Synchronous Reluctance Motor Construction and Working

UNIT I
SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE
MOTOR
T he Synchronous Reluctance Motor is completely free of magnets and their operational

problems. It is inexpensive to make and can operate at extensively high speed and at
higher temperature than the PM motors. However, its power factor and efficiency are
not as high as those of a PM motors and the converter KVA requirement is higher.
The Synchronous Reluctance Motor offers many of the advantages of the Switched
Reluctance Motor. But the Synchronous Reluctance Motor has two added advantages
i) it can operate from essentially standard PWM AC inverter and has lower torque ripple.
ii) It can also be built with a standard induction motor stator and winding.
1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR
 Its construction is very similar to induction motor The two important parts of the motor
are stator and rotor as in Induction motor. It is shown in the figure 1.1
 The stator construction is similar to induction motor (ie) it has outer frame which covers
the whole machine. Beneath the frame stator core which are laminated and made up of
silicon steel material are fixed to reduce Hysteresis & Eddy current loss in the motor.
 The stator core has stator slots which are used for housing the stator winding, usually three
phase winding is provided.
 Here the rotor does not have any magnets (or) field winding for excitation.
 The rotor has very simple construction such that salient pole rotor core which are
laminated (or) solid steel material.
 The machine is low cost, rugged and have high efficiency and are capable of operating at
very high speeds.
1.2 Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Ldm
 The traditional Synchronous Reluctance Motor has low saliency (ie) a low ratio,
Lqm
which gives poor torque density, low power factor and poor efficiency.
 The Synchronous Reluctance Motor is similar to the sinusoidal PM machine, except that
the field flux  f  0 and Ldm  Lqm .
1.1.1 Working Principle

 The motor works on the basic principle of minimum reluctance position.
 When the stator winding is excited by the AC supply, it produces the rotating magnetic
field in the airgap which cuts the rotor and induces magnetic field in the rotor.
 The rotor tries to align itself with the minimum reluctance position by developing
reluctance torque between the stator and rotor.
 Ideally there is no core (or) copper loss in the rotor, but the inverter fed harmonics will
cause some copper loss in the damper winding if present.
 The simplest operation of a Synchronous Reluctance Motor is a line start motor where the
machine starts like an induction motor with the help of a cage winding, but pulls into
synchronism at synchronous speed.
Stator frame
Stator core
Stator winding
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Salient Pole rotor
Stator slots
Fig1.1
Special Electrical Machines 1.3
Useful properties of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

i. Combined reluctance and magnet alignment torque.
ii. Field weakening capability
iii. High Inductance
iv. High Speed capability
v. High temperature capability
vi. Under excited operation for most load condition.
Applications
i. Pumps and Conveyors
ii. Synthetic fiber spinning mills
iii. Wrapping and folding machines
iv. Motor pumps
Types of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

i. Line start Synchronous Reluctance Motor (cage type)
ii. Cageless PM / Synchronous Reluctance hybrid motor
iii. Brushless Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Depending upon the rotor construction the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is two types.
i. Radial airgap motor
ii. Axial airgap motor
1.2 RADIAL AIRGAP MOTOR
 In this type of motor, the stator construction remains the same but the rotor has projecting
pole laminations of steel core. It is shown in the figure 1.2
 Therefore the length of the magnetic core in a radial motor is less than the total active
magnetic length due to the presence of end turns at each end of the motor.
 The magnetic working radius set the torque for the motor and is directly related to the
torque production of a motor. The larger the radius is, the more torque the motor produces.
 The working radius of the magnet in a radial motor is usually considered the outside
dimension of the magnet.
 Since this is a cylindrical structure this is easily defined and is commonly used.
 The working radius is smaller than the axial motor. So torque production in radial motor is
smaller than the axial motor.
 The total magnetic surface area in radial motor design is set by the magnet diameter and
the magnet length. The magnet surface area is increasing linearly with magnet length
surface area is more than the axial motor.
 In radial motor, the effective airgap area is less than the maximum airgap area since there
are gaps between the field poles to reduce the flux leakage and allow for insertion of
windings.
 The core area for a radial motor is limited by the smallest radius of the core, the winding
thickness and the gap necessary to allow for winding the motor windings.
 An advantage to the radial motor design is that more core area can be incorporated into the
motor. Generally radial motors have a limited value of copper fill since the windings need
to be done through the slots between the pole shoes.
Stator outer frame

Stator core
Stator slots
Stator winding
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Pole
Fig 1.2
1.3 AXIAL AIRGAP MOTOR
 In this type of motor, the length of the laminated core of rotor is Lc which is essentially the
same as the length of the winding.
 For axial motor, the magnet working radius is harder to define since the radius varies over
the area of the air gap.
 Typically the magnet working radius can be larger since the magnet outside diameter is
limited only by the motor shell thickness and a clearance gap for rotation and in some case
the winding thickness.
 The axial motor has 1.4 times torque improvement compared to the radial motor. For the
axial motor, the magnet surface area is set by the inner and outer radii of the magnet and
then doubled since this surface has one magnet at each end of the motor.
 The air gap area for a traditional axial motor is just the area of a slice of the field poles that
is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 The effective air gap area is less than maximum area since some areas are left between the
field poles to reduce flux leakage between the field poles and some area to the windings.
 The core area for a traditional axial motor is just the area of a perpendicular slice of the
field poles. The axial motor has a constant core area and it has maximum torque for any
given diameter independent of length.
 The increase in length of an axial motor changes the power dissipation of the motor but
does not change the maximum torque. Axial motor has high copper fill ratio because of
the simple coil design.
 If the length were not constrained, the axial motor could be lengthened so that additional
copper could be added.
 The axial motors do not increase torque by extending motor length. Extending the motor
length in an axial motor increase the length of the winding but does not change the torque
value produced.
 The constructional view is shown in the figure 1.3
Stator Outer Frame

Stator Core
Stator Slots
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Poles
Stator Winding
Fig 1.3
1.4 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE
In this type of motor where magnets are absent (or) removed under the no load
condition (or) open circuit condition and when there is not torque, all the flux is the q-axis
flux and there is no d-axis flux. Usually the case is that X d  X q which is opposite to the
ordinary synchronous machines.
In many respects, the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is similar to the sinusoidal PM
machines, except that the field flux  f  0 and Ldm  Lqm . The d e  q e equivalent circuits of
the machines are simple and they are shown in the figure 1.4.
iqs
Rs
_
+
we  ds
 qs Lqs = Lls + Lqm

Vqs
Fig 1.4
ids
Rs
_
+
we  qs
 ds Lds = Lls + Lqm

Vds
Fig1.4
The machine may or may not have a cage (or) damper winding. Ideally there is no core (or)
copper loss in the rotor, but the inverter fed harmonics will cause some copper loss in the
damper winding if present. The simplest operation of the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is as
lie start motor where the machine starts like an induction motor with the help of a cage
winding, but pulls into synchronism at synchronous speed. One traditionally popular
application of a Synchronous Reluctance Motor is the multi motor drive by open loop
volts/Hz speed control.
1.5 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE

MOTOR
The phasor diagram of the motor is drawn to obtain the performance parameters of the
motor. The phasor diagram is shown in the figure 1.5 with their standard symbols where
ds  Ldsids , qs  Lqsiqs and Vs  wes
qe

Vs

Is  2Is
 iqs

 s  2 s
qs
 

de
e ids ds
ds
Fig 1.5
The flux  ds tends to saturate at ids. In fact there is some cross saturation effect of Lds due to
iqs current. The stator resistance drop has been neglected for simplicity. Note that  f phasor
and corresponding Vf phasor are absent. Since the stator supplies magnetizing current like an
induction motor, the stator power factor angle  is large. So the power factor is low in the
synchronous reluctance motor.
The torque developed by the motor is called as synchronous reluctance torque which is given
by
P  Lds  Lqs 

Te  3    2s   sin 2 
2  2 L L 
ds qs 
ˆ s
Where  s 
2
 3   P  ˆ 2  Lds  Lqs 
 Te       s   sin 2
 2   2   2 Lds Lqs 
Where

ˆ s  space vector flux magnitude
P  umber of poles
  torque angle
 qs  ds
Put sin 2 = 2 sin cos and where sin   and cos  
ˆ s ˆ s
 3   P   L  Lqs 
 Te       ds   ds  qs
 2   2   Lds Lqs 
 3  P
 Te      Lds  Lqs  idsiqs
 2  2 
From the above equation we say that the torque can be controlled by ids , iqs(or) both
components. The above equation can also be rewritten as
 3P
Te        ds iqs   qs ids 
 2 2 
1.6 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of the motor depends upon the torque angle  and speed of the
motor with respect to the torque developed. The torque equation is given as
 3  P   Lds  L qs 
Te     s2   sin 2
2 2 2L
    ds qs L

Generally Lqs > Lds and the torque has a maximum value at  = 450 (or) radians in the
4
motoring region. The torque follows the sinusoidal distribution in the motoring and generating
region and it is shown in the figure 1.6.
Te
Te(max)
900 450 450 900 
-Te(max)
Motoring Generating
-Te
Fig 1.6
The next important characteristics are the speed torque characteristics of the motor. Usually
the synchronous motor is the constant speed motor and it runs only at synchronous speed. The
speed control of the motor can be achieved by combined volts/Hz control. The speed torque
characteristics of the motor are shown in the figure 1.7.
Te
Temax
0
Ns
Speed 
Fig 1.7
The characteristics takes the natural shape (ie) as the speed is increased from initial value, the
torque also increase and reaches its maximum value and then the motor tries to pull into
synchronism and runs at synchronous speed with normal reluctance torque. The variable load
on the motor does not affect the speed of the motor but it controls the developed torque in the
motor for the fixed frequency operation. The motor goes out of synchronism when it is
subjected to overload condition and the motor stops. The speed torque characteristics is also
affected by the sudden loading and unloading of motor which leads to oscillatory motion of
the rotor which may sometime lead to asynchronous operation.
1.7 VERNIER MOTOR
A vernier motor is an unexcited inductor synchronous motor in which a small

displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the axes of permeance. It runs at a
slow speed as if it were geared down the speed of the rotating field set up by the stator. To
design a vernier motor is equivalent to designing a polyphase reluctance motor with an odd
shaped rotor. So that the air gap permeance distribution is a displaced triangular wave. The
motor is so named because it operates on the principle of a vernier. The peculiar feature of this
kind of motor is that a small displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the
axes of maximum and minimum permeance. When a rotating magnetic field is introduced in
the air gap of the machine, the rotor will rotate slowly and at a definite fraction of the speed of
the rotating field. This rotating field can be produced either by feeding poly phase current to
the stator winding or by exciting the stator coil groups in sequence. As the rotor speed steps
down from the speed of the rotating field, the motor torque steps up. Therefore, the motor
works as an electric gearing. This kind of motor is attractive in applications which require low
speed and high torque and where mechanical gearing is undesirable.
1.7.1 Construction
 The construction of vernier motor is similar to poly phase induction motor as shown in the
figure 1.8
 The two important parts are stator and rotor. The stator has laminated stator core made up
of silicon steel to reduce eddy currents and hysteresis loss in the stator.
 At the inner periphery of the stator core, stator slots are provided and the slots are used for
housing the stator winding.
 The stator winding is distributed in the slots just like the ordinary poly phase induction
motor. When the stator winding is excited by the poly phase supply, the rotating magnetic
field is produced in the air gap.
 The rotor has laminated core made up of iron material without any winding.
 The outer periphery of the rotor has rotor slots Number of stator slots will be more than
the number of rotor slots.
 Because of this construction the air gap permeance varies between the stator and rotor
slots in the horizontal and vertical direction.
1.7.2 Principle of operation

 The stator of a vernier motor has slots and a distributed winding just like the stator of an
ordinary polyphase induction motor.
 The rotor is slotted iron core without winding. To understand the principle of operation of
a vernier motor refer the below figure.
Vertical axis
Stator Outer Frame

Stator Core
Stator Slots
Rotor Slots
Horizontal axis
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Core
Fig 1.8
 The figure 1.8 shows a two pole machine with 12 stator slots and 10 rotor slots. Small
numbers of slots are purposely chosen as an example to facilitate the explanation.
 At the position shown in figure, the stator and the rotor teeth are facing each other in the
vertical axis. The stator teeth are facing rotor slots in the horizontal axis.
 At this position, the maximum permeance is along the vertical axis and the minimum
permeance is along the horizontal axis.
 When the rotor is rotated one half of its slots pitch, the rotor slots will face stator teeth in
the vertical axis. The stator and rotor teeth will face each other in the horizontal axis.
 The axis of maximum permeance is now horizontal and the axis of minimum permeance is
now vertical.
 Thus the rotor movement of one half rotor slot pitch results in a 90 degree displacement of
the permeance.
 Suppose that a magnetic field is rotating in the machine. Whenever the rotating field
rotates 90 degree, the rotor will rotate one half of its slot pitch.
 When the rotating field completes one revolution, the rotor will rotate through an angle
corresponding to two rotor slot pitches. For the example given, the rotor speed is one fifth
of the speed of the rotating field.
1.8 Airgap Permeance Distribution in Vernier motor

The first step in the design is to study the permeance distribution along the air gap.
Assume that fluxes fringing from the edges of the teeth will be neglected and the fluxes in the
air gap flows in the radial direction. The permeance of air space between the stator and rotor
at any location is inversely proportional to the radial length of air space at that location. Since
the stator and rotor slot depths are much larger in comparison with the air gap length, the
permeance of air space can be considered as zero, except where stator tooth surface is facing
rotor tooth surface. The permenace distribution along the circumference of air gap for the
given figure is shown below. Figure 1.9
permeance
0 
2
 3
2 2
Angular Position 
Figure 1.9 Airgap permeance distribution of motor
permeance
0 
2
 3
2 2
Angular Position 
Figure 1.10. Equivalent permeance distribution

In figure 1.9, the widths of rectangular blocks are the widths of overlap between the stator and
rotor teeths. These widths of overlap vary linearly from a maximum to a minimum and back to
a maximum as shown. The area of overlap is maximum for the top and bottom stator teeth
where the rotor teeth are directly opposite. The area of overlap is reduced a constant amount
for each successive stator tooth until a minimum (zero) is reached. After that the area of
overlap is increased successively back to the maximum and cycle repeats.
A permeance distribution curve shown in figure1.9 is not convenient to use because it cannot
be represented by a simple mathematical function. The equivalent permeance distribution
curve of the figure 1.10 is therefore drawn. The figure1.10 represents the periodic linear
variation of permeance per unit area from a maximum to minimum and back to a maximum.
When the rotor rotates, this permeance wave rotates at a much faster speed. The axes at which
maximum and minimum permeance occur are the direct and quadrature axes respectively of
the vernier motor. The technique of replacing a permeance curve of figure1.9 by an equivalent
permeance curve of figure 1.10 is an accepted practice in electrical machine design.
1.9 DESIGN OF VERNIER MOTOR
In a poly phase reluctance motor, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator
mmf wave. Similarly, in a vernier motor, the air gap permeance wave should have the same
number of poles as the stator mmf wave. Therefore, the number of stator and rotor slots
should have the following relation.
N1  N 2  P
Where N1  number of stator slots

N2  number of rotor slots
P  number of poles of the rotating magnetic field
As we have seen before, when the rotor rotates through an angle corresponding to one rotor
slot pitch, the permeance wave rotates through an angle corresponding to one pole pitch. The
pole pitch of the permeance wave is the same as the pole pitch of the stator mmf wave,
because they have the same number of poles.
Also in a reluctance machine, the speed of the permeance wave is the same as the speed of
rotating mmf.
Therefore,
Rotor speed Rotor slot pitch P
 
Rotating field speed mmf pole pitch N 2
(or)
120 f
Rotor Speed  rpm
N2
And the electric gear ratio is given as
N 2
Electric Gear Ratio =
 N 2  N1 
It can be seen from rotor speed equation that the rotor speed is independent of the number of
poles of the machine, when the speed of the rotating field is reduced by increasing the
number of poles of the machine. It cannot be expected that the speed of the rotor be reduced
proportionally because when P is increased the difference between N2 and N1 should also be
increased and the electric gear ratio is reduced in the inversed proportion. Thus, the rotor
speed is not affected by the number of poles but depends on the number of rotor slots.
The main step in design is to calculate the direct and quadrature axes reactance Xd and Xq.
Xd = Xl + Xad
Xq = Xl + Xaq
Where
Xl  stator leakage reactance
Xad = Xaq  direct and quadrature axis reactance of armature reaction.
The Xad is the ratio of the fundamental component of reactive armature voltage produced by
the mutual flux due to the fundamental direct axis component of armature current to this
component under steady state conditions and at rated frequency. Similarly X aq is the ratio of
the fundamental component of relative armature voltage produced by the mutual flux due to
the fundamental quadrature axis component of armature current to this component of current
under steady state condition and at rated frequency.
PROBLEM
1. A 3 phase, 230 V, 10 pole star connected reluctance motor has Xd = 18.5  and XQ
= 30. The armature resistance is negligible. If V/F ratio is maintained constant at
the rated value. Determine.
i. Torque angle and
ii. Line current
Assume the load torque = 12.5 N-m
Nov / Dec 2006
Given data
V = 230 volts
P = 10
Xd = 18.5 
XQ = 30
TL = 12.5 N-m
To find
i. Torque angle  in degree
ii. Line current Ia in amps
Solution
230
Va (rated) = Vb   132.79 volts
3
 = 2f rad/sec
= 2 x 60
 = 377 rad/sec
2
b = s = m 
P
2  377

10
s = 75.4 rad/sec
= 4524 rpm
3 Va2  X d  X Q 
Td    sin 2 
2 s  X d X Q 

3  132.792  18.5  30 
12.5    sin 2 
2  75.4  18.5  30 
12.5  2  75.4  18.5  30 
sin 2  
3  132.792 18.5  30
sin 2 = 1.719
ii. Line current Ia in amps
Po = TL x m
= 12.5 x 75.4 = 942.5 watts
X Q I a cos m
tan   
Va  I a X Q sin m
Po = 942.5 = 3 x Va x Ia cos m
= 3 x 132.79 x Ia cos m
From equation (1) and (2), Ia and m can be determined by an iteration method of solution
UNIT II
STEPPER MOTOR
S
tepper Motor is an electromechanical device which actuates a train of steps movements
of shaft in response to train of input pulses. Each pulse moves the shaft through a fixed
angle. The angle through which the motor rotates or shaft moves for each pulse is
known as the step angle  expressed in degrees.
Let
Nr  Number of rotor poles.
Ns  Number of stator poles
m  Number of phases.
360 N  Nr
step Angle   ( or ) s  360
m Nr Ns Nr
i. Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the
resolution (or) accuracy of positioning obtained.
ii. The step angle can be as small as 0.720 (or) as large as 900.
iii. Common step sizes are 1.8, 2.5, 7.5 &15 .
Resolution is given by the number of steps needed to complete one revolution of the
rotor shaft. Higher the resolution, greater the accuracy of positioning.
360 
 Re solution  No of steps / revolution 

Operation of stepper Motor at high speeds is called “Slewing”. If f is the stepping

2.2 Stepper Motor
frequency (or) pulse rate in pulses per sec and  is step angle, then
 f
Motor shaft speed ( n )  rps
360
When stepping rate is increased quickly, the motor losses synchronism and stops.
Application of stepper Motor
1. Used for operational control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC fabrications

& Robotics etc.
2. It is also used in typewriters, line printers, tape drivers, floppy disk drives, CNC
machines, X-Y plotters etc.
3. It is also used in commercial, military & medical applications.
Advantages of stepper Motor
1. No feedback is normally required for either position or speed control.

