consequently, varsity

players who excel in academics tend to give low priority to athletic performances.

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 This study will help the school, professors, coach and parents to know

what are the factors that will help to motivate varsity players both academically and

athletically. This study is focus on the determinants of motivational factors influencing

academic and athletic performance of College of Sports Exercise and Recreation

Students-Athletes in Bulacan State University. This study provides an opportunity for the

student to give their thoughts and knowledge about the people and events which shaped

attitudes and motivation for academic and athletic performances.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The general problem of this study is to describe the determinants of of

motivational factors influencing academic and athletic performance of College of Sports

Exercise and Recreation Students-Athletes in Bulacan State University:

1) This study specifically seeks to answer the following questions:

1.1 name

1.2 age

1.3 course

1.4 year level

1.5 sex

1.6 sports

1.7 years an athlete

2) What are the intrinsic motivational factors of the respondents in terms of:

2.1 Academic performance

2.2 Athlete Performance

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3) What are the extrinsic motivational factors of the respondents in terms of:

3.1 Academic performance

3.2 Athlete Performance

4) What are the determinants of motivational factors of college of sports exercise and

recreation students-athletes of bulacan state university and its influence to the academic

and athletic performance?

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study will also benefit the key participants by creating a greater awareness of

the respondents’ perceptions about their academic and athletic performances. The

findings of this research study will give greater understanding of the determinants

motivational factors influencing the student academic and athletic performances to the

following:

Teachers. The study will provide richer understanding to the teachers about the different

perceptions and experiences of the varsity players who are involved in their programs.

Parents. The study will help the parents in encouraging and motivating their

children to a proper management of academic and non-academic activities.

Trainor. The study will help the trainer motivate their players both academically and

athletically.

Coaches. The study will serve as a guide to the coaches in helping the students to

set their priorities and in proper time management.

Varsity Players. It will give the varsity players a realization on how motivational factors

affect their performances. The research could assist the participants to clarify their career

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goals and choices through a heightened awareness and understanding of the factors that

influence their decision making.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

The purpose of this research was to describe and analyze the determinants of the

determinants of motivational factors influencing academic and athletic performance of

College of Sports Exercise and Recreation Students-Athletes of Bulacan State University.

Motivation can be divided into two types: intrinsic (internal) motivation and extrinsic

(external) motivation. Quantitative research used the descriptive research method in the

form of survey which focus on the College of Sports Exercise and Recreation Students-

Athletes in Bulacan State University. It had seventy-nine (79) respondents from the

College of Sports Exercise and Recreation Students-Athletes as its respondents who were

be selected by Purposive Sampling technique.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter includes the theories, literature and related studies which provided

direction to formulate a hypothesis and also present the conceptual framework, the

research paradigm and the definition and terms.

RELATED THEORIES

Maslow portrayed the needs of individuals in the form of a pyramid with several

stages of needs. At the least was the physiological needs and the highest was the self-

actualization. According to Baridam(2002), Maslow based his theory of human

motivation on the following assumptions: Individuals have certain needs that influence

their behavior, only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs do not act as

motivators, Needs are arranged in an order of importance or hierarchy from the basic

physiological to the complex self-actualization needs, An individual’s need at any level

on the hierarchy emerges only when the lower needs are reasonably satisfied and it is

probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Abraham

Maslow’s theory of Needs. Maslow hypothesized that within every human being, there

exists a hierarchy of five needs which are: Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex

and other bodily needs, Safety needs: security and protection from physical and

emotional harm, Social needs: affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship,

Esteem needs: internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, achievement and external

factors such as status, recognition and attention and Self-actualization: drive to become

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what one is capable of becoming. It includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-

fulfillment. As each of the needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next stage becomes

dominant (Robbins et al 2009).

McClelland’s theory of needs is based on three types of needs namely: Need for

power: the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved, Need

for Achievement: the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive

to succeed and Need for Affiliation: the desire for friendly and interpersonal relationship.

(Jaja, 2003).

There are many theories of motivation, but a study of Rily, tell us which are some

of the more famous theoris like “Maslows’ Hierarchy of Needs Theory, McClelland’s

Needs Theory, and “Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory” (Rily, 2005,). Maslow’s Hierarchy

of Needs Theory is one of the most well-known motivational theories. Abraham

Maslow’s theory identifies five levels of hierarchical needs that every individual attempts

to accomplish or conquer throughout one’s life. The needs start with the physiological

(hunger, thirst, shelter) and then move upward in a pyramid shape through safety, social,

and esteem needs, to the ultimate need for self-actualization. His final need for self-

actualization is defined as one’s desire and striving towards maximum personal potential.

The pyramid shape to the theory is intended to show that some needs are more important

that others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. In the

other hands is the theory of McClelland’s Needs, where the autors tell us that

McClelland’s Need Theory explores the idea that there are three major “needs” that one

will acquire over their lifetime as a result of the experiences in their careers or in their

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own personal lives. David I. McClelland believed that in order to understand human

behavior and how an individual can be motivated, you must first understand their needs

and inclinations. The Need for Achievement encompasses the desire to do better, to solve

problems, and to master complex tasks. The Need for Affiliation is the desire for friendly

and warm relations with others. These are often those passive individuals that try to avoid

conflict at all times, even when it might be necessary to fulfill a task. Finally, the Need

for Power is the desire to control others and influence their behavior (Riley, 2005).

The autor continues to say that, basically the theory differentiates the factors

between intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators. The intrinsic motivators, known as

the job content factors, define things that the people actually do in their work; their

responsibility and achievements. These factors are the ones that can contribute a great

deal to the level of job satisfaction an employee feels at work. The job context factors, on

the other hand, are the extrinsic factors that someone as an employee does not have much

control over; they relate more to the environment in which people work than to the nature

of the work itself (Schermerhorn, 2003). Herzberg identifies these factors as the sources

for job dissatisfaction. “Hertzberg reasoned that because the factors causing satisfaction

are different from those causing dissatisfaction, the two feelings cannot simply be treated

as opposites of one another. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather,

no satisfaction. Similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. While at

first glance this distinction between the two opposites may sound like a play on words,

Herzberg argued that there are two distinct human needs portrayed” (“Herzberg’s

Motivation-Hygiene Theory,”) (Rily, 2005).

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory is one of the most well-known motivational

theories. Abraham Maslow’s theory identifies five levels of hierarchical needs that every

individual attempts to accomplish or conquer throughout one’s life. The needs start with

the physiological (hunger, thirst, shelter) and then move upward in a pyramid shape

through safety, social, and esteem needs, to the ultimate need for self-actualization. This

final need for self-actualization is defined as one’s desire and striving towards maximum

personal potential. The pyramid shape to the theory is intended to show that some needs

are more important that others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as

motivators (Schermerhorn, 2003). “According to Maslow, once a lower-level need has

been largely satisfied, its impact on behavior diminishes” (Hunsaker, 2005). One of the

difficulties with using this theory to analyze organizations is that although it may appear

very easy to implement, it is difficult to relate this distinct five-level hierarchy within an

organization. Many times when this theory has been used, the results show that the needs

that contribute to motivation more heavily vary according to the level of the individual,

the size of the organization, and even the geographic location of the company.

