Introduction To The Study of Globalization

GE6102 | The Contemporary World
• List expectations for the course

• Recall course rules
• Write a personal definition of globalization based on a concept map
Course Description
This course introduces students to the contemporary world by examining the multifaceted
phenomenon of globalization. Using the various disciplines of the social sciences, it examines the
economic, social, political, technological, and other transformations that have created an increasing
awareness of the interconnectedness of peoples and places around the globe.
To this end, the course provides an overview of the various debates in global governance, development,
and sustainability. Beyond exposing the student to the world outside the Philippines, it seeks to
inculcate a sense of global citizenship and global ethical responsibility.
A. Competencies
1. Distinguish different interpretations of and approaches to globalization
2. Describe the emergence of global economic, political, social, and cultural systems
3. Analyze the various contemporary drivers of globalization
4. Understand the issues confronting the nation-state
5. Assess the effects of globalization on different social units and their responses
B. Skills
1. Analyze contemporary news events in the context of globalization
2. Analyze global issues in relation to and the Philippines
3. Write a research paper with proper citations on a topic related to globalization
C. Values
1. Articulate personal positions on various global issues
2. Identify the ethical implications of global citizenship
• Differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization

• Identify the underlying philosophies of the varying definitions of globalization
• Agree on a working definition of globalization for the course and recognize the history of
our Global Economy
• Identify the Effects of Globalization
Introduction to the Study of Globalization

We live in a world that is interconnected by a confusing range of complex economic transactions, social
and environmental problems, and international political collaborations and conflicts. We are bombarded
with global economic news every day. A decision by American policymakers to subsidize the production
of ethanol, a form of gasoline containing an additive produced from corn, is seen by many as a key
reason that grain prices are higher around the world. The emergence of China as a major exporter of
manufactured goods affected wages in both rich and poor nations.
Definition of Globalization
Globalization, according to sociologists, is an ongoing process that involves interconnected changes in
the economic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society. As a process, it involves the ever-
increasing integration of these aspects between nations, regions, communities, and even seemingly
isolated places.
In terms of the economy, globalization refers to the expansion of capitalism to include all places around
the world into one globally integrated economic system.
Culturally, it refers to the global spread and integration of ideas, values, norms, behaviors, and ways of
life. Politically, it refers to the development of forms of governance that operate at the global scale,
whose policies and rules cooperative nations are expected to abide. These three core aspects of
globalization are fueled by technological development, and the global integration of communication
technologies, global distribution of media.
Every day, we wear clothes that labeled, "made in China". Cars that have parts that were in all parts of
the world. When you go to a grocery store, there are grapes that were grown in Chile, sugar that is 50
off from Jamaica, and curry from India. When I was young, in order to have an imported item, you need
to go to that country. But now, because of globalization, you can easily avail imported products in a
price, all of these are because of globalization. In this lesson, you will learn the meaning of globalization,
some of its positive and negative effects, and some real examples of globalization.
While browsing your TV channels you may stop at the various shopping channels, and in your brief stop,
you may view a panel discussing globalization in the marketplace. Even in the news, there is always a
story that discusses the economic sequence of globalization. Globalization is the opening of local and
nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected and inter-dependent world with
free transfer of capital, goods, and services across national frontiers.
The History of Our Global Economy

Some sociologists, like William I. Robinson, frame globalization as a process that began with the
creation of the capitalist economy, which formed connections between distant regions of the world as
back as the Middle Ages. In fact, Robinson has argued that because a capitalist economy is premised on
growth and expansion, a globalized economy is the inevitable result of capitalism. From the earliest
phases of capitalism onward, European colonial and imperial powers, and later U.S. imperialism,
created global economic, political, cultural and social connections around the world.
But despite this, up until the mid-twentieth century, the world economy was actually a compilation of
competing and cooperating national economies. Trade was international rather than global. From the
mid-twentieth century on, the process of globalization intensified and quickened as national trade,
production, and finance regulations were dismantled, and international economic and political
agreements were forged in order to produce a global economy premised on the "free" movement of
money and corporations.
Effects of Globalization
Globalization has both positive and negative effects. On an individual level, globalization affects both
the standard of life and the quality of life. On a business level, globalization affects an organization's
product life cycle and an organization's balance sheet. Globalization also affects how governments
throughout the world create policies affecting areas such as monetary regulation and trade.
Individual Effects
On an individual level, globalization has affected the standard of life and quality of life of
individuals and throughout the world. Standard of living is the level of wealth, comfort,
material goods, and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain area.
Quality of life is the degree to which a person enjoys the important possibilities of his or her
life. In many instances, quality of life has improved for those who live in developing nations. For
many developing nations, globalization has led to an improvement in standard of living through
improved roads and transportation, improved health care, and improved education due to the
global expansion of corporations. However, globalization has had a negative effect on
individuals who live in developed nations. This is due to the fact that corporations now have
the option of establishing operations in nations "here manufacturing and production costs are
less expensive. As a result, many jobs leave developed nations and move to developing nations.
Corporate Effects
On a corporate level, globalization has had an effect on organizations' product or service life
cycle. Product life cycle is the period of time over which an item is developed, brought to
market and eventually removed from the world market. One such example of globalization
having a positive effect on a product's life cycle would be the Kinder Egg. Kinder Eggs are egged-
shaped chocolate candies with tiny toys inside and are very popular with children. However, due
to the fact that the tiny toys may be a choking hazard for children, the United States banned the
sale of these candies. However, due to globalization, the Kinder Egg is still a popular candy sold
in Canada and several countries throughout Europe.
Negative Corporate Effects

Many companies offer their services globally to expand their market, or they use services from
overseas to decrease their costs. Outsourcing services, decrease in wages, workers' rights and
interdependent economy are some of the negative effects of globalization on companies.
Outsourcing Work
Foreign workforce offers cheaper labor for many service-related positions, but the control of
quality of service, shipping expenses and time delays can have hidden costs. A company
considering outsourcing a service needs to look at all related expenses and possible problems
from having it done overseas. Shipping products overseas, delays in information or financial
reporting can reduce any financial savings. Service jobs, such as information technology,
education, accounting, and software development are being lost in developing countries, such
as the United States and Europe, to lower paying emerging countries, such as India and China.
Outsourcing work that was an internal function may help minimize company expenses.
However, the quality of the work can suffer and potentially create more expenses because of
the language barriers.
Decrease in Wages
Many jobs performed in emerging countries for less cause a decrease in the wages offered in
developing countries. As wages decrease for positions that paid more the workers will feel less
appreciated and put forth less effort in their job. In emerging countries where there are
minimal wage labor laws, the competition for outsourced work will drive down wages for the
workers. When companies stop seeing their personnel as a business investment, they create
long-term problems for a short-term savings.
Workers' Rights
In some emerging countries, labor laws that protect workers from exploitation and
mistreatment are almost non-existent. This could harm the image of a company that outsources
services from a foreign company that exploits children or the rights of their workers. A
company's public reputation in how it treats its employees, even if they are overseas, can cause
a loss in customer support of products.
• Define Economic Globalization

• Identify the factors that economic globalization
• Define the Modern world system
• Articulate an on global economic integration
Introduction
The United Nations addressed the different problems in the world. The efforts were guided by the eight
Millennium Development Goals that they created in the 1990's. The eradication of extreme poverty
and hunger ranked first.
Since there are different standards of living around the world, different meaning attached to it. Like for
example, in the Philippines, a person is in poverty if he makes less than 100,534 a year, around 275
pesos/day. This is called the poverty line. But this module focuses on extreme poverty which according
to UN, (2015), is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs including food,
safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. The UN defines
extreme poverty as living on less than $1.25/day. The organization aims to eradicate extreme poverty.
Definition of Economic Globalization

Economic globalization is the process of increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of
the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services (cited in Shangquan,2000). Hence,
it leads to the development of a global marketplace or a single world market.
Economic globalization is enhanced by the acquisition of multinational enterprises that resulted to the
rise of the profits of that global marketplace. Therefore, we could say that a multinational company is a
firm company that has headquarters in one country but with bases, manufacturing or assembly plants in
other countries.
Factors That Facilitate Economic Globalization

There are factors that globalization. Globalization is influenced by many factors such as:
1. Historical: Before, in order to easily trade from one kingdom to another, they created the
trade routes. The well-known silk-route from east to west is an example of historical
factor.
2. Economy: The movement of goods determine the cost of goods and values to the end
user. The overall economic trade is an important factor in globalization.
3. Resources and Markets: The natural resources contribute to globalization, such as coal,
mineral, oil, gas, human resources, etc.
4. Generation Issues: Usage of developed limits of creation, drowsiness in local market and
over generation makes a fabricating organization search externally and go worldwide. The
improvement of abroad markets and assembling plants in cars, four wheelers and two
wheelers is an established illustration.
5. Political: The political issues of a nation make globalization channelized according to
political pioneer. The exchange understanding decides the extent of globalization. Trading
in European Union and special agreement in the erstwhile Soviet block and SAARC are
examples.
6. Mechanical Association: The innovative improvement in the zones of generation, item
blend and firms are helping associations to extend their tasks. The contracting of
administrations and acquirement of sub-congregations and segments have a solid impact
in the globalization procedure.
7. Advances: The phase of innovation in a specific field offers ascend to import or fare of
items or administrations from or to the nation. European nations like Britain and Germany
sent out their synthetic, electrical, mechanical plants in 60s and fares cutting edge
products to immature nations. Today India is sending out PC/ programming related
administrations to cutting edge provinces like UK, USA, and so on.
Modern World System

American sociologist Wallerstein described high-income nations as the core of the world economy.
This core is the manufacturing base of the planet where resources funnel becomes the technology and
wealth enjoyed by Western world today. In his model, the periphery remains economically dependent
on the core in a number of ways which tend to reinforce each other. First, poor countries have fewer
resources to export to rich nations. However, they can buy these raw materials cheaply and process and
sell them to rich nations. As a result, the profits tend to bypass the poor countries. Poor countries lack
industrial capacity that's why they need to import expensive goods from rich nations. All these unequal
trade patterns lead to borrowing money of poor countries creating debt. In summary, under
dependency theory, the problem is not of lack of global wealth, but is it that we do not distribute it well.
Global Economic Integration

widely thought to improve the allocation of resources, promote technology transfer, and improve living.
But, at the same time, economic integration has been blamed for growing trade imbalances, increased
financial market volatility, and less effective domestic macroeconomic policies.
Notion of international economic integration

Phenomenon of economic integration, understood as compilation and joining, appears along with a
progress of commodity - monetary economy. At the beginning, integration got a form of joining
different branches of economic activity in some regions. The next was joining regions - that is how,
integrated national economies started. Then, economies of different countries begin to merge, and
create, this way, the world economy. In the modern world economy, the economic integration has a
form of creation of different kinds of international, economic groupings, including groups of countries,
which have a target of mutual integration of their economies.
At the turn of the 20th and the 21st centuries, it is difficult to overestimate an influence of integrative
processes on the global economy. An effect of mentioned processes on national economies,
is seen in every aspect of economic life. Integration became this factor, which has essential meaning, to
make economic decisions for national economies, as well as, for international ones. A majority of
countries join integrative processes not ignoring, an important globalization process.
In an analysis of an economic aspect of integration, there are two tendencies: traditional and modern
one. The traditional analysis of economic integration, is based on classical and neoclassical theories of
international exchange. It is based on advantages from specialization. A known example is on England,
where labor costs of cloth are smaller; and Portugal, which makes cheaper wine. Barter trade between
these two countries lead to a situation, when they concentrate on production of goods, made more
effectively (England - cloth, Portugal - wine).
This way, international exchange allows getting comparative profits (133, p. 741, 7421). Neoclassic
theory, Heckscher-Ohlin says about uneven equipment of two countries with production factors.
• Explain the role of international financial institutions in the creation of a global economy
• Narrate a short history of global market integration in the twentieth century
• Identify the attributes of global corporations
Role of International Financial Institutions in the creation of Global Economy

The key global institution mobilizing political cooperation among nations on these issues is the United
Nations (UN) system. Mobilization of economic and financial cooperation, including issues related to
the transfer of resources, is one of the key responsibilities of the international financial institutions
(IFIs). Together, the UN and IFIs make up the bulk of the global governance system in place today.
IFIs are institutions that provide financial support and professional advice for economic and social
development activities in developing countries and promote international economic cooperation and
stability. The term international financial institution typically refers to the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the five multilateral development banks (MDBs): The World Bank Group, the African
Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The last four of these each focus on a single
world region and hence are often called regional development banks. IMF and the World Bank, in
contrast, are global in their scope; they are also specialized agencies in the UN system but are governed
independently of it.
All IFIs admit only sovereign countries as owner-members, but all are characterized by a broad country
membership, including both borrowing developing countries and developed donor countries;
membership in the regional development banks is not limited to countries from the region but includes
countries from around the world. Each IFI has its own independent legal and operational status, but
because a considerable number of countries have membership in several IFIs, a high level of cooperation
is maintained among them.
Broadly speaking, IMF provides temporary financial assistance to member countries to help ease
balance of payments adjustment. MDBs provide financing for development to developing countries
through the following:
• Long-term loans (with maturities of up to 20 years) based on market interest rates. To
obtain the financial resources for these loans, MDBs borrow on the international capital
markets and re-lend to borrowing governments in developing countries.
• Very-long-term loans (often termed credits, with maturities of 30 to 40 years) at interest
rates well below market rates. These are funded through direct contributions by
governments in the donor countries.
• Grant financing: mostly for technical assistance, advisory services, or project
preparation.
All IFIs are active in supporting programs that are global in scope, in addition to their primary role of
financing and providing technical assistance to programs at the country level.
History of Global Market Integration in the Twentieth Century