2. Positional error is not cumulative.
3. Stepper Motors are Compatible with digital equipments.
4. It requires less maintenance.
5. It is mechanically simple and free from contamination.
Types of stepper Motor
1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

2. Permanent Magnet stepper Motor
3. Hybrid stepper Motor
2.1 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR
2.1.1 Construction:
It is the most basic type of stepper Motor.
Two important parts of a stepper Motor are

i. Stator
ii. Rotor
 The motor has a stator which is usually wound for three phases.
 The stator consists of common outer frame which is used to enclose the stepper motor
and protect it.
 The salient poles of the stator are fixed under the stator outer frame. The stator poles are
laminated and assembled in a single stack.
 The stator poles are usually made up of soft steel (or) high graded silicon content steel in
order to reduce the hysteresis losses and they are laminated to reduce the eddy current
loss in the stepper Motor.
 Usually there may be six stator poles and concentrated exciting windings are placed
around each pole.
 The exciting windings are usually made up of copper material and pair of exciting
windings form a phase in the stepper Motor. So there are 3 phases in the stepper Motor
which is considered.
 Each phase is excited separately through a switch by the DC source, which is also shown
in the Fig 2.1.
 The direction of rotation of the stepper Motor depends upon the sequence we excite the
windings.
 The Rotor also has projecting poles which may be laminated (or) solid soft steel
material. It is usually made up of ferromagnetic Material and it may be single (or) multi-
stack type
 The multi-stack type rotor gives smaller step angle.
 Generally, number of stator poles will not be equal to number of rotor poles for proper
operation. Here we consider four rotor poles. The rotor pole do not have windings.
2.4 Stepper Motor
Stator Poles
B` C
1
Stator Winding
4 2 Rotor Poles
3 Rotor Shaft
C` B
Outer Frame
A`
Constructional View
A B C
V
_ A` B` C`
S1 S2 S3
Circuit Arrangement
Fig 2.1
2.1.2 Principle of Operation
 The operation is based on various reluctance positions of rotor with respect to stator.
 When any one phase of the stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis
lies along the poles of the phase which is excited.
 Then the rotor moves to minimum reluctance position.
 Let us see the operation of the VR stepper Motor ,when the phases A,B,C are excited in
sequence ie., one after the other with the help of switches S1,S2 and S3.
 When the phase AA1 is excited with the switch S1 closed, then stator Magnet Axis exist
along the poles formed due to AA1 (ie) vertically.
 Then the rotor adjust itself in a minimum reluctance position and occupies along AA1 
1, 3, rotor poles. This is the initial position (ie) 0°.
 When the BB1 phase is excited with the switch S2 closed, and de-energise the AA1 phase
with the switch S1 opened, then stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to
BB1 and the rotor tries to align itself in the minimum reluctance position and turns
through 30° step angle in clockwise direction.
 Open the switch S2 and de-energise the BB1 phase and close the switch S3 and energise
the CC1 phase.
 So that the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to CC1 and the rotor
tries to align itself in the minimum reluctance position and rotor rotates by a step angle
of 30° in the same direction.
 The stepper motor continues to move in steps of 30 degree for each excitation either in
clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
 The Fig 2.2 gives the three step positions
The switching sequence continues as follows

A,B,C,A  for Clockwise rotation and
A,C,B,A  for Counter Clockwise rotation.
2.6 Stepper Motor
00 300
A A
B` C B` C
1 1
4 4
2
2
3 3
C` B C` B
A` A`
1st Step 2nd Step
600
C`
B`
4 1
3
2
B
C
A`
3rd Step
Fig 2.2
If i is the current passing through the phases which are excited then the torque
1 dL
developed by the motor is given as Tm  i 2 . Where L is the inductance in Henry and
2 d
 is the displacement angle in degree.
Advantages of VR stepper Motor:

1. High torque to inertia ratio
2. High rates of acceleration.
3. Fast dynamic response
4. Simple & low cost
5. Rotor has no windings.
Disadvantages of VR stepper Motor:

1. No detent torque
2. Low Efficiency at low voltages and stepping rate
3. Normally available in 3.6 degree to 30 degree
2.2 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR
 This motor has got two important part (ie) stator & rotor.
 The stator of this type of motor is multi-polar. Assume that the stator has four poles. Its
stator construction is similar to VR stepper Motor.
 It consists of stator outer frame, stator core and stator winding. The stator core is
laminated and made of soft steel and has projecting poles.
 The stator winding is wound on each pole individually and form a phase and made of
copper material.
 The rotor is also smooth cylindrical type or projecting pole type and it is made up of
permanent magnet material like hard ferrite.
 Because of this construction, it is called as permanent magnet stepper Motor. Usually the
rotor has only two poles. The exciting circuit with the constructional view is shown
figure 2.3.
2.8 Stepper Motor
A Stator Winding
Stator Poles
N
D B PM Rotor
S
Shaft
C
Stator Frame
Constructional view
A B C D
+
V
_
S1 S2 S3 S4
Equivalent Circuit
Fig 2.3
2.2.1 Working Principles
 The basic principle is when a particular stator phase is excited, the rotor magnetic poles
move into alignment with the excited stator poles.
 Consider stator has 4 phases , 4 poles and rotor has ONE poles pair then the step angle
360 360
    90 .
mN r 4  1
 The proper switching of the stator poles is controlled by the driver circuit.
00
A A 900
N
D B D B
N S
S
C C
Step one Second step
S
D B
N
1800
Step three
Fig 2.4
2.10 Stepper Motor
 When S1 is closed then phase A is excited for a particular pole and the opposite pole of
rotor will come into alignment. This is the initial (or) start position (ie) Zero degree
 When S1 is opened and S2 is closed then phase B is excited so that the rotor adjust itself
to align with the stator magnetic axis by moving 90°.
 Similarly S1 and S1 switches are operated in such away that the stepper motor rotates in
steps by 90° for each phase excitation. The direction of rotation depends upon the
sequence of switching (ie)
 A,B,C,D,................... CW rotation.
 A,C,D,B,................... CCW rotation.
 Sometimes the direction of stator current also decides the direction of rotation of stepper
motor.
Advantages of PM stepper Motor:

1. Low power requirement
2. High detent torque.
3. Rotor does not require external exciting current
4. It produces more torque per ampere stator current
Disadvantages of PM stepper Motor:

1. Motor has high inertia
2. Slower Acceleration
3. Step size is from 30 degree to 90 degree
4. The stepper motor with permanent magnet rotors with large number of poles cannot be
manufactured in small size.
5. Hence small steps are not possible. Because of presence of permanent magnet, detent
torque is present in the motor.
2.3 HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR
2.3.1 Construction
 It uses the principles of both variable reluctance and permanent Magnet stepper motor.
 Constructionally also, it has the combination of VR & PM stepper Motor. This motor
has also got two important parts (ie) stator & Rotor.
 The stator has got outer frame, stator core, stator poles & stator pole teeths and stator
winding. The outer frame covers the entire machine and protects it.
 Under the stator frame, stator core is fixed with solid or laminated soft steel material to
reduce eddy current & hysteresis loses.
 The stator may be single or multi-stack configuration. Usually the stator has got 8 poles
and each poles has 2 to 6 teeths.
 There is only two phases winding, made of copper material. The coils on poles, 1,3,5 &
7 are connected in series to form phase while the coils on poles 2,4,6 & 8 are connected
in series to form phase B.
 The winding A & B are excited alternately.
 The constructional view is shown in the figure 2.5
Stator Frame
1
Stator Pole
8 2
N PM Rotor
7 Rotor Shaft
3
S
Rotor teeth
6 4
5
Fig 2.5
2.12 Stepper Motor
 In this motor, the rotor has permanent magnet which is fixed in the middle of the rotor and
it is magnetised in the axial direction.
 Surrounding the rotor permanent magnet, rotor teeths are framed which are laminated and
made up of soft steel material.
 The rotor teeths are selected according to the step angle required.
 This motor uses the permanent magnet & variable reluctance principle combined.
 In this motor, the rotor flux is produced by the permanent magnet and it is directed by the
rotor teeths to the appropriate parts of the airgap.
 Consider the hybrid motor has two phase (ie) phase A & phase B. When phase A is
excited by the positive stator current then stator poles 1 and 5 becomes south and 3 and 7
becomes north.
 Now the rotor teeths with north and south polarity will come into alignment with the stator
pole teeths.
 Similarly when phase B is excited and phase A is unexcited then the rotor will move by
one step angle.
360 360 360
 Suppose the rotor has 18 teeths then the step angle,      10 .
m  N r 2  18 36
 The torque in a hybrid stepper motor is produced by the interaction of rotor and the stator
produced fluxes.
 The rotor flux remains constant because it is produced by the permanent magnet. The
motor torque Tm is proportional to the phase current in the stator.
Advantages of Hybrid stepper motor

1. We can achieve very small step angle up to 1.8°.
2. Torque per unit volume is more than VR motor.
3. Due to permanent magnet, the motor has some detent torque.
4. Better damping due to presence of rotor magnets
5. Higher holding torque
Comparison between VR and PM stepper Motor
VR Stepper Motor PM Stepper Motor

The rotor is not magnetized. The rotor is magnetized.
High Torque to inertia Ratio Low torque to inertia ratio.
High rates of acceleration Acceleration is slow.
Dynamic Response is fast Very slow dynamic response.
It can be manufactured for large number of It cannot be manufactured for large number
poles of poles due to constructional difficulties.
Very small step angle is possible Step angles are high in the range 30° to 900
It does not have detent Torque. It has got detent Torque.
Rotor has salient pole construction The rotor has mostly smooth cylindrical
type of construction
Maximum stepping rate is as high as 1200 It is only 300 pulses per second.
pulses per second
2.4 SINGLE STACK & MULTISTACK CONFIGURATION
Basically the stepper motors which we have discussed are single stack stepper motor.
In single stack motor, there will be common stator and rotor for the poles or teeths on it.
Which means that the only one stator core and rotor core on which the poles will be placed.
The single stack more will have one winding only for a phase. The cross sectional view is
shown in the figure 2.6.
The multi-stack motors are used to obtain small step size typically ranging between
2° to 15°.
2.14 Stepper Motor
Outer
Frame
A B C A` B` Stator
Stator A Phase Poles
winding
Rotor
1 2 3 4 Poles
Rotor
Shaft
1 2 3 4
A B C A` B`
Fig 2.6
I In an ‘m’ stack motor, the motor is divided into a ‘m’ number of Magnetically isolated
sections called as stacks along its axial length. The ‘m’ stacks of stator have a common outer
frame while the rotors are mounted on a common shaft. The stator and rotor have the same
number poles (or) teeths. The stator poles in motor are aligned equally while the rotor poles
are shifted by 1/m of the pole pitch from one another. All the stator windings in a stack are
excited simultaneously; hence each stator forms a phase. So the number of stator phases is
equal to number of stator stacks.
Generally three stack stepper motor are used. In each stack, the stator and rotor
laminations are provided and they have 12 poles. The poles of the stator are in one line while
the rotor poles are aligned from each other by 1/3 of the pole pitch.
The various windings in one stack are excited simultaneously. When phase A of the
stator is excited then rotor poles of stack A get aligned with the stator poles. But the rotor
poles of stack B and C do not align. Now if phase A is unexcited and phase B is excited then
rotor poles of stack B get aligned with the stator poles. Thus the rotor moves by 1/3 of pole
pitch. Again phase B is unexcited and phase C is excited then the rotor again moves by 1/3 of
the pole pitch and the process continuous.
360
The step angle   where m=3, Nr=12
m  Nr
360
   10
3  12
So we can achieve small step angle by the multi-stack structure.
Common
Stator Frame
A B C
Stator stack C
Stator C
Winding
A B C Rotor Shaft
Rotor Stack A Rotor Stack C

poles
A B C
Stator Stack A
poles
Fig 2.7
2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR
The two important characteristics of stepper motor are:
1. Static characteristics
The characteristics relating to motors which are stationary are called static
characteristics.
a. T Characteristics:

The stepping motor is kept stationary at rest position by supplying a current in a
specified mode of excitation. If an external Torque is applied to the shaft, an angular
displacement will occur. The relation between the external Torque and displacement
angle  may be plotted as T curve. The maximum of Static Torque is called as

Holding Torque which occurs at  =  M. After the M, the rotor moves to the next
equilibrium position. The Holding torque is defined as the maximum static Torque that
can be applied to the shaft of an excited motor without causing continuous rotation. It
is shown in the figure 2.8
2.16 Stepper Motor
b. T/I characteristics
The Holding Torque increases with the current and the curve drawn between the
Holding Torque and the current is called T/I characteristics curve. For VR stepper
motor, this curve starts from the zero point. But for PM & Hybrid stepper motor, the
curve has a slight raise in the holding Torque (ie) Y-axis. This is due to the presence of
detent Torque due to permanent magnet in the rotor when current is zero. It is shown
in the figure 2.9
Holding Torque
TH
Static
Torque
(Nm)
m 
Fig 2.8
VRSM
3 PM 2 Hybrid
SM

Holding 2
Torque (Nm)
1
Detent
Torque
0 1 2 3 4 5
Current (A) 
Fig 2.9
Definition:
Holding Torque :
It is defined as the maximum static torque that can b e applied to the shaft of an
excited motor without causing continuous rotation.
Detent Torque Or Cogging Torque :

It is defined as the maximum load torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation
2. Dynamic characteristics:
The characteristics relating to stepper motor which are in motion (or) about to
start are called dynamic characteristics. The curve drawn between the Torque &
stepping rate gives the Dynamic characteristics which shown in the figure 2.10
Holding Torque
Max starting torque
Pull in curve
 Pull out curve
Torque (Nm) Pull Out
Range
Pull In
Range Slew Max Slewing
Range frequency
Un-rotatable
range Max starting Stepping rate
Frequency (Hz) 
Un-startable
range
Fig 2.10
2.18 Stepper Motor
i. Pull - In Torque Curve

It is called starting characteristics and it is the range of frictional load Torque at
which the motor can start & stop without losing steps for various frequencies in a pulse
train.
ii. Pull - Out Torque Curve

It is called slewing characteristics. After the motor is started by giving specific
excitation, the pulse frequency is gradually increased and during this increase in
frequency the motor has to synchronize with the pulses. The relation between the
frictional load Torque and max pulse rate with which the motor can synchronize is
called pull -out curve. The pullout curve is greatly affected by the driver CKT,
coupling, measuring devices and other conditions.
iii. Max Starting frequency

It is defined as maximum control frequency at which the unloaded motor can start
& stop without losing steps.
iv. Max Pullout rate (or) Max Slewing frequency

It is defined as max: frequency at which the unloaded motor can run without losing
steps.
v. Max starting Torque

It is also called as Max pullout Torque and it is defined as the Maximum frictional
load Torque with which motor can start and synchronize with the pulse train of a
frequency as low as 10 HZ.
2.6 Static Torque Production in a VR stepper Motor
The torque developed in the stepper motor can be dealt in-terms of magnetic energy and co-
energy. It has got three case.
I. Infinite Permeable Core
II. Constant Permeable Cores
III. Saturated Core
Force
W
A Electromagnet
Iron Piece attracted by Electromagnet

Fig 2.11
I
g/2
Number of
f
A turns n
g/2
Model of Stepping Motor
Fig 2.12
2.20 Stepper Motor
Case I :
Infinitely permeable cores:
To analyze the situation of an iron piece being attracted into a magnetic field created
by a electromagnet as shown in the figure 2.11 and we use the model of stepper motor as
shown figure 2.12.
A current I is flowing through the coil of “n” turns to yield magnetic flux and a force f is
acting on the iron piece in the x - direction. First let us determine the magnetic flux density Bg
in the air gap. Amperes circuital law along the dotted closed loop is expressed as
 H .dl  nI _____ (1)
The left hand of this equation is rewritten as

g  Hg g
 H .dl  H g 2 2
 H il  H g g  H il _____ (2)
Where Hg = Magnetic field intensity in the gaps
Hi = Magnetic field intensity in the cores
l = Total magnetic path in the cores.

When the permeability of core is extremely large, Hi is so low (ie) Hi=0. If Hi=0 and the core
permeability  is infinity. then Bi = Hi =  in the cores.
 H g g  nI
H  n I _____ (3)
g g
The gap flux density is Bg=  0 n I _____ (4)

g
Where o is the permeability in the air gap length.
Let the transverse length of iron piece be w, let the distance by which the rotor tooth and iron
piece overlap be x. The overlapped area is now ‘xw’.
 Magnetic flux  = Flux density x Area
= 0n I xw _____ (5)
g
Hence the flux linkage  is given by
  n   x w 0 n 2 I g _____ (6)
Let us assume that there is an incremental displacement x during time interval t . Then the
incremental flux linkage is
  x w  0 n 2 I _____ (7)
g
The emf induced in the coils by the change in flux linkage is
   w 0 n 2 I x
e   Volts _____ (8)
t g t
The minus sign in this equation implies that the direction of the emf is opposing the current.
Since the current I is supplied by the power source for the time interval t to overcome the
counter – emf and the work done pi by the source is
w 0 n 2 I 2
pi  I  e  t   x _____ (9)
g
Let the coil resistance is assumed zero for analysis. pi can be expressed in terms of Bg as
follows,
Bg2 gw
pi   x _____ (10)
0
The work done by the source is converted partly to mechanical work and the rest is spent in
increasing the magnetic field energy in the gaps. The increase in the gap field energy is given
by
1 Bg 2
wm  . (increase in the gap space)
2 0
1 2 g w x
 Bg _____ (11)
2 o
From (10) and (11) we find that half of pi is converted into the magnetic field energy in the
gaps and other half for mechanical work. Since the mechanical work is the force (f) multiplied
by the displacement x , we obtain
Bg2
Mechanical work  f x  1 g wx _____ (12)
po
2
0
1 2 gw
f  Bg _____ (13)
2 o
2.22 Stepper Motor
Other hand, the magnetic energy Wm in the gap is
1 2 g wx
Wm  Bg _____ (14)
2 o
From (13) and (14) we derive

dwm
f  _____ (15)
dx
Assume that the current I is kept constant during the displacement, then
 wm 
 f   I = constant _____ (16)
 x 
Assume that the flux is kept constant during the displacement, then
 wm 
f     = constant _____ (17)
 x 
Case II :
Constant permeability of the cores:
In the previous case with infinite permeability, the magnetic field appears only in the
gaps and its analysis is simple. When cores have some finite permeability, the magnetic
energy not only appears in the gaps but also in the cores and other spaces and it is not easy to
analysis this situation by electromagnetic field theory. So we will derive an expression for
force in terms of circuitry parameters under some assumption.
If the coil inductance is L in the model, then flux linkage
  LI _____ (1)
The magnetic energy Wm in the system is given as
1
Wm  L I 2 _____ (2)
2
If the iron piece undergoes a displacement x during the time interval t , the inductance L
will increase by L .
The emf induced in the coil is

  (LI )
e    _____ (3)
t t
If the power supply is a current source and provides a current I during the displacement, then
L
e  I _____ (4)
t
The work done pi by the source on the circuit is
pi  I e t  I 2 L _____ (5)
On the other hand, the increase in the magnetic energy is

1 2
 wm  I L _____ (6)
2
From (5) and (6) it is seen that half of the work done by the source is converted into magnetic
energy and other half is converted into mechanical work po given as
 po  f  x  1 I 2  L _____ (7)
2
1 2 L
 The force f  I _____(8)
2 x
In the above analysis it was assumed that coil resistance is zero and the power supply was a
current source. The force equation says that the force developed on the iron piece is in the
direction which will increase the inductance (or) decrease the reluctance.
Case III:
Treatment of Magnetic saturated core
In most of the stepper motor the cores are subject to magnetic saturation. Let us
assume that the motor is to be operated in the linear B/H characteristic region . we can discuss
general theory for torque developed with magnetic saturation in cores.
Again using the model, let us analysis the energy conversion. The iron piece is drawn by a
force f due to the magnetic field induced by the coil current I and travels from x0 to x0  x
taking a time internal t .
2.24 Stepper Motor
The flux linkage is a function of the position x and the current i and expressed as ψ(x, i). If the
current i is kept at value I during the displacement, the work done pi by the power supply
for the interval t is

 pi  Ie t  I   t  I  _____ (1)
t
The Mechanical work done on the iron piece during the interval t is
 p0  f  x _____ (2)
The increase in the magnetic energy during the displacement x is

  
wm  
o
id (xo x, i)   id (xo , i)
o
_____ (3)
In the above equation the current i is treated as a variable which varies from 0 to I and the 
varies from 0 to    (or )  .
In the equation (3) each term is integrated by parts and we get

I
wm  I     ( x, i ).di _____ (4)
o
 
Magnetic
energy
Magnetic
energy
Magnetic
Magnetic
Co energy
Co energy
i  I i  I
At x = x0 At x = xo +  x
Since the first term on the right hand side is the work done by the power supply.
I
  p i   w m     ( x , i ).di _____ (5)
0
pi  wm  p0 _____ (6)

I
Mechanicalwork done po  f x    (x, i) di _____ (7)
0
I
  ( x, i ).di
 (magnetic coenergy )
f  0

x x I  constant
The corresponding Torque

I
 ( , i).di
(magnetic coenergy)
T 0

  I  constant
Where  is the angular position of the rotor.
These are the fundamental equations necessary to calculate the force and torque produced in
stepping motors due to magnetic saturation of the cores. When the system has ‘n’ coils then
the Torque equation is expresses as
I
 n
T 

  ( , i ) di
i 1 o
_____ (8)
2.26 Stepper Motor
2.7 VARIOUS MODES OF OPERATION OF STEPPER MOTOR
1. Single phase ON (or) Full step operation
In this mode of operation each phase is switched ON independently. Consider the VR

stepper motor with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles. The equivalent circuit of Full step
operation is shown in the figure 2.13 with the truth table.
A B C
V
_ A` B` C`
S1 S2 S3
Equivalent Circuit
A B C 
X _ _ 00
_ X _ 300
_ _ X 600
X _ _ 900
_ X _ 1200
Truth table
Fig 2.13
360 360
The step angle    30 .
mnr 3 4
When m = number of phases.
The operation of single phase ON mode is as follows. When S1 is closed, AA1 phase is
excited and the rotor will align (or) attracted into a position of minimum reluctance (ie) 00.
Then S1 is opened and S2 is closed, the rotor rotates through a full step angle 30 in the
clockwise direction. Similarly when S2 is opened and S3 is closed, the rotor again moves by an
angle 30 . So the rotor rotates by an angle of 30 for each phase when excited. The
switching sequence is A,B,C,A........ , the rotor rotates in clockwise direction and when the
switching sequence is A,C,B,A......... , the rotor rotates in counter- clockwise direction.
2. Two Phase ON Mode
In this mode of operation, two stator phases are excited simultaneously. When S1 & S2
are closed then phase A and B are energised together, the rotor experiences torque from both
phases and comes to rest at point midway between the two adjacent full step position. So
initially the rotor position will be at 150. When sequence of switching is carried out the rotor
moves by full step angle.
The sequence of switching of clockwise rotation is AB,BC,CA................. The
sequence of switching for counter clockwise rotation is AC,CB,BA.................. The truth table
is given below.
A B C 
X X _ 150
_ X X 450
X _ X 750
X X _ 1050
_ X X 1350
X _ X 1650
The 2 phase ON mode provides greater holding torque and a much better damped single stack
response than the single phase ON mode of operation.
2.28 Stepper Motor
3. Half Step Operation

This mode of operation combines both single & two phase ON mode operation. It is
also called as wave excitation and it causes the rotor rotate in steps of 150(ie) half the full step
angle. The half stepping can be obtained by exciting the three phases in proper sequence so
that the rotor rotates by half step.
The sequence of switching for clockwise rotation is A, AB, B, BC.. and the sequence
of switching for counter clockwise rotation is A,AC,C,CB.......... The truth table is given
below
A B C 
X _ _ 00
X X _ 150
_ X _ 300
_ X X 450
_ _ X 600
It will be seen that in half stepping mode, the step angle is halved thereby enabling the
resolution. Moreover, continuous half stepping produces a smoother shaft rotation.
4. Micro stepping Operation

It is also known as mini - stepping. It utilizes two phases simultaneously as in 2 phase
ON mode but with the two currents deliberately made unequal. The current in phase A is held
constant while that in phase B is increased in very small increments until maximum current is
reached. The current in phase A is then reduced to zero using the same very small increments.
In this way, the resultant step becomes very small and is called micro step. Stepper motors
employing micro stepping technique are used in printing and photo typesetting where very
fine resolution is needed. Micro stepping provides smooth low speed operation and high
resolution.
2.8 A CLOSED LOOP OPERATION SYSTEM USING

MICROPROCESSOR
Now a days, microprocessors are available cheaply. Utilization of a microprocessor in

control of stepping motors is a very interesting engineering problem. The choice of lead
angles and the arrangement of switching points are based on the operation of the motor and
selection of motor. The two curves of speed Vs distance under closed loop control of a stepper
motor is shown in the figure 2.14
Curve (1) Curve (2)