McClelland’s Need Theory explores the idea that there are three major “needs”

that one will acquire over their lifetime as a result of the experiences in their careers or in

their own personal lives (Schermerhorn, 2003). David I. McClelland believed that in

order to understand human behavior and how an individual can be motivated, you must

first understand their needs and inclinations. The Need for Achievement encompasses

the desire to do better, to solve problems, and to master complex tasks. The Need for

Affiliation is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others. These are often those

passive individuals that try to avoid conflict at all times, even when it might be necessary

52
to fulfill a task. Finally, the Need for Power is the desire to control others and influence

their behavior. This is the need that I have often felt carried a fairly negative connotation,

however it has been proven that successful, well-respected managers often lean towards

those power need tendencies. Managers who possess the Need for Power tendencies in

combination with the Need for Achievement can also be very effective managers. A

manager with both characteristics would not only try to oversee the situation or

environment, but also is continually looking for ways to improve the current situation and

is not afraid to take on difficult projects or leadership roles. This theory may be very

useful in an organization as a predictor of future managers or project leaders, however it

limits the results to only three categories. In reality, all three of the needs established in

this theory define an individual’s personality, which need tends to show itself in certain

situations could be used as the predictor. Managers should use this theory to identify the

needs within themselves, their coworkers and subordinates to create work environments

that are responsive to those need characteristics (Schermerhorn, 2003).

Self-determination theory (SDT) has emerged as the principle framework for the

study of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is frequently assessed behaviorally in

terms of freely pursued activities, and experientially through self-report questionnaires

that probe the reasons for one’s engagement with activities, as well as specific affective

states such as interest, curiosity and fun. Intrinsic motivation has also been assessed in the

laboratory through the coding of specific exploratory and manipulator behaviors and

facial displays of interested engagement. Since the earliest demonstrations of the

undermining effect, many experimental and field studies have found intrinsic motivation

to be associated with enhanced learning, performance, creativity, and affective

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experience. Further, a large body of research within SDT has examined the situational

factors (e.g., types of rewards, feedback, communication styles) that undermine or

facilitate the expression of intrinsic motivation. These studies have made it clear that

although intrinsic motivation is a lifelong psychological growth function, by no means is

its expression automatic; rather, intrinsic motivation depends on ambient supports for

basic psychological needs, especially those for competence (feeling effective) and

autonomy (feeling volitional) (Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2017).

Vroom’s theory of cognitive decision making and behavior outlines three

attributes of motivation: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. Valence is simply the

strength of desire for the perceived outcome; the want of the reward, if you will.

Instrumentality is the belief that by completing certain steps, the desired outcome will be

achieved. Expectancy is the belief that you can actually achieve the desired outcomes.

Taking all three measures into account leads to the level of motivation a person may

experience. In a complex and dynamic environment, leader of the organization used to

create the environment in which employee feel trusted and are empowered to take

decisions in the organization which leads to enhance motivation level of employee and

ultimately organizational performance are enhanced (Smith and Rupp, 2003) stated that

performance is a role of individual motivation; organizational strategy, and structure

and resistance to change, is an empirical role relating motivation in the organization.

Concluded that advancement of human resources through rewards, monetary incentives,

and organizational behavior modification has generated a large volume of debate in the

human resource and sales performance field.

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There are different theories of motivation; some focus on quantity of motivation and

others on quality. Quantity of motivation could be high or low. Quality of motivation

depends on whether the source of motivation is internal or external. Self-determination

Theory (SDT) of motivation considers quality of motivation to be more important than

quantity and describes a continuum for quality of motivation (Ryan and Deci 2000a).

This ranges from intrinsic motivation at one end to amotivation at the other end of the

continuum, with four types of extrinsic motivation (integrated regulation, identified

regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation) in between. Intrinsic motivation is

derived out of genuine interest in an activity. Extrinsic motivation is derived out of an

expected gain or a separable outcome. As elaborated by SDT, not all types of extrinsic

motivation are undesirable. Extrinsic motivation spans from high self-determination to

low self-determination (Ryan and Deci 2000). Identified Regulation, the highly

autonomous type of extrinsic motivation, is close to intrinsic motivation. Identified

regulation and intrinsic motivation can be summed up to generate Autonomous

Motivation (AM). Thus AM depicts self-determined motivation. Introjected and external

regulation, which are low in self-determination, can be summed up together to generate

Controlled Motivation (CM). Thus CM depicts motivation which is very low on self-

determination.

RELATED STUDIES

The educational equivalent to “location, location, location” is likely to be

“motivation, motivation, motivation,” for motivation is probably the most important

factor that educators can target in order to improve learning (Olson, 1997). Motivation is

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defined as the act or process of motivating; the condition of being motivating; a

motivating force, stimulus, or influence; incentive; drive; something (such as a need or

desire) that causes a person or student to act and the expenditure of effort to accomplish

results (DuBrin, 2008; Williams & Williams, 2011). Palmer (2007) review the “student

motivation as an essential element that is necessary for quality education. How do we

know when students are motivated? They pay attention, they begin working on tasks

immediately, they ask questions and volunteer answers, and they appear to be happy and

eager.” (Williams & Williams, 2011). According to Brophy (2013), motivation to learn is

a competence acquired “through general experience but stimulated most directly through

modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by

significant others (especially parents and teachers)” (Gregory, 2009, Nukpe, 2012), offers

some definition for motivation where, Cherry (2010) views motivation as “the process

that initiates, guides and maintains goaloriented behaviours”. Brennen, (2006) believes

motivation to be “… the level of effort an individual is willing to expend toward the

achievement of a certain goal” (Guay et al., 2010) describes it simply as “reasons

underlying behaviour” (Nukpe, 2012).

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Individuals who are motivated intrinsically

tend to develop high regard for learning course information without the use of external

rewards or reinforcement. On the other hand, individuals who are motivated extrinsically

rely solely on rewards and desirable results for their motivation, e.g., tests and GPA. (Lei,

2010). Students who are motivated externally are at a greater risk of performing lower

academically than intrinsically motivated students. It is interesting to note that

nontraditional students report higher levels of intrinsic motivation than traditional

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students (Dean and Dagostino, 2007; Daniels, 2010; Bye, Pushkar, and Conway, 2007;

Afzal, et al., 2010). Various individual and social factors: Overall academic motivation is

affected by various individual and social factors. For example, intrinsic motivation is

affected by the reason for preferring the school, the probability of finding a job after

graduation, the order of preference, the future expectation, the distinctiveness of testing

and measuring activities at the school, and desire to complete a Masters’ degree. In the

simplest terms, it is necessary to be motivated and to make an effort. Extrinsic motivation

is significantly affected by the probability of finding a job, the attitude towards the

teacher, the peer group, the level of income, the appropriateness of the classrooms, the

adequacy of teaching materials, and the number of siblings. The most effective extrinsic

motivation is the probability of finding a job. (Celikoz, 2010). Hierarchy of needs:

Regarding lower level needs, if a student is hungry or thirsty, it is more difficult to focus

on learning. Also, if the environment is physically, mentally, or emotionally unsafe, then

it will be hard for the student to put all of his or her attention on learning. If the teacher

always is critical of the student, then the student Research in probably will not feel

accepted or that he or she belongs. Low self-esteem and ego will make the student feel

unappreciated and unrecognized. As such, the educator must do what is necessary to

support the student to a higher level of need satisfaction so that the student can focus his

or her attention on learning. Even at the level of selfactualization, the educator may need

to provide encouragement or opportunities (Williams & Williams, 2011).