Two thousand years ago, the Romans unified their far-flung empire through an extensive transportation
network and a common language, legal system, and currency. One historian recently observed that "a
citizen of the empire traveling from Britain to the Euphrates in the mid-second century CE would have
found in virtually every town along the journey foods, goods, landscapes, buildings, institutions, laws,
entertainment, and sacred elements not dissimilar to those in
his own community" (Hitchner, 2003, p. 398). This unification promoted trade and economic
development.
A millennium and a half later, at the end of the fifteenth century, the voyages of Columbus, Vasco da
Gama, and other explorers initiated a period of trade over even vaster distances. These voyages of
discovery were made possible by advances in European ship technology and navigation, including
improvements in the compass, in the rudder, and in sail design. The sea lanes opened by these
voyages facilitated a thriving intercontinental trade--although the high costs of and the risks associated
with long voyages tended to limit trade to a relatively small set of commodities of high value relative to
their weight and bulk, such as sugar, tobacco, spices, tea, silk, and precious metals.
Much of this trade ultimately came under the control of the trading companies created by the English
and the Dutch. These state-sanctioned monopolies enjoyed--and aggressively protected--high markups
and profits. Influenced by the prevailing mercantilist view of trade as a zero-sum game, European
nation-states competed to dominate lucrative markets, a competition that sometimes spilled over into
military conflict.
The expansion of international trade in the sixteenth century faced some domestic opposition. For
example, in an interesting combination of mercantilist thought and social commentary, the reformer
Martin Luther wrote in 1524:
"But foreign trade, which brings from Calcutta and India and such places wares like costly silks, articles
of gold, and spices--which minister only to ostentation but serve no useful purpose, and which drain
away the money of the land and people--would not be permitted if we had proper government and
princes... God has cast us Germans off to such an extent that we have to fling our gold and silver into
foreign lands and make the whole world rich, while we ourselves remain beggars" (James, 2001, p. 8)
During the period between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the beginning of World War I,
international trade again expanded significantly as did cross-border flows of financial capital and labor.
Once again, new technologies played an important role in facilitating integration: Transport costs
plunged as steam power replaced the sail and railroads replaced the wagon or the barge, and an
ambitious public works project, the opening of the Suez Canal, significantly reduced travel times
between Europe and Asia. Communication costs likewise fell as the telegraph came into common use.
One observer in the late 1860s described the just completed trans-Atlantic telegraph cable as having
"annihilated both space and time in the transmission of intelligence" (Standage, 1998, p. 90). Trade
expanded the variety of available goods, both in Europe and elsewhere, and as the trade monopolies of
earlier times were replaced by intense competition, prices converged globally for a wide range of
commodities, including spices, wheat, cotton, pig iron, and jute (Findlay and O'Rourke, 2002).
For the most part, government policies during this era fostered openness to trade, capital mobility, and
migration. Britain unilaterally repealed its tariffs on grains (the so-called corn laws) in 1846, and a series
of bilateral treaties subsequently dismantled many barriers to trade in Europe. A growing appreciation
for the principle of comparative advantage, as forcefully articulated by Adam Smith and David Ricardo,
may have made governments more receptive to the view that international trade is not a zero-sum
game but can be beneficial to all participants.
Attributes of Global Corporations

Value Opportunity to Expand: High-growth companies view international markets as untapped markets
full of potential. These are the companies that become successful on a higher scale than those that
stunt the growth of their company by not seeing the value in this opportunity.
Understand Different Cultures: American companies that have a strong presence internationally often
have a founder or leading executive on their team who is from a foreign country or a first-generation
American. These executives' worldly experience helps prioritize the global market and answer any
unknowns. Companies without this knowledge should research and understand the different cultures
they are tapping into in order to be successful in not only building key relationships that will open up
doors down the road, but connecting with the right consumers as well.
According to a study by The Partnership for a New American Economy, more than 40% of the 2010
Fortune 500 companies were founded by foreign-born immigrants or first-generation Americans. A
great of this can be found in Google's very own co-founder, Sergey Brin, from Russia. Companies that
adopt an outside perspective will have a more globally focused marketing strategy, better cultural
understanding and have a wider scope of expansion goals, making it easier to propel their business
outside of their home market.
Turbo-charged by the Internet: Companies that invest in the Internet and produce web-based products
are more likely to grow globally because there is less money involved in their international expansion.
The most successful of these businesses is Amazon. This company is solely based on the Internet and
was able to reach a global market with ease.
Carefully Chosen International Partners: Choosing the right partners to help you grow your company in
other countries is vital. Without the right people to vouch for you in that country and build trust with
the consumers, becoming the market leader could be close to impossible. Again, this means companies
must be aware of different cultures and business practices among countries in order to connect, be
efficient, and stay on the same page. Example is Apple made a strategic partnership with China Mobile,
the largest wireless network in the world. This partnership enabled Apple to become the number one
smartphone maker in China and beat out the previously dominating five local competitors.
Before becoming business partners, know what you want and have clear expectations. Sticking with
these goals will help you choose the right partners and tap into the right markets.
Measure Success: When expanding to other countries it is important to keep track of the success and
make sure it is worth the company's resources. According to Albert Subbloie, CEO and Founder of
Tangoe, a good benchmark of whether your company should continue efforts in a country is when 20-50
percent of your business is coming from outside the United States.
Companies that are successful outside their home base are those that act fast. By keeping track of their
numbers, they can act fast and learn from failures. By reevaluating the current strategy and finding new
ways to innovate, it becomes easier to reap the benefits of the company's successes.
Think Globally: The most essential characteristic of any successful international business is
implementing a global way of thinking. If this is the main thought process behind a company's decisions,
the rest of their international marketing strategies can be implemented with ease.
One company that has mastered their international strategy is Redbull. They have created such a global
brand that most think that it is from America or their home country, yet Redbull calls Austria home. Its
most successfully tactic has been to host extreme sports events all over the world. From the Red Bull
Indianapolis Grand Prix to the Red Bull Soapbox Race in Jordan, the brand's powerful event marketing
strategy takes them all over the globe and makes their brand an international product.
If companies support and welcome globalization, it becomes intertwined with their culture. Employees
become globally-minded, engineers build software with other countries in mind, and the rest of the
team follows. Going global is the key to ensuring your company's growth and future are indomitable.
• Explain the effects of globalization on governments

• Identify the institutions that govern international relations
• Differentiate internationalism from globalism
• Identify the roles and functions of the United Nations
• Explain the relevance of the state amid globalization
Definition of Economic Globalization

Economic globalization
• the process of increasing the financial integration amongst countries. Consequently, economic
globalization leads to the development of a global marketplace or a single world market.
• enhanced by the accession of multinational enterprises, which result into the rise of the profits
of that global marketplace.
Therefore, we could argue that a multinational company is a firm company that has
'headquarters" in one country but with bases, manufacturing or assembly plants in others.
Factors that facilitate Economic Globalization

There are factors that facilitate Globalization. Globalization though is basically an economic activity, that
is influenced by many factors.
• HISTORICAL: The trade routes were made over the years so that goods from one kingdom or
country moved to another. The well-known silk-route from east to west is an example of
historical factor.
• ECONOMY: The cost of goods and values to the end user determine the movement of goods
and value addition. The overall economics of a particular industry or trade is an important factor
in globalization.
• RESOURCES AND MARKETS: The natural resources like minerals, coal, oil, gas, human
resources, water etc. make an important contribution in globalization
• PRODUCTION ISSUES: Utilization of built up of capacities of production, sluggishness in
domestic market and over production makes a manufacturing company look outward and go
global. The development of overseas markets and manufacturing plants in autos, four wheelers
and two wheelers are a classic example.
• POLITICAL: The political issues of a country make globalization channelized as per political
bosses. The regional trade understandings or agreements determine the scope of globalization.
Trading in European Union and special agreement in the erstwhile Soviet block and SAARC are
examples.
• INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION: The technological development in the areas of production,
product mix and firms are helping organizations to expand their operations. The hiring of
services and procurement of sub-assemblies and components have a strong influence in the
globalization process.
• TECHNOLOGIES: The stage of technology in a particular field gives rise to import or export of
products or services from or to the country. European countries Ike England and Germany
exported their chemical, electrical, mechanical plants in 50s and 60s and exports high tech
(then) goods to under developed countries. Today India is exporting computer / software
related services to advanced counties Ike UK, USA etc.
Effects of Globalization to Governments

Government is a group of people who have the ultimate authority to act on behalf of a state. Each
state has its own right to self-determination and the other country should not intervene in the affairs of
other states unless there are extraordinary reasons do so. The decision, the conflict, and the resolution
of that conflict are done through the institution of the government established and codified in that
particular state, whether or not through elections. Elections especially in democratic society, provide
the leadership of the state. A civil society acts as a supplement to government. Civil society includes
private economy, educational institutions, churches, hospitals, fraternal organizations, and other non-
profit organizations.
Roles and Functions of the United Nations

Since its establishment in 1945, the United Nations has been active in extensive areas including peace-
keeping, arms control, the North-South problem, social and human rights issues. Following the
progress made in East-West dialogue and other recent changes in the international situation, it has
stepped up its activities while its roles and responsibilities are being expanded. In the area of peace-
keeping, in particular, the United Nations has played an important role in Namibia achieving
independence - the last colony in Africa - and in the general elections held in Nicaragua in February
1990. The peace-keeping operations of the United Nations, traditionally geared to truce supervision
activities, has expanded into more comprehensive activities including observation of elections, as
occasioned by its operations in Namibia. In August 1990, the UN Security Council decided on
comprehensive and mandatory sanctions, for the first time in the past 22 years against Iraq's invasion of
Kuwait. At the same time, international cooperation extended through the United Nations and its
organizations has become progressively important in dealing with global issues such as drugs and the
environment.
The Soviet Union, which had previously not been active in UN activities, has shifted its position toward
attaching importance to them under the Gorbachev Administration. Similarly, the United States under
the Bush Administration, has proved its cooperative attitude with the UN, indicating that it will pay up
its arrears to the UN. In this connection, at the 44th session of the General Assembly in 1989, the
United States and the Soviet Union co-sponsored a resolution which called for the reinforcement of the
roles of the United Nations in international peace, security, and international cooperation. This was
the first joint proposal ever made by the countries in UN history.
At the same time the United Nations still has its problems including financial difficulties and
organizational reform in economic fields. Tackling these problems will be very important for the UN in
winning the confidence of the international community in the future. Also, the new trend in the world
away from confrontation toward dialogue makes necessary a review of the systems and functions of the
United Nations.
Since joining the world body in 1956, has all along positioned cooperation with the United Nations as a
major pillar of its diplomacy. It has cooperated in UN activities in a wide range of areas, making the
second largest financial contributions among the member States next only to the United States. For
instance, Japan has been actively supporting the United Nations University (UNU) and the International
Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), their head offices in Japan.
As Japan's roles in the international community increase year by year, Japan's contribution to the United
Nations is entering a new phase, as clearly seen in the dispatching of election observers for the recent
UN peace-keeping operations. In September 1989, Foreign Minister Nakayama expressed at the 44th
session of the UN General Assembly Japan's firm commitment to meeting global challenges, including
permanent settlement of regional conflicts, advancement of arms control, continuation of economic
prosperity, and preservation of the global environment, through support for the United Nations, and to
contributing, through these efforts to world peace, stability and prosperity. And it was highly
appreciated by many countries.
Political Activities
• Namibia: In January 1989, the UN Security Council passed a resolution to implement in April
the resolution to establish the UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) and called for material
and personnel support from member countries. In November, a constitutional assembly
election was held under observation of the UN TAG. As a result, Namibia became independent
in March 1990 and joined the United Nations in April.
Japan provided a $46 million special contribution to the UN-TAG as well as a $13,550,000
voluntary contribution as startup costs to purchase automobiles and other equipment. Also,
Japan dispatched 27 election observers and a supporting staff Japan's supply of personnel was
highly rated by the international community as representing the country's initiation of its full-
scale assistance in the UN peacekeeping operations.
• Central America: Conflicts in Central America made major progress toward a peaceful
settlement thanks to an active role played by the United Nations. A general election was held
on February 25, 1990. And, the Committee on International Assistance and Verification (CIAV),
which was established by the United Nations and the Organization of-American States (OAS) in
September 1989 in response to a request by Central American countries, started its activity to
ensure the dissolution and repatriation of the anti-government guerrillas "Contras".
Furthermore, the United Nations Observation Mission for Central America (ONUCA),
established as a security verification mechanism at the UN Security Council in September 1989,
disarmed the Contras under an agreement in May 1990 and is keeping watch on border areas.
Under these circumstances, the UN General Assembly held in October 1989 adopted by
consensus a resolution peace-making effort of the Central American countries and the United
Nations and calling for the UN Secretary-General to sustain the UN contribution to the peace
efforts in the region.
Japan sent six election observers to the United Nations Observation Mission for the
Verification of the Elections in Nicaragua (ONUVEN), in addition to financial assistance, thereby
contributing to the holding of free and fair Nicaraguan general elections.
• Cambodia: The UN General Assembly again adopted, by an overwhelming majority of 124 to 17