CW CW
Target
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
10 20 30 40 50 60
CCW CCW
Steps Steps
Fig 2.14
The curve 1 is an excellent pattern where the motor is started with an appropriate lead
angle, accelerated with another lead angle and began to be decelerated at the best timing from
which the speed is reduced most quickly and becomes zero just at the target. To start and
accelerate a motor, a lead angle larger than one step is used, while zero (or) a negative lead
angle is used for deceleration. On curve 2 which is an unskilled one, deceleration is initiated
when the target position is detected. But the motor cannot stop at once and will overrun due to
inertia. To accommodate the rotor at the current position, the motor is forced to move
backward by setting the lead angle to a proper value. The speed Vs distance locus may be
oscillatory as shown in the figure 2.15
2.30 Stepper Motor
Microprocessor Job instruction

System
Learning and execution program
Monitor
hardware Driver and logic
sequencer
Optical
encoder
Stepper
Motor Load
Fig 2.15
A microprocessor system is used here to find out the best timings to change lead
angles to attain the curve 2 type motion, starting from the pattern of 2. The below figure
illustrates the outline of the system which has a dedicated logic sequence outside the
microprocessor. A positional signal is fed back to the block of hardware which monitors the
rotor movement and exchanges information with the microprocessor. The software must be
programmed so that the microprocessor determines better timings for changing lead angles,
based on the previous experience and present position / speed data. The microprocessor will
finally do several executions, and find the optimum timings for each motion used.
The microprocessor is also used for determining timings to set proper lead angles, based
on the following information.
i. Present position
ii. Error steps from target.
iii. Signal to indicate that the rotor has passed the point a half step before target.
iv. Signal to indicate that motion has reversed.
v. Speed.
The flow chart of the programmed microprocessor is given below.
start
Initial setting
Pre-learning Run
no
Are there
print
data?
yes
Store print data
Calculation of
numbers of steps and
direction
Store print data
no
Print
data
End?
yes
2.32 Stepper Motor
Initial Setting
At first, the motor is operated in the ordinary open loop mode for one revolution or to
rotate by apart of one revolution in CW direction. The purpose of this is to reset the present
position counter.
Pre-learning run
In this process, every kind of motion which may be commanded in the job processing
is executed several times to train the microprocessor system before it learns the timings to
change lead angle to yield optimum speed pattern for a given lead.
Are there print data? After 200 kinds of motions are trained, the system is ready to work for
practical job processing. If the microprocessor receives any data to be printed, they are at once
stored in RAMS.
Calculation of number of steps and direction
The distance between the present position and the target is calculated, and the result is sent out
to the error counter. The position at which lead angle is to be changed from acceleration to
deceleration is also sent out to the LACS generator.
Main program
Acceleration mode of lead angle and direction is set and putout from output port 2 to
the gate, to start the motor. It is expected that every motion is performed in the shortest time.
If however, any variation of load conditions happens, overshoots positive (or) negative will
occur and the timings of changes in the lead angle are always corrected.
2.9 DRIVER SYSTEM
A simple driver system for a stepper motor is represented by the block diagram as
shown in the figure 2.16 It consists of input controller, logic sequencer, Driver circuit and
stepper motor.
Stepper
motor
ph1 ph1
Input Logic ph2
ph2
controller sequencer Driver ph3
ph3
Fig 2.16
Input Controller
It is an electronic controller which is used to produce proper train of pulses needed to

put before the logic sequencer. The purpose of input controller is, when an increment is
performed by two or more steps, this will generate proper train of pulses with proper duration
of time. The electronic devices such as micro controllers & microprocessor are used to
generate pulse train to speed up, slew & slow the motor in the most efficient and reliable
manner.
Logic Sequencer
When a command pulse is applied to the logic sequencer, the states of the output
terminals are changed to control the motor driver so as to rotate the motor a step angle in the
desired direction. The rotational direction is determined by the logic states at the direction,
input (ie) H level for CW and L level for CCW direction. In some application the logic
sequencer are unidirectional, having no direction signal terminal.
The logic sequencer is a logic circuit which controls the excitation of the windings
sequentially, responding to step command pulse. It generally consists of shift registers and
logical gates such as NAND, NOR etc. The logical sequences can be assembled by a proper
combination of J-K Flip flops IC chips and logic gate IC chips. Nowadays built in logic
sequencer are designed for stepper motors available in the market.
Motor Driver
The output from logic sequencer is given as input to the motor driver by which the
switching of the motor winding is governed. To establish proper rotation of stepper motor, the
driver circuit plays a vital role in driving the motor in proper step angle. The simple method of
connection is the direct connection which is shown below. If the output currents from the
sequencer are not enough to drive the power transistor, it is necessary to put a buffer for
current amplification between the two stages.
The logical sequencer with the motor driver is shown in the figure 2.17
2.34 Stepper Motor
SEQUENCING
LOGIC
+5v
+5v
Fig 2.17
Problems with Motor Drivers

A winding on a stepper motor is inductive and appears as a combination of inductance
and resistance in series. In addition, as a motor revolves, a counter emf is produces in the
winding. The equivalent circuit is shown in the figure 2.18.
Counter
Driver
L R emf Motor
terminal _ + terminal
Motor E
Fig 2.18
The motor parameters vary due to manufacturing tolerances and operating conditions. Since
the stepper motors are designed to deliver the highest power from the smallest size, the
temperature can be as high as 1000c and the winding resistance therefore increases 20 to 25
percent.
2.10 SUPPRESSORS
When the transistor is turned off, a high voltage builds up due to L di

and this
dt
voltage may damage the transistor. There are several methods of suppressing this spike
voltage and protecting the transistor.
i. Diode suppressor: If a diode is put in parallel with the winding in the polarity shown, a
circulating current will flow after the transistor is turned off and the current will decay
with time. The collector potential is VCE  E  VFD . This method is very simple but a
drawback is that the circulating current lasts for a considerable length of time and
produce a braking torque.
VCE  E  V FD
2.36 Stepper Motor
i
VFD
ii. Diode / Resister Suppressor: When a resister is connected in series with the diode as
shown, quick damping of circulating current will take place. Then the collector voltage
VCE  E  I RS  VDF . The higher the resistance Rs, quicker the current decays after
turn off, but the higher the collector potential. Therefore, a higher maximum voltage
rating is required for fast Decay.
Rs
i
VFD
iii. Zener Diode Suppressor:- Zener Diodes are often used to connect in series with the
ordinary diode as shown. Compared to the two cases discussed earlier, in this method the
current decays more quickly after turn off. The collector potential is VCE  E  Vz which
is independent of the current.
Diode
Diode
current Diode + Resistor
Diode + Zener Diode
Time(ms)
iv. Condenser Suppressor:- This scheme is employed for bifilar wound motor and four
phase motor. A condenser is put between ph1 & ph3 and between ph2 & ph4. The
condenser serves two purposes:
a. When a transistor is turned off, the condenser connected to it with the diode
absorbs the decaying current from the winding to protect the transistor.
b. The condenser acts as an electrical Damper. That is a method of damping rotor
oscillations is to provide a mechanism to convert kinetic energy into heat energy.
The oscillatory current will flow in the closed loop between the phases and condenser as
shown and Joule heat is generated in the windings which means that the condenser works as
an electrical damper.
The condenser suppressors are suited to drives in which the stepping rate is limited in a
narrow region. The smaller the capacitance, the more the pullout Torque at higher stepping
rate which is due to quick decay of current after turning off. The maximum potential applied
to collector after turning off becomes higher with decreasing capacitance.
2.38 Stepper Motor
Re Re
i i E
ph1 ph3 ph2 ph4
C1 C2
T1 T3 T2 T4
200

VCE
150
(volts)
100
50
5 10 15 20
Condenser (f)
2.11 Input Controller:

The input controller which governs the number of step command pulses and their timings and
in some applications the directional signal also.
2.11.1 Single step controllers
The simplest is the system which performs an increment with a single step. The step Vs time
relation in this system will be such as shown in figure 2.19.
Number of 4
steps
3
0
Pulse train
Fig 2.19 Single step response
The positioning profile is generally oscillatory and its damping depends on the motor and
drive scheme used. The input controller is very simple, since its function is only to provide an
output signal which is suitable as the input to the sequencer. The example for simple input
controller is shown figure 2.20.
2.40 Stepper Motor
+5V
½ -7400
Pulse 470  100  output
input
1k
0.1f
Schmitt trigger
320
Fig 2.20
It has the following features:-

1. The input signal is clamped at a suitable H level. (5v)
2. Noise is absorbed in the condenser.
3. Since the input signal is deformed by the condenser, it is reformed by means of a
Schmitt trigger. NAND & NOR gates may be used for the Schmitt trigger. If any part
of the input signal can be less than the ground potential, a diode should be added as
shown by the dotted curves. Mostly universal sequences have a Schmitt trigger inbuilt
2.11.2 Input controller for Electronic damper

To carryout a single step without oscillation, a method called “back phasing” is used.
The relation between the position profile and pulse timing is illustrated in the below
figure 2.21
Switched again to ph2

ph2
equilibrium
position

Position Switched
profile back to ph1
ph1
equilibrium Current is
position switched from
ph1 to ph2
Pulse timing 
Figure 2.21 Rotational angle and pulse timing in back phasing damping.
The motor at rest on an equilibrium position with ph1 excited, is commanded to move to the
next equilibrium position. If the rotor continuous to be accelerated by the excitation of ph2, it
will overshoot exceeding the next equilibrium position. So as the rotor is moving towards the
next phase equilibrium position, ph2 is switched off and ph1 is switched back ON. This
produces a retarding torque which tends to slow down the rotor. When the rotor momentum is
cancelled by the retarding torque, it will momentarily come to rest before reversing to go back
to the previous position. At this moment, excitation is again switched to ph2. The reversing
pulse must be exactly timed so that the rotor reaches zero speed when it is on the equilibrium
position of ph2. Thus when the exciting current is switched back to ph2, the rotor will lock in
on the ph2 equilibrium position with no overshoot or oscillations. This technique can be
applied to more than one step of motion by the addition of more pulses preceding the back
phasing pulse. it may be summarized as
i. Adjust the pulse preceding the back phasing to give minimum response.
ii. Adjust the back phasing pulse to retard the load motion such that it just reaches its
step position.
iii. Adjust the last pulse to hold the load in its final position with minimum oscillation.
2.42 Stepper Motor
2.11.3 Damped incremental motion with multi-steps

Single step motion is generally oscillatory. But non - oscillatory incremental motions
can be performed with several steps by proper pulse timing. Two examples are given here.
1. Delayed last step electronic damping
Assume that it is wished to move three steps. If a three pulse train is applied at a
moderate rate ,the response will appear as shown in figure 2.22. However, if the period
between the first and second pulses is adjusted such that the rotor will overshoot by
exactly one step, its final step position will be ph3. The last is then applied to hold the
rotor in place at its point of zero speed as shown in figure 2.23. If the system friction is
such that the rotor does not overshoot one step, this technique cannot be used, likewise this
cannot be applied to less than three steps.
Number
of steps 2
0
Time 
Pulse train
Figure 2.22
0
Time 
Figure 2.23
2. Constant pulse rate electronic damping
If a non - oscillatory incremental motion is performed with several pulses at equal
intervals, the input controller may be simple. Here the pulses are generated at constant rate
so that the oscillations at the equilibrium position are avoided. The below figure 2.24,2.25
& 2.26 shows the single step, three pulse and six pulse response of the stepper motor.
0
Time 
Fig 2.24 Single step response

2.44 Stepper Motor
3 Pulse interval
= 8.6 msec
0
Time 
Fig 2.25 Three Pulse responses
6 Pulse interval
= 5.93 msec
5
4
3
0
Time 
Fig 2.26 Six pulse response

2.12 Limitation of open loop operation & need for closed loop operation:
In the drive system, the step command pulses were given from an external source and
it was expected that the stepping motor is able to follow every pulse. This type of operation is
referred to as open loop drive. The open loop drive is attractive and widely accepted in
applications of speed & position control. However, the performance of a stepping motor
driven in the open loop is limited. It may fail to follow a pulse command when the frequency
of the pulse train is too high or the inertia load is too heavy. Moreover the motor motion tends
to be oscillatory in open loop drive.
The performance of a stepping motor can be improved to a great extent by employing
position feedback (or) speed feedback to determine the proper phase to be switched at proper
timings. This type of control is termed as closed loop drive. A position sensor is needed for
detecting the motor position example-an optical encoder which is coupled to the motor shaft.
In closed loop control, the motion of the motor is much quicker and smoother.The closed loop
operation is shown in fig 2.27
DC Supply
Logic Sequences Motor Driver
Feed back
pulse
Optical Stepper motor
encoder
Fig 2.27 Simple closed loop control of Stepper Motor

2.46 Stepper Motor
PROBLEM
1. A 3 phase VR stepper motor has the following parameters: winding resistance is 1

, average phase winding inductance is 30 mH and rated winding current is 3
amps. Design a simple unipolar drive circuit such that the electrical tie constant is 2
msec at phase turn on and 2 msec at turn off. The stepping rate is 300 steps per
second
Jan 2006
Given data
Turn on time constant, on = 2 msec
Turn off time constant off = 1 msec
Winding resistance, Rw = 1 ohm

Winding inductance, Lw = 30 mH
Stepping rate  = 300 / second
To find : Design a simple unipolar drive circuit
Solution
Rf Rf Rf = 15 
A Df B Df A Df
VS = 45 volts
Base
Drive
_
Lw
The turn on time constant , on 
Rw  Rext
Lw
Rw  Rext 
on
Lw
Rext   Rw
on
30
 Rext  1
2
Rext = 14 Ohm
Power loss due to P  I w2  Rext
= 32 x 14
P = 126 watts
The DC voltage V = Iw (Rw + Rext)
= 3 (1 + 14)
V = 45 volts
Lw
Turn off time constant off 
Rw  Rext  R f
Le
Rf    Rw  Rext 
off
30
  15
1
Rf = 15 ohm
1
Energy stored in the phase resistance at turn off   Lw  iw2
2
1
  30  10 3  32
2
w = 0.135 Joules
[ Rf = Rw + Rext all the time]
2.48 Stepper Motor
0.135
Energy dissipated across Rf is   0.0675 Joules
2
Stepping rate
Number of turn off in each phase =
q
300
  100
3
Average power dissipated in Rf = 100 x 0.0675 = 6.75 watts

VCE(max) = V + (q x Rf)
= 45 + (3 x 15)
VCE(max) = 90 V
Current rating of the transistor is 3 amps
2. A steeper motor driven by a polar drive circuit has 30mH winding inductance, 45 V
DC supply, BA rated current and 15  total resistance in each phase. When the
resistors are turned off find i. time taken by phase current to decay to zero and ii.
Properties of stored inductive energy returned to supply.
Nov/Dec 2003
Jan 2005
Given data
Winding Inductance Lw = 30mH
The DC supply = VS = 45 volts
Total resistance in each phase R = 15 ohm
Rated current Irated = 3 amps
To find
i. Time taken by phase current to decay to zero and
ii. Proportion of stored inductive energy returned to supply
Solution
D1 D3
T1 T3
VS
T4 T2
D4 D2
Fig Bipolar driven circuit for VRM

During the operation going on the equation circuit are drawn like this
i1
VS = 45 V
+
i1
_
_
i2
_
2.50 Stepper Motor
i  2e
t


 3 1 e
t


t
i  3  6e 
Lw 30  103
 
R 15
  2 m sec
i. Let i fall to zero in time t1.
t
0  3  6e 
   ln  63 
ln e
t

t1
 0.7

t1  0.7  2 103
t1 = 1.4 msec
ii. The energy returned to the supply Ws.
t1
  Vs i dt
0
  dt
t1
t
  45 3  6e 
t1 t1
t
  135  dt   270 e 
dt
0 0
t1
 135(t1 )  270   e 
t

  0
  t1 
 135 t1  270  2 e   1
 
t1 = 1.4 msec  = 2 msec
Ws   135 1.4  103   270  2  10 3   e  1

1.4
2
 
= 0.081 Joules
Ws = 81 mJ
1
Stored energy  i 2 Lw
2
1
  32  30  103
2
E = 135 mJ
Proportion of energy returned to supply
81
 100
135
= 60 %
3. A VR stepper motor has a 8 pole in the stator and they have five teeth in each pole.
If the rotor has 50 teeth, calculate the step angle and resolution
Given data
Stator pole Ns = 8
Rotor teeth Nr = 50
To find
i. Step angle,  and
ii. Resolution, Z
Solution
Ns  Nr
i. Step angle ,   3600
Ns Nr
40  50
  3600  1.80
2000
3600 3600
ii. Resolution, Z  
 1.80
200 steps/ resolution
4. A steeper motor has a step angle of 2.50, determine a. resolution b. Number of steps
per shaft to make 25 revolution c. shaft speed if starting stepping frequency is 3600
pulse/sec.
Given data
Step angle,  = 2.50
2.52 Stepper Motor
Stepping frequency = 3600 pulse/sec

To find
i. Resolution (Z)
ii. Number of steps to make 25 resolution and
iii. Shaft speed
Solution
3600 3600
i. Resolution Z  
 2.50
= 144 steps/revolution
ii. Number of steps for 25 revolution = 25 x 144 = 3600 steps
iii. Stepping frequency f = 3600 pulse/ sec
Step/angle/pulse = 2.50.
Angular displacement/sec = 3600 x 2.5
= 9600 angle/sec
9600
Revolution/sec =  25 revolution/sec
360
Shaft speed = 25 x 60 = 1500 rpm
5. What is the step angle of a 4 phase stepper motor with 12 stator teeth and 8 rotor
teeth.
Solution
Number of phase m = 4
Number of rotor, Nr = 3
360 360
Step angle     300
mN r 3  4
UNIT III
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
3.1 CONSTRUCTION
 The Switched Reluctance Motor is a doubly salient, singly excited motor. Which means
that it has salient poles on both the rotor and the stator, but only one member carries
winding (ie) stator winding.
 The rotor has no windings (or) magnets but it is built up from a stack of salient pole
laminations.
 Basically two important parts are Stator & Rotor.
 The Stator has a laminated construction made up of stampings.
 The stampings are slotted on its inner periphery to carry the winding called as stator
winding.
 The laminated construction keeps eddy current losses to minimum. The stampings are
made up of material like silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis losses.
 The stator winding are concentrated and it is wound for certain definite number of poles.
 The rotor is also made up of stack of laminations with projecting poles.
 Due to rotor shape, the air gap between the stator and rotor is not uniform and no DC
supply is given to the rotor.
 The rotor is free to rotate. Because of non-uniformity in the air gap, the reluctance also
varies in the air gap.
 The stator and rotor are designed in such a manner that the variation of the inductance of
the winding is sinusoidal with respect to the rotor position sensed by the rotor position
encoder.
 The constructional details are shown in the fig 3.1
3.2 Switched Reluctance Motor
Stator Poles
Stator Winding
Rotor Poles
Rotor Shaft
Stator Outer Frame
Fig 3.1
 When the stator windings are excited by the unidirectional supply system, the magnetic
field will be produced by the opposite stator pole pair in the air gap
 The rotor starts rotating through an angle and the rotor position in sensed by the rotor
position encoder .
 If an iron piece is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself in a minimum reluctance
position and gets locked magnetically.
 Similarly in the SRM, the rotor tries to align itself with the axis of magnetic field in the
minimum reluctance position.
 The other phases of the stator windings are excited sequentially by the unidirectional
current by synchronism with the rotor position. So that the rotor starts rotating
continuously by sequential excitation of the stator pole pairs by producing unidirectional
torque.
 The torque which is exerted on the rotor is called as reluctance Torque
Advantages
1. No DC supply is necessary for rotor.

2. Constant speed characteristics.
3. Robust construction.
4. Less maintenance.
Limitations
1. Less efficiency.
2. Poor power factor
3. Need of very low inertia rotor.
4. Less capacity to drive the loads.
Applications
 Signaling Devices, Control Apparatus.