We recall philosopher John Dewy who said that schools should not be a place of

taking personal knowledge, where the teacher explains all the while a host of knowledge

and the student remains at all times an individual liability, that is, without participating

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directly but it should be an active student. According to Taylor (2012), the root word of

the term motivation is mover (to move). In regards to learning, motivation generally

involves inner forces, enduring traits, behavioral responses to stimuli, and sets of beliefs

and affects. She said that the study of motivation can be broken down into two main

categories: behavioral and cognitive theories. Behavioral theories “view motivation as a

change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior as a function of

environmental events and stimuli”. Teachers can shape student responses by conditioning

the external environment. In contrast, cognitive theories stress the internal structures and

processing of information and beliefs. Cognitive theories stress the importance of

perceptions of competence, values, affects, goals, and social comparisons when

measuring motivation (Taylor, 2012). Every educator needs to be concerned about

motivation. It is a quality that students, teachers, parents, school administrators, and other

members of the community must have if our educational system is to prepare young

people adequately for the challenges and demands of the coming century. Of course, the

way these various groups of individuals generate and use motivation differs greatly.

Students need motivation to learn, parents need it to track the educational progress of

their sons and daughters, teachers need it to become better teachers, and school

administrators need it to ensure that every facet of the schools they manage continues to

improve.

The authors use Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to

better understand how student motivation and engagement are linked combined with

Schlechty’s Student Engagement Continuum to analyse the impact of intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation on students’ different engagement types. The study seeks to

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understand which type of motivation – intrinsic or extrinsic – is more closely aligned to

authentic student engagement as identified by Schlechty (2002, 2011). A qualitative

research framework was adopted and data was collected from one elementary school

class. According to Ryan and Deci’s SDT, the majority of students who indicated that

their motivation type was either intrinsic or integrated regulated motivation also

demonstrated that they were authentically engaged in their education (Schlechty, 2002,

2011). The students who preferred extrinsic motivation also showed ritual and retreatist

forms of engagement and students demonstrating both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

showed authentic, ritual, retreatist and rebellious engagement. In line with findings by

Zyngier (2008) in this particular study at least, when pedagogical reciprocity (Zyngier,

2011) was present, intrinsic motivation assisted authentic student engagement in learning,

and that extrinsic motivation served to develop ritual engagement in students however,

students who had both types of motivation showed different types of engagement in their

learning.

Together with motivation, engagement is viewed in the literature as very

important for enhanced learning outcomes of all students (Schlechty, 2001; Woolfolk &

Margetts, 2007). Motivation is seen as a pre-requisite of and a necessary element for

student engagement in learning. Student engagement in learning is not only an end in

itself but it is also a means to the end of students achieving sound academic outcomes

(Russell, Ainley & Frydenberg, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2009). This is important because

authentic engagement may lead to higher academic achievement throughout student life

(Zyngier, 2008). If educators want to know and resolve the young students’ issues and to

make schools engaging places (Meyer, 2010; Smyth and McInerney, 2007), then they

59
actually have to listen to what students are saying about their classes and teachers (Mitra,

& Serriere, 2012; O'Brien, & Lai, 2011; Potter & Briggs, 2003; Zyngier, 2011).

This study was designed to understand students’ perceptions about their own

motivation type and how this may influence and impact on student engagement. Students

respond differently to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and each motivation type results

in different form of engagement in and with their learning (Bowen, 2003, 2001;

Schlechty, 2001, 2011). Using student voice the researchers analyze the students’

perceptions about their own motivation type and how these might impact theformation of

authentic student engagement. This research not only seeks to identify the relationship

between student motivation and engagement, but also explores the different types of

engagement from authentic to rebellion (Schlechty, 2001, 2011) that may result from and

be related to different types of motivation, from self determined intrinsic through to

extrinsic and a-motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2009).

According to Ryan and Deci (2000), To be motivated means to be moved to do

something. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is thus characterized as

unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or activated toward an end is considered

motivated. In the classroom setting, student motivation refers to the degree to which a

student puts effort into and focus on learning in order to achieve successful outcomes.

Motivation and engagement are very important for sound student learning. Sternberg

(2005) believes that motivation is very important for school success, in its absence; the

student never may make an effort to learn. Students not only have different quantities,

but also different qualities of motivation that can vary from time to time depending on the

learning and teaching context (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Schlechty, 2001). If teachers have a

60
sound understanding of the different types of student motivation possible in any given

context, then they are in better position to provide a more conducive learning

environment to students that better promotes their learning (Marsh, 2000). Contends that

“the implicit premise of the words “intrinsic” and “extrinsic” is that there are

qualitatively different kinds of motivation, and the kind matters more than the amount.”

McClintic-Gilbert and Hayenga (2009) expand this typology further: The question

of what motivates children’s behavior in achievement contexts is one of long-standing

interest to psychologists and educators. Much of the research in this area has classified

either intrinsic (i.e., inherent to the self or the task) or extrinsic (i.e., originating from

outside of the self or the task). That is, students are often thought to be learning either for

the sake of learning or as a means to some other end, whether it be praise, tangible

rewards, or meeting the demands of powerful authority figures.

Numerous research studies have shown that intrinsically motivated students have

higher achievement levels, lower levels of anxiety and higher perceptions of competence

and engagement in learning than students who are not intrinsically motivated (Wigfield &

Eccles, 2002; Wigfield & Waguer, 2005). These studies demonstrate that there is a

positive correlation between intrinsic motivation and academic achievement (Corpus et

al., 2009; Law, Elliot, & Murayama, 2012; Lee, McInerney, Liem, & Ortiga, 2010;

Lepper, Corpus & Iyenger, 2005). However, every student is not and cannot be always

intrinsically motivated towards certain tasks. According to Krause, Bochner and

Duchesne (2006) teachers frequently use extrinsic motivation like rewards, praise, free

time, food and even punishment to encourage and stimulate their students towards

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learning. The majority of researchers believe that motivation is not exclusively intrinsic

or extrinsic in orientation.A balanced pedagogical approach in the classroom includes the

combination of both types (Harackiewicz & Sansone, 2000; Harackiewicz & Hidi, 2000;

Hidi, 2000; Lepper & Henderlong, 2000; Williams, & Williams, 2011). The efficacy of

intrinsic and extrinsic motivations depends on time and context. Educators may use these

at a particular time and or in a certain activity. Similarly, the same activity can be seen as

intrinsically or extrinsically motivating by different students (Areepattamannil, Freeman,

& Klinger, 2011; Butler, 2012; Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose, & Boivin, 2010;

Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). It is very important for educators to understand the different

types of extrinsic motivation and how they may work as they cannot always rely on

intrinsic motivation to promote learning. Many of the class room activities that a teacher

wants students to do are not necessarily in themselves interesting or enjoyable therefore,

using more active and volitional forms of extrinsic motivation such as electronic media

sources are effective strategies for successful teaching (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Motivation refers to “the reasons underlying behavior” (Guay et al., 2010).