votes, a resolution initiated by ASEAN countries (Japan cosponsored the proposal) calling for the
withdrawal of foreign troops, the establishment of an interim government, and promotion of
national reconciliation under the leadership of Prince Sihanouk. While 1989 witnessed major
developments related to the problem - the International Conference in Paris and the
withdrawal of Vietnamese troops - Vietnam failed to break the unity of the ASEAN countries
during the deliberations at the 44th session of the General Assembly. The resolution retained
the part that said there must be no return to "the universally condemned policies and practices
of a recent past," demonstrating deep rooted distrust and antipathy held by the international
community toward the Khmer Rouge. Five permanent members of the UN Security Council
held a series of private meetings in an effort to reach a comprehensive political settlement. A
breakthrough for early peace came at their 6th meeting in August 1990, when the 5 agreed on
comprehensive basic documents on a transitional administration which had been the key factor
in guiding Cambodia to peace.
In the peace process, the right to represent Cambodia has become a major issue at the 45th UN
General Assembly.
• The Middle East: The situation in the occupied territories, which worsened, became a major
focus of the Middle East discussions at the UN General Assembly and Security Council. The 44th
session of the General Assembly in 1989 passed, by a majority vote, an intifada (uprising)
resolution denouncing Israel's policy on the occupied territories, an action which attested to a
high degree of concern among countries about this issue. In a related development, the Security
Council resolved again, as it did in July and August of 1989, that Israel's expulsion of
Palestinians from 'the occupied territories violated the Geneva Convention relative to the
Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Regarding the emigration of the Jews from the
Soviet Union which became a major issue in 1990, the UN Security Council held a session at the
request of the Soviet Union between March through May 1990. But no resolution has been
adopted.
Also, regarding the treatment of a resolution by the Security Council on the killings of
Palestinian laborers by a retired soldier of the Israeli National Defense Forces on May 20,
1990, differences prevailed among parties concerned.
Another development was a proposal made to improve the PLO's status in the United Nations
and help it obtain memberships in specialized agencies. Japan, which does not recognize the
PLO as a state, takes a stand basically that such a proposal will not favor the peace process in
the Middle East.
• Iran-Iraq: After the cease-fire in August 1988, the UN Secretary-General has hosted four Iran-
Iraqi Foreign Ministers meetings in 1988 and 1989, but no significant progress has been made.
During the peace negotiations, over which the UN Secretary-General presided, practically no
debate took place on the issue at the General Assembly and Security Council. In February 1990,
however, the Chairman of the Security Council issued a statement in support of the peace
efforts by the Secretary-General.
• South Africa: At its 44th session of the UN General Assembly in 1989, 12 resolutions related to
apartheid were submitted to a vote and were adopted by an overwhelming majority as they had
been in the previous years. A resolution seeking comprehensive sanctions, which censured the
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) by name, was adopted over Japan and other countries'
opposition. The General Assembly's special session on held in December 1989, adopted
unanimously a declaration, which was both constructive and harmonious. In his address to this
session, then Parliamentary Vice Minister Tanaka of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated
Japan's strong opposition to apartheid. He said Japan welcomed the policies of the de Klerk
Government but would continue sanctions against the country so long as no substantial
improvement was made.
• Western Sahara: Regarding a conflict between Morocco which claims territorial rights over the
Western Sahara and the Polisario Front which demands secession from Morocco, the UN.
Secretary-General has been making mediation efforts since August 1988. In June 1990, on the
basis of a peace proposal by the Secretary-General calling for direct talks for implementing a
cease-fire and the holding of a U.N.-supervised referendum on the fate of the area, a meeting to
ascertain the voters' register for the referendum was held. Also, a report was submitted to the
UN Security Council seeking the establishment of the United Nations Observers for the
Verification of Referendum on the Western Sahara (MINURSO) which would carry out the
referendum, as well as an approval of a definite schedule of the peace process.
Economic Activities
• Special Session of the General Assembly: The 18th Session of the General Assembly devoted to
international economic cooperation, in particular the revitalization of economic growth and
development of the developing countries was held in April 1990. With representatives including
more than 60 prime ministers and cabinet ministers in attendance, the session passed, a
declaration with consensus. The first special session held on economic problems in 10 years
since 1980 served to charter a direction of the North-South dialogue at the United Nations
during the 1900s.
• International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction: Regarding the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction, in which Japan plays a central role, the 44th UN General Assembly
adopted, by consensus, a resolution on International Framework of Action. The resolution
cosponsored by as many as 155 out of a total of 159 member countries declared the start of
the decade as of January 1990, provided for the establishment of a special high-level council, a
scientific and technological committee, a secretariat, and a trust fund etc.
• Drift-Net Fishing Problem: Recently, indiscriminate catching of marine resources by large-scale

drift-net fishing of cuttlefish in the Northern Pacific and albacore in the Southern Pacific has
become an international issue. At the 44th UN General Assembly, draft resolutions were
proposed by the United States and the US resolution called for suspension of drift-net fishing
after the lapse of a certain period of time, and resolution offered to take such measures if
needed on the basis of scientific evidence. Following coordination efforts between Japan and
the US, the General Assembly passed by consensus a resolution recommending all members of
the international community to agree to moratoria on drift-net fishing by June 1992 with the
understanding that such a measure will not be imposed, should effective conservation and
management measures be taken.
Human Rights Activities

Japan, maintaining a basic position that human rights possess a universal value of mankind and
that they form the basis of the world's peace and stability, has actively taken part in UN
activities related to human rights for the protection and promotion of human rights in the
world. In May 1990, Japan was re-elected as a member of the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights.
At the UN General Assembly in 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted by
consensus. At the same time, the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights aiming at the abolition of the death penalty was adopted. A large
number of countries including voted against or abstained because the protocol mandates the
abolishment of capital
punishment while there has been no international consensus on the issue.
On the other hand, changes in East-West relations have led to a marked decrease in the
deliberations on human rights issues in Eastern countries, while attention has been drawn to
developing countries. For instance, the human rights situation in Myanmar was taken up at the
UN General Assembly in 1989 and the UN Commission on Human Rights. Heated discussions
ensued over a resolution related to human rights issues in China following the Tiananmen
Square Incident.
Administrative and Financial Problems

• Administrative and financial reforms: The administrative and financial reforms recommended
in a report of the Group of High-level Inter-governmental Experts, which was established under
Japan's initiative, were carried out over a period of three years and a final report was submitted
to the 44th General Assembly in 1989. The report noted that, over the three-year period, some
progress had been made in some areas, such as introduction of a consensus formula in the
budget deciding process, and a 12.1% reduction of the UN staff. At the same time, the report
said little progress had been made in the reorganization and integration of the inter-
governmental structures for economic and social operations. Now that the three-year reform
programs have been completed in 1989, it is necessary for Japan to sustain its efforts toward
more efficient management of the United Nations with an aim to promoting its sound operation
and revitalization.
• Financial crisis: The United Nations is in chronic financial difficulties. As of the end of 1989, the
total amount of assessed contributions in arrears was approximately $46,116,000, which
accounted for nearly 40% of the UN general budget. The Soviet Union, which had accumulated
a large number of contributions in arrears, has gradually changed its policy and has begun
paying off the arrears in stages. In contrast, the default by the United States continued and
accounted for about 80% of the total amount of the contributions in arrears to the UN.
However, partly in view of the progress made in the administrative and financial reforms of the
United Nations, the US Government has since decided to pay up its share excepting the part
which the US has been refusing to pay for political reasons. According to its budget message for
fiscal 1991, the US Government budgeted the full amount of its assessed contributions to all the
international organizations it is party to for the year 1990, and plans to pay off the outstanding
arrears to international organizations and to the UN peace-keeping operations over the next
five years. When these payments are completed, the financial position of the UN system will
improve significantly.
Globalization vs Internationalization
Globalization
• a term coined to imply the economic liberalization of previously command economies, which
entails a broad re-structuring of world economic and political systems along western European
and American lines.
• an economic aid in exchange for the adoption of western political models and is thus a form of
twenty-first century cultural imperialism.
• the core tactic used in areas of the world, such as the Middle East, that have hitherto evaded
the ubiquitous western cultural umbrella
"If the analogy to imperialism holds, it suggests that globalization's powerful forces will
ultimately prove too much for at least some incumbent elites to contain and will bring to power
new political actors representing different social forces."
• an economic phenomenon that has discernibly political and social connotations and is
intrinsically bound to western cultural imperialism.
The dominance of the United States within western civilization is inherently problematic
because of the issues outlined above; traditional European powers and the undeveloped world
alike treat the United States with a deep sense of suspicion and this is a key point to remember
when attempting to sift through the considerable rhetoric on globalization.
Internationalism
• an ideology that is similarly geared toward a decrease of international barriers but with the aim
of the economic betterment of the planet in mind, not the perpetuation of power and privilege
in the hands of the western dominated economies like we see at work with the forces
responsible for globalization.
Long-term international benefits are cited as more important than short-term economic gains.
Advocates of internationalism shun the idea of globalization as a binding cultural and
economic force and saw the disintegration of national economies and cultures as a dangerous
international concept.
• inherently a left of center political ideology that implies a heavy emphasis on economic
cooperation.
If we consider globalization to be a necessarily right-wing phenomenon, then we can state that,

politically and ideologically, internationalism is the polar opposite of globalization as a creed.
Indeed, internationalism swings as far to the Left as to suggest (in some intellectual circles) the
need for a possible World Government. The reasoning is that the disputes that occur with such
regularity across borders, including human abuses, are too diverse in scope to be tackled by the
UN and are certainly beyond the realm of influence of one state, such as America.
• Understand the North-South Divide,

• Know the concept of the Three-World Model;
• Learn the relationship of the three worlds in the 21st century
THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

The North-South Divide is a socio-economic and political categorization of countries. The Cold-War-era
generalization places countries in two distinct groups: The North and the South. The North is
comprised of all First World countries and most Second World countries while the South is comprised
of Third World countries. This categorization ignores the geographic position of countries with some
countries in the southern hemisphere such as Australia and New Zealand being labeled as part of the
North.
The origin of dividing countries into the North-South Divide arose during the Cold War of the mid-20th
century. During this time, countries were primarily categorized according to their alignment between
the Russian East and the American West. Countries in the East like the Soviet Union and China which
became classified as Second World countries. In the west, the United States and its allies were labelled
as First World countries. This division left out many countries which were poorer than the First World
and Second World countries. The poor countries were eventually labeled as Third World countries. This
categorization was later abandoned after the Second World countries joined the First World countries.
New criteria were established to categorize countries which was named the North-South Divide where
First World countries were known as the North while Third World countries comprised the South.
The North (First World Countries)

The North of the Divide is comprised of countries which have developed economies and account for
over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world. Although these countries account for only one-
quarter of the total global population, they control 80% of the total income earned around the world.
All the members of the G8 come from the North as well as four permanent members of the UN Security
Council. About 95% of the population in countries in The North have enough basic needs and have
access to functioning education systems. Countries comprising the North include The United States,
Canada, all countries in Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand as well as the developed countries in
Asia such as Japan and South Korea.
The South (Third World Countries)

The South is comprised of countries with developing economies which were initially referred to as
Third World countries during the Cold War. An important characteristic of countries in the South is the
relatively low GDP and the high population. The Third World accounts for only a fifth of the globally
earned income but accounts for over three-quarters of the global population. Another common
characteristic of the countries in the South is the lack of basic amenities. As little as 5% of the
population is able to access basic needs such as food and shelter. The economies of most countries in
the South rely on imports from the North and have low technological penetration. The countries
making up the South are mainly drawn from Africa, South America, and Asia with all African and South
American countries being from the South. The only Asian countries not from the South are Japan and
South Korea.
Criticism
The North-South Divide is criticized for being a way of segregating people along economic lines and is
seen as a factor of the widening gap between developed and developing economies. However, several
measures have been put in place to contract the North-South Divide including the lobbying for
international free trade and globalization. The United Nations has been in the forefront in diminishing
the North-South Divide through policies highlighted in its Millennium Development Goals (Sawe, 2017).
THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD WORLDS