 Automatic regulators, Recording Instruments.
 Digital Clocks, Tele-printers, Gramophones, etc.,
3.2 Difference between SRM & Stepper Motor
1. The conduction angle for phase current is controlled & synchronized with the rotor
position usually by means of a shaft position sensor. In this respect the SRM is exactly
like the PM brushless DC motor. But the stepper motor which is usually fed with a
square wave of phase current without rotor position feed back.
2. The SRM is designed for efficient power conversion at high speeds comparable with
those of PMBLDC motor. Where as the stepper motor is usually designed as a torque
motor with limited speed Range.
3. SRM requires a rotor position sensor where as it is not need in the VR Stepper Motor
4. SRM is designed for continuous rotation where as VR stepper motor is designed to
rotate in steps.
Advantages of SRM
1. The rotor is simple and requires relatively few manufacturing steps, which tends to
have a low inertia.
2. The stator is simple to wind, the end turns are short & Robust and have no phase
crossovers.
3. In most applications the bulk of the losses appear on the stator, which is relatively
easy to cool.
4. Because there are no magnets the maximum permissible Rotor temperature may be
higher than in PM motors.
5. The torque is independent of the polarity of phase current, for certain applications
this permits a reduction in the number of semiconductor switches needed in the
controller.
6. Under fault conditions, the open circuit voltage & short circuit current are zero (or)
very small.
7. The most converter circuits used with SRM are immune from shoot through faults.
8. Starting torque can be very high, without the problem of excessive inrush current.
9. Extremely high speeds are possible.
10. The speed / Torque characteristics can be ‘tailored’ to the application requirement
more easily than the I.M (or) PM motor.
11. There is no magnetic flux fixed value, so the maximum speed at constant power is
not restricted by controller voltage as in PM motors.
Disadvantages of SRM
1. Absence of free PM excitation imposes the burden of excitation on the stator
windings and the controller.
2. Increase in per unit copper loss and limits the efficiency and torque per ampere.
3. The pulsed or non-uniform torque production which leads to torque ripple and may
contribute to acoustic noise.
4. It is very difficult (or) impossible to maintain very low torque ripple level over a
wide speed Range.
5. Acoustic noise is very severe in large machines where ultrasonic chopping
frequencies are not possible.
6. The noise level is sensitive to the size, mechanical construction and precession of
firing angles.
7. As the torque ripple is larger , larger filter capacitance is required. This will cause
significant Ac line harmonics in the systems operating from rectified Ac source.
8. The SRM typically requires more turns of thinner wire than the A.C motors wound
for the same voltage.
9. For small drives with wide speed range, the SRM requires lower minimum duty
cycle with high chopping frequency. So special high frequency pulse techniques and
very fast power switches and diodes are necessary, which increase the cost.
10. The SRM cannot start (or) run from an ac voltage source and it is not normally
possible to operate more than one motor from one inverter.
11. Cabling for SRM is typically more complex than for I.M Drives, a minimum of four
wires and usually six are required for a three phase motor in addition to the sensor
cabling.
3.3 Poles, phases and windings

The basic rules constraining the choice of pole numbers, pole arcs and phase number
are discussed. The relationship between speed & fundamental switching frequency follows
from the fact that if the poles are wound oppositely in pairs to form the phases, then each
phase produces a pulse of torque on each passing rotor pole, the fundamental switching
frequency in one phase is given as
speed in r. p.m
f1  nN r   Nr ( Hz )
60
When n = Speed in r.p.s.
Nr= number of rotor poles.
If there are ‘m’ phases, then there will be mNr steps per revolution and the step angle (or)
store (  ) is
360 2
 (or ) radians
mN r mN r
The number of stator poles usually exceeds the number of rotor poles.
The pole arcs are determined by the essential torque production mechanism, which is the
tendency of the poles to align.
When the stator phase is excited, then there must be overlap between a pair of rotor poles and
the stator pole which is excited. During this process sufficient torque should be produced
through an angle . Which is smaller than the stator and rotor pole arcs.
Obviously  must not be smaller than the step angle (  ). Otherwise there will be ‘gaps’ where
no torque is produced, thus  >  .
In order to get the largest possible variation of phase inductance with rotor position, the inter-
polar arc of rotor must exceed the stator pole arc. This leads to the condition.
2
 r  s
Nr
This ensures, during unaligned position, there will be no overlap and therefore a very low
inductance. The unaligned position is defined as the conjunction of any rotor inter-polar axis
with the axis of the stator poles of the phase excited.
The stator pole arc is made slightly smaller than the rotor pole arc. This permits slight increase
in the slot area, the copper winding cross section and aligned/unaligned inductance ratio.
Consider three phase motor with different vertices A,B,& C. In design C is likely to have too
high unaligned inductance and too little winding area. In design B has more copper area but
still the unaligned inductance will be high because of fringing. Design A has a large winding
area and high inductance ratio. Which leads to high efficiency & power density but its torque
ripple is higher than the other design.
Design A Design B
Design C
3.4 Static Torque Production of SRM
Consider the primitive Reluctance motor as shown below.
 

i
Wf
W1
When current is passed through the phase winding of the stator, the rotor tends to align with
the stator poles, ie it produces a torque that tends to move the rotor to a minimum reluctance
position.
In such a case, the most general expression for the instantaneous torque is
 W 1 
T   i = constant Where w1 = co-energy of the magnetic field
  
i
The Co-energy is defined as W

1
  di
0
 w f 
An equivalent expression is T     = constant
  
Where w f is the stored field energy and it is defined as

w f    i d
0
When evaluating the partial derivates it is necessary to keep the indicated variables constant.
If the differentiation is done analytically, then w f must first be expressed as a function of flux
or flux linkage and rotor position only with current i is absent from the expression. Similarly
w1 must first expressed as a function of current and rotor position only with flux (or) flux
linkage absent from the expression.
If magnetic saturation is negligible, then the relationship between flux linkage & current at the
instantaneous rotor position  is a straight line whose slope is the instantaneous inductance L.
Thus
  Li
1 2
 w1  w f  Li
2
1 dL
 T  i2 ( Nm)
2 d
If there is magnetic saturation this formula is invalid and the torque should be derived as the
derivative of co-energy (or) field energy.
A though saturation plays an important role in determining the characteristics and
performance limits of SRM, most of the basic control characteristics can be understood from
an analysis of the magnetically linear motor. Considering only one phase in isolation. Mutual
coupling between phases is ignored in this analysis.
As the rotor, rotates, the inductance L varies between two extreme values. The maximum La
occurs when the rotor and stator poles are aligned. The minimum inductance Lu occurs when
a rotor inter-polar axis is aligned with the stator poles.
If the rotor and stator pole arcs are different then there will be a small “dwell” at maximum
inductance. Similarly if the inter-polar arc of the rotor exceeds the stator pole arc then there
will be a small “dwell” at minimum inductance.
If the steel is assumed to be infinitely permeable and fringing is neglected, then the inductance
can be estimated roughly as
0r1l
L( )  2N p2 Pg  Lu  2N p2  Lu
g
Where  is the overlap angle between the rotor and stator poles. The  and  are related by
the following expression throughout the rising inductance interval as
  x where x  y

2   r  s 
where  x   
Nr  2 
2  r  s 
y   
Nr  2 
L()
a u a u
0 x y 
2
Nr
The Torque is independent of the direction of the current. Its direction depends only on sign of
dL . When the rotor poles are approaching the aligned position, this is positive Torque.
d
When the rotor poles are leaving the aligned position and approaching the unaligned position,
this is negative (or) braking Torque. The ideal motoring current waveform is a rectangular
pulse that coincides with the rising inductance. Similarly the ideal braking current must be
switched ON & OFF in synchronism with the rotor position.
Motoring Torque
Braking Torque
To produce torque at all rotor positions the entire 3600 must be “covered” by segments of
rising inductance from different phase as shown in the figure 3.2 and the phase currents must
be commutated and sequenced to coincide with the appropriate segments as shown.
i1 i2 i3 i4
Fig 3.2
“Commutation under lap” is permissible only for speeds high enough so that the rotor inertia
can maintain rotation through the torque notches. Any under lap at zero speed may result in
failure to start if the rotor position happens to fall between the turn off angle of one phase and
the turn ON angle of the next.
3.5 Convert circuit:

The torque is independent of the direction of the phase current, which can therefore be
unidirectional. This permits the use of uni-polar controller circuits with a number of
advantages over the corresponding circuits for AC (or) PMBLDC which requires alternating
current. Although the SR motor could be operated with alternating current, unidirectional
current has the added advantage of reducing hysteresis losses.
Figure 3.3 shows a CKT well suited for use with transistors. The phases are
independent and in this respect the SR controller differs from the A.C Inverters, in which the
motor windings are connected between the mid points of adjacent inverter phase legs. The
windings are in series with both switches, providing valuable protection against faults. In Ac
Inverters the upper and lower phase legs switches must be prevented from switching on
simultaneously and shorting the D.C supply, this is possible only by means of additional
control circuitry, which is unnecessary in the SR controller.
The upper and lower phase legs switches are switched on together at the start of each
conduction period (or) working stroke. At the commutation point, they are both switched off.
During the conduction period either or both of them may be chopped according to some
control strategy such as maintaining the current with in a prescribed “hysteresis band”. This
mode of operation is necessary at low speeds when the self Emf of the motor is much smaller
than the supply voltage. At high speeds both transistors remain ON throughout the conduction
period and the current waveform looks ‘natural’ shape depending on the speed and Torque. It
is convenient in the logic design to use ON the transistor primarily for ‘commutation’ and the
other for regulation (or) chopping. At the end of the conduction period when both switches are
turned off, any stored magnetic energy that has not been converted to mechanical work is
returned to the supply by the current free wheeling through the diodes.
C
1 2 3
Figure 3.3
The figure 3.3 can be profitably reduced to the circuit figure 3.4, in which the
chopping is performed by one transistor in common to all the phases. The lower transistors
commutate the chopped voltage to the phases in proper sequence under the control of the shaft
position sensor and gating logic. This circuit requires only (n+1) transistors and (n+1) diodes
for a motor with ‘n’ phases. This makes the motor to run smoothly at low speeds. Its main
limitation is that at very high speeds the phases can’t be ‘de-fluxed’ (or) de-energised fast
enough through the diodes, because the control transistor keeps switching on with a long duty
cycle. As the chopping duty cycle and the speed increases further, net Torque decreases
rapidly and the losses increase.
C
1 2 3
0
Figure 3.4
Many other circuits have been developed in attempts to reduce the number of switches all the
way down to ‘n’ and take full advantage of uni-polar operation. The split-link circuit in
figure 3.5 has been successfully used with GTO thyristors in a range of highly efficient drives
from 4-80 KW. When the device count is reduced to one per phase, there is a penalty in the
form of extra passive components (or) control limitations.
C1
1 3
2 4
C2
0
Figure 3.5
In the circuit of Figure 3.6 which has bifilar winding, suffers from double the number of
connections, a poor utilisation of copper and voltage spikes due to imperfect coupling between
the bifilar windings.
1 2 3
Figure 3.6
In the figure 3.7, the device count is reduced to (n+1) device with the stored energy from the
dump capacitor C back to supply via the step down chopper circuit. The mean capacitor
voltage is maintained well above the supply to permit rapid defluxing after commutation. A
control failure in the energy recovery CKT would result in the rapid build up of change on the
dump capacitor and if protective measures were not taken, the entire converter could fail from
over voltages.
1 2 3
0
Figure3.7
3.6 Speed / Torque Characteristics
The Generic form of the Torque - speed capability curve is shown in the figure 3.8.
For speeds below wb, the torque is limited by the motor current (or) controller current. Up to
the base speed wb, it is possible by means of the regulator to get any value of current into the
motor up to the maximum. The precise value of current at a given operating point depends on
the load characteristics, the speed and the control strategy. In the speed range below wb, the
firing angle can be chosen to optimize efficiency (or) minimize torque ripple.
The corner point (or) base speed wb is the highest speed at which maximum current
can be supplied at rated voltage with fixed firing angle. If these angles are still kept fixed, the
maximum torque at rated voltage decreases with speed squared (above point p) in the curve.
However, if the conduction angle is increased, there is a considerable speed range over
which maximum current can still be forced into the motor and this decreases the Torque level
in order to maintain a constant power characteristics even though core losses and windage
losses increases quite rapidly with speed. This is shown between the points B and P. The angle
 D is the dwell (or) conduction angle of the main switching devices in each phase. Generally
constant power is maintained up to 2-3 times base speed.
The increase in conduction angle may be limited by the need to avoid continuous
conduction, which occurs when the conduction angle exceeds half the rotor pole pitch. It may
be limited to lower values by the core loss (or) other factors. At p, the increase in  D is halted
and higher speeds can now only be achieved with the natural curve (ie) torque decreasing with
speed squared.
chopping D increasing D Fixed

T (Nm) Current Constant Natural
Limit Power
(ii)
B
T = constant
(i)
Max D
T = constant
P
T2 = constant
Speed 
Fig 3.8
At very low speeds, the torque speed curve may deviate from the flat Torque
characteristics. If the chopping frequency is limited (or) current band width of the regulator is
limited, then it may be difficult to limit the peak current without the help of self Emf of the
motor. So the current reference may have to be reduced. This is shown is curve (i).
On the other hand, the very low windage (or) core losses may permit the copper losses
to be increased, so that with higher current, higher torque is obtained as shown is curve(ii).
Under the intermittent conditions, very much higher torque can be obtained in any part of the
speed range up to base speed.
Figure 3.9 given below is the speed - Torque curve of a small motor designed to
compare with the PM motor. The constant torque curve is maintained up to point B which is
limited by motor current. At speeds above the base speed the natural curve is shown at rated
voltage with torque decreasing roughly as speed squared. The natural characteristics for
different fixed values of the chopping duty cycle d as shown, which has the same effect as
varying the DC supply. With the chopper saturated at d = 1, the applied voltage remains at its
rated value and as the speed is increased, the maximum torque is decreased by advancing the
turn ON angle with fixed commutation angle. The decrease in the torque is mainly due to the
fact that more of the current is being conducted when the rotor is in a position of Low dL
d
and also due to core loss.
T = constant
chopping current
T (Nm) B
C
Angle control
T = constant
d = 1.0 Fixed angles

d = 0.2 d = 0.4 d = 0.6 d = 0.8 T2 = constant
Speed 
Fig 3.9
3.7 Energy conversion loop of SRM
The average torque can be estimated from the “energy conversion loop” which is the
locus described on the flux linkage / current diagram by the point whose co-ordinates are
(i, ) during each step (or) working stroke.
Intermediate position
 Aligned
Unaligned
Current limit
Fig 3.10
Rectangular current pulses can be realized at low speeds if the phase is switched ON at
the unaligned position and Off at the aligned position and the current is maintained constant
by some external means such as P.W.M regulator (or) a large external reactor. There is also a
natural speed at which the current waveform is flat-topped, this speed and the corresponding
current are related by the equation.
dL
V - Ri  i _____ (1)
d
The above equation is valid only if saturation is negligible.
The electromagnetic energy that is available to be converted into mechanical work is equal to
the area W. In one revolution each phase conducts as many strokes as there are rotor poles, so
that there are mNr strokes (or) steps per revolution. The average torque is therefore given by
number of strokes per revolution

Average Torque  work per stroke 
2
mN r
T av  W   Nm  _____ (2)
2
The Average electromagnetic power converted is
Pe   T a _____ (3)
Where  is the speed in rad/sec.

The area W shown in figure 3.10 represents the maximum energy available for energy
conversion with the flux linkage limited to the value shown. The Torque per ampere will be
maximized if the area is maximized. It required the following.
i. The largest possible unsaturated aligned inductance, implying a small airgap with
wide poles.
ii. The smallest possible unaligned inductance, implying a large inter-polar arc on the
rotor, narrow stator poles and deep slotting on both stator and the rotor.
iii. The highest possible saturation flux density.
To achieve the above objectives in the single SRM it is impossible. The main reason is the
SRM is usually applied as a high speed machines with a wide range of variable speed and
therefore the current wave form is almost never a pure rectangle wave. The current wave form
may vary from the one shown in figure 3..12 at low speeds to the one shown in figure 3.13 at
high speeds.
I
C
i
Figure 3.12 Figure3.13
At low speeds the current is forced to have an approximately rectangular shape by

chopping (or) P.W.M in the controller. At high speeds there is no chopping and the current
wave form takes up a natural shape determined by the speed, turn ON and turn OFF angles,
the applied voltage and the rate of change of inductance.
If the vertical line represents the maximum permissible current which is swept from
left to right, the area W initially increases with the square of the current, but as saturation sets
in it becomes nearly linear. The torque per ampere thus becomes more nearly constant as the
current increases. The rough estimate of the maximum torque is nearly constant as the current
increases. The rough estimate of the maximum attainable torque per unit rotor volume can be
derived from an idealized triangular area and it is given as
T N r BS2 (  1) m  g
 Nm / m 3
V 2  2  0 r1
Where Bs – Flux density
 - Inductance ratio
 - Pole arc
g - air gap length
Nr - No of rotor poles
m - No of phases
3.8 Current Regulation & Commutation control of SRM

For motoring operation, the pulses of phase current must coincide with a period of
increasing inductance. The timing & dwell of the current pulse determine the torque,
efficiency and other parameters. Generally simple control scheme is used for SRM. But more
complex controls are required for high power driver where a wide speed range is required at
constant power and microprocessor have been developed and used effectively.
Phase
current
Rotor angle
Fig 3.14 Current waveform

iref 2, 3
1
_
Figure 3.15
Regulating the current has a marked effect on the performance and the operating
characteristics. Figure 3.15 shows schematically the method of control called hysteresis type
of current control method that maintains a more (or) less constant current throughout the
conduction period in each phase.
As the current reference increases, the torque increases. At low currents, the torque is
roughly proportional to current squared, but at higher currents it become more nearly linear.
At very high currents of saturation, the torque per ampere decreases. This type of control
produces a constant- torque type of characteristics as shown in figure 3.16.
T
Figure 3.16
With some loads whose torque increases monotonically with speed such as fans,
blowers. The hysteresis type current regulator may require current transducers of wide
bandwidth, but the SRM has the advantage that they can be grounded at one end with the
other connected to the negative terminal of the lower phase leg switch. Shunts (or) hall effects
sensors can be used (or) Sensefets with in built current sensing can be used.
Another regulator using fixed frequency PWM of the voltage with variable duty cycle
is shown in figures 3.17
2, 3
+
Vref
Monostable
1
_
Figure 3.17
The current waveform is shown in the figure 3.18 below such that after commutation, the
current decays through the diodes some what more rapidly because the reverse voltage applied
is effectively 1 times the forward voltage applied before commutation. Where d = duty
d
cycle. The duty cycle of the PWM can be varied by a simple mono-stable circuit. This form of
control is similar to armature voltage control in a DC motor.
Phase
current
Rotor Angle
Fig 3.18 Current Waveform
Current feedback can be added to the circuit to provide a signal which when subtracted
from the voltage reference modulates the duty cycle of the P.W.M and compounds the torque
speed characteristics. It is possible in this way to achieve under compounding over
compounding (or) flat compounding just as in Dc motor with a wound field.
When the PWM duty cycle reaches 100 percent, the motor speed can be increased by
increasing the dwell (or) conduction angle. When the conduction angle reaches the maximum
practical values, after which the torque becomes inversely proportional to speed squared but
they can typically double the speed range at constant torque. The speed range over which
constant power can be maintained is also quite wide and very high maximum speed can be
obtained.
3.9 Microprocessor Based control of SRM
For wide range of speed control we need microprocessor to perform the operation of
SRM. Smoothly & accurately by properly interfacing the SRM with the microprocessor. The
main purpose of microprocessor is to produce proper pulse signals with proper timing in order
to switch the semi conductor device to excite the phases of SRM. The closed loop control of
SRM with microprocessor is shown in the figure 3.19
Power supply
Programmed Pulse generating Converter

Microprocessor circuit Circuit
Current
Controller
SRM
Position Sensor
Speed controller TG
Fig 3.19
The rotor position of SRM is sensed by any of the position sensors (or) shaft encoders.
The speed of the SRM is sensed by the speed sensors such as tacho-generator. It has got a
inner current control loop which maintains the motor current with in the prescribed limit.
Control signal for the microprocessor is given from the SRM motor through the control
cables. The speed of the SRM motor is taken by the Tacho-generator and given to the speed
controller and then to the programmed microprocessor. The position of SRM is sensed by
shaft encoder (or) Hall effect sensor and this signal is also given to the microprocessor. Apart
from this signal, the current signals is also sensed by the current sensing device and then
through the current controller to the microprocessor.
The microprocessor will process all these control signal through the main program and it
will set the accurate value for the duty cycle to operate the SRM. The signal from the
microprocessor to the pulse generating circuit will generate proper current pulse with proper
timings and conduction angle through the power converter circuit to the SRM. So that the
SRM will operate safely with good accurate control and performance for wide range of speed
control.
PROBLEMS
1. What is the step angle of a 3 pahse Switched Reluctance Motor having 12 slots in
the stator and 8 rotor poles. What is the commutation frequency in each phase at
speed of 6000 rpm.
Jan 2005
Given data:
Number of stator slots, Ns = 12

Number of rotor slots, Nr = 8
Number of phases, q = 3
To find
i. Commutation frequency (or) fundamental switching frequency (F) in Hz.
ii. Step angle 
Solution
i. Commutation frequency = n Nr
= 100 x 8
F = 800 Hz
ii. Step angle

2

qN r
2
  0.2618 radians
3 8
1800
  0.2618   150

2. What is the step angle of a five phase switched reluctance motor having 10 slots
(poles) in the stator and 4 rotor poles? What is the commutation frequency in each
phase at a speed of 6000 rpm?
April/May 20003
Jan 2005
Jan 2006
Given data:

Speed, n = 6000 rpm
6000
n  100 rps
60
To find
i. Commutation frequency (F) in Hz

ii. Step angle 
Solution
i. Commutation frequency F = n Nr
= 100 x 4
F = 400 Hz
2
ii. Step angle  
qN r
2
  0.314 radians
5 4
1800
  0.314   1800

3. A switched reluctance motor with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles has a stator pole
arc of 300 and a rotor pole arc of 320. The aligned inductance is 10.7 mH and the
unaligned inductance is 1.5 mH. Saturation can be neglected. Calculate the
instantaneous torque when the rotor is 300 before the aligned position and the
phase current is 7A. Neglect Fringing.
April / May 2005
Jan 2006
Given data
Stator pole arc, s = 300
Rotor pole arc, r = 320
The aligned inductance, La = 10.7 mH
The unaligned inductance, Lu = 1.5 mH
To find
i. The instantaneous torque (Te) in N-m
Solution
1 dL
Te  i 2
2 d
dL = La – Lu = 10.7 – 1.5
dL = 9.2 mH
2
d =    0.5235
qN r
Ns  Nr
  360
Ns Nr

 300   0.5235
1800
Another way,
2  r   s
x  
Nr 2
2 r  s
y  
Nr 2
d = y - x
1 9.2  103
Te  i 2
2 0.5235
Te = 0.4305 N-m
4. In the above problem, what is the maximum energy conversion in one stroke if the
current is limited to 7,0 amps? Determine the average torque corresponding to this
energy?
Given data
q = 3 ; i = 7 amps,; Nr = 4
To find
i. Maximum energy conversion in one stroke (step angle) in watts.
ii. Average torque corresponding to this energy in N-m
Solution
1
i. Maximum energy conversion W  Leq i 2
2
Leq = La – Lu = (10.7 – 1.5) x 10-3
Leq = 9.2 mH
1
W   9.2  103  7 2
2
W = 0.225 Joules
ii. Average Torque
W q Nr
T
2
0.225  3  4

2
T = 0.43 N-m
5. In the motor of problem 3, what is the flux linkage in the aligned position when
phase current is 7.0 amps. If this flux linkage can be maintained constant while the
rotor rotates from the unaligned position to the aligned at low speed, determine the
energy conversion per stroke and the average torque.
Given data
i = 7 amps
To find
i. Energy conversion per stroke and
ii. Average torque
Solution
Flux linkage is constant at aligned position
[La = 10.7 mH, Lu = 1.5 mH]
ie   La i
= 10.7 x 7
 = 74.9 mVs
 
ia  , iu     L i
La Lu
74.9 74.9
ia  , iu 
10.7 1.5
ia = 7 amps, iu = 49.9 amps
i. Energy conversion per stroke
1
W   iu  ia 
2
1
  74.9 49.9  7  103
2
W = 1.6 Joule
W q Nr
ii. Average Torque, Tave 
2
1.6  3  4