Paraphrasing Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004) broadly define motivation as “the

attribute that moves us to do or not to do something”. Intrinsic motivation is motivation

that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest, or pleasure. As Deci et al. (2009)

observe, “intrinsic motivation energizes and sustains activities through the spontaneous

satisfactions inherent in effective volitional action. It is manifest in behaviors such as

play, exploration, and challenge seeking that people often do for external rewards”.

Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation, which is

motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies. Traditionally, educators consider

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intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in better learning outcomes than

extrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 2009). One strand of this literature focuses on the

values individuals hold for participating in

Various types of activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Values are incentives or

reasons for engaging in an activity. The value of a given task or activity has four

components: attainment value, which refers to the personal value of doing well on a task;

intrinsic value, which refers to subjective interest or enjoyment of performing a task;

utility value, which refers to the extent to which task completion is perceived to facilitate

current or future goals; and cost, which refers to the negative aspects of engaging in a

given task, such as anxiety and fear of failure (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).

Motivation is the driving force which guides us to achieve goals. It is one of the

major factors that is required to achieve anything in life. It pushes the individual to do

whatever it takes to become successful. Wigfield and Tonks (2002) and Gardner (2001)

maintain that a motivated individual strives to achieve the goal, is insistent and attentive

to the task, enjoys running for the goal, regards success as positive reinforcement, and

uses strategies to reach the goal. Therefore, motivation can be considered as goal-directed

behavior. (Demir, 2011). The study will focus to the motivation of student athletes in

their academic life as well as athletic carreer.

There are two categories of motivation; internal and external factors. As internal

factors, they take into consideration the intrinsic interest of activity ( arousal of curiosity,

parent, optimal degree of challenge ), perceived value of activity ( personal relevance,

anticipated value of outcomes, intrinsic value attributed to the activity), sense of agency

( locus of causality, locus of control re: process and outcome, ability to set appropriate

63
goals), mastery (feelings of competence, awareness of developing skills, self-efficacy),

self-concept (realistic awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses in skills required

personal definitions an judgments of success, self-worth concern, learned helplessness),

attitudes (to language learning in general, to the target language, to the target language

community and culture), other affective states (confidence, anxiety, fear), developmental

age and stage, gender. As external factors, they mention significant others ( parents,

teachers, peers), the nature of interaction with significant others ( mediated learning

experiences, the nature and amount of feedback, rewards, the nature and amount of

appropriate praise, punishments, sanctions), the learning environment ( comfort,

resources, time of day, week, year, size of class and school, class and school ethos), the

broader context ( wider family networks, the local education system, conflicting interests,

cultural norms, societal expectations and attitudes) (Williams and Burden ,2007). To be

more specific, the motivation is divide in two kinds, intrinsic and extrinsic.

School environment and teachers’ expectations from their students also have

strong influence on student performance. This is consistent with the present study’s

findings whereby it was found that availability of school programs, library references,

comfortable classrooms and fast internet access were all deemed to be of high impact by

the student nurses on their academic performance. Environment which the student

athletes roam around will be also indicated to the survey (Zappala, 2002).

In addition, Sentamu (2003) argue that schools influence educational process in

content organization, teacher and teaching learning and in the end evaluation of all. All

these educationists and researchers agreed with the principle that schools put strong effect

on academic performance and educational attainment of students.

64
 According to Bangbade (2004) that teachers’ attribute has significant relationship

with students’ academic performance. Such attributes according to Bangbade (2004)

include teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, communication ability, emotional

stability, good human relationship and interest in the job. This is in support of the present

study’s findings which show that teacher-related factors were deemed to be the most

impactful category of factors that pose an impact on student nurses’ academic

performance. Rena (2000) further explained that for students to perform well in any

examination one of the prerequisites is that their teachers must know them and have

profound knowledge of their state of physical, intellectual and psychological readiness.

RELATED LITERATURE

Motivation basically refers to the drive that leads someone to work in an effective

and efficient manner. A worker or on this case scenario as we are talking of the

organizational environment, the employee needs to be motivated, the reason for this is the

fact, that the loyalty and the sincerity of the employee towards the work depends upon the

consequences that are promised with him or her. The benefit of the leader and the

employee is always mutually exclusive, which leads to an effective team work, thereby,

leading to the accomplishment of the goals. Now, there are a lot of ways through which

this drive can be aggravated. The most important among them is the financial benefits

that are promised to the employees, setting the targets and announcing the financial

incentives which bring the energy to the employees to work in a coordinated manner to

accomplish goals. Motivation is always not material but the employees can be motivated

65
in several different ways. This can be like announcing a reward that is recreational such

as a trip to somewhere with the company’s other team members etc. the reward basically

builds an inner satisfaction in one’s mind and builds a sense of accomplishment among

the employees. The motivation can be in the form of appreciation. This enables the

workers to be bucked up and retain their reputation as achievers, thereby, maintaining to

work harder and in a more efficient manner. The rewards can also be in the form of

ceremonial performance awards and also with some tags like best sales man of the year

and vice versa (Watkiss, 2004).

Our purpose of this review article is to survey the progress of neuroscience

research on intrinsic motivation. Because intrinsic motivation is not a uniquely human

capacity (Wilson, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017) we review conceptual developments in the

comparative affective neurosciences (Panksepp and Biven, 2012) that inform the concept

of intrinsic motivation. Such considerations are essential for appreciating intrinsic

motivation as a basic organismic capacity and for helping to clarify its unique

components in humans (Ryan and Di Domenico, 2016). Building upon these insights, we

map the phenomenology of intrinsic motivation onto the neural substrates of motivational

processes that are encompassed by intrinsic motivation. Against the backdrop of these

preliminary ideas, we then review recent studies that have examined the neural correlates

of intrinsic motivation. To anticipate our main conclusions, affective neuroscience

suggests that human intrinsic motivation is based in ancient mammalian systems that

govern exploration and play. Neuroimaging studies, which have up to now focused on

curiosity and mastery tendencies, indicate that intrinsically motivated states are sub

served by neural regions that are central to dopamine systems. These studies also hint at

66
the possible role of dynamic switching between large-scale brain networks involved in

salience detection, attentional control and self-referential cognition. On the basis of these

ideas, we suggest novel research directions and offer recommendations for the

application of neuroscience methods in the study of intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsically motivated curiosity, exploration and mastery behaviors, however,

pertain to specific types of novel stimuli, namely, those that present optimal challenges or

optimal inconsistencies with one’s extant knowledge and that accordingly energize

tendencies to approach (Ryan and Deci, 2017). Consistent with the work of Gray and

McNaughton (2000) intrinsic motivation researchers have long noted that whereas too

much novelty relative to a person’s skill and knowledge produces anxiety, too little

novelty produces to boredom. During intrinsic motivation, feelings of interest and

positive excitement predominate over both anxiety and boredom. Indeed, such

exploratory states entail searching for novelties and challenges and, moreover, acting on

the world to elicit novelties and to discover new problems. These observations indicate

that intrinsically motivated exploratory and mastery behaviors are primarily energized by

interest and appetitive mastery tendencies, not anxiety reduction.

The shortcomings of operant behaviorism and drive theory in regards to intrinsic

motivation, effectance motivation as a general behavioral and developmental propensity

of many organisms. Seemingly prescient of later developments in the affective

neurosciences (Panksepp and Biven, 2012), effectance motivation is inherent to the

activity of the central nervous system and described it as “what the neuromuscular system

wants to do when it is otherwise unoccupied (e.g., by strong homeostatic drives) or is

gently stimulated by the environment”. The satisfactions associated with the effectance

67
motive are not tied to consummatory activities, but are instead intrinsic to the arousal and

maintenance of the activities that stem from it. Along similar lines, Intrinsic motivation is

based in people’s “primary propensity” to experience themselves as causal agents, that is,

to experience their own actions as having an internal perceived locus of causality.

Insightful theorizing helped set the stage for the earliest experiments on the undermining

effect as it suggested that external enticements and pressures that detract one from

experiencing oneself as the center of initiation of their own behaviors—that undermine

autonomy—can diminish intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 2015).

Intrinsic motivation is a lifelong psychological growth function that is based in

the basic psychological needs for competence and autonomy. Competencerefers to

feelings of effectance, the sense of growing mastery in activities that are optimally

challenging and that further develop one’s capacities. Autonomy refers to an experience

of volition and integrity, the sense that one’s behavior is authentic and self-organized

rather than internally conflicted and pressured or externally coerced. Within SDT,

competence and autonomy are seen as essential elements in people’s active propensities

to seek out challenges, to be curious and interested, and to develop and express their

capacities: when these needs are supported, intrinsic motivation may ensue; when these

needs are thwarted, intrinsic motivation is undermined (Ryan and Deci, 2017).

In terms of both evolution and development, intrinsic motivation confers many

adaptive consequences for organisms (Ryan and Deci, 2017). For example, intrinsic

motivation exposes organisms to novel situations and therefore occasions the

development of diverse skills and competencies to cope with uncertain future situations.

68
Intrinsic motivations are particularly important for those species that have a protracted

period of postnatal development and occupy complex habitats (Wilson, 2000).

Extending this evolutionary thinking, Ryan and Hawley (2016) reviewed

empirical evidence that competence and autonomy satisfactions supply proximal supports

for intrinsically motivated activities even when the adaptive consequences of such

activities are not the phenomenal aims of the individuals enacting them.

At the level of personality functioning, intrinsic motivation provides the impetus

for individuals to learn about particular subject areas and to differentiate their interests,

fostering the development of personal identities that confer a sense of authenticity,

meaning, and purpose (Ryan and Deci, 2012). For example, meta-analyses and field

studies point to intrinsic motivation as perhaps the most important form of motivation in

school achievement (e.g., Taylor et al., 2014; Froiland and Worrell, 2016). In a related

vein, Peterson (2000) argued that the dedicated and courageous pursuit of one’s interests

optimizes personality development by incrementally exposing one to new ideas and

challenges, thereby preventing ideological rigidity and fostering learning, growth, and

meaning in life. Indeed, various scholars have proposed that intrinsically motivated self-

examination plays a key role in the development of the highest human virtues, including

wisdom (Vervaeke and Ferraro, 2013).

Aspects of intrinsic motivation have also been examined from perspectives other

than SDT. Because some of the empirical studies that we review in upcoming sections

are based on these related topics, we briefly summarize these perspectives here to note

similarities and differences with SDT. We also briefly review topics that bear important

conceptual relations to intrinsic motivation and note the utility of these for helping to

69
inform the emerging neuroscience of intrinsic motivation. The close relation between

SDT’s concept of intrinsic motivation and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) concept of flow has

been noted for a long time (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Flow refers to experiential states of

total absorption, optimal challenge, and non-self-conscious enjoyment of an activity. Like

intrinsic motivation, when people experience flow, the satisfactions they experience are

inherent to the activity itself and their behavior is “autotelic” (auto = self, telos = goal) or

performed for its own sake. Like SDT, flow theory emphasizes the phenomenology of

intrinsic motivation. Flow theory is particularly articulate in its description of the optimal

challenges and ensuing competence satisfactions associated with intrinsic motivation. For

example, Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2014) describe the flow state as the subjective

experience of engaging “just-manageable challenges by tackling a series of goals,

continuously processing feedback about progress, and adjusting action based on this

feedback”. However, apart from recognizing the autotelic (i.e., intrinsically motivating)

aspects of flow activities, flow theory does not formally recognize autonomy as an

essential component of flow (Deci and Ryan, 2000).

A concept related to intrinsic motivation has also emerged within the “Five-

Factor” or “Big Five” model of personality research (John et al., 2008; McCrae and

Costa, 2008). Specifically, DeYoung (2010, 2013) has argued that the higher-order

trait plasticity (i.e., the shared variance of extraversion and openness/intellect) represents

stable interindividual differences in people’s exploratory tendencies. Apart from the

obvious difference that intrinsic motivation refers to a motivational state, whereas

plasticity refers to dispositional trait, these two phenomena have some notable features in

common. Like intrinsic motivation, plasticity entails being “actively engaged with the

70
possibilities of the environment, both generating and attending to novel aspects of

experience” (DeYoung, 2010, and although plastic exploration has not been formally

described using the concept of autonomy, people high in plasticity are hypothesized to

“desire exploration for its own sake (i.e., they treat it as a goal in itself) and engage in it

even at times when exploration will not obviously further their goals” (DeYoung, 2013,

p.8). These conceptual links between plasticity and intrinsic motivation are important

because recent years have seen a marked increase in the field’s understanding of the

neurobiology of plasticity, most specifically, its association with dopamine

(DeYoung, 2013). These insights inform some of the ideas in the current presentation.

Tricomi and DePasque (2016) recently argued that, even in the absence of

external rewards, this dopaminergic pathway registers the endogenous signals of positive

and negative feedback that are elicited during the performance of many activities. The

types of activities that people find intrinsically motivating provide just-manageable

challenges, clear proximal goals, and immediate feedback (Nakamura and

Csikszentmihalyi, 2014; Ryan and Deci, 2017).

Another way of describing this optimally challenging nature of intrinsically

motivated activities is to say that the positive and negative feedback that people receive

during their performance of such activities is not entirely unexpected—a performative

context that suggests phasic dopaminergic signaling. Following Tricomi and DePasque

(2016), we therefore propose that a high rate of dopaminergic signaling within the value

system is inherent to the performance of intrinsically motivating activities.

Interest in the overlaps and contrasts between intrinsically motivated exploration

and play is thus an important agenda for future studies and both are relevant to intrinsic

71
motivation as it is studied within SDT (Ryan and Di Domenico, 2016). Behavioral

models of human intrinsic motivation have generally conflated exploration and play

because these activities share common features such as an internal perceived locus of

causality and perceived competence or mastery. Indeed, functional distinctions between

intrinsically motivated exploration and object or manipulative play are subtle and suggest

that, for many activities recognized as “playful”, the conflation is appropriate and

productive. For example, Wilson (2000) suggested that “In passing from exploration to

play, the animal or child changes its emphasis from ‘What does this object do?’ to ‘What

can I do with this object?”’ (p.165). In fact, intrinsically motivated object play,

manipulative play, and solitary gaming likely arise from the activity of the seeking

system (Panksepp and Biven, 2012). Clearly, more empirical work is needed to

differentiate these types of intrinsic motivation in humans.

Intrinsic motivation is a topic of interest within both basic behavioral science and

applied translational studies and interventions (Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2017). Yet

important to the progress of empirical research on intrinsic motivation is integrating what

is known from phenomenological and behavioral studies with neuroscience studies. As

we suggested at the outset, neuroscience holds potential for testing existing models of the

situational and social determinants of intrinsic motivation as well as for providing greater

resolution on the affective and cognitive processes that underpin such activities.

Movement toward consilience is a central concern to SDT and our hope is that the current

synthesis provides some broad stoke encouragement for that agenda.

The ingredients of motivation lie within all and the internalized drive toward the

dominant thought of the moment (Rabby 2001). Motivation directly links to individual

72
performance that gain to organization performance and as a catalyzer for all individual

employees working for an organization to enhance their working performance or to

complete task in much better way than they usually do. Organization runs because of

people working for it, and each person contributes toward achieving the ultimate goal

of an organization. Panagiotakopoulos (2013) concluded that factors affecting staff

motivation at a period where the financial rewards are kept to the least leads to

stimulate employee performance. So, management personnel’s responsibility to

motivate their employees to work as per the expectation to enhance the organization’s

performance. Similarly Dysvik and Kuvaas (2010) concluded that intrinsic motivation

was the strongest predictor of turnover intention and relationship between mastery-

approach goals and turnover intention was only positive for employees, low in intrinsic

motivation. The only thing organization needs to do is to give employees with ample

resources and platform to do. As per Kuo (2013) a successful organization must

combine the strengths and motivations of internal employees and respond to external

changes and demands promptly to show the organization’s value. In this paper, we have

taken various techniques of motivation from existing literature, and managed to make

flow of motivation from young-age employees to old-age employees. From

organization perspective managers need to understand the flow of motivation, it helps

them to create a culture where employees always get motivated to do better. Barney and

Steven Elias (2010) found that with extrinsic motivation there exist a significant

interaction between job stress, flex time, and country of residence. Leaders know that at

the heart of every productive and successful business lies a thriving organizational

culture and hardworking people collaborate passionately to produce great results

73
(Gignac and Palmer 2011). In the body of literature, various frameworks are used by

the researchers based on theory of motivation, with only few dimensions of motivation.

In a complex and dynamic environment, leader of the organization used to

create the environment in which employee feel trusted and are empowered to take

decisions in the organization which leads to enhance motivation level of employee and

ultimately organizational performance are enhanced. Smith and Rupp (2003) stated that

performance is a role of individual motivation; organizational strategy, and structure

and resistance to change, is an empirical role relating motivation in the organization.

Likewise, Luthans and Stajkovic (2000) concluded that advancement of human

resources through rewards, monetary incentives, and organizational behavior

modification has generated a large volume of debate in the human resource and sales

performance field. According to Orpen (2007) better the relationship between mentors

and mentees in the formal mentoring program, the more mentees are motivated to work

hard and committed to their organization. Likewise, Malina and Selto ( 2001) conducted

a case study in one corporate setting by using balance score card (BSC) method and

found out that organizational outcomes would be greater if employees are provided

with positive motivation. The establishment of operations-based targets will help the

provision of strategic feedback by allowing the evaluation of actual performance

against the operations-based targets. Goal-directed behavior and strategic feedback are

expected to enhance organizational performance (Chenhall 2005). Kunz and Pfaff

(2002) stated no substantive reason to fear an undermining effect of extrinsic rewards

on intrinsic motivation. Decoene and Bruggeman (2006) in their study developed and

illustrated a model of the relationship between strategic alignment, motivation and

74
organizational performance in a BSC context and find that effective strategic alignment

empowers and motivates working executives. Leaders motivate people to follow a

participative design of work in which they are responsible and get it together, which

make them responsible for their performance. Aguinis et al. (2013) stated that monetary

rewards can be a very powerful determinant of employee motivation and achievement

which, in turn, can advance to important returns in terms of firm-level performance.

Garg and Rastogi (2006) identified the key issues of job design research and practice to

motivate employees’ performance and concluded that a dynamic managerial learning

framework is required to enhance employees’ performance to meet global challenges.

Vuori and Okkonen (2012) stated that motivation helps to share knowledge through an

intra-organizational social media platform which can help the organization to reach its

goals and objectives. Den and Verburg (2004) found the impact of high performing

work systems, also called human resource practices, on perceptual measures of firm

performance. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) recognizes that employees have both a mind

and a spirit and seek to find meaning and purpose in their work, and an aspiration to be

part of a community, hence making their jobs worthwhile and motivating them to do at

a high level with a view to personal and social development.

Do rewards enhance learning outcomes? This is a question that has long sparked

controversy in education literature. According to recent findings in cognitive

neuroscience, the answer seems to be yes. Indeed, there have been a number of studies,

including ours (Murayama & Kitagami, 2014), that have shown that rewards (e.g.,

money) enhance learning due to the modulation of hippocampal function by the reward

network in the brain (Adcock, Thangavel, Whitfield-Gabrielli, Knutson & Gabrieli,

75
2006). On this basis, some argue for the value of reward in education (Howard-Jones &

Jay, 2016).

We are currently working on several different projects on motivation, with the

core aim of unraveling the nature and function of intrinsic rewards in human behavior.

Although extrinsic incentives undoubtedly play an important role in shaping our

behavior, humans are endowed with the remarkable capacity to engage in a task without

such incentives, by self-generating intrinsic rewards. Forms of motivation triggered by

intrinsic rewards are often referred to as interest, curiosity or intrinsic motivation. But the

psychological and neural mechanisms underlying the generation of intrinsic rewards are

largely unclear (Braver et al., 2014).

For example, we are currently examining the neural correlates when curiosity

leads us to make a seemingly irrational decision. There are a number of anecdotal stories

where curiosity pushes people to expose themselves knowingly to bad consequences,

such as Pandora’s box, Eve and the forbidden tree, and Orpheus, but this seductive

rewarding power of curiosity has been underexamined in the literature (for exceptions,

see Hsee and Ruan, 2015; Oosterwijk, 2017). In our ongoing project, we present

participants with magic tricks (to induce curiosity) and ask them whether they are willing

to take a risk of receiving electric shock to know the secret behind the magic tricks. The

preliminary findings from our neuroimaging analysis indicated that the striatum is

associated with people’s decision to take such a risk to satisfy their curiosity, suggesting

that internal “rewards” play a critical role for curiosity to guide our decision making.

Although intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards play a similar role in some

situations, some aspects of intrinsic rewards are unique. One such aspect is

76
metamotivation. Metamotivational belief refers to our beliefs and understanding of how

motivation works (Miele & Scholer, 2018; Murayama, 2014; Scholer, Miele, Murayama

& Fujita, in press). Like recent findings on metacognition (Kornell & Bjork, 2008;

Murayama, Blake, Kerr & Castel, 2016), our studies indicate that people are often

inaccurate in their beliefs about the motivating property of intrinsic rewards. Specifically,

when we asked participants to work on a boring task and to make a prediction about how

interesting the task would be, their prediction was inaccurate. Their predicted task

engagement was less than their actual task engagement, indicating that people tend to

underestimate their power to generate intrinsic rewards when faced with boring tasks

(Murayama, Kuratomi, Johnsen, Kitagami & Hatano., under review). This inaccuracy of

our metamotivational belief could partly explain why authority figures are often so reliant

on extrinsic rewards to motivate other people (Murayama et al., 2016).

Motivation has been shown to positively influence study strategy, academic

performance, adjustment and well-being in students in domains of education other than

medical education (Vansteenkiste et al. 2005). Studying motivation particularly in

medical students is important because medical education is different from general

education in several aspects, some of them being high intensity of study, the requirement

to carry out clinical work along with study and the need to follow a highly specifically

defined path to be able to qualify to practice as doctors. In a literature review we found

that the positive correlation between motivation and performance has not been

substantiated strongly in medical education as different studies have contradictory

findings (Kusurkar et al. 2011). The objective of the present research study was to

77
explore the relationships between motivation, study strategy, study effort and academic

performance among medical students.

There are different theories of motivation; some focus on quantity of motivation

and others on quality. Quantity of motivation could be high or low. Quality of motivation

depends on whether the source of motivation is internal or external. Self-determination

Theory (SDT) of motivation considers quality of motivation to be more important than

quantity and describes a continuum for quality of motivation (Ryan and Deci 2000a).

This ranges from intrinsic motivation at one end to amotivation at the other end of the

continuum, with four types of extrinsic motivation (integrated regulation, identified

regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation) in between. Intrinsic motivation is

derived out of genuine interest in an activity. Extrinsic motivation is derived out of an

expected gain or a separable outcome. As elaborated by SDT, not all types of extrinsic

motivation are undesirable. Extrinsic motivation spans from high self-determination to

low self-determination (Ryan and Deci 2000). Identified Regulation, the highly

autonomous type of extrinsic motivation, is close to intrinsic motivation. Identified

regulation and intrinsic motivation can be summed up to generate Autonomous

Motivation (AM). Thus AM depicts self-determined motivation. Introjected and external

regulation, which are low in self-determination, can be summed up together to generate

Controlled Motivation (CM). Thus CM depicts motivation which is very low on self-

determination.

Human motivation is a complex and well-studied field that has broad roots in a

diverse collection of academic disciplines including psychology, sociology, education,

political science, and economics. In simplified terms, motivation can be defined as, “what

78
causes people to behave as they do’’ Unfortunately, this simple definition hides the

dynamic intricacies of the motivation literature (Denhardt et al., 2008). This study will

also add knowledge to the field of psychology, motivation.

Motivation is not directly observable. “Motivation is an internal state that causes

people to behave in a particular way to accomplish particular goals and purposes. It is

possible to observe the outward manifestations of motivation but not motivation itself”.

For instance, the acquisition of money may be an extrinsic motivator, but it is simply the

manifestation of the internal drive to meet intrinsic needs like purchasing food, paying

rent for shelter, or acquiring high social status. Motivation is not the same as satisfaction.

“Put simply, satisfaction is past oriented, whereas motivation is future oriented”

(Denhardt et sal., 2008). While a worker may be very satisfied by the compensation of

their job, there are countless instances where these workers are not entirely motivated to

continue doing what they (Igalens & Roussel, 2009).

In addition, Malone and Lepper (2007) have defined it as “what people will do

without external inducement.” Examples of intrinsic motivation are hunger, a sense of

duty, altruism, and a desire to feel appreciated. Extrinsically motivated behaviors are

those where the controlling mechanism is easily seen.

Taking these findings into the realm of motivation in organizations, we must now

be cognizant of the fact that by simply applying extrinsic motivation methods without

also addressing intrinsic factors, managers could be doing more harm than good. Also,

managers must understand that by simply rewarding workers through extrinsic means,

they are actually perpetuating a destructive cycle of continual reward and decreased

79
intrinsic motivation. It is important to keep this in mind as we cover the myriad of

theories and needs outlined below. While not exactly a direct motivation theory in the

contexts of work or organizations, Festinger’s (2007) theory of cognitive dissonance says

that a person feels discomfort holding two contradictory ideas, beliefs, or feelings

simultaneously. This motivates the individual to, “try to reduce the dissonance and

achieve consonance” while also trying to, “actively avoid situations and information

which would likely increase the dissonance” (Festinger, 2003).

According to Orpen (2007) better the relationship between mentors and mentees

in the formal mentoring program, the more mentees are motivated to work hard and

committed to their organization. Likewise, Malina and Selto (2001) conducted a case

study in one corporate setting by using Balance Score Card (BSC) method and found

out that organizational outcomes would be greater if employees are provided with

positive motivation. The establishment of operations-based targets will help the

provision of strategic feedback by allowing the evaluation of actual performance

against the operations-based targets. Goal-directed behavior and strategic feedback are

expected to enhance organizational performance (Chenhall 2005).

Decoene and Bruggeman (2006) in their study developed and illustrated a model

of the relationship between strategic alignment, motivation and organizational

performance in a BSC context and find that effective strategic alignment empowers and

motivates working executives. Leaders motivate people to follow a participative design

of work in which they are responsible and get it together, which make them responsible

for their performance.

80
 Aguinis et al. (2013) stated that monetary rewards can be a very powerful

determinant of employee motivation and achievement which, in turn, can advance to

important returns in terms of firm-level performance. Garg and Rastogi ( 2006)

identified the key issues of job design research and practice to motivate employees’

performance and concluded that a dynamic managerial learning framework is required

to enhance employees’ performance to meet global challenges.

Vuori and Okkonen (2012) stated that motivation helps to share knowledge

through an intra-organizational social media platform which can help the organization

to reach its goals and objectives. Den and Verburg ( 2004) found the impact of high

performing work systems, also called human resource practices, on perceptual measures

of firm performance. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) recognizes that employees have both

a mind and a spirit and seek to find meaning and purpose in their work, and an

aspiration to be part of a community, hence making their jobs worthwhile and

motivating them to do at a high level with a view to personal and social development.

As summarized by Park (2010), monetary incentive acts as a stimulus for greater

action and inculcates zeal and enthusiasm toward work, it helps an employee in

recognition of achievement. Likewise, Beretti et al. (2013) discussed that monetary

incentives used to build a positive environment and maintain a job interest, which is

consistent among the employee and offer a spur or zeal in the employees for better

performance. For reason, monetary incentive motivates employees and enhance

commitment in work performance, and psychologically satisfy a person and leads to job

satisfaction, and shape the behavior or outlook of subordinate toward work in the

organization.

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 The work of Hunter et al. (2012) defines that achievement is a unique and

specialized form of organizational performance. As per Satyawadi and Ghosh (2012),

employees are motivated to a greater extent by achievement and self-control. Now this

can be understood: an employee who is achievement motivated seeks achievement,

bringing realistic but challenging goals, and betterment in the job. There is a strong need

for feedback from the higher officials in the organization as to achievement and progress,

and a need for a sense of attainment.

A study by Mahazril et al. (2012) organizations had the duty to appreciate the

employee from time to time and offer other form of benefits such as payment, which will

help in employee motivation. Likewise, Kingira and Mescib (2010) define appreciation

as the abstract of immaterial incentives; “employees giving immaterial incentives

(appreciation, respect etc.) as much as materiel incentives with working department”

shows employees do not agree with this behavioral statement. With this result, it can be

stated that employees being employed in different parts can take their different opinions

at different levels. Among the variable of responsibility and being appreciated, it is

understood that “success of employers always be appreciated with education.” The more

effective quality and practicality of education employees had, the more contribution they

will have to businesses.

In a special issue of the Journal of Experimental Education, Anderman and

Kaplan (2008) look at various types of social motivational factors, from classroom

settings, social motives, and the role of culture, to interpersonal and relational factors in

student interaction. Classroom social environment and student-teacher interaction play a

significant role in student motivation. Ryan and Patrick (2001) report that when students

82
feel a sense of relatedness or belonging they are motivated to learn and perform well in

school. Students feel this sense of belonging if they believe teachers are supportive of

social aspects in the classroom, such as promoting interaction and respect among

students. Teachers report that students are motivated to perform well if they believe their

teachers care for their social, as well as academic needs.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes

logical sense of the relationship between independent and dependent variables

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLES VARIABLES

1) This study seeks specifically

answer the following questions:
1.1 name
1.2 age
1.3 course
1.4 year level
1.5 sex
1.6 sports THE DETERMINANTS OF THE
1.7 years an athlete DETERMINANTS OF
2) The intrinsic motivational factors MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
of the respondents in terms of: INFLUENCING ACADEMIC
2.1 Academic Performance AND ATHLETIC
2.2 Athlete Performance PERFORMANCE OF COLLEGE
3) The extrinsic motivational OF SPORTS EXERCISE AND
factors of the respondents in terms RECREATION STUDENTS-
of: ATHLETES OF BULACAN
3.1 Academic performance
STATE UNIVERSITY

3.2 Athlete Performance 83

4) What are the determinants of
motivational factors of college of
sports exercise and recreation
 Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes

logical sense of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables,

Frame 1 holds the independent variables, the profile of student-athletes e.g. name,

age, course, year level, sex, sports and years an athlete. also the intrinsic and extrinsic

motivational factors of the respondents and the determinants of motivational factors of

college of sports exercise and recreation students-athletes of bulacan state university and

its influence to the academic and athletic performance.

Frame 2 which is the dependent variable, the determinants of motivational factors

of college of sports exercise and recreation students-athletes of bulacan state university

and its influence to the academic and athletic performance.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Empirical. It based on by observation or experience rather than theory or pure lo gic.

Expectancy. it refers to the proposes an individual will behave or act in a certain way

because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what

they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.

Extrinsic Motivation. it refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards.

84
Fringe. it refers to an ornamental border of threads left loose or formed into tassels or

twist, used to edge clothing or material.

Immaterial. it refers to unimportant under the circumstances or irrelevant.

Incrementally. Describes moving slowly but steadily forward and measurable

movements that are usually small.

Inculcates. it refers to an attitude, idea, or habit by persistent instruction.

Intrinsic Motivation. it refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards and to

engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it is naturally satisfying to

the students.

Motivation. it is for people’s action, desires and need.

Realm. it refers to a field or domain of activity or interest.

Sleek. it refers to a smooth and glossy (of hair, fur, or skin).

Simultaneously. is the relation between two events assumed to be happening at the same

time in a frame of reference.

Spur. is a thing that prompts or encourages someone; an incentive.

Valence. it is used in psychology, especially in discussing emotions, means the

intrinsic attractiveness of an event, object, or situation.

Vast. It refers to a very great extent or quantity.

Zeal. it refers to great energy or enthusiasm in pursuit of a cause or an objective.

85
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

This chapter presents the whole research of the study. It gives the information of

the population and the data will be gather to analyze and find the solution and facts to

attain the goals of this study.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The study used descriptive research method in the form of surveys. Descriptive

research is unique in the number of variables employed. A Likert scale provides a great

way of measuring attitudes, knowledge, perceptions, values, and behavioral changes. A

Likert-type scale involves a series of statements that survey respondents may choose

from, in order to rate their responses to evaluative questions.

Quantitative research is a structured way of collecting and analyzing data

obtained from different sources. Quantitative research involves the use of computational,

statistical, and mathematical tools to derive results.  It is conclusive in its purpose as it

tries to quantify the problem and understand how prevalent it is by looking for

projectable results to a larger population. According to Cengage (2010), Quantitative

methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or

numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by

manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative

research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people

or to explain a particular phenomenon.

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 The researchers conducted a survey focused on the College of Sports Exercise and

Recreation student-athletes in Bulacan State University. The quantitative research used

descriptive method to analyzed the data. For this included The Determinants of

Motivational Factors Influencing Academic and Athletic Performances of College of

Sports Exercise and Recreation Student-Athletes in Bulacan State University.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE OF THE STUDY

Purposive sampling was utilized in choosing the College of Sports Exercise and

Recreation student-athletes as the respondents of the study. It had seventy-nine (79)

College of Sports Exercise and Recreation student-athletes as its respondents.

Table 1

Population of College of Sports, Exercise and Recreation

Course Section Population

Fitness and Sports Coaching 1A & 1B 11
Fitness and Sports Management 1A & 1B 14
Sports and Wellness Management 2A, 3A, 4A, & 4B 36
School Physical Education 4A 18

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The researchers made a self-constructed questionnaire for the survey which

was given to the respondents, to know what were the determinants of motivational factors

influencing academics and athletics performance of student-athletes in Bulacan State

University. The questionnaire was composed of three parts; profile of the respondents,

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.

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DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

For this study, the researchers sent an approval letter to the adviser, instructor,

panels and Dean of the College. The seventy-nine (79) respondents were College of

Sports Exercise and Recreation Student-Athletes in Bulacan State University. After the

signing of the letter, researchers prepared a questionnaire for the survey, which was given

to the intended respondents. The self-constructed questionnaire was validated by the

experts on the field of education, sports and psychology. Lastly, after the student-athletes

answered the questionnaires, the researchers collected the data and start the statistical

treatment.

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DATA ANALYSIS

The data gathered was presented in several parts following the order of the

question raised in the statements of the problem. This study used a Likert scale to know

the determinants of motivational factors influencing academic and athletic performances

of College of Sports Exercise and Recreation student-athletes. This is Likert type of

questionnaire where numeric have descriptive value which is as follows:

Table 2

Likert Scale

Point Range Verbal

4 3.5 – 5.0 High
3 2.5 – 3.49 Moderate
2 1.5 – 2.49 Low
1 1.0 – 1.49 None
STATISTICAL TREATMENT

Mean

To determine the average or sum of all given values in a distribution divided by

the number of observations. To determine the average or sum of motivational factors

influencing academic and athletic performance.

Formula:

𝐏 = 𝐅 𝐍 ×100

Where:

1
P = Percentage

F = Frequency

N = No. of Respondents

The weighted mean was used in order to determine the average responses of the

different options in the second part of the questionnaire.

Formula:

𝐖𝐌 = ∑ 𝐟𝐱
n
Where:

WM = Mean

∑ fx = the sum of all the products of f and x, f being frequency of each weight and x as

the weight of each operation.

n= the total number of items