First World, Second World and Third World countries are products of the Three-World model, a
concept that grouped all of the world's countries into the three groups. This stratification of the
countries was initially based on the basis of political ideology affiliation where First World countries
were identified as the countries which were allied with the United States while Second World countries
were countries which were allied with the Soviet Union. Third World countries were countries which
supported neither the Soviet Union nor the United States (Sawe, 2017).
People often use the term "Third World" as shorthand for poor or developing nations. By contrast,
wealthier countries such as the United States and the nations of Western Europe are described as
being part of the "First World".
The "three worlds" model of geopolitics first arose in the mid-20th century as a way of mapping the
various players in the Cold War. The origins of the concept are complex, but historians usually credit it
to the French demographer Alfred Sauvy, who coined the term "Third World" in a 1952 article entitled
"Three Worlds, One Planet." In this original context, the First World included the United States and its
capitalist allies in places such as Western Europe, Japan and Australia. The Second World consisted of
the communist Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites. The Third World, meanwhile,
encompassed all the other countries that were not actively aligned with either side in the Cold War.
These were often impoverished former European colonies, and included nearly all the nations of
Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia (Andrews, 2016).
On the other hand, based on Mao Zedong's Three Worlds Theory, the 1st World was composed of the
"superpowers"-US, Soviet Union etc. The 2nd World was composed of lesser powers. And the 3rd
World was composed of post-colonial emerging markets. While Sauvy's model emphasized ideology
(Capitalism vs Communism) and so-called "blocs" (NATO vs Warsaw Pact), Mao's model emphasized
national power (as cited in Moran, 2017).
• Mao Zedong: former Chairman of the Communist Party of China
The First World

According to Sawe (2017), the First World concept was first fronted in the 20th century when the world
was immersed in the Cold War and was the collective term for the countries which were under the
capitalistic umbrella. The term was introduced by the United Nations in the 1940s and was used
through the Cold War period where it was propagated by the then global superpowers; the United
States and the Soviet Union which had divided the world into blocs in their respective quests to become
the most powerful country in the world. During this period, First World countries were identified as
countries which were allies of the United States which were economically stable and shared common
socio-political beliefs with the United States. First World countries were characterized by relative
political and economic stability and also had a capitalistic economic system. These first world countries
were initially majority of the countries in Western Europe as well as the United States and Canada.
During the peak of the Cold War, relations between First World Countries and Second World Countries
were frosty with the Soviet Union and the United States being the core of the two factions.
The First World Concept after the Cold War

The concept of the First World enjoyed much traction during the Cold War, with the United States
wielding much influence in the international affairs among First World countries. The United States
even took far-reaching measures to ensure that neighboring countries which were allied to the Second
World such as Cuba were repressed through heavy economic sanctions. However, the Eastern Bloc
collapse witnessed in 1991 signified the end of the Cold War and with it, the traditional definition of
First World countries. The term "First World" is rarely used in recent years as a dichotomy of countries
of the world based on their affiliation to the United States but is often used to describe countries with
economic and political stability regardless of affiliation.
The Second World

The Second World was a term used to describe several industrial countries which were affiliated to the
Soviet Union and China during the Cold War period. According to the definition, the majority of these
countries either practiced a socialistic system of government or a communist system of government.
These countries included; all countries under the Soviet Union, China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and
Laos. Germany was particularly notable as the country that was divided into two with the East
Germany being established as a Second World Country while West Germany was a First World Country.
The division was manifested in the nation's capital, Berlin which had a fortified wall built through it to
separate the two countries. The Soviet Union was at the heart of the Second World and influenced the
international affairs among the member countries. The Soviet Union assisted other Second World
Countries as seen in the Molotov Plan in the 1940s when the Soviet Union provided aid to its allied
countries as an alternative to American aid.
The Second World Concept after the Cold War

However, after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the late 20th century, this definition was deemed to
be obsolete as the collapse also signaled the end of the Cold War. While the Second World Concept is
still currently used (albeit rarely), the term is used to define former communist countries with
developing economies and is only used from an economic perspective and not as a political ideology.
Third World
The Third World was originally the term used to define the countries that were neither First World
countries nor Second World countries which were also members of the non-aligned movement. The
term "Third World" was first penned in 1952 by Alfred Sauvy, a French economist and historian who
defined Third World countries as countries that were neither Western Countries nor members of the
Soviet Federation. These Third World countries were predominantly found in South America, Africa,
Oceania, and Asia. However, some countries seemed to be classified as both Second World countries as
well as Third World countries, for instance Cuba. Due to the impoverished economic situation in these
countries, the term "Third World" increasingly became associated with the countries with low GDP and
where the majority of citizens lived in abject poverty. There were European countries which were
neither capitalistic-inclined nor soviet-affiliated such as Sweden, Finland, Ireland, Switzerland, and
Austria had prosperous economies and were all-around developed and were commonly known as
neutral countries.
Third World: Modern Use

After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the late 20th century which also signaled the end of the Cold
War meant that the definition of Third World countries had to change as the global political landscape
had suddenly changed. During this period, the countries under the "Third World" umbrella were
primarily defined by their economic status instead of their political ideology affiliations. Due to the
original stereotype associated with Third World countries, these countries were identified as the
countries with poor but developing economies. The majority of Third World countries in Asia, Oceania,
South America and Africa were originally colonies of European colonial authorities which had gained
independence in the 20th century. Due to increased criticism against the use of the term "Third World
countries," economists instead refer these countries either as developing countries or least developed
countries.
Modern Relations in First, Second and Third World Countries

The stratification of the world's countries into the three categories; First World, Second World, and
Third World has received much criticism in the 21st century. The majority of the countries which were
originally First World countries established NATO, an intergovernmental military alliance. In recent
years, globalization and increased technological advancements have seen the decreased alienation of
countries in the world. Many countries which were initially seen as Third World Countries have also in
recent years experienced increased growth in their respective economies and have ceased being
identified as developing countries.
Today, the powerful economies of the West are still sometimes described as "First World," but the
term "Second World" has become largely obsolete following the collapse of the Soviet Union. "Third
World" remains the most common of the original designations, but its meaning has changed from
"non-aligned" and become more of a blanket term for the developing world. Since it's partially a relic of
the Cold War, many modern academics consider the "Third World" label to be outdated. Terms such as
"developing countries" and "low and lower-middle-income countries" are now often used in its place
(Andrews, 2016).
Harris, Moore, and Schmitz (2009) discussed in a working paper by the Institute of Development
Studies that countries of the First World were rich; capitalist; influential in the main international
economic institutions; relatively highly-coordinated with one another over international and economic
policy issues; broadly similar to one another in their main political and economic institutions; often
exercised a great deal of influence in some parts of the developing world, frequently on the basis on
recent colonial rule; and could claim to have successfully undergone an experience of 'development' to
which the rest of the world aspired. Countries of the Third World appeared as the polar opposite on
every count: poor; weakly capitalist (or anti-capitalist); weakly coordinated over policy issues (despite
enthusiasm for the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations); lacking international influence;
highly diverse politically, economically and culturally; and deficient in 'development'. The
development debate in the West was mainly about the relationships between the First and Third World.
First World Second World Third World

(developed)
Internal Features
Political System Liberal democratic Single-party Mixed; rarely
Communist rule democratic
Economic System Market-oriented Centrally-planned Variable
Income Level High Mixed; generally Low
medium
Economic growth rate High Mixed Low

External Features
Main trading partners Other First World countries
Geopolitical Geopolitical competition with Geopolitical Aid recipient;
relationship to other Second World; colonial power over, competition with subordinate;
'Worlds' aid donor to, and dominant over, First World; aid but actively
most of Third World donor to, and nonaligned
influential in, parts of
Third World
Influence in main High Low Low
international
economic institutions
THE FOURTH WORLD CONCEPT

The term "Fourth World" first came into use in 1974 with the publication of Shuswap Chief George
Manuel's: The Fourth World: An Indian Reality (First, Second and Third World, n.d.). It was coined to
refer to ethnically or religiously defined populations living within or across national boundaries,
nations without a sovereign state, and indigenous groups that are nomadic, uncontacted or living
outside of global society (Soniak, 2018).
THE THREE WORLDS IN THE CENTURY

The National Intelligence Council's Global Trends 2030 Report notes that globalization has ushered in a
new phase in the history of the state. Without question, the state still exists. The continuing economic
volatility in the global economy and need for government intervention shows that the state is not
going away. However, it would also be wrong to say that the powers of the state have remained the
same. During the past 30 years, subnational government authorities and the roles of non-state bodies
have greatly expanded. This has been especially the case in Western democracies, but the increase in
subnational power has spread far and wide; the no longer has a monopoly. The expansion has been
fueled by the formation of a transnational elite who have been educated at the same universities, work
in many of the same multinational corporations or NGOs, and vacation at the same resorts. They
believe in globalization, but one that relies on and benefits from personal initiative and empowerment
(as cited in Moran, 2017).
Moran also wrote that that new model should, instead, analyze the world in 3 non-state NETWORKS.
These NETWORKS are composed of metropolitan regions that operate economically at a global (1st),
national (2nd) or regional (3rd) level.
• 1st Network:
The global network of megacities that drive the world's GDP, innovation and creative work. This
network of megacities is linked by transportation, heavy air traffic, heavy data flows, global
exchanges/bourses media hubs, large universities and multi-national corporate headquarters.
The people living in the 1st Network often have more in common with their colleagues in other
megacities than in several hours of train travel away. The globalized economy has been good for
them. They live and work, compete and collaborate in a global labor market. They may have
economically de-linked from their fellow citizens in the 2nd and 3rd Networks, but they are still
very much politically linked to their nation-state. They were surprised by Brexit and were
surprised by Trump's election. 1st Network citizens live in a cosmopolitan, megacities bubble.
They travel to other megacities for work and play. 1st Network citizens want a mix of actors
(nation-states, megacity Mayors, NGOs, MNCs) to solve global problems (like climate change).
• 2nd Network:
Large, nationally significant metropolitan regions that are critical to their nation-state but are
not megacities. The 2nd Network is linked to the national economy via abundant domestic
flights, but is NOT a global hub for corporate headquarters. 2nd Network metropolitan areas are
large but not fully globalized. They are economically powerful, but lack a critical mass of large
corporations, research universities, media hubs, exchanges/bourses etc. 2nd Network citizens are
tied to a national economy and compete and collaborate in a national economy. They also live in
a bubble, but their bubble is their nationally significant metro area. 2nd Network citizens want
nation-state action to solve national and local problems.
• 3rd Network:
Regionally significant metropolitan areas with citizens that live and work, compete and
collaborate in a regional/local economy. 3rd Network metro areas are less populous, have fewer
air travel options, and have fewer to global megacities. 3rd Network areas be high growth in
emerging markets or slow growth/decline in the industrialized West. Citizens in the 3rd Network
disproportionately drove Brexit and Trump's surprising victory. In the 3rd Network West,
globalization is NOT popular. They want nation-state action to solve local and national problems.
Applying this model to our current political environment has significant explanatory power.
Moreover, it better explains the dynamic within and across nation-states.
• Differentiate between regionalization and globalization

• Identify the factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian region
• Analyze how Different Asian confront the challenges of globalization and regionalization
Globalization and Regionalization

In business, regionalization is used as a management tool.
The development of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1980s and heightened after
the end of the Cold War in the 1990s. These two processes are contradicting the nature of globalization
is global while regionalization is naturally regional.
The Regionalization of the world system and economic activity undermines the potential benefits
coming out from a liberalized global economy. This is because regional organization preferred regional
partners over the rest. Regional organizations respond to the states attempt to reduce the perceived
negative effects of globalization.
Regionalization is a sort of counter-globalization. In the Survey report in 2007, the financial times
revealed that majority of Europeans consider that globalization brings negative effects to their societies.
Policy makers and scholars think that globalization can be countered what Jacoby and Meunier
called managed globalization; it refers to all attempts to make globalization more palatable to citizens.
Globalization is the process of international integration emerging from the interchange of world
perspectives, products, ideas, and other aspects such as technology etc. But as we have learned from
previous discussions there are many controversies about and defining them is complicated.
There are some differences of regionalization and globalization. Like in nature, globalization promotes
the integration of economies across state borders all around the world but regionalization is precisely
the opposite because it is dividing the area into smaller segments. In terms of market, globalization
enables many companies to trade on international so it permits free market but in regionalized system
monopolies are more likely to develop.
The gradual development of Interregional relations such as the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN), the European Union (EU), or the South American Trade bloc, Mercosur. On this
Regionalization and the development of interregionalism would indeed be global in nature. As Held
(Held et al, 2005) claimed that the new regionalism is not a barrier to political globalization but,
compatible with it if not an indirect encouragement (p77).
The motivations for the recent regionalization in Asia as other regions in the world cannot be secluded
from one another. It is a complex mixture of factors. One of the reasons behind regionalism is the
concern security which is to ensure peace and stability. Confidence building can be enhanced through
economic cooperation within a region. The ASEAN and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
are regional organizations that seek solids security in Asia through cooperation.
Huntingtion (1996), on the contrary, believed that culture and identity guide regionalization. As he put
it, "In the post-Cold War world, states increasingly define their interests in civilizational terms" (p30).
For him, culture and identity are civilizations. He identified nine major civilizations: Western, Latin
America, African, Islamic, Sinic, Hindu, Orthodox, Buddhist, and Japanese. He argued that international
organizations like the EU or Mercosur share a common culture and identity and far more successful
than NAFTA whose member states belong to different civilizations. One could argue that the possibility
for such clash can be strong in Asia because many of those civilizations are, at least can be found in
region.
In Africa, the principal challenge facing transitional societies is how to articulate and aggregate
innovative partnerships that offer a prototype for a new kind of the integration, globalization and
governance.
In Germany, globalization offers speculators in the universal markets a more extensive scope of
venture openings, higher profits for investment funds and more portfolio expansion. But with these
increased opportunities also come additional risks. The first is financial instability. The global economy
has suffered several costly financial crises over the last decade. Diving resource costs, significant
episodes of trade showcase instability, an emergency in developing markets started by occasions in
Mexico, and the fall of a few noteworthy money related establishments, in mechanical and developing
business sector nations alike, all underscore the real shortcomings of our framework.
The second risk is marginalization. While a few nations are bridling the powers of globalization to
quicken economic progress, others obviously are not. Nations that are not able join in the development
of world trade or attract in huge measures of private venture risk being left by the global economy.
What's more, the nations at most serious danger of being marginalized or underestimated are those
most needing the trade, speculation and development that globalization could bring. This raises the
prospect of a widening gulf between countries that are able to take advantage of globalization and
those that are left by the wayside. It knows that a financial crisis, can become worldwide in a flash. And
it must not disregard the risk that marginalization entails for the world's geopolitical equilibrium.
The third risk appears outside the financial circle yet merits all our consideration: can our national, our
local societies - for example, the extremely lively one here in Bavaria - safeguard their one-of-a-kind
esteem and conventional inventiveness, when the powers of globalization appear to point toward
expanding social homogeneity?
• Analyze how various media drive various forms of global integration