2
Tave = 3.07 N-m
UNIT IV
PERMANENT MAGNET
BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
T he conventional DC motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them
suitable for use as servomotors. But the only drawback is that they need a commutator
and brushes which are subjected to wear and requires maintenance. In a conventional
DC motor, commutation is undertaken by brushes and commutator but in brushlesses DC
motor, it is done by using semiconductor devices such as transistors. The commutation refers
to the process which coverts the input direct current to an alternating current and properly
distributes it to each winding in the armature.
4.1 CONSTRUCTION
 The construction of modern brushless DC motor is very similar to the AC motor. It

consists of two important main parts (ie) stator and rotor.
 The stator which is the stationary parts has got stator frame which encloses the internal
parts of the motor and protects it and it is made up of cast iron (or) steel.
 Beneath the stator frame, stator poles are fixed which are of projective type which may
be laminated or solid piece and it is mostly made of silicon steel material.
 The stator windings are placed on the stator poles .They may be copper windings and
may be single (or) Double layer winding.
 The stator windings are excited by the DC supply through the controllable switches.
 The rotor construction is very simple (ie) it has permanent magnets of one (or) two
number with their poles, which may be projecting pole type.
 The rotor doesn’t carry any winding, brushes (or) commutator segments. The
maintenance is less and inertia is low.
4.2 Permanent Magent Brushless DC motor
 The rotor positions are sensed by position sensors such as Hall elements (or) optical
encoders which are fixed on the shaft of the motor.
 The constructional details are shown in the figure 4.1
4.1.1 Basic Principle of operation of PMBLDC Motor
 The basic principle of operation of motor can be easily understand by considering simple
three phase unipolar motor as shown in the figure 4.2
 It uses optical sensors (photo transistors) as position detectors. Three photo transistors
PT1, PT2, and PT3 are placed on the end plates at 120° interval and they are exposed to
light in sequence through a revolving shutter coupled to the motor shaft.
 As shown in the figure 4.2, the south pole of the rotor now faces the salient pole P2 of
the stator, and the phototransistor PT1 detects the light and turns transistor Tr1 ON.
 In this state, the south pole which is created by the salient pole P1 by the electrical
current flowing through the winding w1 is attracting the north pole of the rotor to move it
in the direction of the arrow (CCW).
Stator Frame
Stator Pole
P1 P3
N Stator Winding
Permanent Magnet Rotor
Optical Disc with Shutter
S
P2
Fig 4.1
Shutter
PT1
P1 P3
N
PT3
PT2 S
P2
IB
EB
Tr1 Tr2 Tr3
Fig 4.2
 When the south pole comes to the position to face the pole P 1 the shutter which is
coupled to rotor shaft will shade PT1 and PT2 will be exposed to the light and current
will flow through the transistor Tr2.
 When a current flows through the winding W2 and creates a south pole on pole P2, then
the north pole of the rotor will revolve in the direction of the arrow and face the pole P2.
At this moment, the shutter shades PT2 and PT3 is exposed to light.
 Thus the P2 is de-energised and P3 is energized. By repeating such a switching action in
the sequence the permanent magnet rotor revolves continuously.
 In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, we can’t change the supply
terminal because most of the semiconductor devices are unidirectional switches.
 Therefore some circuit is necessary when the motor is to be driven in either direction. So
we go for circuit connections change between the phototransistors and the transistors as
given below.
For CCW rotation

PT1  TR1
PT2  TR2
PT3  TR3
For CW rotation
PT1  TR3
PT2  TR2
PT3  TR1
The switching sequence for CCW & CW is given below.
CCW CW
PT1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
PT2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
PT3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
TR1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
TR2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
TR3 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
The above switching sequences between the phototransistors and the transistors can be
implemented by using integrated logic gate circuits. The rotation of stator magnetic field with
respect to the excitation of the winding and the respective photo transistor waveforms are
shown in the figure 4.3 for CCW rotational direction.
PT1 I1
120 240 360 120 240 360
PT2 I2
120 240 120 240
PT3 I3
240 360 240 360
P1 P3
P2
Time
Fig 4.3
4.1.2 Three Phases Bipolar driven Motor

 When a three phase brushless motor is driven by a three phase bridge circuit, the
efficiency which is the ratio of the mechanical output power to the electrical input power
is the highest, since in this drive, an alternating current flows through each winding as in
an AC motor.
 This drive is referred to as “Bipolar Drive”. Here bipolar means that a winding is
alternatively energised to become south and north poles.
 Here also we use the optical method for detecting the rotor position, using six
phototransistors placed on the end plate at equal intervals.
 Since a shutter is coupled to the shaft, these photo elements are exposed to light in
proper sequence. The problem is the relation between the ON/OFF state of the
transistors and the phototransistors.
 The simplest relation is setting the logic sequencer in such a way that when a
phototransistor is exposed to light then the corresponding transistor is switch ON.
1
LOGIC SEQUENCER
2
3
4
5
6
PT
TR1 TR3 TR5
TR2 TR4 TR6
PT6
PT3 W
PT1
PT2
PT4
PT5
Revolving V U
Shutter
Figure 4.4
 Consider that initially PT1, PT4 & PT5 are exposed to the light and electrical current
flows through TR1, TR4 & TR5.
 The terminals U and W have the battery potential and terminal V has zero potential. In
this condition, current will flow from terminal U to V and another current from W to V
as shown in the figure 4.5.
V U
Fig 4.5
 The resultant magnetic field will be at the centre. The rotor is placed in such a position
that the field flux will have a 90° angle with respect to the stator’s magnetic field as
Fig 4.6
 In this condition a clockwise torque will be produced on the rotor and it revolves by 30°,
then PT5 is tuned off and PT6 is ON which makes the stator’s magnetic pole revolve 60°
clockwise.
 Thus when the rotor’s south pole gets nearer to the stator’s south pole, it repeals (or)
goes away further to create a continuous clockwise rotation. The ON/OFF sequence and
the rotation of the transistor are shown in the figure 4.7.
ON-OFF 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sequence
TR1 1 1 1 0 0 0
TR2 0 0 0 1 1 1
TR3 0 0 1 1 1 0
TR4 1 1 0 0 0 1
TR5 1 0 0 0 1 1
TR6 0 1 1 1 0 0
E O O O
D E O E E E E O
Fig 4.7
 The rotational direction may be reversed by arranging the logic sequencer in such a way
that when a photo-detector marked with a certain number is exposed to light, the
transistor of the same number is turned OFF and the photo-detector not exposed to light,
the transistor of the same number is turned ON.
 Therefore, in this position, TR2, TR3 and TR6 are ON and the battery voltage appears at
V while U and W has zero electric potential.
 Then the magnetic field in the stator is reversed and rotor’s torque is counter clockwise.
Then the motor rotates about 30 degree and then TR2 turn OFF and TR1 in ON.
 At this point the field revolves by 60 degree as shown in the figure 4.8. So that the rotor
starts rotating continuously in CCW direction
ON-OFF 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sequence
TR1 0 1 1 1 0 0
TR2 1 0 0 0 1 1
TR3 1 1 0 0 0 1
TR4 0 0 1 1 1 0
TR5 0 0 0 1 1 1
TR6 1 1 1 0 0 0
O O O E
E O E EO E O E
Fig4.8
4.1.3 Comparison of Conventional and Brushless DC Motor:
Description Conventional Motor Brushless Motor

Mechanical structure Field magnets on the stator Field magnets on the rotor
Distinctive features Quick response and Long lasting, easy
excellent controllability maintenance
Winding connection Ring (or)  connection  (or)  connected three
phase winding (or) Two
phase winding
Commutation methods Mechanical contact Electronic switching using
between brushes and transistors
commutator
Detecting method of rotor’s Automatically detected by Hall elements optical
position brushes encoders etc.,
Reversing method By reversal of terminal Rearranging the logic
voltage sequences
Advantages
1. Brushes maintenance is no longer required and many problems associated with
brushes are eliminated
2. Radio-frequency interference and the sparking associated with the brushes are
eliminated.
3. The conduction of heat through the frame is improved.
4. Increase in the electric loading is possible by providing greater specific torque.
5. The efficiency is likely to be higher than that of DC motor of equal size.
6. Motor length is reduced.
7. The maximum speed of brushless motor is limited by the retention of the magnets
against centrifugal force.
8. Better efficiency, power factor and greater output power.
Disadvantages
1. The need for shaft position sensing

2. Increased complexity in the electronic controller.
3. It is difficult to operate the motor in Field weakening mode providing a constant
power capability at high speed.
4. In very large motors, PM excitation does not make sense because the magnet weight
becomes excessive.
5. Design of logical control circuit is somewhat complex and costlier.
Characteristic features of PMBLDC Motor
1. Rectangular distribution of Magnetic flux in the air gap.

2. Rectangular current waveforms.
3. Concentrated stator windings.
4.2 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ON OPEN CIRCUIT
The figure 4.9 shows the cross section of a two pole brushless DC motor having high
energy rare - earth magnets on the rotor. The demagnetization curve of the magnet is shown in
figure 4.10 The axial length of stator and rotor is same. First, we will consider the open circuit
case, ie with no stator current.
r1
Figure 4.9
Load line
Br
Operating Bm
Point Magnetic Flux
Density B (T)
Demagnetization
curve
- oHc - oHm 0
-oH (T)
Figure 4.10
Whenever magnetic circuits are used to analysis a magnetic field, the first task is to
identify the main flux paths and assign reluctance (or) permeances to them. Figure (3) shown
the equivalent magnetic circuit (ie) only half of the equivalent circuit is shown because the
lower half is the mirror image of the upper half about the horizontal axis which is an equi-
potential. In the analysis the steel core of the stator and the rotor shaft are assumed to be
infinitely permeable. Each magnet is represented by a Norton equivalent circuit consisting of a
flux generator in parallel with an internal leakage permeance as shown in Figure 4.11
g/2 g/2
Stator Yoke g Stator Yoke
Rg
m
Pmo Pr1
Fm r
Magnet
Rotor Shaft
Fig 4.11
The generated flux r is given as

r = Br.Am
The internal leakage permeance is given as
orec Am
Pmo 
lm
Where Am  Pole area of the magnet
lm  Magnet length in the direction of Magnetisation
Br  Permanent flux density
rec  Relative recoil permeability (ie) slope /o
Let us assume outer pole area and inter-pole area as an average value then
2  l 
Am    r1  g  m   l
3  2
Most of the Magnet flux crosses the airgap via the airgap reluctance Rg given as
g
. Rg 
 0 Ag
Where g   equivalent air gap length including slotting
g  = Kc x g
Assume Kc=1.05
The air gap Ag is the area through which the flux passes as it crosses the gap. and it is given as
2  g  
Ag     r1    2g  l  2g
3  2 
The remaining permeance in the magnetic circuit is the rotor leakage Permeance Pr1 which
represents the paths of magnet flux components that fail to cross the airgap. The rotor leakage
permeance is difficult to estimate because the flux paths are not obvious. The rotor leakage
permeance is quite small, typically 5-20% of the magnet internal permeance and it can be
added to it.
Then
Pm = Pmo+Pr1 = Pmo(1 + þr1)
where þr1 is the normalised rotor leakage permeance = Pr1/Pmo
Equating the MMF across the magnet to the MMF across the airgap.
r  g
Fm    g Rg
Pm
r  g
   g Rg
Pm Pm
r g
   g Rg
Pm Pm
r 1
 (  Rg ) g
Pm Pm
r 1  R g Pm
 ( ) g
Pm Pm
r
 g  ( )
1  Pm R g
Divide the above expression by Ag
 g r 1
 ( ). (1)
Ag 1  Pm R g Ag
The flux concentration factor C is ratio of magnet pole area to air gap area given as
Am
C 
Ag
Am
Ag 
C
The Airgap flux density can be written as
 g
Bg 
Ag
Put (1) in the above equation and we get
r 1
Bg  ( ).
1  Pm R g Ag
Put the expression for Ag in the above equation and we get
r C
Bg  ( ). 
1  Pm R g Am
C r
Bg   Br
1 P  R 
m g
Where Br 
Am
Similarly we can get for the magnet flux density Bm which can be written as
 1  Pr1 R g 
Bm    Br
 1  Pm R g 

The magnetizing force Hm in the magnet using demagnetization characteristics is given as
Br  Bm A
Hm 
o rec m
The negative sign signifies a demagnetizing force and indicates that the magnet operates in the
second quadrant of the B-H curve.
The line drawn from the origin through the operating point is called the “Load line” and the
absolute value of its slope, normalized to o is called the “Permeance Coefficient” (PC) and
written as
1  Pr1 Rg 
PC   rec  
 Pmo Rg 
If figure (2) is drawn with μoHm along the x-axis instead of Hm then the units of both axes
are same (Tesla) and the PC is the actual slope of the load line. The PC is ratio of magnet
length to effective airgap length and if C is approximately unity and Pr1 is approximately
zero.
In motors with weak flux concentration factor the magnet should operate on open circuit at a
high permeance coefficient to maximize the airgap flux density and the torque per ampere and
to provide adequate margin against demagnetization by armature reaction.
The airgap flux density on open circuit is plotted is Figure 4.12
B(T) 120
0.543 T
270
0 30 90 180 360 
Fig 4.12
In practice ,because of fringing, the distribution is not perfectly rectangular and there are
circumferential as well as radial components of B at the edges of the magnets. There will be
appreciable ripple superimposed on the wave form because of slotting of the stator bore.
4.3 TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF BLDC MOTOR
The torque speed characteristics of the ideal brushless motor can be derived from the
following equations. If the commutation is perfect and the current waveforms are exactly
rectangular and if the converter is supplied from an ideal direct voltage source V, then at any
instant the following equation can be written for the DC terminal voltage.
V = E + RI
Where R is the sum of two phase resistance in series and E is the sum of two phase Emf’s in
series. This equation is exactly the same as that of the commutator motor.
The voltage drops across two converter switches in series are omitted, but they correspond
exactly to the two brush voltage drops in series in the commutator motor.
The torque speed equation is written as
 T
   o 1  
 To 
V
Where the no load speed is w o  rad/sec
k
and the stall torque is given by To  K  I o
This is the torque with the motor stalled (ie) at zero speed.
V
The stalling current is given by Io 
R
This characteristic is shown in Figure 4.13

T
T0
Intermittent
Continuous Continuous Rated Torque

Stall Torque
Chopping Angle Control

Control
0
0 
Fig 4.13
If the phase resistance is small, as it should be an efficient design, then characteristic is similar
to that of a DC shunt Motor.
The speed is essentially controlled by the voltage V, and may be varied by varying the supply
voltage. The motor then draws just enough current to drive the torque at this speed. As the
load torque is increased, the speed drops and the drop is directly proportional to the phase
resistance and the torque.
The voltage is usually controlled by chopping or PWM. This gives rise to a family of the
torque-speed curve as shown. Note the boundaries of continuous and intermittent operation.
The continuous limit is usually determined by heat transfer and temperature rise. The
intermittent limit may be determined by the maximum rating of semiconductor Devices in the
controller (or) by temperature rise.
In practice the torque speed curve deviates from the ideal form because of the effects of
inductance and other parasitic influences. The curve also shows the possibility of extending
the speed range by advancing the phase (or) the dwell of the conduction period relative to the
rotor position (ie) Angle control.
4.4 TORQUE AND EMF EQUATION OF BLDC MOTOR

The basic Torque & Emf equations of the BLDC motor are quite simple and resemble those of
the DC commutator Motor.
A simple concept machine is shown in figure 4.14 Note that the two pole magnet has a pole
arc of 1800 instead of 1200 analyzed in the previous section.
300
a1
a2
S N
θ0
A2
A1
Fig 4.14
The airgap flux density waveform is ideally a square wave as shown 4.15a. In practice,
fringing causes to be somewhat rounded. The co-ordinate axes have been chosen so that the
centre of a north pole of the magnet is aligned with x-axis (ie) at  = 0. The stator has 12 slots
and three phase winding. Thus there are two slots per pole per phase. Each phase winding
consists of two adjacent full pitch coils of N1 turns each, whose axes are displaced from one
another by 30 degree.
The winding is a single layer winding. This winding is equivalent with only one coil per pole
per phase having a fractional pitch of 5/6. This is more practical winding than the one
analyzed because it has less bulky end windings and is generally easier to assemble and its
copper losses are lower.
Consider the flux linkage 1 of coil a1A1 as the rotor rotates. This is shown in the figure 4.14
Note that  now represents the movements of the rotor from the reference position in the
figure 4.14 The flux linkage varies linearly with rotor position because the airgap flux density
is constant over each pole pitch of the rotor. Maximum positive flux linkage occurs at 00 and
maximum negative flux linkage at 1800. By integrating the flux density around the airgap, the
maximum flux linkage of the coil can be found as

1max  N1  B( ) r1 l d
0
 N1Bg  r1 l
The variation of flux linkage with  as the rotor rotates from 00 to 1800 is given by
  
 1    1   1max
  
 2
The emf induced in coil a1A1 is given by
d 1 d 1 d  d 1
e1        Volts
dt d dt d
which gives
e1  2N1Bg l r1  (volts)
Where 2N1 = Number of turns per Coil-1 = Nph
Therefore e1  N ph B g l r1  volts
Similarly e 2  N ph B g l r1  Volts
The sum of the EMFs eph  e1 e2  2 Nph Bg l r1  volts

B(θ)
a) 180
0 360 
max 30
b) ()
c) ea1
30
d) ea2

150
ea = ea1 + ea2
e)

120
f) ib ic ia
-ic -ia -ib -ic
Fig 4.15
This represents the magnitude of the square wave Emf ea1 shown in the figure4.15c The
Emf induced in the second coil of phase A is identical, but rotated in phase by 300. If the two
coils are connected in series, the total phase voltage is sum of the two separate coil voltages
and this is shown in figure4.15e The basic effect of distributing the winding into two coils is
to produce a stepped Emf waveform. In practice, fringing causes its corners to be rounded.
The wave form then has the “trapezoidal” shape, ie., characteristics of the brushless DC
Motor. With 1800 magnet arcs and two slots per pole per phase, the flat top of this waveform
is ideally 1500 wide but in practice the fringing field reduces this to smaller value (ie) 1200.
The magnitude of the flat topped phase emf is given by
eph  e1 e2  2 Nph Bg l r1  volts
where Nph = 2N1 because two coils are assumed to be in series.

In a machine with P pole pairs, the equation remains valid provided Nph is the number of
turns is series per phase and  is in mechanical radians per second.
In the figure 4.15f shows an ideal rectangular waveform of phase current, in which the current
pulses are 1200 electrical degree wide and of magnitude I. The positive direction of current is
motoring current. The conduction periods of the three phases are symmetrically phased so as
to produce a three phase set of balanced 1200 square waves.
If the phase windings are star connected as shown, then at any time there are just two phases
and two transistors conducting.
During any 1200 interval of phase current, the instantaneous power being converted from
electrical to Mechanical is
P =  Te = 2 e I
The number 2 in this equation arises from the fact that two phases are conducting.
Te = 4Nph Bg l r1 I (Nm)
The above equation is valid for any number of pole pairs. The similarity between the brushless
motor and the commutator motor can now be seen. Writing E = 2 e to represent the
combined Emf of two phases in series, the Emf and torque equations can be written in the
form
E = K   and T = K  I
Where K = 4 Nph and  = Bg r1  l
Where K is the armature constant and  is the flux. In practice, of course, none of the ideal
conditions can be perfectly realized. The main result of this is to introduce ripple torque but
the basic relationships of Emf proportional to speed and torque proportional to current remain
unchanged.
1 3 5
4 6 2
A B C
4.5 Controller for BLDC Motor
 The general structure of a controller for a brushless PM DC Motor is shown in Figure

4.16 This schematic diagram shows the functional blocks required to control the drive in
chopping control range (ie) commutation angle is fixed.
 The rotor shaft position is sensed by a Hall effect sensor a slotted optical disk (or) some
other transducers. These signals are decoded by combinational logic to provide the firing
signal for 120 degree conduction on each of the three phases.
 The commutation logic has six outputs which control the upper and lower phase legs of
the transistors. The basic forward control loop is a voltage control, implemented by a
monostable clocked at a fixed reference frequency, which is typically a few kHz.
 The duty-cycle (or) off time is controlled by an analogue voltage reference that
represents the desired speed.
 The PWM is applied only to the lower phase legs of the transistors and this reduces the
current ripple and also avoid the need for wide bandwidth in the level shifting circuit
that feeds the upper leg transistors.
 The use of AND Gates as a simple way of combining the commutation and chopping
signals to the lower transistors.
 From the control point of view the brushless motor is similar to the dc commutators
motor, as the simple torque & voltage equations are similar.
 It is possible to implement current & speed feed back in the same way as in the dc
motor. It may be necessary in either (or) both loops to improve stability and transient
response. Therefore wide range of speed control and torque control using relatively
simple techniques that are familiar with commutator motors.
 The instantaneous current in the brushless PM motor is regulated in each phase by a
hysteresis type regular which maintain the current with in the adjustable limits.
 This is called “Current mode” control and several algorithms are possible in each phase
and their bandwidth must obviously be wider than that of the sensing resistor as shown.
 The speed feedback from a Tacho-generator TG, can also be derived from the shaft
position sensor by a frequency to voltage converter. This technique only works at high
speed.
 Many of the functions of the circuit can be performed digitally and it is increasingly
common to have a serial communication interface that permits the system to be
computer controlled.
 In high performance systems, the special purpose decoding circuit are used.
 So it is possible to fine tune the firing angles and the PWM control as a function of
speed and load to improve various aspects of performance such as efficiency, dynamic
performance and speed range.
Figure4.16 Structure of controller for PM BLDC Motor drive

4.6 COMMUTATION PROCESS
The function of a brush in a DC motor is replaced with two switches (or) transistors. This is
shown in the below figure4.17
A A A
Fig4.17
Consider the commutator segment A which is in any of the three states.

i. Touching the positive brush
ii. Touching the negative brush
iii. Touch neither
Again we have to give importance to the action of the coil inductance in the connected
DC motor. In the figure 4.18 shown below, the switch S1 is closed and the current is supplied
to the coil. In the figure4.19 the current is apparently cutoff when S1 is opened, but because of
inductance ,high voltage across the airgap is produced in the switch and therefore spark occurs
and the current continues to flow through the airgap for a short time. In the figure 4.20 shown
below indicated that the spark can occur when the brushes separate from the commutator
segment A and move to the next segment. If the sparks are weak then it will not produce
serious damage to the commutator segment (or) brush else this spark will damage them in the
repeated operation.
Direction of commutator
movement
A A A B
spark
S1 Spark
S2
Fig 4.18 Fig 4.19 Fig 4.20
A smaller inductance will reduce sparking. That is, the number of turns of the coil
connected to one commutator segment should be small for sparkless commutation. In
conventional motors, the windings are separated into many coils, and in some motors, there
are more coils than the commutator segments.
The figure shown above is a commutator circuit which uses two transistors. When
Tr1=S1 is ON and a current is being supplied from the power supply through this transistor to
the coil1. When Tr1 turn OFF the current will flow through diode D2 for a transient period
until it falls to zero. If this diode is not provided, the current will decrease all at once. Hence a
 di 
high voltage which is L   will be produced in the coil and will be applied across the
 dt 
collector and emitter of Tr1 and will damage the transistor. Thus, in a brushless DC motor the
electromagnetic energy stored in the coil can return to the power supply through this diode.
Therefore, there is no spark. We see that diode D2 is needed to protect Tr1 from being
damaged and D1 protects Tr2=S2.
4.7 Detection of rotor position and the use of Hall elements:

A brushless DC motor uses some means of detecting the pole / position on its rotor. The
position sensors used nowadays are:
1. Hall elements
2. Light emitting diodes and phototransistors.
3. Inductor sensitive to inductance variation.
4.7.1 Hall elements:
When an electrical current Ic flows downwards in a semiconductor material which is

placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the material surface, an electromotive force VH is
created in the material in the direction perpendicular to both current Ic and magnetic Induction
B. Since the electromagnetic force acts on charged particles (electrons (or) holes) according to
Fleming’s Left Hand rule, the charged particles are biased to the left side of the semiconductor
material and the polarity of VH depends upon whether it is p–type (or) n–type. The magnitude
of the electromotive force VH which is called “Hall Voltage” is given by the equation
1
VH  B IC R H
d
Where
RH is the Hall constant (m3c-1)
IC is the electrical current(A)
B is the flux density (T)
d is the thickness of the material (m)
Ic
IH
_
VH +
Fig 4.21
The Hall effect is strong in some specific metal compounds and semiconductos.
Semiconductor devices which are made for use in detecting magnetic fields are called Hall
elements. In modern brushless motors, n-type InSb (Indium – Antimony) is extensively used,
as well as GaAs (Gallium – Arsenide).
4.7.2 Principle of position detection using Hall elements:
An equivalent circuit for a Hall element expressed as a four terminal network as shown
figure 4.22. When a current Ic which is called the control current or bias current, flows from
terminal 3 to 4 in the Hall element exposed to a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the
element plane, a voltage VH is generated across the terminal 1 and 2 as explained before.
When terminal 4 is taken as the reference point, the potentials at terminals 1 and 2 are
VH/2 and -VH/2 respectively where R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 assumed. Moreover the polarity
reverses as the flux direction reverses.
Ic
3
d
R3
1 2
R1 R2
R4
4
B
VH1 VH2
_
VH +
Fig 4.22
Thus when a Hall element is placed near a permanent magnet rotor, the Hall element
can accurately detect the pole position and the flux density providing output voltage V H1 and
VH2.
4.73 Practical methods of position detection:
The simplest brushless DC motor using one Hall element placed is shown in figure
4.23 & 4.24 The output signal from the Hall element operate the two transition Tr1 and Tr2 to
control the electrical currents in stator windings W 1 and W2.
W1 W2
ic
+ _
Tr1 + Tr2
_
iB
Fig 4.23
S
N
W2
B
W1
Figure 4.24
i. The Hall element detects the north pole of the rotor magnet and W2 is energized to
produce the south pole which drives the rotor in the CCW direction
ii. Since no magnetic field is applied to the Hall element in this positional relation, both
transistors are in the OFF state, and no currents flow in W1 and W2. The rotor
continues to revolve due to inertia.
iii. The Hall element detects the south pole of the rotor and winding W1 is energized to
create the south pole which attracts the north pole of the rotor to continue the CCW
motion.
The state of the rotor as it revolves is shown below.
S N
S N
N S
1 2
(a) (b) (c)
4.7.4 Elimination of Dead point in two phase motors

As we have seen before, the two phase motor uses one Hall element to detect the rotor
position. This type of motor has the following two draw backs.
i. There are two dead points at which the hall elements does not experience the
magnetic flux, and as a result no current flows in the windings to produce a torque.
Hence, when the motor carries a frictional load, there is a possibility that it will
stop at a dead point and be unable to start again. When the frictional load is small
the rotor may be able to pass through the dead points due to inertia.
The figure shown below gives the relationship between torque and rotational angle.
Torque
(CCW)
Dead point Dead point

Torque
(CW)
ii. Since the back Emf is small at the low torque positions, a large current will flow
and increase the conduction loss. Hence the motor efficiency which is the ratio of
the output mechanical power to the input electrical power is not high.
As far as the elimination of the dead points, there are two major methods.
i. First one uses a polyphase structure (ie) three phase bipolar driven scheme.
ii. Second one , space harmonic magnetic field.
The principle of operation of Three Phase Bipolar driven BLDC motor is already seen using
photo-transistor. These photo-transistors are replaced by Hall element.
4.7.5 Space Harmonic Type:

Consider the motor shown in the figure 4.25 which is an improved type of the plain
two phase two pole motor. An additional four pole magnet is coupled to the rotor and stator
also has a four pole magnet in a positional relationship as shown in the figure4.25. Figure 4.26
shows the relationship between the torque and revolving angle of this motor. The curve A in
the ordinary two pole two phase motor has two dead points. Curve B is the space harmonic
torque curve created by the newly installed permanent magnets.
The two pole torque is always counter clockwise because of the commutation by the
Hall elements. The four pole torque varies alternatively in both directions (ie) CW and CCW.
Since the overall torque, which is shown by curve C, is the sum of both torques, it does not
have any dead points.
This type of motor in which two additional magnets are set up has not been used in practical
application. The methods of exploiting this effect are as follows.
i. The method which has auxiliary salient poles in its stator and an auxiliary magnet
in the rotor, the magnet having twice as many magnetic poles as the main magnet.
ii. The method which uses a second harmonic magnetization in the rotor, the winding
pitch being moved from 1800 on the stator.
iii. The method which uses a non uniform airgap to create a second harmonic torque.
N
S S S S
N
S
N
Figure 4.25
Curve B
Curve C Curve A
(CCW)

Torque


(CW)
Dead point Dead point
Fig 4.26
PROBLEM
1. A brushless DC. motor has the cross section r1 = 30 mm, lm = 80mm, g = 0.8 mm
and axial length l = 35mm. slotting is rejected and a single full – pitch stator coil
with 30 turns. The cross magnet has Br = 0.35T, Prec = 1 and H0 = 278 KA/m. The
current in the stator cell is zero.
i. Calculate Bg in the average at the centre of the magnet arc ie on the direct
axis.
ii. Determine the m.m.f across the magnet and the internal magnetizing force
Hm.
iii. Calculate the flux linkage of the coil.
iv. Determine the peak value of e.m.f induced in stator coil if the rotor rotates at
4000 r.p.m.
April / May 2003
Given data
r1 = 30 mm, lm = 8 mm,
g = 0.8 mm, l = 35 mm,
N = 30, Br = 0.35T,
rec = 1, Hc = 278KA/m.
To find
i. Bg in the airgap
ii. MMF across the magnet and internal magnet force
iii. Magnetizing force Hm
iv. Flux linkage in the coil (stator)
v. Peak value of e.m.f induced.
Solution
C Br
Bg 
1  Pm R g
Kg
Rg  c
0 Ag
 3
 2

A g   2  r1  3  Zg     2g 

  2   30  0.4   1.6   35  1.6 
 3 
2
Rg = 23275 mm
K og 1.05  0.8  103
Rg  
 o A g 4 107  0.2327  106
R g  2.87  105
 o  rec A m
Pmo 
lm
2 
  r1  g  m  l
l
Am 
3  2
2
=  30  0.8  4  35
3
A m  1847mm 2
 o  rec A m
Pmo 
lm
4 107  1 1847  106

8  103
A m  2.9  107
Pm  Pmo 1  Pr1 
Am 1847
C    0.7935
Ag 23275
 2.9 10 7  0.1
Pm  3.19 107
C Br
B 
1  Pm R g
0.7935  0.35

1   3.19 107  2.89 107 
Bg = 0.248 T
Flux crossing the airgap r = 0.35 x 1847 x 102 = 0.646 x 103.
b. MMF across the magnet

  g
Fm  r
Pm
r 0.646
g  
1  Pm R g 1  3.19 107  2.85 105
g  0.5918
0.646  0.5918
Fm 
3.19  107
Fm  165.9 AT
Br  Bm
C. H m 
 0 rec
Pr1  Pm  Pmo
 3.19 107  2.9  107
Pr1  0.29  107
1  Pr1R g
Bm   Br
1  Pm R g
1   0.29 107  2.8785 
  0.35
1  3.19 107  2.87 105 
Bm = 0.323
0.35  0.323
H m 
4 107  1
Hm = 20.7 kA/m
d. Induced emf E = 2Bg l r Nph 

4000
 2  0.248  35  3030   106  2
60
E = 6.5445 volts
2. A PM brushless DC motor has a torque constant of 0.12 Nm/A referred to the DC

supply.
a. Estimate its no load speed in rpm when connected to a 48 V DC supply.
b. If the armature resistance is 0.15/phase and the total voltage drop in the
controller transistor is 12 V. Determine the stall current and stall torque.
c. The DC current is 8.2 amps when the motor is star connected and has two
phases on at any instant with a total of 2V dropped across the two conducting
transistor in series; this voltage drop can be assumed constant. The friction
torque has been separately measured as 0.046 Nm at this speed. If the supply
voltage is 48 V dc. Calculate the efficiency of the complete drive and the
separate power loss components due to
i. Voltage drop in the transistor
ii. Winding resistance
iii. Friction and
iv. Iron loss
If the iron loss is modeled by means of a resistor connected in series parallel with
each phase of the motor determine the value of this resistance.
Given data
Torque constant, K = 0.12 N-m
Supply voltage V = 48 volts
Armature resistance/ phase, Ra = 0.15 ohm
Voltage drop in the controller transistor Vdrop = 2 volts
Mechanical power to the load = 3000 rpm
DC supply current = 8.2 amps
Friction torque = 0.046 N-m
To find
a. No load speed , no in rpm
b. Stall torque To and stall current Io.
c. Efficiency of the3complete drive
i. Power loss due to voltage drop in transistor
ii. Power loss due to winding resistance
iii. Power loss due to friction
iv. Total iron loss
Solution
V
a. No Load speed, o 
K
48
  400 rad
0.12 sec
400  60
no   3820 rpm
2
no = 3820 rpm
b. During this operation two transistor will be connected in series

R = 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.3
V 48  2
Stall current, Io    153.3 amps
R 0.3
Io = 153.3 amps
[48-2 = subtract the voltage drop from supply voltage]
Stall torque , To = KIo
= 0.12 x 153.3
To = 18.396 Nm
Mechanical output
c. Efficiency of the complete drive   100
Electrical input
330
  100 [ V = 48V, I 8.2 A]
 48  8.2 
  83.84 %
i. Power loss due to voltage drop in the transistor = Voltage drop x current
= 2 x 8.2
= 16.4 watts
ii. Due to winding resistance = I2R
= 8.22 x 0.15
= 20.2 watts
2NT
iii. Power loss due to friction P
60
2 3400  0.046
 [Friction Torque T = 0.046 Nm given ]
60
iv. Iron loss = Electrical input – [power loss due to [transistor + winding resistance
+ friction + mean output]
= 4.8 x 1.2 – [16.4 + 20.2 + 330]
= 393.6 – 383.6
Iron loss Pi = 10.6 watts
v. The value of resistance Pi = I2R = 10.6
10.6
R  0.157 omhs
8.2 2
3. A permanent magnet DC commutator motor has a no load speed of 6000 rpm when
connected to a 120 V supply. The armature resistance is 2.5  and rotational and
iron losses may be neglected. Determine the speed when the supply voltage is 60V
and the torque is 0.5 Nm.
Given data
No load supply no = 6000 rpm

Supply voltage = 120 volts
Armature Resistance = 2.5 ohm
To Find
i. Speed when the supply voltage = 60 Volts and torque 0.5 Nm
Solution
Stall current Io  V
Ra
120
  48 amps
2.5
Stall torque, To = K Io
V
But, K 
o
120  2N o 
  0.1909 o  60 
6000  
2
60
Torque constant K = 0.1909
To = 0.1909 x 48
To = 9.167 Nm
The speed at V = 120 volts
T = 0.5 Nm
 T
  o 1  
 To 
 T
N  n o 1  
 To 
 0.5 
N  6000 1  [no = 6000 and T = 0.5 Nm given]
 9.167 
N = 5672 rpm
At 60 V and 0.5 Nm
V1  K  1
120  K   5672 _____ (1)
V2  K  2 _____ (2)
From equation 1 and 2 we write
60
N2   5672
120
N2 = 2863 rpm
4. A permanent magnet DC commutator motor has a stall torque of 1 NM with a stall

current of 5 A. Estimate it’s no load speed in rpm when fed from a 28 V DC voltage
supply.
Given data
Stall torque To = 1 Nm
Stall current Io = 5 amps
DC supply voltage V = 28 V
To find
No load speed (no) in rpm
Solution
V = Ko To = KIo
28 = Ko 1 = K x 5
28
o  K=0.2 Nm/A
0.2
o = 140 rad/sec
2n o
 140
60
140  60
no 
2
no = 1336.9 rpm
5. In problem 4 during an overload the motor temperature becomes excessive and the
magnet lose 12 percent of their permanent flux density. If the armature resistance
is 0.8 . Determine the speed at which the motor will run when the load torque is
0.3 Nm. Assume a total brush voltage drop of 2 V and a supply voltage of 28 V DC.
Ignore friction and other losses
Nov/Dec 2005
Given Data
Reduction of permanent flux density = 12 % = 0.12

Torque constant K` = 0.12 x 0.88
New torque constant K` = 0.176
Load Torque T = 0.3 Nm
Total brush voltage drop Vdrop = 2 volts
To find : Determine the motor speed in rpm

Solution:
V Vdrop 28 2
o'    147.7 rad/sec
K' 0.176
 T
  'o 1  '  _____ (1)
 To 
To'   K '  Io'

 28  2   ' V  Vdop 
 0.176    Io  
 0.8   I 
To'  5.726 Nm
 0.3 
(1)    147.7 1 
 5.726 
 = 140 rad/sec
2n
140
60
140  60
n
2
N = 1337 rpm
lm
r1
Brushless DC motor cross section

UNIT V
PERMANENT MAGNET
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
I n conventional Synchronous Motor, the rotor carries the field winding which is excited by
a DC supply to produce the magnetic flux needed for the operation of the motor. The slip
ring and brushes are necessary to excite the field winding by transferring current from a
stationary terminal to the rotating rotor. Now, the electromagnets and the field magnets are
replaced by permanent magnets. The required field flux in the airgap is produced by the set of
permanent magnets. This eliminates the need of slip ring and brushes assembly. Those motor
using permanent magnets to produce the required flux without brushes are called permanent
magnet synchronous motor.
5.1 CONSTRUCTION
 The construction is very similar to conventional synchronous motor but it differ only in
the rotor construction as shown in the figure 5.1
 Important parts of the motor are stator and Rotor. The stator consists of outer frame
which encloses the whole machine and protects it from the environmental hazards.
 The outer frame is usually made of cast iron (or) steel.
 Inside the stator frame, stator core is fixed which consist of thin laminations to reduce
eddy current loss and made up of soft magnetic steel material mixed with silicon to
reduce the Hysteresis losses.
 The stator core has slots in it which are also laminated. The slots are used to house the
poly phase stator winding called armature winding made of copper material.
 The thickness of the lamination depends on the frequency of the armature voltage, cost
of the machine and core loss component of the machine.
 Usually for large machine, “lap type Double layer” winding will be provided but for
5.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
smaller machines solenoid (or) random winding is used.

 The rotor construction can be two types, cylindrical pole type and salient pole type.
Usually cylindrical type of rotor is used to maintain the air gap uniform flux distribution.
 The permanent magnet made of rare earth magnetic material such as ferrite, cobalt are
used.
 The rotor also consists of damper winding which is used to damp the oscillation near the
synchronous speed and also used to start the motor.
 The rotor also carries the shaft and bearing systems.
 The various types of rotor construction used are
i. Peripheral: The magnets are located on the periphery of the rotor and the flux is
radial.
ii. Interior: Interior of the rotor carries the permanent magnets and the flux is
distributed radially.
iii. Claw-pole (or) Lundell: The permanent magnets in this structure are disc shaped.
The flux is axial.
iv. Transverse: The permanent magnets are in between the soft iron poles and the
flux is circumferential.
Stator Outer frame
Stator slots
N
Stator winding
Cylindrical rotor
S
Permanent Magnet
Fig 5.1
5.1.1 Working Principle:

 The operation of the Permanent Magnet synchronous motor is very similar to the
conventional synchronous motor.
 This motor is also not self starting hence additional winding is placed on the rotor. Once
the synchronous motor is started by applying voltage at certain frequency and then it is
pulled into synchronism.
 The motor speed is decided by the frequency of the supply which excites the phase
windings of the stator.
 Necessary torque is produced in the motor for the operation of the motor by the
interaction of fluxes produced by the permanent magnet Rotor and the excited stator
winding.
 The torque produced is called as synchronous Torque. The hunting near the synchronous
speed is possible which is eliminated by using the damper winding.
 Due to the presence of the damper winding, the synchronous motor can be started from
zero speed as an induction motor.
 The stator phase windings can be excited with variable frequency and the amplitude to
achieve wide range of operating characteristics and hence motor is highly controllable
Advantages
1. Slip rings and brushes are absent, so there is no sparking.

2. These motors are flexible as they are highly controllable.
3. No DC field excitation is required. So field losses are reduced.
4. It requires less space as field windings are absent.
5. They have low inertia & friction.
6. These motors are reliable and have long life.
Disadvantages
1. The electronic circuitry driving the motor is complex and complicated.
2. There is possibility of demagnetization due to excessive currents.
3. The flux density produced in the airgap is limited due to permanent Magnet.
Applications:
1. These motors are used in the applications where constant speed is required such as
synthetic fiber drawing, turn table drives in record players, spindle drives in hard
disk in computers.
2. Used for tape drive for video recorders, in the field of aerospace, gyroscope motors
and biomedical instruments like artificial heart pumps.
3. Used in textile and glass industries, hand drills, vacuum cleaners etc.
Characteristics features of permanent Magnets synchronous Motor:
1. Sinusoidal (or) quasi-sinusoidal distribution of Magnetic flux in the airgap.

2. Sinusoidal (or) quasi-sinusoidal Current waveforms.
3. Quasi-sinusoidal distribution of stator conductors (i.e.) short pitched and distributed
(or) concentric stator winding.
5.2 TORQUE EQUATION OF PM SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The torque production of the motor can be analyzed in terms of the interaction of the
magnet flux produced by the permanent Magnet with the stator ampere-conductor distribution
in the motor. The figure 5.2 shows the basic concept of the motor with two poles. The stator
conductors are distributed sinusoidally around the stator bore, such that in any angle dθ , the
number of conductors is given as
Ns
No. of conductors in the small angle d  sin p . d
2
Where Ns = Number of turns and P = number of pole pair in the stator
Considering that one turn consists of two conductors in series, then number of turns per pole
Np is given as

2P
Ns
Np   sinP d
0
2
Ns
N p 
2p
d
D axis of rotor magnet
r1

lm

Rotor Magnet
Stator Outer Frame
g
Stator Bore
Stator Conductor
Fig 5.2
This means that if all the poles are connected in series, then Ns is automatically equal to
the number of turns in series per phase. The distribution of the ‘turns per pole’ for two pole
and four pole motors is shown below figure 5.3
Two Pole Motor Four Pole Motor

Figure 5.3
In the following analysis the angle  is in mechanical degree (or) radians.

The stator ampere-conductor distribution is a sinusoidal distribution such that the sine-
distributed current has the same form as the conductor distribution. So that ,at the angle d,
the ampere conductors flowing in the positive direction (ie) out of paper is given as
Ns
Ampere conductor in the small angle d   i s i n P  .d 
2
The rotor magnetic flux distribution is centered on its north d-axis which is displaced by a
positive angle  from the axis of the stator winding which is given as

B( )  B sin( P  ( / 2   ) )

B( )  B sin( / 2  ( P   ) )
B    Bˆ cos  P   
where α is expressed in electrical radians.