• Explain the dynamic between local and global cultural production
• Understand the effects of global media
WHAT IS MEDIA?
The term media comes from the word medium which is defined as channel, means, or method (Aboga
and Agapay, 2017). Media is a generic term for all human-invented technology that extends the range,
speed, or channels of communication (Griffin, 2012). According to Marcel Danesi, media can also be tied
to what we call mass media, or the media that reach large audiences (as cited in Aboga and Agapay,
2017). The different forms of media are:
• Print Media - media consisting of paper and ink, reproduced in a printing process that is
traditionally mechanical. Examples of print media are: newspaper, books, magazines,
comics, brochures.
• Broadcast Media - media such as radio and television that reach target audiences using
airwaves as the transmission medium. Examples of broadcast media are: television, radio,
satellites, mobile phones, movies/ films.
• Digital Media - also known as new media, consisting of contents that are organized and
distributed on digital platforms. Examples of digital media are internet, social media,
computers.
According to UNESCO (n.d.), media and other information providers play a central role in information
and communication processes. They are one way of communicating information, although their role is
much broader than that. Media play several roles. They:
• act as channels of information and knowledge through which citizens communicate with
each other and make informed decisions;
• facilitate informed debates between diverse social actors;
• provide us with much of what we learn about the world beyond our immediate
experience;
• are means by which a society learns about itself and builds a sense of community;
• function as a watchdog of government in all its forms, promoting transparency in public
life and public scrutiny of those with power through exposing corruption,
maladministration and corporate wrong-doing;
• are essential facilitators of democratic processes and one of the guarantors of free and
fair elections;
• are a vehicle for cultural expression and cultural cohesion within and between nations;
and
• function as an advocate and social actor in its own right while respecting pluralistic values.
MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

Rapid expansion of global communications can be traced back to the mechanical advancements of
technologies during the 18th/ 19th centuries, which began with the invention of the telegraph in 1837,
and included the growth in postal services, cross-border telephone and radio communications, and the
creation of a modern mass circulation press in Europe. Before the 1990s, most mainstream media were
national in scope. Since then, most communication media have become increasingly global.
International flows of information have been assisted by the development of global capitalism, new
technologies and the increasing commercialization of global television, and which have occurred as a
consequence of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries in Europe and US, paving the
way for the proliferation of cable and satellite channels (Matos, 2013).
Cross-border communication technologies such as the internet, mobile phones, and satellites have
contributed to the deterritorialization of space over the last decades, and transnational media
networks and news services such as CNN, BBC World News, Fox News, and Al-Jazeera have entered and
transformed the media landscape. In a dialectic fashion, these media are believed both to constitute
and to be constituted by globalization, transforming understandings of time and space (as cited in
Olausson, 2011).
In both scholarly work and public debate on globalization, the influence of media and particularly
electronic media on social change is considered to be of paramount importance. In sociological and
cultural analyses of globalization, media such as satellite television, the Internet, computers, mobile
phones etc. are often thought to be among the primary forces behind current restructuration of social
and cultural geography. Electronic media facilitate an increased interconnectedness across vast
distances and a temporal flexibility in social interaction (Kaul, 2011).
The media have an important impact on cultural globalization in two mutually interdependent ways:
Firstly, the media provide an extensive transnational transmission of cultural products and, secondly,
they contribute to the formation of communicative networks and social structures. The rapidly growing
supply of media products from an international media culture presents a challenge to existing local and
national cultures. The sheer volume of the supply, as well as the vast technological infrastructure and
financial capital that pushes this supply forward, have a considerable impact on local patterns of cultural
consumption and possibilities for sustaining an independent cultural production. Global media cultures
create a continuous cultural exchange, in which crucial aspects such as identity, nationality, religion,
behavioral norms and way of life are continuously questioned and challenged. These cultural
encounters often involve the meeting of cultures with a different socio-economic base, typically a
transnational and commercial cultural industry on one side and a national, publicly regulated cultural
industry on the other side (Hjarvard, n.d.).
Marshall McLuhan, a media and communication theorist, coined the term global village in 1964 to
describe the phenomenon of the world's culture shrinking and expanding at the same time due to
pervasive technological advances that allow for instantaneous sharing of culture (as cited in Dixon,
2009). McLuhan's belief was that the world was entering a fourth "age" he called the electronic age,
where people everywhere would be able to find and experience the same information through
technological tools. His studies on trends in technology, and how human communication was affected,
helped him develop his hypotheses about the future, and how innovations such as the coming internet,
(he didn't yet know its name, of course), would impact individuals and culture as a whole (Hendricks
n.d.). Due to their very structure, global media promote a restructuring of cultural and social
communities. Just as media such as the press, and later radio and TV have been very important
institutions for the formation of national communities, global media support the creation of new
communities. The Internet, for example, not only facilitates communication across the globe, but also
supports the formation of new social communities in which members can interact with each other. And
satellite TV and radio allow immigrants to be in close contact with their homeland's language and
culture while they gradually accommodate to a new cultural environment (Hjarvard, n.d.). In the
twentieth century, global media simply means technology/digital media, the internet is known as our
global village where information and communications can reach thousands of homes in spite of
geographical and cultural distances. Being global means getting internationally united and integrated
through interchanging of world views.
Today, the Media has transformed into a business that is dominated by mass- media corporations
promoting their own interests at the level of individual administrations. In both scholarly work and
public debate on globalization, the influence of media and particularly electronic media on social change
is considered to be of paramount importance. In sociological and cultural analyses of globalization
[1,2], media such as satellite television, the Internet, computers, mobile phones etc. are often thought
to be among the primary forces behind current restructuration of social and cultural geography.
Electronic media facilitate an increased interconnectedness across vast distances and a temporal
flexibility in social interaction. Furthermore, a handful of media enterprises and media moguls such as
Time-Warner-AOL, Disney, Rupert Murdoch, and Bill Gates have become icons of globalization. These
media companies and actors both have ambitions of global market domination and serve as the
messengers of a new global era. Particularly the transnational news services with a global or regional
reach, such as CNN, BBC, World, Euronews, Sky News, and Star News, have come to be regarded as the
town criers of the global village. Their continuous, on-line, and live distribution of news to all corners of
the world has become emblematic of a world in which place and time mean less and less (Kaul, 2011).
MEDIA CULTURE
In cultural studies, media culture refers to the current Western capitalist society that emerged and
developed from the 20th century, under the influence of mass media. The term alludes to the overall
impact and intellectual guidance exerted by the media (primarily TV, but also the press, radio and
cinema), not only on public opinion but also on tastes and values (Audiopedia, 2017). According to
Douglas Kellner, media culture is industrial culture, organized on the model of mass production and is
produced for a mass audience according to types (genres), following conventional formulas, codes, and
rules. Bignell defines media culture as terrain on which communication between people in a concrete
historic-economic situation takes place. On the other hand, various authors like Schmidt, Faulstich,
Hickethier, and Lundby define media culture as a culture in which the mass media are the main
resources of meaning production (as cited in Hepp, 2009).
CRITIQUES ON GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURE

The skepticism surrounding global media is far from new. The well- established field of international
communication, based on the political economy tradition, has a long history of persistently arguing that
global media are in fact best described as Western (or American) media, at most of global scope (as
cited in Olausson, 2011).
Global media systems have been considered a form of cultural imperialism. Cultural imperialism takes
place when a country dominates others through its media exports, including advertising messages, films,
and television and radio programming (Kaul, 2011). In international communication theory and
research, cultural imperialism theory argued that audiences across the globe are heavily affected by
media messages emanating from the Western industrialized countries. Although there are minor
differences between "media imperialism" and "cultural imperialism," most of the literature in
international communication treats the former as a category of the latter. Grounded in an

understanding of media as cultural industries, cultural imperialism is firmly rooted in a political-
economy perspective on international communication. As a school of thought, political economy
focuses on material issues such as capital, infrastructure, and political control as key determinants of
international communication processes and effects. In the early stage of cultural imperialism,
researchers focused their efforts mostly on nation-states as primary actors in international relations.
They imputed rich, industrialized, and Western nation-states with intentions and actions by which they
export their cultural products and impose their sociocultural values on poorer and weaker nations in the
developing world. This argument was supported by a number of studies demonstrating that the flow of
news and entertainment was biased in favor of industrialized countries. This bias was clear both in terms
of quantity, because most media flows were exported by Western countries and imported by developing
nations, and in terms of quality, because developing nations received scant and prejudicial coverage in
Western media (Kraidy, 2002).
There are two main camps regarding the question of a unified global culture: one is the cultural
homogenization and the other is cultural hybridization. The former equates globalization with the
homogenizing of culture, the dismissal of local cultures, and the Westernization of the globe (as cited in
Matos, 2013). Cultural globalization theorists highlight the need to recognize the blending of local
cultures with global foreign influences, seeing global culture as being grounded in a process of
hybridization, not simply as the cultural diffusion of American values or homogenization (Matos, 2013).
• Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs

• Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict, and conversely, global peace
WHAT IS RELIGION?
The English word religion is from the Latin verb religare, which means "to tie" or "to bind fast". A
contemporary scholar defines religion as "a system of beliefs, rituals, and practices, usually
institutionalized in one manner or another, which connects this world with the beyond. It provides the
bridge that allows humans to approach the divine, the universal life force that both encompasses and
transcends the world". This substantive definition of religion limits religion to the belief in supernatural
or divine force. However, for its functional definition, religion is anything that provides an individual
with the ultimate meaning that organizes his/her entire life and worldview (as cited in Lanuza and
Raymundo, 2016). Religion can be explained as a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and
purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or
agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code
governing the conduct of human affairs (BBC, n.d.).
Types of Religious Organizations (as cited in Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016)

1. Church - a religious organization that claims to possess the truth about salvation
exclusively. A classic example is the Roman Catholic Church. The church includes
everybody or virtually everybody in a society. Membership is by childbirth: new
generations are born into the church and are formally inducted through baptism. The
church adapts to some extent to the fact that it must embrace everyone. Unlike the sect,
the church tends to be oriented toward compromises with the prevailing culture and the
political sphere. Hence, the church is relatively moderate in its demands on its members.
2. Sect - perceives itself as a unique owner of the truth. However, it constitutes a minority in
a given society. Recruitment takes place through conscious individual choice. A good
example is the resurgence of born-again Christianity that recruits members by asking
them to accept Jesus Christ in their lives. Once an individual has joined, the sect requires a
high level of commitment and activity. Members are expected to support the teachings of
the sect and to comply with its lifestyle, which may be strict and ascetic. Life as a sect
member constitutes a major contrast to the lives of people in society.
3. Denomination - in contrast to the church and sect, the denomination is oriented toward
cooperation, at least as it relates to other similar denominations. People join through
individual and voluntary choice, although the most important form of recruitment in
established denominations takes place through childbirth. The demands for activity and
compliance are moderate, and there is a relatively harmonious mutual relationship
between the denomination and the larger society. The liberal branches of Protestant
groups belong to this category.
4. Cult - the concept of cult was introduced in 1932 by sociologist Howard Becker. Lanuza
(1999) provides a comprehensive definition of a cult: "a non-traditional form of religion,
the doctrine of which is taken from diverse sources, either from non-traditional sources
or local narratives or an amalgamation of both, whose members constitute either a
loosely knit group or an exclusive group, which emphasizes the belief in the divine
element within the individual, and whose teachings are derived from either a real or
legendary figure, the purpose of which is to aid the individual in the full realization of his
or her spiritual powers and/or union with the Divine". The label cult is often attached to a
religious group that society considers as deviant or non-traditional. Hence, the term cult
is often used in a negative way.
5. New Religious Movements (NRMs) and Indigenous Religious Groups - the term "new
religious movements" came into use among social scientists in the 1960s. It was an
alternative label for cults that have been negatively portrayed by mass media and some
social scientists. New Age groups are considered part of these new religious movements.
Major Religions of the World