The force on the elementary group of ampere-conductors for a small angle d is in the
circumferential direction and it is given as
ˆ N s sin P .cos  P  
F  Bil 
2
Similarly the corresponding force on the opposite element also will be produced. So two
forces together produces a couple 2 F r1 on the stator. An equal & opposite couple acts on the
rotor and the total electromagnetic torque on the rotor is the integral of the elementary area
over the whole air gap periphery (ie) over P-pole pairs and Torque is given as

P
T   P 
0
2 F r1 d 
When P = 1 then

N
  2 r1 Bˆ li s
2  s in  . c o s 
0
  d

N
T   2 r1 B l i s
2  sin  ( cos  cos   sin  sin  ) d
0

 N
T   2 r1 B l i s  (sin cos cos  sin  sin ) d
2
2 0

 N (1 cos2 )
T   2 r1 B l i s
2  (sin 2 cos 
0
2
sin ) d

 N 1 cos 2 sin
T   2 r1 B l i s
2  (sin 2 cos  2 sin 
0
2
) d
Integrate the above equation and apply the limits we get the below expression for torque
  r1 Bˆ li N
T  s
s in  N m 
2

Maximum positive torque is obtained with   - (ie) rotor north d-axis lagging 900
2
electrical behind the axis of the stator ampere-conductor distribution.
The above analysis has been carried out for a stationary winding. To provide a constant
Torque with the rotor rotating at a steady speed, the stator-ampere-conductor distribution must
be made to rotate in synchronism with the rotor. This can be done by means of poly-phase
winding supplied with poly-phase balanced currents. With P-Pole pairs, if Np = Ns/2 is the
number of sine distributed turns per pole, the total numbers of turns per phase in Ns. If the
phase current flows through all those windings in series, then with balanced sine wave
currents and three phase windings whose axes are 1200 apart, the rotating ampere-conductors
distribution can be derived as
Rotating ampere-conductors
Ns N
 iˆ cost sin p  iˆ cos t 120 s sin p 120
2 2
 Ns
 i cos (  t  120 ) sin ( P   120 )
2
3 N
 I 2 s sin  P   t 
2 2
The rotating magnetic flux distribution is given as B    Bˆ cos  P   t   
The torque produced is obtained using the same expression as for the stationary winding with
(P -  t )substituted for P , it is given as,
3  r1 l Bˆ N
T  I 2 s
sin 
2 2
where  = - . The angle  is called the torque angle and it is positive for motoring and
negative for braking. It is measures in electrical degrees (or) radians.
If the phase windings are divided into “a” parallel paths, the above equation remains
valid provided that I is the total phase current and there is no change in the total number of
turns per phase (Ns). But the number of turns in series per phase is the N s/a.
The Flux Density B̂ in the torque equation is the peak air gap flux density produced
by the magnet acting alone and does not include any contribution due to the mmf of the stator
currents. The armature reaction mmf also modifies the air gap flux density but it does not
adversely affect the torque expression, unless it significantly affects the saturation level of the
magnetic circuit.
In normal operation the stator frequency in radians/sec is made equal to the rotational
frequency in electrical radians/sec and it is given as
 e  2 f electrical rad/sec
The mechanical angular velocity is given as
e
 m 
P
The stator ampere-conductors distribution rotates in synchronism with the rotor and the torque
angle is kept constant by means of “Vector control” (or) “field oriented control” which
requires a shaft position sensor. If the supply frequency and rotational frequency are unequal,
then the motor will be running asynchronously. So that no average torque will be produced
but there will be a large alternating torque at the beat frequency (or) pole-shipping frequency.
5.3 E.M.F EQUATION OF PM SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The Emf equation of the motor can be derived by considering the Emf induced in the
elementary group of conductors as shown in the figure 5.2 . From the figure drawn the two
pole motor has P = 1, for a motor with P-Pole pairs in series, the Emf can be given using the
B L V formulation as
Ns
de  B   l r1 sin p d
2
But B    Bˆ cos  P   t  

 B cos ( P  ( t  ) )
When we integrate the elementary group of conductors for the complete distribution we get
the instantaneous phase Emf given as

P
e  2 
0
de

P
 Ns
e  2 B l  r1
2  sin P
0
cos ( P  ( t   ) ) d

P
 Ns
e  2 B l  r1
2  (sin P ( cos
0
P cos( t   )  sin P sin ( t   ) ) d

P
 Ns
e  2 B l  r1
2 0 (sin P cos P cos( t  )  sin 2 P sin ( t  ) ) d

 Ns P
(1 cos 2P )
2 0
e  2 B l  r1 (sin 2 P cos( t   )  sin ( t  ) ) d
2

 Ns P
1 cos 2 P
2 0
e  2 B l  r1 (sin 2 P cos( t  )  sin ( t  )  sin( t  )) d
2 2
Integrate the above equation and apply the limits we get the equation for the instantaneous
EMF which is given as
 N s
e  B l  r1 sin(  t   ) volts
2P

e  E ph (max) sin(  t   )
Where
 
N s
E ph (max)  B l  r1
2P
The R.M.S phase Emf is therefore given as
 
 E ph (max)  B l  r1 N s
E ph ( rms )   volts
2 2 2 P
The line-line Emf is

 
E line ( rms )  3 E ph ( rms )
Here again the flux density B̂ is the peak air gap flux density produced by the magnet
acting alone and does not include the contribution of mmf due to stator currents.
The Emf equation can also be derived from Faraday’s law. In this derivation of Emf,
armature reaction is also taken into consideration. Faradays’ law is more rigorous than the
BLV formation but it is useful to show that for E both methods give the same result.
By Faraday’s law, the instantaneous emf induced in the stationary phase winding is given as
d
e volts
dt
where ψ is the instantaneous flux linkage.
To calculate the flux linkage, consider the coil formed by the elementary group of conductors
within the angle d at angle  and assume that the return conductors of this coil are located
with the angle d at angle  . Although results are derived for P-pole pairs.
On open circuit, there is no current in the coil and all the flux is due to the permanent Magnet
Rotor. The flux through the elementary coil is

  B   r .l.d

1 (webers)

  r1 l  B ( ) d

But B   Bˆ cos P  t  

 
  r1 l  B cos( P  ( t   )) d

 
  B r1 l  (cos P  cos(  t   )  sin P sin(  t   )) d

Integrate the above equation and apply the limits we get the instantaneous Flux which is
given as
Bˆ D L
  sin P co s   t    (webers)
P
where D=2 r1 is the diameter of stator bore.

The flux per pole can be extracted from this expression by putting   and t = 0.
2P
Thus
Bˆ D l
M  (webers)
P
This is the fixed flux that rotates with the rotor. The flux linkage of the elementary coil is
N 
d     s sin p .d  
 2 
The total flux linkage of the winding is obtained by integrating the contribution of all the
elementary coil with P-Pole pairs, Thus,
 

p P
B DL N
 m  P  d  P  sin P cos(  t   ) s sin P d
0 0
P 2


P
B DLN
m  P  P  cos(  t   ) d 
s 2
sin
0
2P


P
B DLN (1  cos 2 )
m  P 
0
2P
s
cos(  t   )
2
d


P
BDLN
m  s
cos(  t   )  (1  cos 2 ) d 
4 0
Integrate the above equation and apply the limits and few get the Instantaneous flux linkage as

B r1 LN s
m  cos(  t   )
2P

m  m(max)cos(wt  )

 Blr 1 N s 
where  m (max)   N s m
2P 4
The subscript ‘m’ indicates flux produced by Magnet only.
By Faraday’s law the instantaneous phase Emf is
d m 
e     m sin( wt   ) volts
dt
The r.m.s phase emf is given as

 
  m  B l r1 N s
E ph   volts
2 2 2 P
5.4 Inductance of phase winding of PM synchronous Motor:

Consider the figure 5.2 (ie) single phase, two pole sine-distributed winding. Here we
consider the flux which is produced by the current in the stator winding and we assume that
the magnet is un-magnetized while we calculate the inductance by determining the flux
linkage of the winding due to its own current ‘i’.
Assume that the steel core in the rotor and stator have infinite permeability, then the mmf is
concentrated entirely across the air gap. Across each air gap, the mmf drop is equal to one half
of the ampere conductors enclosed within the “Ampere’s law contours” (or) flux line and it is
given as


P
1 Ns
Fg  H g g " 
2 

i
2
sin P  d 
Integrate the above equation and apply the limits and we get the following expression
N si
H g .g "  c o s P
2P
Ns i
Hg  cos P 
2 P g"
The flux density across the gap and the magnet is assumed to be radial and the magnet is
l
assumed to be equivalent to an airgap of length m . Therefore the effective airgap length
 rec
g " is given as
lm
g "  g '
 rec
 0 N si
Hence, B     0 H g  cos P  Bˆ a cos P
2 pg "
where
 N i
Bˆ a  0 s "
2P g
The subscript ‘a’ has been added to indicate the peak airgap flux density to denote that it is
generated by armature current.
By integrating the flux density around the periphery of the airgap, the fundament armature
reaction flux per pole can be determined and given as
Bˆ a D l
a  (webers)
P
where again D = 2r1 is the stator bore. This expression is exactly the same form as the flux
pole of the magnet and therefore it produces a flux linkage given as

a  N s  a
4
The self inductance is obtained as the flux linkage per ampere with Ns turns in series per
phase and it is given as
a
Lg 
i
  0 N s2 lr1
Lg  (Henry)
4 P 2 g 
The inductance is only half the value which would be obtained with the same number of turns
concentrated into one pole pair spanning 180 degree.
The Inductance which is calculated above is the actual “airgap” inductance (ie) the value
which would be measured with rotor stationary and unmagnetised with the other phases open
circuited and with negligible leakage inductance from the slots (or) the end turns.
5.5 SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE OF PM SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
We know that three sine-distributed phase windings carrying balanced three phase
sinusoidal currents produce a sine-distributed ampere-conductor distribution which is
represented by the expression.
3 N
Three phase Rotating ampere-conductors  I 2 s sin  p    t 
2 2
This will setup a rotating flux wave in the airgap given as

B ( )  B a cos( P    t )
0 3 Ns
where Bˆ a  . I 2
g  2 2P
This rotating flux wave which is established by armature reaction, generates voltages in all the
three phases.
In each Phase, the voltage is proportional to current I and it is therefore given as the voltage
drop (Xs I ) drops across winding Reactance called as “synchronous Reactance X s" . By
substituting peak flux density into the expression derived earlier for emf and dividing by I we
get synchronous Reactance as follows

 Blr 1 N s 
W.K.T  m (max)   N s m
2P 4
Bˆ D l
Where M 
P

Ba D l 3 0 I 2 N s D l
m  
P 4 g" P2
 3   o I 2 N s2 lr1
Therefore
 m (max) 
8P 2 g "
We know that
  30 I 2 Ns D l
E  X s i   m 
8 g" P2
Where i I 2
3   0 N s2 l r1 
Therefore X s  (ohms)
8 P 2 g 
This expression applies to an ideal two pole sine distributed three phase winding with Ns turns
in series per phase and it neglects the leakage inductance of the slots and end turns.
5.6 Phasor diagram:

If the magnets are on the rotor surface and if the shaft cross section is circular, the sine
wave motor is a “non salient Pole synchronous Motor” (ie) its d-axis and q-axis synchronous
Reactance’s are equal. In the steady state with balanced sinusoidal phase currents, the
operation can be represented by the phasor diagram shown in the figure 5.4.
j XsI  q axis
RI
V
j Eq
 I
γ


d axis
Figure 5.4 Phasor diagram of surface magnet sinewave motor
The construction of the phasor diagram is simple and its analysis provides the basis for
understanding the performance characteristic and what happens at different speed & torques.
We know that the open circuit phase emf E is a sinewave which lags behind the magnetic flux
by 900 electrical .
2
Its r.m.s value is given as Eph  kw1 N ph M 1 f Volts
2
The phasor relationship between Eph and the fundamental flux linkage due to the magnet can
be written as
 
Eph  jEq  j mdi Volts
The subscript ‘d’ in the magnetic flux linkage denotes that this phasor is synchronized with
the direct axis of the rotor. The subscript ‘i’ indicates the fundamental space harmonic
component. The subscript ‘q’ in Eq denotes that it is synchronized with the q-axis. In all
phasor diagrams ,the d-axis is taken to define the real axis of the complex plane of the phasor
diagram. Note that as the rotor flux rotates in space, the flux linkage of a stationary phase
winding pulsates in time.
The angle  defines the position of the physical rotor d-axis at t = 0, measured from the
positive axis of the phase ‘a’ winding.
Next we determine the current phasor and we read the rotating ampere- conductor distribution
of all three phases taken together. Assuming balanced currents.
ia  iˆ cos  t

ib  iˆ cos  t  2
3 
 

ic  i cos  t  2
3
The axes of the three windings are displaced by 120 degree in such a way that the rotor d-axis
rotates past them in the sequence a ,b ,c. This gives rise to the ampere- conductor distribution
given as
Ampere-conductor distribution
N
  
= iˆ cos t s sin  iˆ cos  t  2 sin   2
2 3 3    
 iˆ cos  t  2 sin   2
3 3 
3 Ns
 I 2 s in (   t )
2 2
The rotating ampere-conductor distribution lags the rotor d-axis and the flux by the
same angle . For positive motoring, the torque angle  must be negative (ie)  = - . In
motoring the axis of the ampere- conductor distribution leads the rotor d-axis by the angle .
(ie) ampere-conductors were dropping the rotor round behind them.
 
The phasor RI represents the voltage drop across the phase resistance and it is parallel to I .

Similarly, the voltage drop across the synchronous reactance is represented by jxs I and leads
the current phasor by 900. The sum of the back emf and the voltage drop phasors must be
equal to the applied voltage at the terminals. Thus
   
v p h  E  R I  jx s I
Next, neglect the resistance in order to bring out the essential mechanism of operation. So the
below phasor diagram in the figure 5.5 gives the current and voltages resolved into d-axis and
  
q-axis components (ie) I  I d  I q .
- Xs Iq  q axis
j Xs Id
V
j Eq
 I
γ
j Iq


Id d axis
Figure 5.5
In Figure 5.5, the current leads the d-axis by angle less than 900, and lags the q-axis by the
angle γ, where

  
2
The minus sign indicates that the angle γ is measured from the q-axis in the normal positive
direction.
q axis
j Xs Id j Eq
-Xs Iq
I
V γ
j Vq


Vd Id d axis
Figure 5.6
The d-axis and q-axis components of current are given by

I d   I sin 
I q  I cos 
If I d is positive, then the armature (or) stator current produces an m.m.f distribution around
the air gap that tends to increase the d-axis flux produced by the magnet. This condition, the
armature reaction is said to “Magnetizing”. The flux produced by the stator mmf induces the
voltage jxs I d in the d-axis and  xs I q in the q-axis of the phasor diagram. The q-axis
component adds to jEq . The magnet flux density is increased, so that the operating point
moves up the demagnetization characteristics and may end up in the first quadarant with
Bm  Br .
In the figure 5.6, Id is negative and the stator mmf is also negative and demagnetisation will
occur. The power factor angle is given by
     (demagnetisation)
     (Magnetisation)
The power factor angle  is less in demagnetization than the magnetization. Therefore, high
power factor can be achieved with operation in the “Demagnetization Mode”.
5.7 CIRCLE DIAGRAM OF PM. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The phasor diagram and associated voltage equations can be used to derive control
laws and predict the performance of the sinewave motor in closed analytical form.
If the resistance is neglected, then from phasor diagram (a) and (b)
vd  v sin    xs I q
Vq  V cos  Eq  X s I d
The electromagnetic Torque is given by the following equation for synchronous Machines on
d, q-axis theory, ie
T 3pdIq qId 
Where p is the number of pole pairs and the phase number is three .The flux linkages  d and
 q , are r.m.s per phase values given by
w d  E q  x d I d
w q  X q I q
Therefore the Torque is given by
3p
T Eq.Iq (xd  xq )Id Iq  (Nm)

The first term is called “Magnet alignment Torque” and the second term is called “Reluctance
Torque”. In surface Magnet rotor, xd  xq  xs .
So, there is no reluctance torque and therefore
3p
T  E q I q ( Nm )

The above equation is valid even when the resistance is not zero. At a given speed, Eq is fixed
by the magnetic flux and the torque is proportional to the q-axis current I q . Since Eq is itself
proportional to speed. The amount of current that can be supplied limited by the heat
dissipation capability of the motor and by the current rating of the converter. It can also be
limited by the converter voltage, which must overcome the back Emf and the voltage drops
across the synchronous Reactance and the resistance. In the complex plane of the phasor
diagram, the maximum continuous converter current I c limits the current phasor to a circular
locus described by the equation.
IC2 = Id2 + Iq2
q axis
Q
VC
I=IC
X S0
o
 Eq  d axis
 ,0 
 Xs 
Maximum
current locus
Voltage limited
current locus
E0
X s0
Fig 5.7
This is shown in the figure5.7. The maximum converter voltage Vc limits the current phasor to
another circular locus with a different radius and a different centre and it is derived as follows,
if
Vc 2  vd 2  vq 2
Vc2  Xs2 Iq2  Eq  Xs Id   Vc2

2
then
2
2 
Vc2 Eq 
then
 I q  I
 d  
xs2  xs 
 E 
The above equation represents the circle with centre at the point   q , o  . The offset is
 xs 
independent of frequency and speed since both Eq and xs are proportional to frequency. If the
controller is a PWM sine wave supply, then at low speeds there is usually sufficient voltage
available to cause the voltage limited locus to enclose the current limit locus, so that
maximum current can be obtained at any angle. The most advantageous angle for the current
is obviously along the q-axis, since this maximizes the torque per ampere. In general at low
speeds the PWM duty cycle is low and the phase voltage is “Chopped Down” to a value much
less than Vc . Operation along OQ with torque proportional to current.
5.8 Speed - Torque characteristics of PM synchronous Motor:
The speed - Torque characteristic can be drawn with respect to the circle diagram
shown in the figure 5.8. As the speed and frequency increases, the current limit locus remains
fixed but there comes a speed at which the radius of the voltage limit locus begins to decrease.
This happens when the PWM duty cycle reaches its maximum and the phase voltage equals
the maximum available sine wave Vc from the converter. This point is called as saturated
point of the PWM control shown in thick lines.
q axis
Vc
X So
Q I = Ic
I
Vc

XS D d axis
0
Maximum
Current locus
Voltage limited
locus E0
X So
Fig 5.8
O Q
D
0 WQ WD W
Fig 5.9
The operation along OQ is still possible, but it is only just possible for the current to
reach its rated value Ic at Q. The speed at which this happens is called the “corner point
speed”. It is the maximum speed at which full Torque can be developed.
If the speed increases further, the radius of the voltage limit locus decreases. The
maximum current is now at the interaction of the two circles. The decreasing radius of the
voltage limit circle “drags” the maximum current phasor further and further a head of the q-
axis and the q-axis current decreases while the d-axis current increases in the negative
direction (Demagnetization).This continuous unit point D, at which speed the maximum
current Ic can still be forced into the motor and it is entirely in the d-axis so that no torque is
developed. The power function at this point is zero and the current is wholly demagnetizing.
The logical OQ and OD together form the limiting locus for the current phasor
throughout the whole speed range and gives rise to torque-speed characteristics. Along OQ
maximum torque can be developed with maximum Ic oriented along q-axis. Along QD the
torque decreases until at point D, ie T=0 with maximum current Ic still flowing but oriented in
the d-axis in the negative direction.. The speed – torque cure is shown in the figure 5.9
The ratio between the speeds at point D and Q is
wD fD
k  
wQ fQ
If we neglect the resistance at Q we have
I d  o; I q  I c ; v q  E o
and vd  xso.Ic
The subscript ‘C’ in the synchronous reactance denotes the value at the corner point
frequency. From the phasor diagram

I  jI q  jI c
and vc2  Eo2  xso2 Ic2
vc 2  Eo 2
Ic 
xso 2
At point D;
 v  kEo
I  I d  I c  c
kxso
Equating the expressions for Ic at the two speeds, we get
Vc
k
Eo  Vc2  Eo2
We can define eo as the per unit open circuit voltage at the corner point with the maximum
r.m.s ac voltage of the converter as the base voltage, ie.
Eo
eo 
Vc
1
Then k
eo  1  eo 2
At the corner point, the d-axis current is zero and the power factor is given by
Eo
coso   eo
vc
Also,
X q Iq X s Ic X
sin o    xso  s
V Vc Xc
Vc
where X c  which is the base value of synchronous Reactance.
Ic
where xso is the per unit synchronous reactance at the corner point.
If the speed is increased beyond point D, there is a risk of over current because the back Emf
Eq continues to increase while the terminal voltage remains constant. The current is almost a
pure reactive current flowing from the motor, back to the supply. There is a small q-axis
current and a small torque because of losses in the motor and the converter. The power flow is
reversed and this mode of operation is possible only if the motor “over runs” the converter.
The reactive current is limited by the synchronous reactance and as the speed increases it
E
approaches the short circuit current q which may be many times the normal rating of the
xs
motor winding (or) the converter. The current is rectified by the fly back diodes and over
voltage on the dc side of the converter. An effective solution is to use an over speed relay to
short circuit the phase winding in to a three phase resister (or) a short circuit, to produce a
braking torque without stressing the converter.
5.9 CONVERTER VOLT-AMPERE REQUIREMENTS AND TORQUE

PER AMPERE
With a torque angle of 90 degree , the torque per r.m.s ampere of phase current in the
three phase sine wave motor is given as (PM synchronous motor)
ˆ
 r1BN
T  3 2 ph
( Nm / A)
I 2 2
and the torque per peak ampere is given as
ˆ
 r1BN
T  3 ph
( Nm / A)
I 2 2
(ie) it is 2 times smaller .
where as in the PM brushless DC motor, assuming 1800 magnets arcs, star connection and
1200 square wave phase currents, the torque per pack ampere of phase current is given as
T
i
 4 r1 Bˆ N ph  Nm A 
The r.m.s phase current T is derived from 1200 square wave i given as
I i 2
3
Where i is the peak (or) flat top value of the phase current.
Therefore the torque per r.m.s ampere of phase current is
T
I
 4 3 r1 Bˆ N ph
2  Nm A
With the above two expressions, the ratio of torque per ampere in the two motor can be
compared. (ie)
P M B L D C M o to r 4 3
 2  1 .4 7
Torque per r.m.s ampere =
P M S yn c h ro n o u s M o to r 3 x 2x
2 2
With equal peak current, the factor is 1.27
Therefore with equal r.m.s phase current, the torque of the square wave (or) per brushless DC
motor exceeds that of the sine wave (or) synchronous motor by the factor 1.47. The above
analysis neglects many important effects such as armature reaction and losses.
Now the comparison is to be carried out to the volt-ampere requirements of the Electronic
converter. A very simple estimate of the converter rating can be made in terms of the total
KVA rating of its main switches and per KW of power fed to the motor. The relevant
parameters are discussed below.
With respect to the r.m.s current in each switch, if q is the phase number, then
R .M .S . KVA  2 q  I s  Vs
KW
where Is is the r.m.s current in each switch and Vs is the peak voltage across each switch.
For the converters normally used in BLDC motor, the peak device voltage is normally equal
to the DC supply voltage, because each switch must block this voltage while the other one in
the same phase leg is conducting. So usually there must be a margin for voltage spikes caused
by stray inductance and reverse recovery of diodes. Therefore the DC supply will be used for
the comparison.
With respect to the peak current in each switch.

Peak
KVA  2q I s V
KW s
where iˆs is the peaks current in each switch.

In the case of synchronous Motor (or) sine wave motor, the line current are assumed to be
sine wave and each switch conducts a half sine wave for 1800 and does not conduct for
another 1800. The r.m.s line switch phase current is 1/√2 times the rms line current and which
will be assumed to be same as the phase current if the motor is star connected.
The peak device current is equal to the peak phase current. The relation between the DC
supply voltage V and the ac. line voltage of the motor is that the peak line-line voltage of the
motor is equal to V.
Therefore , Vˆl  l  V  3Vˆ p h  6V p h

Vˆ p h  peak phase voltage.
V ph  r.m.s phase voltage
So we can write
I
R.M.S switch VA = 6 V
2
peak switch VA = 6 V iˆ  6V  2 I
V
Converter power output(kw)  3 V ph I  3  I
6
I
6V
The rms switch K V A  2  3 .5
KW V
3 I
6
6 2V I
The peak K V A   6 .9
KW 3V I
6
For the PMBLDC motor, the equation can be written as
R.m.s switch VA = 6V i 2 3
Peak switch VA = 6 V i
Converter output power (KW) = V i
6V i 2 3
The R.M.S switch K V A  = 4.9
KW Vi
6V i
The peak K V A   6 .0
KW Vi
The results are same for the star and delta connected.
Thus the PMBLDC motor has a slightly better utilization of the peak current capability of the
converter switches. The synchronous motor appears to have a much better utilization of their
RMS current capability.
5.10 POWER CONTROLLERS OF PM SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The control for PMSM both in the region of constant torque and in that of flux
weakening could be presented and its schematic control scheme is shown in the figure 5.10.
Assume that the speed controller drive system, generate the torque command Tec
according to the speed error. Depending on the mode of operation Block 1 (or) Block 2 will be
selected. The outputs of these controllers are the stator current magnitude command & torque
angle command. These commands will combine together with the electric rotor position,
provide the phase currents command through the transformation block. The current commands
are enforced with an inverter by current feedback control with any current methods. The rotor
position & speed are obtained with a encoder and a signal conditioners respectively.
Block 1
Tec Constant
Transformation
Torque
Controller
is* ias*
control logic
Inverter and
 *
m Speed
Processing PMSM
Controller ibs*
Circuit
m ics*
*
Flux
i sn* Weakening
(max)
Controller Load
Absolute
r Encoder
m Signal
Conditioning
Fig 5.10
5.10.1 Constant Torque mode controller
The Block 1 contains the constant torque mode controller with maximum torque per ampere.
The schematic diagram is shown in the figure 5.11.
Temax
Isn(max) Te(max)
Isn
isn isn*
Tec

m
Torque/ FW  *
mode of
operation
Tec
Fig 5.11
The speed signal determines the mode of operation of the derive system. In the torque
control mode of operation, if the rotor speed is less than the base speed, then it enables
Block 1 in the form of onward transmission of Torque command signal Tec. The torque signal
is limited by the maximum Torque that could be generated with maximum permissible stator
current phasor. Then the resulting torque signal provides the stator current magnitude and
torque angle command to the transformation block.
5.10.2 Flux weakening controller:

There are totally three inputs to the Block 2, they are the torque request, rotor speed
and maximum permissible stator current. The rotor speed determines the d-axis stator current
request from the function generator. The d-axis stator current along with the maximum stator
current determines the permissible quadrature axis current.
Then this q-axis current with the d-axis current determines the maximum electro magnetic
torque allowed Tef within maximum voltage & current constraints. This Tef command is
compared with Tec generated by the speed error and logic sub module adjusts the torque
request depending on the load and maximum capability of the motor drive system as a
function of the rotor speed. From this final torque request Te* and the stator d-axis current is
computed by using the transformation block. Then the d-axis and q-axis stator current requests
are then used to calculate the stator current phasor magnitude & torque angle request. The
torque mode or flux weakening controller mode is chosen based on the rotor speed is lower or
higher than the base speed. The schematics diagram of flux weakening mode of controller is
Fig 5.12
5.11 MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROL OF DM

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
In latest emerging trends to control the drive system using fast devices such as
microprocessor. Micro controller, DSP processor are in common uses. Using these
controllable system we can program the drive for its smooth and efficient operation of the
drive system. The microprocessor based control has various blocks in its flow of control.
Since nowadays microprocessor are available cheap we find extensive use of it in the closed
loop control motors. The microprocessor is interfaced with the PM synchronous motor with
the feed back loops. The microprocessor will be pre-programmed already by using the data
which are available readily. The various input to the microprocessor are rotor speed, rotor
position and motor current. The shaft rotor position is detected by the position encoder or by
using optical encoder. The speed of the rotor can also be driven from the encoder itself by
using signal conditions.
The mode of operation of PM synchronous motor can be decided by the microprocessor

whether the speed is below or above the base speed. The microprocessor sets the reference
Torque, current in the d-axis and q-axis and the torque angle, for the operation of the motor.
The microprocessor in turn drives the inverter with the logic circuit to ensure that the motor
runs at synchronous speed for different load conditions. The schematic block diagram is
ias*
Microprocessor ibs* Sine PWM Inverter and

ics* Pulse Generator Logic Circuit
m  I
Position
Current encoder
Generator
Speed
Controller
Fig 5.13
Application of synchronous motor drive
i. Fiber spinning mills, Rolling mills, Cement mill etc.

ii. Ship propulsion, Electric vehicles, Servo and robotic drives.
iii. MAGLEV – linear synchronous motor propulsion.
iv. Variable frequency starters for 60 Hz wound field synchronous motor.
v. Starters/Generators for aircraft engines
5.12 CONTROL METHODS OF PM SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The speed of the machine is uniquely related to the frequency supplied by the inverter
(or) cycloconverter. Unlike an induction machine, it will run at synchronous speed (or) will
not run at all. There are two control modes of machine:
i. Open loop control, (or) true synchronous machine mode, where the motor speed is
controlled by the independent frequency control of the converter.
ii. Self control mode, where the variable frequency converter control pulses are
derived from an absolute rotor position encoder mounted on the machine shaft.
5.12.1 Open loop volts/ Hertz control
An open loop volts/ Hz speed control is an independent frequency control shown in the
figure 5.14. It is the simplest scalar control method of a synchronous machine but it is
achieved at the cost of inferior performance, unlike high performance vector control which
will be discussed later. Here the machines are connected in parallel to the same inverter so that
they move in synchronism corresponding to the command frequency we* at the input. The
phase voltage Vs* is generated through a function generator (FG), where the voltage is
essentially maintained proportional to the frequency so that the stator flux  s remains
constant. The front end of the voltage fed PWM inverter is supplied from the utility line
through a diode rectifier and LC filter. The machine is normally built with a damper (or) cage
winding to prevent oscillatory (or) under damping behavior during the transient response.
1 (or) 3
AC Supply
Rectifier
C
FG
DB
Vs*
3 PWM
Inverter
*e
Speed command
Permanent magnet (or)
Syn : Reluctance motor
Fig 5.14
The operation of the drive is shown in the figure 5.15 in which the motoring and braking
modes are shown and its corresponding phasor diagram is also drawn .
Vs
B +Ter C
S
A D D
Speed (e)
Braking Torque
Envelope
F -Ter E
Constant Torque region Field weakening region
5.15 Volts/Hz speed control characteristics in torque speed plane
qe
Vf = ef
Vs = es
Is
 a
 s
` de

f
If
Phasor diagram of synchronous (motoring mode only)

Assume for simplicity that initially the load Torque TL on the machine shaft is zero. The
machine can be easily started from standstill condition at point O to point A by slowly
increasing the frequency. At this point, the TL is gradually increased. At steady state condition
Te = TL, the operating point will move vertically along AB in the first quadrant. The torque
expression is given as
3  s f
Te  P sin 
2 Ls
P
 3    s I s cos 
2
Where  = torque angle and IT = IS cos  is in-phase component of the stator current.
Therefore with constant  s , the  angle and the stator current Is will increase gradually until
the rated torque is reached at point B. Where wither the limit  angle  (or) the rated stator
2
current Is is reached. Usually the inverter current limit is reached before the machine stability
limit. The operating point can be changed from B to C by slowly increasing the frequency
command and then it can be brought back to point D by gradually decreasing T L.
At base speed b. the voltage VS will saturate. Beyond this point, the machine will enter into
field weakening mode; therefore the available torque will decrease due to reduced  s as
shown. For variable speed operation, the motor speed should be able to track the command
frequency without losing synchronism. The rate of we* change (or) maximum acceleration
/deceleration capability is given by the equation
 2  dw
J   e  Te  TL
 P  dt
P
Where J = moment of inertia, we    wm is the synchronous electrical speed in rps,
2
P = number of poles and wm = mechanical speed in rps. Therefore, the maximum acceleration
and deceleration capabilities are given as.
dwe* 1  P
    Ter  TL 
dt J 2
dwe* 1  P
    Ter  TL 
dt J2
Where Ter – rated torque and TL – contributes to deceleration
At point A, if we* is ramped up, the machine follow the path ABCD. Similarly, the profile
during deceleration will be DEFA.
The recovered electrical energy in deceleration is dissipated in the dynamic braking (DB)
installed in the DC link. The speed reversal is possible by reversing the phase sequence of the
Inverter. The damper winding prevents hunting (or) oscillatory behavior mentioned before.
5.12.2 Self control model

A self controlled synchronous machine has close relation with a DC machine. The
figure 5.16 shown is the self controlled synchronous motor with permanent magnet in the
rotor.
e
N
Stator
Inverter e
S Rotor with
Permanent Magnets
DC
e
Control
Absolute Position
encoder
Delay command
Fig 5.16
a
e
Is
`
f
The stator winding of the machine is fed by an inverter that generators a variable
frequency variable voltage sinusoidal supply. But in this case instead of controlling the
inverter frequency independently, the frequency and the phase of the output voltage are
controlled by an absolute position sensor mounted on the shaft. The output from the sensor is
continues pulse train which is delayed by an external command.
A self controlled synchronous machine can be considered similar to a dc motor except the
following difference.
i. Unlike a dc machine, the field is rotating and the armature is stationary.
ii. Unlike a mechanical position sensitive inverter we have in this case an electronic
inverter that is controlled by an absolute position sensor.
iii. Unlike stationary fluxes in space, the fluxes and phasor diagram are rotating at
synchronous speed.
The self controlled synchronous machine has several features which is given below.
i. An electric commutator replaces the mechanical commutator and brushes, thus
eliminating the disadvantages of the DC machine such as maintenance and
reliability problems, sparking, and limitations in speed and power difficulty to
operate in corrosive and explosive environment the limitation of altitude and the
EMI problems.
ii. Because of self control, the machine does not show any stability (or) hunting
problem of the traditional synchronous machine.
iii. The transient responds can be similar to a DC machine
iv. The phase angle between the current IS and flux  f can be controlled as necessary
by delay control. The  a is no longer fixed to the  angle as in a DC machine.
2
v. With a high energy magnet, the rotor inertia can be made smaller, which is an
advantage in a fast response servo type drive.
Because of so many favorable characteristics the synchronous machine drives are exclusively
use self control. The synchronous machines have absolute location of rotor magnetic poles,
which is unlike the location of slipping poles in an Induction motor. The sinusoidal PM
machines require continuous information of rotor position with high accuracy. The position
encoders can generally be classified into two types
i. Optical type
ii. Resolver type
5.12.3 Vector Control

Consider a non salient pole machine with a large effective air gap. So that ht
synchronous inductance LS and the corresponding armature flux  a  I s Ls is very small that
is  s   m   f . For maximum torque sensitivity with the stator current with maximum
efficiency we can set ids = 0 and Iˆs  iqs which shown in the phasor diagram in which the
stator resistance RS is neglected. Under the above condition, the inverter operates at minimal
power rating. The torque developed is given as
 3  P  ˆ
Te     f iq s
 2  2 
There 
ˆ f is the space vector magnitude that is 2 ˆ f and s cos s cos  f .
The torque equation indicates that the torque is proportional to i q s and the power factor angle
 equals the torque angle . The vector control diagram for the machine is shown below with
*
the phasor diagram where the stator command current i q s is derived from the speed control
loop. Its polarity is positive for motoring mode but negative for regeneration mode.
qe
iqs X s e
Vf = ef

Vs= es iqs  Iˆs s
a

e f de
ids = 0
ds
-iqs
Phasor Diagram
Vd
ia*
*r + I iqs* VR and ib*
K
K1  2 Inverter
_ S 2/3 ic*
i 0
*
qs
cos e sin e
r
Look up
tables Sinusoidal Permanent
magnet synchronous
machine
Absolute Position
e Encoder
r
Block Diagram: Vector control of SR machine under constant torque region
Since this is the synchronous machine the slip frequency wsl = 0 because the machine always
run at synchronous speed (we). The magnetizing current iqs*  0 , because the rotor flux is
supplied by the PM and the unit vector is generated from the absolute position sensor. The
vector control method is somewhat similar to the IM vector control but except the above
points.
The rotating frame signals are converted to stator current commands with the help of
unit vector signals (ie) cos  e and sin  e as shown. Note that  a and  f phasor are at
quadrature like the DC machine except, they are rotating at synchronous speed. The machine
operates at a small lagging power factor . The vector control shown is valid only in the
constant Torque region. As the speed increases, the voltages V s and Vf increases
proportionality to speed we and vector control losses its state when the PWM controller
saturates at the edges of the constant torque region.
5.12.4 Field Weakening mode

The speed of the machine can be controlled beyond base speed wb by field weakening
control. But the field weakening speed angle is small because of a weak armature reaction
effect. This is explained below with phasor diagram and torque speed curve. As the stator
voltage tends to saturate at the edge of the constant torque region and since Vs  we  s , the
stator flux  s must be weakened beyond the base speed wb so that stator current control
remains possible, which means that a demagnetizing current ids must be injected on the
stator side. But because of low armature reaction flux  a , this demagnetizing demands large
ids . Therefore with in the specified stator current rating, it appears weakening of  s is small
which gives small range of field weakening speed control.
qe
V f'  e  f
IdsXs
Vs'  e  s'
iqs X s e
Vs= es
 a
iqs
Iˆs
s A
 a


a'
-ids e  s' A ' f de
ids = 0 ds
-iqs
Phasor diagram
Vs
Torque
(Nm) Is
Ls'  Ls
r
Ls'
Ls
Speed (r) b r1
Torque speed curve showing field weakening control above base speed wb
It is also possible that with constant  f , V f will increase proportionally with we and the
machine will get over excited and gives loading P.F. at the terminals.
With lated Iˆs  iqs , Iˆs is rotated anticlockwise in the a-a’ locus so that Iˆs  iqs2  ids2 , here ids
helps in weakening the stator flux  s along A-A’. At point A`, Iˆs  ids which corresponds
to zero torque at the speed of wr1 is shown in the above figure. It is also possible to increase
the field weakening range at stator current by increasing the synchronous inductance from LS
to LS'
PROBLEM
1. A three phase, four pole brushless PM motor has 36 stator slots. Each phase
winding is made up of three coils per pole with 20 turns per coil. The coil span is
seven slots. If the fundamental components of magnet flux is 1.8 mWb, calculate the
open circuit phase emf Eq at 3000 rpm.
April/May 2003
Nov/Dec 2003
Jan 2006
Given data
Number of poles , P = 4
Number of slots, S = 36
flux / pole = 18 mwb
turns/coil = 20 turns
coil / pole = 3
coil span = 7
Speed n = 3000 rpm
To find
i. Open circuit phase emf (Eq)
Solution
36
Q = slots/pole/phase = 4 3
3
1800
  slot pitch 
n
n  slot  36  9
pole 4
1800
  200
9
q
sin
Distribution / spread factor, K d 1  2

q sin
2
 3  200 
sin  
 2 
  0.9595
 200 
3sin  
 2 
Coil span = 7 slots
But slots/ pole = 9
 7 – 9 = 2 (short pitched by 2 slots)
1800 1800
E 
n 9  
2
= 400 ( short pitched)
E
 Pitch or chording factors, K p1  cos
2
 400 
 cos    0.9396
 2 
sin 
Skew factor K g 1 

 = skew factor = 0 ( short pitched)
 KS1 = 1
PN 4  3000  120 f 
Frequency, f  0
  100 Hz  N  P 
120 1200
Turns/phase Nph = turns/coil x coil/pole x pole = 20 x 3 x 4
Nph = 240
2
Open circuit emf, Eq     f  K w1  N ph  m1  Vrms
2  
Given Given
K w1  K P1  K S 1  K d 1
= 0.9396 x 1 x 0.9595
Kw1 = 0.9018
2
Eq    100  0.9018  240  1.8  103  100
2
Eq = 173.08 volts
2. The stator bore diameter of the motor of the problem 1 is the 100mm and its axial
length is 120mm. The airgap is 1mm, including an allowance for slotting. The
magnet has a radial thickness of 10mm and a radial recoil permeability of 1.01.
Calculate the airgap synchronous reactance at 100Hz.
Given data
Stator bore diameter D = 100 mm
Axial length of motor, l = 120mm
Airgap length, g` = 1 mm
Permeability of recoil, rec = 1.01
To find
i. Synchronous reactance Xsg
Solution
6 0 D l f
 
2
X sg  K w1 N ph
P2 g "
lm 10
g" g  1 
 rec 1.01
g "  10.900 mm
6  4107  100  120   0.9018  240 

2
 X gg 
22  10.900 10 3
Xgg = 9.7199 ohm
3. In the motor of problem 1. What is the torque at 3000 rpm. If the current is 4 amps
and   0 ?
Nov/Dec 2003
Given data
Current I = 4 amps
0
To find
i. Torque at 3000 rpm
Solution
V = Eq + Ia(Ra + jXs)
Ia Xs
Ia Ra
V
I Eq
 Id



0 d-axis
From the phasor diagram

 
    900
  900    0
Developed Torque
3P
Te  Eq I sin 
We
We  2N
3 2
Te   173.08  4  sin 00
2   100
Te = 6.6 N-m.
4. In the motor of problem 1. The phase resistance is 3.7 and leakage reactance is 5
mH. With the phase current of 4 amps at   0 at 3000 rpm. Calculate the terminal
voltage and power factor angle.
Given data
Phase resistance, Rs = 3.7
Leakage reactance Xs = 5 mH
Current = 4 amps
  00
N = 3000 rpm
To find
i. Terminal voltage
ii. Power factor
Solution
i. Terminal voltage
V  jEq  jI  Rs  jX s 
X s  X o  X sg
 2 100  5 103  9.73

Xs = 12.87
V = j173.08 + 4 j(3.7 + j 12.87)
= j 173.08 + 14.8 j – 51.2
= - 51.2 + j 187.88 [ (rectangular form  convert to polar form]
= 194.8 105.240
Terminal voltage V = 194.8 volts
ii. Power factor

From phasor diagram,       105.240
    900
 = 900 [   0 given]
900  00    105.240
  15.320
   [   15.320 ;(   0 given)]

Power factor  = 15.320
cos  = 0.964
5. Repeat problem 4 with I = 4 amps,   150

Given data
Current I = 4 amps
  150
To find
i. Terminal voltage V in volts
ii. Power factor PF
Solution
From the phasor diagram
    900
 = 900 - 150 = 750 from d-axis
I = 4 750 [polar form  convert to rectangular form
I = 1.0352 + j 3.8637
i. Terminal voltage
V  jEq  jI  Rs  jX s 
= j 173.08 + j [1.0352 + j 3.8637] [3.7 + j 12.87]

= - 45.895 – j 200.6986
= 205.899 102.880
Vth = 205.899 volts
ii. Power factor

     102.880
|______|
900
  12.880
  
= 12.880 + 150
 = 27.880
Power factor cos  = 0.889
6. A brushless PM sinewave motor has an open circuit voltage of 173 V as its corner
point speed of 3000 rpm. Its supplied from a PWM converter whose maximum
voltage is 200 V rms. Neglecting resistance and all other losses estimate the
maximum speed at which maximum current can be supplied to the motor.
April/ May 2003
Jan 2005
Given data
Open circuit voltage, Eo = 173 V
PWM converter supply voltage, Vc = 200V
Corner point speed, N = 3000 rpm
To find
i. Maximum speed at which maximum current can be supplied to the motor
Solution
Per unit open circuit at corner point is
Eo 173
eo    0.865
Vc 200
1
K
eo 1  eo2
1

0.865  1   0.865
2
K = 2.753
K = maximum speed / given corner speed
Maximum speed = K x given corner speed
= 2.753 x 3000
= 8260 rpm.

Synchronous Reluctance Motor Construction and Working

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Synchronous Reluctance Motor Construction and Working

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UNIT I

T he Synchronous Reluctance Motor is completely free of magnets and their operational

1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1.1.1 Working Principle

Salient Pole rotor

Useful properties of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

Types of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

1.2 RADIAL AIRGAP MOTOR

Stator outer frame

1.3 AXIAL AIRGAP MOTOR

Stator Outer Frame

1.4 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE

 qs Lqs = Lls + Lqm

 ds Lds = Lls + Lqm

1.5 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE

P  Lds  Lqs 

1.6 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

900 450 450 900 

1.7 VERNIER MOTOR

A vernier motor is an unexcited inductor synchronous motor in which a small

1.7.2 Principle of operation

Stator Outer Frame

1.8 Airgap Permeance Distribution in Vernier motor

Figure 1.9 Airgap permeance distribution of motor

Figure 1.10. Equivalent permeance distribution

1.9 DESIGN OF VERNIER MOTOR

Where N1  number of stator slots

And the electric gear ratio is given as

Operation of stepper Motor at high speeds is called “Slewing”. If f is the stepping

Application of stepper Motor

1. Used for operational control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC fabrications

Advantages of stepper Motor

1. No feedback is normally required for either position or speed control.

Types of stepper Motor

1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

2.1 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR

It is the most basic type of stepper Motor.

Two important parts of a stepper Motor are

2.1.2 Principle of Operation

The switching sequence continues as follows

1st Step 2nd Step

Advantages of VR stepper Motor:

Disadvantages of VR stepper Motor:

2.2 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

2.2.1 Working Principles

Step one Second step

Advantages of PM stepper Motor:

Disadvantages of PM stepper Motor:

2.3 HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

2.3.2 Working Principle

Advantages of Hybrid stepper motor

Comparison between VR and PM stepper Motor

VR Stepper Motor PM Stepper Motor

2.4 SINGLE STACK & MULTISTACK CONFIGURATION

Rotor Stack A Rotor Stack C

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

The two important characteristics of stepper motor are:

Detent Torque Or Cogging Torque :

i. Pull - In Torque Curve

ii. Pull - Out Torque Curve

iii. Max Starting frequency

iv. Max Pullout rate (or) Max Slewing frequency