There are some 4,300 religions of the world. This is according to Adherents, an independent, non-
religiously affiliated organization that monitors the number and size of the world's religions (Juan,
2006). Worldwide, more than eight-in-ten people identify with a religious group. A comprehensive
demographic study of more than 230 countries and territories conducted by the Pew Research Center's
Forum on Religion & Public Life estimates that there are 5.8 billion religiously affiliated adults and
children around the globe, representing 84% of the 2010 world population of 6.9 billion (Pew Research
Center, 2012).
Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are five of the biggest religions in the world. Over
the last few thousand years, these religious groups have shaped the course of history and had a
profound influence on the trajectory of the human race. Through countless conflicts, conquests,
missions abroad, and simple word of mouth, these religions spread around the globe and forever
molded the huge geographic regions in their paths (Kuzoian, 2015).
1. Hinduism - originating on the Indian subcontinent and comprising several and varied
systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is relatively new,
having been coined by British writers in the first decades of the 19th century, it refers to a
rich cumulative tradition of texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd millennium
BCE or possibly earlier. If the Indus valley civilization (3rd-2nd millennium BCE) was the
earliest source of these traditions, as some scholars hold, then Hinduism is the oldest
living religion on Earth. Its many sacred texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages served
as a vehicle for spreading the religion to other parts of the world, though ritual and the
visual and performing arts also played a significant role in its transmission. From about the
4th century CE, Hinduism had a dominant presence in Southeast Asia, one that would last
for more than 1,000 years.
2. Buddhism - religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha
(Sanskrit: "Awakened One"), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th
and mid-4th centuries BCE (before the Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and
Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the
spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia, and during the 20th century it spread to the
West.
3. Christianity - stemming from the life, teachings, and death of Jesus of Nazareth (the
Christ, or the Anointed One of God) in the 1st century AD. It has become the largest of
the world's religions. Geographically the most widely diffused of all faiths, it has a
constituency of more than 2 billion believers. Its largest groups are the Roman Catholic
Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Protestant churches; in addition to these
churches there are several independent churches of Eastern Christianity as well as
numerous sects throughout the world.
4. Judaism - monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews. Judaism is
characterized by a belief in one transcendent God who revealed himself to Abraham,
Moses, and the Hebrew prophets and by a religious life in accordance with Scriptures and
rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the complex phenomenon of a total way of life for the
Jewish people, comprising theology, law, and innumerable cultural traditions.
5. Islam - promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century CE. The
Arabic term Islam, literally "surrender," illuminates the fundamental religious idea of
Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of Islam) accepts
surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, Allah: God). Allah is viewed as the sole God—
creator, sustainer, and restorer of the world. The will of Allah, to which human beings
must submit, is made known through the sacred scriptures, the Quran (often spelled
Koran in English), which Allah revealed to his messenger, Muhammad. In Islam
Muhammad is considered the last of a series of prophets (including Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus), and his message simultaneously consummates and
completes the 'revelations" attributed to earlier prophets.
The five largest religions represent about 77% of the world population. Their spread throughout parts
of Asia and Europe, and gradually down to Africa and across to the Americas has been fractured and
erratic. Many scholars agree Hinduism was the first religion to take root, beginning thousands of years
before the birth of Christ. Over the span of a few hundred years, Hinduism spread throughout the Indus
River Valley, or what is present-day India. As Hinduism spread, the birth of Abraham sparked waves of
converts and all but consumed the subcontinent. Around 1000 BCE, Judaism began to spread along the
Mediterranean Sea, occupying present-day Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Israel. In present-day Nepal, in
563 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama was born. He would later go on to become the Gautama Buddha and
found Buddhism. The religion quickly diffused east through China. Around 33 AD, the Roman Empire
crucified Jesus Christ for his acts of sedition and anti-authority ideals. Christianity was made a crime
and became cause for execution in areas under Roman control. Nevertheless, soon after Christ's
crucifixion missionaries forged through Europe to spread the gospel and convert exiled Jews. Halfway
through the first millennium came the birth of the prophet Muhammad, who helped Islam spread
through the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia. As Hinduism remained localized to India and
Buddhism to China, trade deals and conquests from the Ottoman Empire continued Islam's march
through northern Africa and southern Europe. In the 15th century, European explorers ventured across
the Atlantic to colonize the New World. Christianity reached North and South America. During the late-
19th century, those same Imperial powers colonized many African countries, splitting the breakdown
with the ongoing spread of Islam. On May 14, 1948, Israel was founded. Even seven decades later,
tensions persist between Israelis and Palestinians over who should have ownership of parts of Israel.
Today, the five religions include some 5.8 billion people around the world in a complex and evolving
mosaic (Weller, 2017).
In 2050, Christianity will still be the world's largest religious group, with around a third of the world's
population adhering to its various denominations. However, Islam is growing faster than any other
religion, according to a study by the Pew Research Center. In fact, most of the world's major religious
groups are expected to rise in absolute numbers by 2050, the research finds, with Islam set to overtake
Christianity and become the world's
dominant religion by 2070 (Shirley, 2016).
The geographic distribution of religious groups varies considerably. Several religious groups are heavily
concentrated in the Asia-Pacific region, including the vast majority of Hindus (99%), (99%), adherents of
folk or traditional religions (90%) and members of other world religions (89%). Three-quarters of the
religiously unaffiliated (76%) also live in the massive and populous Asia- Pacific region. Indeed, the
number of religiously unaffiliated people in China alone (about 700 million) is more than twice the total
population of the United States. The Asia-Pacific region also is home to most of the world's Muslims
(62%). About 20% of Muslims live in the Middle East and North Africa, and nearly 16% reside in sub-
Saharan Africa. Of the major religious groups covered in this study, Christians are the most evenly
dispersed. Roughly equal numbers of Christians live in Europe (26%), Latin America and the Caribbean
(24%) and sub-Saharan Africa (24%). A plurality of Jews (44%) lives in North America, while about four-
in-ten (41%) live in the Middle East and North Africa - almost all of them in Israel (Pew Research Center,
2012).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON RELIGION

Religion is necessarily social. Beliefs and rituals are usually shared by people belonging to a definite
religious community. While an individual opts not to belong to or affiliate with an established religion or
religious tradition, that person is still religious and belongs to an individualistic or spiritualistic
interpretation of religion (Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016). Overall, religion is more important to people in
the developing world, with the world's major economies returning much lower percentages (Myers,
2016).
Scarcely any region in the globe today solely of members of a single strand of traditional religion. In an
era of globalization, the pace of cultural interaction and change has increased by seemingly exponential
expansions of degrees. So, an accurate coloration of the religious world, even fifty years ago, would
have to show dense areas of color here and there with enormous mixes and shadings of hues
everywhere else. Moreover, the map would have to be changed from time to time, perhaps even from
decade to decade, and re-tinted as religions move and intertwine (Juergensmeyer, 2009).
In the age of global capitalism, more and more people tend to retreat into their own private world and
create their own individualized religion. But they do not create it from scratch. They also borrow and
pick from various religious traditions in the market of religion. Even the practicing New Age believers
who have their own distinctive personal beliefs are influenced by non-Western religious traditions such
as Buddhism, Hinduism, and other beliefs. These people are called un-churched believers. (Lanuza and
Raymundo, 2016). Religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For example,
websites provide information and explanations about different religions to any person regardless of his
or her geographical location, as well as provide the opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold
debates which allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television allows for religious channels that
provide visual religious teachings and practices. Hence,
by making the leap on to the information superhighway, which brings religious teachings into every
home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come together into one setting (as cited in
Golebiewski, 20 14). Oliver Roy argues that because of increased globalization, this "has led to a global
religion market." He builds on this by arguing that many people in the world have a want for some sort
of religion or spirituality. To Roy, the religion "market" is one in which is there is a circulation of products
(that religion). This can be in the form of migration, cases of being isolated within a particular area (that
might lead to new religious traditions), or access to the information online - which can lead to the
adopting of various religious beliefs or practices. In addition, he also argues that there is a movement by
some to export religions. This could be finding new communities in which to practice one’s faith, or new
areas that might take interest in this work or religion. In addition, religions are becoming less defined by
geographical areas. There continues to be new places to worship, which might be different than decades
past. Lastly, Roy argues that a de-ethnicization of religion is occurring. Many different ethnic groups are
adopting similar religions, which is shifting the idea that one religion is tied to one ethnic group. There is
also a movement away from religion being defined within one said culture, which is leading to further
evolution of this faith. And because of this, Roy argues that there is a freedom that individuals have to
choose a religion, or not choose a particular religion, and that we look at religion is quite different in this
new globalized era (as cited in internationalrelations.org, 2016)
The proliferation of new religious movements may be explained partly by globalization. With the rapid
and accelerated movement of people, culture, and information across national borders, religious ideas
also rapidly transfer from one place to another. And when foreign religious beliefs reach a different soil,
they tend to mix and blend with the local and indigenous religious beliefs and folk practices. Hence,
globalization promotes syncretism or the mixing of different religious and cultural beliefs and practices.
Syncretism promotes the growth of popular religion or folk religion that is different from the original
parent religion or mainstream orthodoxy (Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016). Religion therefore has always
been global, in the sense that religious communities and traditions have always maintained permeable
boundaries. They have moved, shifted, and interacted with one another around the globe.
If one thinks of religion as the cultural expression of a people's sense of ultimate significance, it is
understandable that these cultural elements would move as people have moved, and that they would
interact and change over time just as people have. Though most religious traditions claim some ultimate
anchors of truth that are unchangeable, it is indisputable that every tradition contains within it an
enormous diversity of characteristics and myriad cultural gleaned from its neighbors. All this is part of
the globalization of religion. Religion is global in that it is related to the global transportation of peoples
and of ideas. There is also a third way that religion is global, which might be called the religion of
globalization—in which forms of new religion emerge as expressions of new interactive cultures
(Juergensmeyer, 2009).
Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions "With overlapping but distinctive ethics
and interests" interact with one another. Essentially, the world's leading religious traditions—Hinduism,
Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as human dignity, equality, freedom,
peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: "What you do not wish
done to yourself, do not do to others." Therefore, through such religious values, globalization
engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society (as cited in
Golebiewski, 2014). Golebiewski also argues that globalization allows for religions previously isolated
from one another to now have regular and unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to the
light the fact that since religions have similar values, not one of them is "correct" and, therefore, can be
changed.
RELIGION AND GLOBAL CONFLICT

One of the questions that is highly debated within the framework of religion and globalization is this
issue of the "promotion of the [religious] product." One of the questions raised is whether this
promotion, or what in some cases be viewed as proselytization, is in accord with human rights, or
whether it goes against ones right. There have been many debates on this issue. Some that think about
proselytization may view it as a right of the freedom of religion. One has a right to speak about their
faith, and to try to get others to accept these beliefs, as long as the receiver of the message has a right
to accept, or a right to deny said message. For some, the right to practice one's religion might also mean
the right to spread one's faith. However, a number of other scholars have taken issue with the idea of
proselytization in religion. For them, they view an increase in technology and communication as
potentially leading to additional conflicts over these said issues (as cited in internationalrelations.org,
2016).
Since globalization, according to many scholars, is aimed at the hybridization of the world cultures
around the pattern of the Western culture; and since it entails liberal values and norms, religion
(particularly Islam) constitutes a challenge to it. This is because Islam's norms and values are
incompatible with the liberal values of globalization (El Azzouzi, 2013). The horrendous events of 9/11,
the conflagration in Iraq, and the aggressive assertiveness of quasi-theocratic Iran only confirm in the
popular mind that religion lies behind much of contemporary international conflict (Smock, 2008). In a
Special Report summary of the United States Institute of Peace, Smock (2008) presented religion's role
in resolving conflicts and peace-making.
• No major religion has been exempted from complicity in violent conflict. Yet we need to
beware of an almost universal propensity to oversimplify the role that religion plays in
international affairs. Religion is not usually the sole or even primary cause of conflict.
• With so much emphasis on religion as a source of conflict, the role of religion as a force in
peacemaking is usually overlooked.
• Religious affiliation and conviction often motivate religious communities to advocate
particular peace-related government policies. Religious communities also directly oppose
repression and promote peace and reconciliation.
• Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations, serve as a
communication link between opposing sides, and provide training in peacemaking
methodologies. This form of religious peacemaking garners less public attention but is
growing in importance.
• Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious peacemaking. Rather than seeking to
resolve a particular conflict, it aims to defuse interfaith tensions that may cause future
conflict or derive from previous conflict. Interfaith dialogue is expanding even in places
where interreligious tensions are highest. Not infrequently, the most contentious
interfaith relationships can provide the context for the most meaningful and productive
exchanges.
• Given religion's importance as both a source of international conflict and a resource for
peacemaking, it is regrettable that the US government is so ill equipped to handle
religious issues and relate to religious actors. If the U.S. government is to insert itself into
international or build deeper and more productive relationships with countries around the
world, it needs to devise a better strategy to effectively and respectfully engage with the
religious realm.
• Understand the global city thesis

• Identify the attributes of a global city
• Analyze how cities serve as engines of globalization
The Global City

At its core, the term global city is rooted in economics. Beginning in the fifteenth century, globalization
took root and the world's disparate regional economies began to converge. As a result, economic hubs
began to emerge in key cities around the world. It is to this phenomenon that the term global city refers
to (Washington, 2018). A global city is an urban center that enjoys significant competitive advantages
and that serves as a hub within a globalized
economic system (Charnock, n.d.). A global city is a significant production point of specialized financial
and producer services that make the globalized economy run (Renn, 2012).
The rise of global cities has been linked with two globalization-related trends: first, the expansion of
the role of transnational corporations (TNCs) in global production patterns; and, second, the decline of
mass production along Fordist lines and the concomitant rise of flexible production centered within
urban areas. These two trends explain the emergence of networks of certain cities serving the financial
and service of TNCs while other cities suffer the consequences of deindustrialization and fail to become
global. Global cities are those that therefore become effective command-and-coordination posts for
TNCs within a globalizing world economy. Such cities have also assumed a governance role at the local
scale and within wider configurations of what some commentators have termed the glocalization of
state institutions. This refers to processes in which certain national state functions of organization and
administration have been devolved to the local scale. An example of this would be London. Since the
1980s, London has consolidated its position as a global banking and financial center, de-linked from the
national economy (Charnock, n.d.).
Functions of Global Cities (Longworth, 2015)

• As highly concentrated command points in the organization of the world economy.
• As key locations of finance and specialized service firms, which have replaced
manufacturing as the leading economic sectors.
• As sites of production, including innovation, in these leading sectors.
• As markets for the products and innovations produced.
Attributes of a Global City

According to Longworth (2015), a true global city is balanced between four pillars of urban life. The
first is civic: an effective city government supported by institutions of civil society, such as think tanks
and foundations, especially those embedded in the global society; the second is commercial: a powerful
business community with global connections; the third is educational: both higher education and K-12;
the fourth is cultural: the arts and entertainment that give the city soul. Longworth also adds that a
myriad of attributes supports these pillars:
• Economic attributes: First and foremost, global cities are the hubs of the global economy.
No city is a global city unless it is an economic powerhouse, dominant in finance, trade,
manufacturing, or business services. Some cities, such as London or New York, command
several economic sectors. Others dominate only one sector but, if that sector is globally
important, so is the city — Los Angeles, for instance, and its entertainment industry.
Other attributes, such as good schools and culture, are vital components of a global city,
but the economy pays for it all.
• Size: For the most part, no city under a million people need apply. San Francisco and
Zurich, with their specialized clout, are included in some listings, but they are exceptions.
Otherwise, all global cities are big cities—three million people or more. It takes size to
offer all the attributes needed to be a global city. But note: size isn't enough. Some of the
world's biggest cities—Manila, Cairo, Mexico City, Lagos, Kolkata, and Lima—are
nobody's idea of a global city, and may never be widely accepted.
• Human capital: This means having a storehouse of smart, educated, creative people. The
percentage of the population with a college degree. So does the number of universities
and their quality. So does the international student population, along with the number of
foreign professors and researchers. Any global city must understand the outside world
and have links to it, so its ability to attract brains from around the world is vital.
• K-12 education: At the upper-wage end of the socioeconomic scale, this means good
schools for the children of global citizens. Entrepreneurs and investors will shun a city
where their children get a bad education. At the lower-wage level, this means a solid
education for the army of workers—truckers, cooks, small manufacturing employees,
clerical workers, retail workers—whom a global city needs as much as it needs its global
stars.
• Foreign-born residents: Tied to human capital is the sheer number of foreign-born
residents. Some are expatriate professionals, living abroad for a job for a few years. Like
bees flitting from flower to flower, they are a mobile source of knowledge of best
practices from around the world. Large immigrant populations are more often poorer
and less educated, but they are both cause and effect of urban vitality. They go to global
cities because that is where the jobs are and, once there, add their new blood and verve
to that vitality.
• Culture: Culture is also a cause and effect of a global city. A strong economy pays for the
museums, universities, symphonies, and theaters that make a city more than a labor pool.
This is also a draw for global citizens who have a palette of places to live, work, and do
business. And high culture is only a small part. Good restaurants are crucial. So are
recreation and sporting. So are night clubs and wine bars and rock concerts. Global
citizens will go to the place where their brains and education can be best used, but they
also want to have fun.
• Tourism: Because global cities are so big, so vibrant, so much fun, they are magnets for
tourists. Tourists themselves are a major export industry: they come from outside to buy
what a city has to offer. Then, having seen the global city firsthand, they take their
impressions home with them, helping to create the buzz that any global city needs.
• Political engagement: This is the interaction between the city's political structure and the
rest of the world. Obviously, national capitals have an advantage—they have the
embassies and international organizations. When foreign leaders travel abroad, they are
more likely to go to Washington than Chicago, or to Paris than Lyon. But a non-capital
global city will have many consulates and should have major think tanks and a calendar of
international conferences.
• Connectivity: For the most part, this means air and digital connections to the rest of the
world. If global cities are where global citizens meet, then a major airport with a full
schedule of nonstop to other global cities is crucial. So is topflight broadband
connectivity.
• Globally attuned local leadership: City officials must understand their cities' place in the
global economy. Then they must sell this global focus to voters for whom all politics may
be local. This is hard: pro-business policies that draw in global corporations and global
citizens can conflict with policies needed to provide decent lives for those whom the
global economy has left behind. In addition, cities need to spend heavily to keep their
global status. Global investors can afford these but everyone else—middle class and
working class—may be priced out of town.
• Quality of life: This includes public transit, the environment, safe streets, good health
care, and efficient and honest local government. A reputation for corruption, pollution,
or crime will damage a city's competitive power.
• National political and economic climate: Even global cities are affected by their nations'
policies. Global corporations deal with national laws on visas, trade, currency
repatriation, export supports, infrastructure investment, and other policies. For global
investors seeking business-friendly environments, these national negatives can outweigh
local positives. Countries that censor their media or limit digital communications make it
harder for global citizens to live and work there.
The Global City Model (Sassen, 2005)

• The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks globalization, along with the
simultaneous integration of such geographically dispersed activities, is a key factor feeding
the growth and importance of central corporate functions. The more dispersed a firm's
operations across different countries, the more complex and strategic its central
functions—that is, the work of managing coordinating, servicing, financing a firm's
network of operations.
• These central functions become so complex that increasingly the headquarters of large
global firms outsource them: they buy a share of their central functions from highly
specialized service firms—accounting legal, public relations, programming
telecommunications, and other such services. While even ten years ago the key site for
the production of these central headquarter functions was the headquarters of a firm,
today there is a second key site: the specialized service firms contracted by headquarters
to produce some of these central functions or components of them. This is especially the
case with firms involved in global and non-routine operations. But increasingly the
headquarters of all large firms are buying more of such inputs rather than producing them
in-house.
• Those specialized service firms engaged in the most complex and globalized markets are
subject to agglomeration economies. The complexity of the services they need to
produce, the uncertainty of the markets they are involved with either directly or through
the headquarters for which they are producing the services, and the growing importance
of speed in all these transactions, is a mix of conditions that constitutes a new
agglomeration dynamic. The mix of firms, talents, and expertise from a broad range of
specialized fields makes a certain type of urban environment function as an information
center. Being in a city becomes synonymous with being in an extremely intense and dense
information loop.
• More headquarters outsource their most complex, unstandardized functions, particularly
those subject to uncertain and changing markets, the freer they are to opt for any
location, because less work actually done in the headquarters is subject to agglomeration
economies. This further underline that the key sector specifying the distinctive production
advantages of global cities is the highly specialized and networked services sector. In
developing this hypothesis [I] was responding to a very common notion that the number
of headquarters is what specifies a global city. Empirically it may still be the case in many
countries that the leading business center is also the leading concentration of
headquarters but this may well be because there is an absence of alternative locational
options. But in countries with a well-developed infrastructure outside the leading
business center, there are likely to be multiple locational options for such headquarters.
• [These] specialized service firms need to provide a global service which has mean a global
network of affiliates or some other form of partnership, and as a result we have seen a
strengthening of cross border city-to-city transactions and networks. At the limit, this may
well be the beginning of the formation of transnational urban systems. The growth of
global for finance and specialized services, the need for transnational servicing networks
due to sharp increases in international investment, the reduced role of the government
in the regulation of international economic activity, and the corresponding ascendance
of other institutional arenas—notably global and corporate headquarters—all point to
the existence of a series of transnational network of cities.
A related hypothesis for research is that the economic fortunes of these cities become increasingly
disconnected from their broader hinterlands or even their national economies. We can see here
the formation, at least incipient, of transnational urban systems. To a large extent major business
centers in the world today draw their importance from these transnational networks. There is no
such thing as a single global city—and in this sense there is a sharp contrast with the erstwhile
capital of empires.
• The growing numbers of high-level professionals and high profit-making specialized
service firms have the effect of raising the degree of spatial and socio-economic
inequality evident in these cities. The strategic role of these specialized services as inputs
raises the value of top-level professionals and their numbers. Further, the fact that talent
can matter enormously for the quality of these strategic and, given the importance of
speed, proven talent is an added value, the structure of rewards is likely to experience
rapid increases. Types of activities and workers lacking these attributes, whether
manufacturing or industrial services, are likely to get caught in the opposite cycle.
• The growing informalization of a range of economic activities which find their effective
demand in these cities, yet have profit rates that do not allow them to compete for
various resources with the high-profit making firms at the top of the system. Informalizing
part of or all production and distribution activities, including services, is one way of
surviving under these conditions.
Growing Cities as 'Magnets'

Global cities encompass more than just their economic roots. The opportunities these cities present act
as magnets for people from all walks of life and cultures, creating meeting points at which cultures may
coexist and mix together. Consequently, global cities are defined as much by their diversity as they are
by their economic importance (Washington, 2018). The Global Power City Index (GPCI) ranks the
world's most important cities according to their magnetism, that is, their perceived power to attract
creative people and businesses from across the globe, and to mobilize their assets to boost economic,
social and environmental development (Hutt, 2017).
Based on the GPCI 2017 (Mori Memorial Foundation, n.d.), the top 10 cities in comprehensive ranking
are:
• London
• New York
• Tokyo
• Paris
• Singapore
• Seoul
• Amsterdam
• Berlin
• Hong Kong
• Sydney
Key Findings: London, the number 1 city in the comprehensive ranking for the sixth year in a row,
further extends lead over the competition by improving its scores for such indicators as GDP Growth
Rate and Level of Political, Economic and Business Risk in Economy, and for Attractiveness of Dining
Options and Number of Visitors from Abroad in Cultural Interaction. New York (No. 2) increases scores
for the Economy indicators of Nominal GDP and GDP Growth Rate, but fails to make any significant
headway in comprehensive score, having returned weaker scores this year in Cultural Interaction
indicators such as Number of World-Class Cultural Held and Livability indicators like Variety of Retail
Shops. Tokyo claimed the No. 3 ranking for the first-time last year and closes the gap on New York (No.
2) this year. This is a result of the American city's score stalling while Tokyo continues to improve every
year in the Cultural Interaction indicators of Number of Visitors from Abroad and Number of
International Students. However, Japan's capital city slips from No. 1 to No. 4 in Economy due to
weaker scores in Market Size and Market Attractiveness.
• Learn the global demographic trends

• Understand the current demographic condition of the world in the 21st century
Demography
• the statistical study of human populations
• includes the study of the size, structure, and distributions of different
populations and changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging, and
death
• includes the analysis of the relationships between economic, social, cultural, and
biological process influencing a population (Crossman, 2017)
• very useful for understanding social and economic problems and identifying
potential solutions.
Demographers are engaged in social planning, market research, insurance forecasting,

labor market analysis, economic development and so on. (Stockholm University, n.d.).
The importance of demography is clear for its scope. Since its scope is increasing which
already leads to its importance. Demography is concerned with the growth and
distribution of population in less developed countries as well as underdevelopment and

developed countries (Farooq, 2013):
• Health Planning: Due to high fertility rate, health problems are created both for
mother and child. In most of the developing countries, married women are facing
pregnancies problem due to malnutrition. Also due to ill health of mother, infant
mortality rate is high in our country. High fertility is connected to the child
development. So, demography is concerned with the fertility and mortality and
studies the birth and death rates. These health problems are solved by the
demographer in the establishment of health planning of the country. All the
problem related to health and its causes as well as its possible solutions is the
work of social demography.
• Planning for Food Supply: Planning for food supply means availability of
adequate food for the total population. The inadequate food results in the poor
health, low growth, high mortality rates and low physical activity. Food supply
grows with the growth of population. The undeveloped and underdeveloped
countries are unable to meet the demands of food supply. They depend on other
countries for fulfillment of their basic food needs. So, population study is
important to meet the demands of food of the poor countries through the aid of
national as well as international agencies.
• Housing Planning: When the size of population is increasing, the demand for
housing is also increasing. Therefore, data collected about fertility, mortality,
migration, urbanization and family formation gives basis for the estimation of
housing planning.
• Employment Planning: Unemployment is a social and international problem.
From developed to underdeveloped as well as undeveloped countries, the
unemployment problem is growing rapidly. A demographic factor is the high
dependency ratio in less developed countries. For example, in Pakistan, four or
five persons depend on the income of one person. So, for employment planning,
population study and dependency ratio must be studied. Therefore, demography
studies all aspects of population where it makes planning for employment and
unemployment problems.
• Educational Planning: Today, every nation is concerned with providing proper
education to children. The numbers of children are constantly increasing which
creates educational problems. The demographers are interested to make planning
for these children of a specific area or the whole country. Due to educational
planning by demographers, these children should be provided proper educational
facilities.
• Migration Planning: Most of the people are migrated to western countries. It is
necessary to estimate the trends of migration, the immigrants, the emigrants and
the heavy burden on other countries. It is the study of social demography to
make plans and to stop the problem. A large number of emigrants from a country
affects a population adversely and a qualitative change occur. Because these
emigrants may be experts as well as skilled and qualified persons which affect the
economy of a country very badly. Due to immigration to a country, the population
growth takes place which is a hurdle for the development of a country.
The Global Demography

The current world population of 7.6 billion is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in
2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100, according to a new United Nations report being launched today.
With roughly 83 million people being added to the world's population every year, the upward
trend in population size is expected to continue, even assuming that fertility levels will continue
to decline (United Nations, 2017).
Birth rate is the demographic measure of the rate at which children are born. The most well-
known is the crude birth rate, which is the number of births that occur each year per 1,000
people in the midyear population. It is called crude because it does not take into account the
possible effects of age structure. If a population has an unusually large or small number of
women in childbearing age, then the crude birth rate will tend to be relatively high or low
regardless of the actual number of children a woman has. For this reason, age adjusted birth
rates are preferred for making comparisons, either over time or between populations
(Crossman, 2018).
Top 10 Most Populous Countries:

• China 1,384,688,986
• India 1,296,834,042
• United States 329,256,465
• Indonesia 262, 787, 403
• Brazil 208,846,892
• Pakistan 207,862,518
• Nigeria 195,300,343
• Bangladesh 159,453,001
• Russia 142,122,776
• Japan 126,168,156
But, based on current trends, the list of the world's most populous nations could look very
different by 2060. Over the past half century, China has remained in the top spot, but it is
expected to be overtaken by India in 2022. In 2020, India is predicted to have over 1,383,000
million citizens, compared to China's 1,402,000 million. Just eight years later, India is set to
have gained over 100 million people, while China's population is only expected to have
increased by 1.4 million (Luxton, 2016).
The huge growth in the world population over the past two centuries is largely the result of
advances in modern medicines and improvements in living standards. These have significantly
reduced infant, child and maternal mortality, contributing to an increase in life expectancy.
Although fertility levels have declined, they have not fallen at the same pace as mortality levels.
The world population will continue to grow for decades to come. This is the result of population
momentum: Because of improved survival rates and past high fertility levels, there are more
women of reproductive age today. This will contribute to a relatively large number of births,
even if those women have fewer children on average. Although population growth is, today,
largely attributable to population momentum, after 2060 it will almost exclusively be driven by
fertility levels in the world's least developed countries (UN Population Fund, n.d.).
Ageing Population
As fertility declines and life expectancy rises, the proportion of the population above a certain
age rises as well. This phenomenon, known as population ageing, is occurring throughout the
world.
In 2017, there are an estimated 962 million people aged 60 or over in the world, comprising 13
per cent of the global population. The population aged 60 or above is growing at a rate of
about 3 per cent per year. Currently, Europe has the greatest percentage of population aged 60
or over (25 per cent). Rapid ageing will occur in other parts of the world as well, so that by 2050
all regions of the world except Africa will have nearly a quarter or more of their populations at
ages 60 and above. The number of older persons in the world is projected to be 1.4 billion in
2030 and 2.1 billion in 2050, and could rise to 3.1 billion in 2100. Over the next few decades, a
further increase in the population of older persons is almost inevitable, given the size of the
cohorts born in recent decades.
Population ageing is projected to have a profound effect on the support ratio, defined as the
number of workers per retiree. Although it is difficult to know the actual number of workers
per retiree, a useful proxy is the ratio of the number of persons who are likely to be workers or
retirees by virtue of their age. Thus, a potential support ratio can be defined as the number of
persons aged 20 to 64 divided by the number aged 65 or over. In 2017, Africa has 12.9 persons
aged 20 to 64 for each person aged 65 or above. This ratio is 7.4 for Asia, 7.3 for Latin America
and the Caribbean, 4.6 for Oceania, 3.8 for Northern America and 3.3 for Europe. At 2.1, Japan
in 2017 has the lowest potential support ratio in the world, while those of nine European
countries and the United States Virgin Islands are also below 3. By 2050, seven countries in
Asia, 24 in Europe, and five in Latin America and the Caribbean are expected to have potential
support ratios below 2. These low values underscore the fiscal and political pressures that
many countries are likely to face in the coming decades in relation to public systems of health
care, pensions and social protections for a growing older population (United Nations, 2017).
Key Terms:
Population all nationals present in, or temporarily absent from a country,
and aliens permanently settled in a country. This indicator shows
the number of people that usually live in an area
Growth Rate/s the annual changes in population resulting from births, deaths
and net migration during the year
Population Projection/s a common demographic tool. They provide a basis for other
statistical projections, helping governments in their decision
making. This indicator is measured in terms of annual growth rate
and in thousands of people
Elderly Population people aged 65 and over
Elderly Dependency Rate the ratio between the elderly population and the working age
(15-64 years) population
Total Fertility Rate the total number of children that would be born to each woman
if she were to live to the end of her child-bearing years and give
birth to children in alignment with the prevailing age-specific
fertility rates.
• Understand the causes of global migration

• Know the effects of migration
Global Migration
Migration (human) is the permanent change of residence by an individual or group; it excludes such
movements as nomadism, migrant labor, commuting, and tourism, all of which are transitory in nature
(Britannica, n.d.). It is the crossing of the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain
minimum period of time. It includes the movement of refugees, displaced persons, uprooted people as
well as economic migrants. Internal migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or
municipality) to another within one country. International migration is a territorial relocation of people
between nation-states. Two forms of relocation can be excluded from this broad definition: first, a
territorial movement which does not lead to any change in ties of social membership and therefore
remains largely inconsequential both for the individual and for the society at the points of origin and
destination, such as tourism; second, a relocation in which the individuals or the groups concerned are
purely passive objects rather than active agents of the movement, such as organized transfer of
refugees from states of origins to a safe haven (UNESCO, n.d.).
Why People Migrate

According to Blackman (2017), global migration can be understood as a cause-and-effect relationship,
though the causes are just as numerous as their effects. People move across international borders for a
variety of reasons, including (though not limited to):
1. Safety
2. Natural disaster
3. Political conflict
4. Education
5. Family
6. Career
7. Economic betterment
Push-Pull Factor
Some of the reasons that trigger global migration can be explained by what's known as the Push-Pull
factor. Pull factors are factors in the destination country that attract the individual or group to leave
their home. These factors attract people to a new place largely because of the opportunities presented
in the new location were not available to them previously. An example of a pull factor would include a
family moving from a country with minimal job opportunities to a new location with more opportunities
for a successful career. The beneficial elements that the new country presents encourages people to
migrate there in order to seek a better life for their families.
A push factor refers to conditions which force people to leave their homes. A person would typically
move because of distress (safety, natural disaster, or political conflict). Although push factors don't
require a person to leave their home, the conditions impacting the push factors often negatively impact
the quality of life for the person if they choose to stay. Places that experience drought and famine, war
conflicts, and/or high unemployment would contribute to the push factors that trigger migration for
that country's residents (Blackman, 2017).
Categories of International Migrants (UNESCO, n.d.)

• Temporary labor migrants (also known as guest workers or overseas contract workers):
people who migrate for a limited period of time in order to take up employment and send
money home.
• Highly skilled and business migrants: people with qualifications as managers, executives,
professionals, technicians or similar, who move within the internal labor markets of trans-
national corporations and international organizations, or who seek employment through
international labor markets for scarce skills. Many countries welcome such migrants and
have special 'skilled and business migration' programs to encourage them to come.
• Irregular migrants (or undocumented / illegal migrants: people who enter a country,
usually in search of employment, without the necessary documents and permits.
• Forced migration: in a broader sense, this includes not only refugees and asylum seekers
but also people forced to move due to external factors, such as environmental
catastrophes or development projects. This form of migration has similar characteristics to
displacement.
• Family members (or family reunion / family reunification: people sharing family ties
joining people who have already entered an immigration country under one of the above-
mentioned categories. Many countries recognize in principle the right to family reunion
for legal migrants. Other countries, especially those with contract labor systems, deny the
right to family reunion.
• Return migrants: people who return to their countries of origin after a period in another
country.
Today people are moving more than ever before. There are presently around 258 million international
migrants. That figure has grown rapidly since the turn of the millennium, when there were 173 million.
Together with the increasing volume, we are seeing changing demographics, advancing technology,
evolving needs of labor markets and continued challenges posed by wars, shortages, human rights
violations and climate change. We sometimes think of certain countries as sources of migrants and
others as recipients. But most nations today experience migration from all three perspectives - as
countries of origin, transit and destination (Lajcak, 2018).
Large and persistent economic and demographic asymmetries between countries are likely to remain
key drivers of international migration for the foreseeable future. Between 2015 and 2050, the top net
receivers of international migrants (more than 100,000 annually) are projected to be the United States
of America, Germany, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and the Russian Federation. The
countries projected to be net senders of more than 100,000 migrants annually include India,
Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, and Indonesia (United Nations, 2017).
Effects of Global Migration

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes that international migration can be a
positive force for economic and social development, offering a mechanism to rebalance labor markets
between areas of origin and destination and thereby increase the global productivity of labor.
Migration across international borders can also help to promote investment and higher standards of
living in countries of origin through remittances sent by migrants to families and communities back
home, and to accelerate the global diffusion of new ideas and technologies. From a demographic
perspective, migration is a much smaller component of population change than births and deaths in
most countries and regions of the world (United Nations, 2017). Migration is an important factor in the
erosion of traditional boundaries between languages, cultures, ethnic group, and nation-states. Even
those who do not migrate are affected by movements of people in or out of their communities, and by
the resulting changes. Migration is not a single act of crossing a border, but rather a lifelong process that
affects all aspects of the lives of those involved. (UNESCO, n.d.).
Migration can present a great variety of challenges ranging from simple discomfort to profound shifts in
mental health. Migrating to a new place where the diet or the local culture is largely unfamiliar may be
quite jarring. Imagine moving from the US where drinking coffee or tea in the mornings is the cultural
norm to living in Central Asia where in some parts, drinking salty yak butter tea is the norm. Culture
shock is a predictable culprit for migratory challenges: changes in language, diet, politics, religion, and
environment are immediately visible. For example, those who migrate from the Middle East or Africa
are aware of the difficulties of adjusting to colder temperatures in Scandinavia. What might not be as
obvious, though, is the challenge of adjusting to extremely short daylight hours in the winter, making
seasonal affective disorder an unanticipated hurdle for many immigrants. Furthermore, the act of
leaving a home country can be emotionally difficult, especially for those who may never be able to
return and/or were forced out by situations that they couldn't control. Having to emigrate as a refugee
from a war-torn Syria, breaks up families and can destabilize immigrants' sense of self, which could lead
to depression. These challenges obviously should not be taken lightly - help and support are key
(Blackman, 2017).
Below are two tables explaining the positive and negative effects for both the country losing migrants,
and the country gaining immigrants (BBC, n.d.):

Introduction To The Study of Globalization

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GE6102 | The Contemporary World

• List expectations for the course

• Differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization

Introduction to the Study of Globalization

The History of Our Global Economy

Negative Corporate Effects

• Define Economic Globalization

Definition of Economic Globalization

Factors That Facilitate Economic Globalization

Modern World System

Global Economic Integration

Notion of international economic integration

Role of International Financial Institutions in the creation of Global Economy

History of Global Market Integration in the Twentieth Century

Attributes of Global Corporations

• Explain the effects of globalization on governments

Definition of Economic Globalization

Factors that facilitate Economic Globalization

Effects of Globalization to Governments

Roles and Functions of the United Nations

• Cambodia: The UN General Assembly again adopted, by an overwhelming majority of 124 to 17

• Drift-Net Fishing Problem: Recently, indiscriminate catching of marine resources by large-scale

Human Rights Activities

Administrative and Financial Problems

If we consider globalization to be a necessarily right-wing phenomenon, then we can state that,

• Understand the North-South Divide,

THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

The North (First World Countries)

The South (Third World Countries)

THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD WORLDS

• Mao Zedong: former Chairman of the Communist Party of China

The First World

The First World Concept after the Cold War

The Second World

The Second World Concept after the Cold War

Third World: Modern Use

Modern Relations in First, Second and Third World Countries

First World Second World Third World

Economic growth rate High Mixed Low

THE FOURTH WORLD CONCEPT

THE THREE WORLDS IN THE CENTURY

• Differentiate between regionalization and globalization

Globalization and Regionalization

• Analyze how various media drive various forms of global integration

MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION

CRITIQUES ON GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURE

international communication treats the former as a category of the latter. Grounded in an

• Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs

Types of Religious Organizations (as cited in Lanuza and Raymundo, 2016)

Major Religions of the World

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON RELIGION

RELIGION AND GLOBAL CONFLICT

• Understand the global city thesis

The Global City

Functions of Global Cities (Longworth, 2015)

Attributes of a Global City

The Global City Model (Sassen, 2005)

Growing Cities as 'Magnets'

• Learn the global demographic trends

Demographers are engaged in social planning, market research, insurance forecasting,

distribution of population in less developed countries as well as underdevelopment and

The Global Demography

Top 10 Most Populous Countries: