044 Record

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
15CE407L - ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
RECORD MANUAL
NAME OF THE STUDENT : NEHAUN
REGISTER NO :
RA1711001010044
YEAR & SEMESTER : IV & VII
BATCH/GROUP :1
INDEX SHEET
SI.NO DATE NAME OF EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGNATURE

(40)
1. 12/08/2020 CYCLE - I
Determination of pH value of given water
sample.
2. 20/08/2020
Determination of Total, Fixed, Volatile and
Suspended solids.
3.
28/08/2020 Determination of Turbidity
4.
11/09/2020 Determination of optimum coagulant dose
using jar test apparatus.
5.
Determination of Conductivity of the given
18/09/2020 water sample
6.
Determination of Total Dissolved Solids of
18/09/2020
water sample.
SI.N DATE NAME OF EXPERIMENT MARK SIGNATUR
O S E
(40)
CYCLE- II
7 25/09/202 Determination of Alkanity

. 0
8.
Estimation of Chloride of water sample.
03/10/202
0
9. Determination of Hardness of given water
sample by EDTA method.
10/10/202
10. Determination of iron in water sample
0
10/10/202
11. 0 Determination of fluoride in water sample
Determination of free residual chlorine in water

12. 17/10/202
0
Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen by Winkler’s

Method.
13. 17/10/2020
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen

Demand.
14.
27/10/202
0
Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
15.
27/10/202
0
27/10/202
0
.
Total Mark : Average(40):

Staff Signature (1) Staff Signature(2)
SUB CODE & NAME: 15CE407L ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG.
LAB
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : Determination of pH value of given water sample
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE: NEHAUN

REGISTER NUMBER : RA1711001010044
DATE OF EXPERIMENT : 12/08/2020
SI.N MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

O MARKS SPLIT UP (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5
2. Pre Lab Questions 5
3. Conduction Of Experiment & 15

Tabulation
4. Calculation & Evaluation O 10

Result f
5. Post Lab Questions 5
Total 40
StaffSignature
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1.Define pH of a liquid? What is the relationship between pH and hydroxide ion
concentration?
Ans: pH is a measure of how acidic or basic water is. The range goes from 0 to 14,
with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7
indicates a base. pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions in the water.
Relation between pH and hydroxide ion concentration is- pH= -log10[H+], Where
[H+] = Hydrogen ion concentration.
2.What are the methods to determine pH value of water sample in the laboratory?
Ans: There are two methods involved in the determination of pH value of water in
laboratory. They are: 1.Colorimetric Method
2. Electrochemical Method
3.What does it indicate if the pH value of water is less than 7 ?

Ans: It indicates that the water is acidic in nature.
4. According to IS, what is the permissible limit of pH value for drinking water?
Ans: According to IS, permissible limit of pH value for drinking water is 6.5-8.5.
Experiment No. 1 DETERMINATION OF pH VALUE FOR THE GIVEN WATER
SAMPLE
Date: 12/08/2020
AIM
To determine the pH values of the given samples using pH meter.
REQUIREMENT
pH Meter, Electrodes, Buffer solution and Water samples.
PRINCIPLE
The pH of a sample of water can be measured using a pH meter, which employs a
glass electrode. Different types of pH meter are commercially available. A line
operated laboratory model with digital read out is being used. The pH meter should
first be calibrated with set of standard buffer solutions. Then the pH of the water
samples can be determined.
The acid or basic character of any solution (aqueous) can be defined by a single
variable pH value of hydrogen ion activity. This variable is expressed in terms of the
function pH as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of hydrogen ion concentration in
mole/ liters of a solution.
Mathematically expressed as pH = log10 (1/[H+]) = log10 [H+] -1
= - log10[H+]
In pure water 25°c [H+] = [OH-]
And so pH = 7.0
pH of neutral solution is 7. In acidic solution pH is less than 7 and on the other hand
pH of alkaline solution is greater than 7.
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
The pH value or hydrogen ion concentration is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a
substance. Many chemical and biochemical reactions are known to take place at
certain pH value or within a narrow pH range. Consequently the concept of pH is
great importance in industry, where for the control of large scale operations involving
chemical flocculation, neutralization etc, continues recording of pH value has to be
carried out. The control pH is particularly important in the chemical flocculation of
trade wastes. For public water supplies pH values should preferably between 7.0 and
8.5. Lower values may indicate corrosiveness where as high values indicate certain
psychological effects, sediment deposit and difficulty in chlorination.
TABULATION:-
Sl.No Sample no. pH value

1 1 5.8
2 2 8.1
3 3 7.9
CALCULATION:
1.-log10[H+] =5.8 => [H+] = 1.585x10-6
2.-log10[H+] =8.1 => [H+] = 7.943x10-9
3.-log10[H+] =7.9 => [H+] = 1.259x10-8
Average [H+] =5.352 x 10-7 pH= 6.271
PROCEDURE
A precise measurement of pH of an unknown sample consists of two steps. The first
step is to standardize the instrument against a known standard buffer solution at the
room temperature. The second step is to measure of pH of unknown solution. The
accuracy of measurement of pH depends on the accuracy of the buffer solution, used
for standardization and the care taken in setting “the temperature” compensate control
and ‘standardize control’.
1. Insert the three pin plug in to 230v. AC main socket.
2. The instrument is switched on by turning the on/off switch.
3. The glass electrode is washed gently with distilled water and then with
solution whose pH has to be measured every time.
4. One of the standard buffer solution (pH = 7) is taken in a dry beaker and the
electrode is held inside the buffer. The electrode bulbs should be immersed in
the liquid without touching the bottom or the sides of the beaker.
5. The necessary temperature range is set by using temperature control.
6. Wait for about 1 min for the reading to stabilize and note the reading . If it is
7, the instrument is calibrated. If not, adjust the pH expected for that buffer
solution.
7. The calibration is now checked by reading the pH of another buffer solution
(pH = 4) of known pH. If it is for 4, the instrument is calibrated. If not, adjust
the meter to pH 4.
8. The beaker containing the standard buffer is then removed and the electrodes
are washed with distilled water to check the sample water whose pH has to be
measured.
9. The sample water is taken in a dry beaker and the electrode are inserted inside
this water sample. The pH of the water samples is noted after about 1 minutes
directly on the meter.
10. Aeration and agitation of the sample water are avoided during the
measurement of its pH.
11. The calibration of pH meter should be done by buffer solution whose pH is
near to that of the sample water.
12. When not in use the electrode is stored in distilled water.
NOTE
1. The pH values are temperature dependent. Therefore, the container having the
sample may be maintained in a constant temperature water bath (250C) when
the pH meter is calibrated.
2. When a water sample is brought to the laboratory its pH should be determined
immediately on its arrival. Delaying the measurement may involve change in
the pH value of the sample because of absorption of laboratory fumes, loss of
dissolved gases and also chemical changes. The best pH value at the time of
sample collection on the spot itself is using a battery- operated portable pH
meter.
RESULT
The pH values of the water samples is 6.271
INFERENCE
According to IS, the water sample is “ACIDIC”.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.What is the significance of pH of water in water treatment plants?
Ans: pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions in the water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water
that has more free hydroxyl ions is basic. Since pH can be affected by chemicals in
the water, pH is an important indicator of water in water treatment plants.
2. What is the reason for maintaining a constant moderate temperature in

determining pH of the given sample?
Ans: Temperature plays a significant role on pH measurements. As the temperature
rises, molecular vibrations increase which results in the ability of water to ionise and
form more hydrogen ions. As a result, the pH will drop. This is the reason why
constant moderate temperature is maintained in pH measurements.
3.In a water treatment plant, the pH value of incoming water is 7.3 from one source.
The pH value is 8.5 for another source. What is average pH value of the water which
is entering into a treatment plant?
Ans: -log10[H+] =7.3 -log10[H+] =8.5
[ H+] =5.01x 10-8 [H+] =3.16 x10-9
Average [H+]= 2.663x 10-8
pH= 7.57.
SUB CODE & NAME:: 15CE407L ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG. LAB

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : Determination of Total, Fixed, Volatile and Suspended solids
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : NEHAUN

SI MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

NO. (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5
3. & 15
Conduction Of Experiment
Tabulation
4. Calculation & Evaluation Of 10
Result
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.Define a solid with reference to Environmental engineering?
Ans: Solids typically include inorganic matter such as silt, sand, gravel, and clay,
and organic matter such as plant fibres and microorganisms from natural and man
made sources. In regards to size, solids in wastewater can be classified as
suspended, settleable, colloidal, or dissolved.
2. Explain classification of solids?

Ans: In regards to size, solids in wastewater can be classified as suspended,
settleable, colloidal, or dissolved. They are also characterised as being volatile or
non-volatile. ... It can be divided in a suspended and a filterable fraction. Fixed
solids (FS) are the amount of solid that does not volatilise at 550 °C.
3.What is the permissible and tolerable limit of total dissolved solids according to
IS?
Ans: BIS Standard says that the maximum desirable TDS is 500 mg/L and the
maximum permissible level in the absence of a better source of water is 2000
mg/L.
Experiment No.
2 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL, FIXED, VOLATILE
Date: AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
20/08/2020
AIM
To determine total, fixed solids, volatile solids, suspended solids, dissolved solids
and settleable solids present in the given sewage sample.
REQUIRMENT
Hot air oven, Muffle furnace, China dish, Beaker, Filter paper.
Sewage normally contain very small amount of solids in relation to the huge quantity
of water 99.9%. It only contains 0.05 – 0.1 per cent of total solids. Solids present in
sewage may be in any of the four forms; Suspended solids, dissolved solids, colloidal
solids and settleable solids. These matters can be either organic or inorganic.
Inorganic matter consists of minerals and salts like gravel, sand, dissolved salts,
chlorides, sulphates etc. The presence of these in sewage is not harmful. They require
only mechanical appliances for their removal in the treatment plant. Organic matter
which consists of carbohydrates, fats, protein etc., is responsible for creating nuisance
if disposed untreated.
PRINCIPLE
All solids are determined by gravimetric method.
TOTAL SOLIDS, VOLATILE AND FIXED SOLIDS PROCEDURE
1. Take 10ml of sewage sample in a tare (W1) dish ignited to constant weight.
2. Keep it in the steam bath to let out the water.
3. Evaporate the sample to dryness at 105⁰C for one hour.
4. Cool in desiccator, weigh and record the reading (W2).
5. Ignite the dish for 15-20 minutes, in a muffle furnace maintained at 550±50⁰C.
6. Cool the dish partially in air until most of heat has been dissipated and then in
desiccator and the final weight (W3).
TOTAL SOLIDS, VOLATILE AND FIXED SOLIDS CALCULATION:-
Weight of empty dish W1 = 70.389 gm
Weight of dish+ residue (after drying) W2 = 73.270 gm
Weight of dish+ residue after ignition W 3 = 72.898 gm Total
solid = (W2 - W1 ) x 1000 × 1000 mg/l
Sample in ml =( 73.270−70.389)𝑥1000𝑥1000
=
288100 mg/l
10
Total fixed solid = (W3 -W1) × 1000 × 1000 mg/l

Sample in ml
= (
72.898−70.389)𝑥1000𝑥1000 =
250900mg/l 10
Total volatile solids = Total solids – Total fixed solids = 288100-250900
=37200 mg/l
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (FILTERABLE) AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS

CALCULATION:-
Weight of the filter paper W1 = 1.10 gms
Weight of filter paper + residue W2 = 2.071gms
Total suspended solid = (W2 - W1) × 1000 × 1000 mg/l
Sample (in ml)
=( 2.071−1.10)𝑥1000𝑥1000
=
97100 mg/l
10
Total dissolved solids = Total solids – Total suspended solids

= 288100-97100
= 191000 mg/l
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (FILTERABLE) AND DISSOLVED
SOLIDS PROCEDURE:
1. Filter a suitable aliquot of sample (10 ml)through a tared (W1) filter paper.
2. Carefully remove the filter paper and dry it in an oven at 105⁰C for one hour.
3. Cool it in a desiccator and weigh (W2).
RESULT
Total solids present in the sample = 288100 mg/l
Fixed solids in the sample = 250900mg/l
Volatile solids in the sample = 37200mg/l
Suspended solids in the sample = 97100mg/l
Dissolved solids in the sample = 191000 mg/l
INFERENCE Permissible limit for total dissolved solids is 500 – 2000 mg/L.
Our calculated TDS value for the sample is 288100mg/L. So, the sample is not fit
for use.
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1.Volatile solids are determined as loss of weight of dry residue at 600⁰C.Why?
Ans: Volatile solids are determined as loss of weight of dry residue at 600 0C . The
loss on ignition is the Volatile solids.
2.The residue and container must be cooled in desiccators after drying or ignition
operation. Why?
Ans: The residue and container must be cooled in desiccators after drying or ignition
operation to prevent the it from gathering moisture as it cools.
3.What is the best available method to remove dissolved organic solids from water
and wastewater?
Ans: Adsorption on activated carbon is currently the most frequently used technology
for removing organic pollutants from aqueous industrial sludge, surface waters and
drinking water.
4.What are the available methods to remove inorganic solids from water?
Ans: Various methods for removing inorganic matter from wastes are evaporation,
dialysis, ion exchange, algae, reverse osmosis, and miscellaneous methods.
SUB CODE & NAME: : 15CE407L ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG. LAB
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY

SI.N MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS

O MARKS(40) OBTAINED
1 Attendance 5

Tabulation
Calculation & Evaluation Of
4. 10
Result
Total 40
Staff Signature
37
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the causes of turbidity in water?
Ans - The causes of turbidity in water are:

a) Suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble
coloured organic compounds
b) Phytoplankton
c) Sediments from erosion
d) Resuspended sediments from the bottom (frequently stir up by bottom feeders like
carp) e) Urban runoff
f) Algae growth
g) Waste discharge
2. What are the units generally used to measure turbidity?
Ans - Turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water (ppm).
The units generally used to measure turbidity are:
a) FNU (Formazine Nephelometric Unit)
b) NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit)
c) JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
d) Silica unit (mg/L SiO2)
3. What is the basic difference in principle involved in Jackson Turbidimeter and Nephelo
turbidimeter?
Ans - The basic difference in principle involved in Jackson Turbidimeter and Nephelo
turbidimeter is that in case Jackson Turbidimeter the measurement of turbidity is based on
the intensity of light scattered as it passes straight through the water sample, whereas in the
case of Nephelo Turbidimeter the measurement of turbidity is based on the intensity of
light scattered at right angles to the incident light. Thus, a nephelometer consists of a source
of light for illuminating the water sample and one or more photoelectric detectors with a
read out device to indicate intensity of light scattered at 90 degree to the path of incident
light.
38
Experiment No. 3 DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY
Date: 28/08/2020
AIM
To determine the turbidity of the given sample of water using Nephelo - Turbidity meter.
REQUIREMENT
Nephelo -Turbidity water meter operates on the principle that light, passing through a
substance, is scattered by matter suspended in the substance. In this a strong light beam is passed
upward through a tube containing a sample. As the beam passes through the liquid, the light is
scattered is sensed by the photo to give turbidity readings.
The term turbid is applied to water containing suspended matter that interferes with
passage of light through the water or in which visual depth is restricted. The turbidity may be
caused by wide variety of suspended materials, which range in size from colloidal to coarse
dispersions.
The Turbidity test is an important consideration in public water supplied from the point of
view of aesthetics, filterability and disinfection. Any turbidity in the drinking water is associated
with possible waste water pollution and health hazards. Filtration becomes difficult because high
turbidity shorter filter runs and increases cleaning costs. Satisfactory operation of rapid sand filters
depends on effective removal of turbidity by chemical coagulation before water is admitted to the
filters. Disinfection in public water supplies is usually accomplished by means of chlorine or
ozone. In non-turbid water, most of the harmful organisms are exposed to the action of the
disinfection. However when the turbidity is caused by sewage solids many of the pathogenic
organisms may be encased in the particles and protected from the disinfectant. Because of the all
these reasons the turbidity of the water should be removed or controlled to the maximum extent.
PROCEDURES
i) Insert the three pin plug in to 230V.AC main socket.
ii) Switch on the instrument and give 15-20 minutes warm-up time.
iii) Select the appropriate “RANGE”.iv) Set the “CAL IB” control knob to maximum clockwise
position.
v) Insert the flat bottom test tube with distilled water in to cell holder and cover it with the light
shield.
39
TABULATION: -
SI SAMPLES RANGE (NTU) TURBIDITY (NTU)

.NO
1 1 0-100 15
2 2 0-100 36
3 3 0-100 54
40
vi) Adjust “SET ZERO” control knob to get zero on the display i.e,by adjusting the fine knob
for fine adjustment and the coarse knob for coarse adjustments. vii) Remove the test tube and
replace the test tube with standard solution.
viii) Adjust “CAL IB” control knob such that display indicates as follows.
STANDARD
SI.NO RANGE DISPLAY
SOLUTION
01. 0 to 10 NTU 10 NTU 10.00
02. 0 to 100 NTU 100 NTU 100.00
03. 0 to 1000 NTU 400 NTU 400.00
ix) Remove the standard solution and insert the test tube containing unknown solution in the cell.
x) The display directly shows the turbidity in NTU of the unknown solution.
RESULT
The turbidity of the given samples are:
a) Sample 1 = 15 NTU
b) Sample 2 = 36 NTU
c) Sample 3 = 54 NTU
INFERENCE
Since by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), IS 10500: 2012, the permissible limit
of turbidity for drinking water should be not more than 5 NTU. Therefore, the given
samples is not suitable for use. The Sample may belong to Waste Water .
41
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the general coagulant used to remove turbidity in water?
Ans- The general coagulant used to remove turbidity in water are inorganic coagulants (e.g.,
aluminum and ferric salts) and synthetic organic polymers (e.g., polyacryl amide derivatives
and polyethylene imine), Natural coagulants (e.g., polysaccharides and proteins)
2. What is the permissible limit of turbidity for drinking water by various organizations?
Ans- The permissible limit of turbidity for drinking water by various organizations are as follows:
a) Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), IS 10500: 2012 – not more than 5 NTU
b) World Health Organization – not more than 5 NTU
c) European standards for turbidity – not more than 4 NTU
d) EPA Standards – not more than 1 NTU
3. What are turbidity standards for packaged mineral water?
Ans- Turbidity standards for packaged mineral water are as follows:

a) LIMITS IS 14543 – 2 NTU max.
b) LIMITS IS 13428 – 2 NTU max.
42
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM COAGULANT
DOSE BY USING JAR TEST APPARATUS NAME OF THE CANDIDATE :
NEHAUN REGISTER NUMBER : RA1711001010044 DATE OF EXPERIMENT
: 11/09/2020
SI.N
O MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS
(40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance
5
2. Pre Lab Questions
5
Tabulation
O 10
4. Calculation & Evaluation f

Result
5. Post Lab Questions

5
Total
40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. Specify the advantages of using a coagulant in water treatment.
Ans: The advantages of using a coagulant in water treatment are as follows :-
i) Sedimentation aided with coagulation produces better effluent with lesser BOD and
suspended solids, as compared to plain sedimentation
(ü) Coagulated settling tank requires less space than that required by an ordinary plain settling
tank.
(iii) Coagulation process may also remove the phosphates from sewage which may
help in controlling eutrophication of river, into which the, effluent is being discharged.
(iv) It reduces the time required to settle out suspended solids and is very effective in
removing fine particles that are otherwise very difficult to remove (v) It can be
effective in removing many protozoa, bacteria and viruses.
2.What is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?
Ans: COAGULATION :
• Coagulation is a process of addition of coagulant to destabilize a stabilized charged particle.

The most common used coagulant is alum, Al2(SO4)3 • 14 H2O
• In this process chemicals added to water cause a reduction of the forces tending tom keep
particles apart.
• These chemicals with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water
to neutralize the negative charges on non-settleable solids (such as clay and colourproducing
organic substances).
FLOCCULATION :
• Flocculation is a mixing technique that promotes agglomeration and assists in the settling of
particles.
• During flocculation, gentle mixing accelerates the rate of particle collision, and the
destabilized particles are further aggregated and enmeshed into larger precipitates.
• Flocculation is affected by several parameters, including mixing speeds, mixing intensity,

and mixing time. The product of the mixing intensity and mixing time is used to describe
flocculation processes.
3. What is the cause of alkalinity reduction in coagulation process?
Ans: The cause of alkalinity reduction in coagulation process are :

• Lime softening - While reducing total alkalinity, lime softening does convert HCO3- to
CO32-. Metal salts hydrolyses in presence of the natural alkalinity to form metal hydroxides.
• Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid or a combination of these can be used. This process
converts the bicarbonates and carbonates present into carbonic acid.
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]
Experiment No. 4 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM COAGULANT DOSE BY

USING JAR TEST APPARATUS
Date: 11/09/2020
AIM
To determine the optimum coagulant dose.
REQUIREMENT
Jar test apparatus, Alum solution, Hydrochloric acid, Sodium hydroxide.
Chemical coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation together reduce suspended and

colloidal solids, phosphorous, fluorides, organic matter and certain toxicants. Alum, ferrous
and ferric salts, when used for coagulation, result in producing better effluent than by the
plain sedimentation. The exact doses of these coagulant are to be determined by laboratory
tests. This enables the investigations of such inter related factors like pH, colour, turbidity,
mineral matter temperature, time of flocculation and degree of agitation which all control the
coagulation and flocculation.
PRINCIPLE
Metal salts hydrolyses in presence of the natural alkalinity to form metal hydroxides. The
multivalent cations can reduce the Zeta potential while the metal hydroxide is good
adsorbents and hence remove the suspended particles enhancing them.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure initial turbidity of the sample using Nephelo turbiditymeter.
2. Fill 1 l water sample in each of the 6 beaker and keep it in the place provided for it.
3. Add varying doses of Alum solution ie., 1ml,2ml,3ml,4ml, and 6ml to different beakers
simultaneously. (Doses vary with turbidity of water sample)
4. Move the paddles into the water, make sure that the paddles should not touch the sides and
bottom of the beaker.
5. Switch on the motor and adjust the speed of paddles to 100 rpm. Allow flash mix at 100 rpm for
1 minute.
6.Reduce the speed of paddles to 40 rpm and continue mixing for 10 min.
7.Switch off the motor, remove the paddles from water and allow 20 min. for settling.
8.Collect the supernatant without disturbing the sediment and find the turbidity of each.
9.The experiment may be repeated for different pH ranges. 10.Draw
a graph, residual turbidity vs coagulant dose.
11.Note the optimum coagulant dose for lowest residual turbidity.
TABULATION:-
JAR Nos DOSAGE OF COAGULANT RESIDUAL TURBIDITY
1. 2 mg/L 10.4 NTU
2. 4 mg/L 6.8 NTU
3. 6 mg/L 3.2 NTU
4. 8 mg/L 5.6 NTU
5. 10 mg/L 7.7 NTU
6 12 mg/L 12.5 NTU

CALCULATION:-
Optimum alum dose
Strength of alum solution prepared
Optimum coagulant dose in mg/l
= x ml per litre of water sample

= 6 ml per litre of water sample
= 14.28 mg/ ml × x ml per litre of water
= 14.28 gm/l = 14.28 mg/ ml
= 14.28 x 6 x 2
= 171.36 mg/l GRAPH
RESULT:
Optimum coagulant dosage = 171.36 mg/l
INFERENCE
The optimum quantity of Alum required for the given sample with turbidity 3.2 NTU is
6 mg/L.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. Low alkalinity water samples must be artificially buffered in coagulation process. Why?
Ans : . Solutions with low alkalinity have a lower buffering capacity, and change pH rather quickly when
something acidic is added. If the alkalinity is too low, the coagulant will change the pH and the turbidity will not
be removed. As a coagulant is added, operators will also sometimes add lime or soda ash to adjust the pH and keep
the alkalinity stable. Ideally, at least 110mg/L CaCO3 needed to buffer the water during the coagulation stage. By
knowing the amount of alkalinity in the treated water, operators can proactively adjust the coagulant dosage, water
pH, and alkalinity.
2.What is the purpose of rapid mixing in the Jar test?
Ans : Rapid or Flash mixing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniformly dispersed through the mass of
water. The rapid mixing in the Jar test helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
3. What is the importance of slow mixing in Jar test?
Ans : Slow mixing in Jar test helps to promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which lead to larger
flocs.
SUB CODE & NAME: 15CE407L ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG. LAB
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : To determine the conductivity of given sample
solutions.


NO (40) OBTAINED
.
1. Attendance 5

Tabulation

Result
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. Define electrical conductivity?

Ans: Electrolytic conductivity is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry electric
current. Specific conductance K (measured in mhos) is defined as the reciprocal of resistance
in ohms (resistance offered by 1 cm cube of the liquid at a specified temperature).
2.What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and TDS?
Ans: TDS (ppm) = conductivity (µS/cm) x 0.67
3.What is the unit of electrical conductivity?
Ans: The SI unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m).
Experiment No. : 5
DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTIVITY OF THE GIVEN
WATER SAMPLE
Date:18/09/2020
AIM
To determine the conductivity of given sample solutions.
REQUIREMENT
Conductivity meter, Conductivity cell of known cell constant, Beaker, Samples.
GENERAL
Electrolytic conductivity is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry electric
current. Specific conductance K (measured in mhos) is defined as the reciprocal of resistance
in ohms (resistance offered by 1 cm cube of the liquid at a specified temperature).
When an electrical potential difference is placed across a conductor, its movable
charges flow, giving rise to an electrical current. This property is called conductivity. Since
the change on ions in solution facilitates the conduction of electric current, the conductivity
of a solution is proportional to ion concentration.
Electrical conductivity can be expressed in mhos (reciprocal of ohms) or in siemens.
In most of the water, the electrical conductivity is very low, so millisiemens or microsiemens
are used to measure conductivity.
The conductivity depends on pH, temperature, and the amount of CO 2 dissolved in
water. Conductivity also depends on the ions already present in the water such as chloride,
sodium and ammonium. Chemical composition of water determines its conductivity. Hence
this becomes most widely used measure of the purity of water.
Electrical conductivity are often employed to monitor desalination plants. It is useful
to assess the source of pollution. In coastal regions conductivity data can be used to decide
the extent of sea water intrusion into ground water. Conductivity data is useful for
determining the suitability of water and wastewater for disposal on land. The value of
conductance upto 2 millisiemens/cm in water is suitable for irrigation purpose depending
upon soil and climatic conditions. It is also used indirectly to find the amount of dissolved
inorganic solids. To convert the conductivity of a water sample (microsiemens/cm) to the
concentration of total dissolved solids(ppm), the conductivity must be multiplied by a factor
between 0.46 to 0.9 (depending upon the unique mixture of the dissolved materials).
TABULATION:-
SI.No Samples Conductivity(mS/cm) Conductivity(µS/cm)
1 A 0.5 500
2 B 1.2 1200
3 C 19 19000
A widely accepted conversion factor is 0.67. TDS (ppm) = conductivity (µS/cm) x 0.67
Conductivity(µS/cm
Solutions
)
Totally pure water 0.055
Typical DI water 0.1
Distilled water 0.5
RO water 50 - 100
Domestic tap water 500 - 800
Potable water 1055
Sea water 56,000
Brackish water 100,000
PROCEDURE
All the controls are marked on the panel. There are three control knobs in the panel.
The knob, mode is used to select temperature, conductivity, and conductivity at
250C.Tempearature can be adjusted by using the temperature knob. The last knob is used to
select the range. Switch on the instrument 30 minutes before the starting of the experiment.
Turn the mode knob to temperature. The display should show the temperature. Turn the
temperature knob till the display shows 30 0C. Turn the mode knob to conductivity.
Conductivity can be measured either in millisiemens or in microsiemens. Conductivity of a
solution is highly influenced by temperature therefore it is necessary to calibrate the
instrument at the same temperature as the solution is being prepared.
Calibration of the instrument

Take 0.1N Potassium Chloride solution in a beaker. Turn the RANGE switch to
20mS. Turn the mode knob to conductivity. Immerse the conductivity cell in the standard
solution, the specific conductivity of which is accurately known, at the temperature of
solution. Conductivity of 0.1N potassium chloride solution at 300C is 14.12mS/cm. The
instrument should show 14.12mS/cm at 300C. If it is not displaying the standard value, adjust
the back knob to get the standard value. Now the instrument is calibrated. Conductivity of
this standard solution at 250C is 12.8mS/cm. This can be checked by turning the mode knob
to cond (250C). Now the instrument is calibrated.
Testing of water sample
Rinse the electrode thoroughly with distilled water and carefully wipe with a tissue paper.
Dip the electrode into the sample solution taken in a beaker and wait for a steady reading.
Make sure that the instrument is giving stable reading. Note down the reading in the display
directly, which is expressed in millisiemens.
Rinse the electrode with distilled water and wipe with a tissue paper, before measuring the next
sample.
RESULT The conductivity of the given ( 1 ) sample A = 500 µS/cm
( 2 ) sample B = 1200 µS/cm
( 3 ) sample C = 19000 µS/cm
INFERENCE :
Sample A is Domestic tap water.
Sample B is Sea water.
Sample C is Sea water.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.Conductivity data is used to assess source of pollution in water distribution. How?

Ans:Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current.
Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as
chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium,
magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic
compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well and
therefore have a low conductivity when in water.
2.What is the range of specific conductivity allowed in IS?

Ans: The range of specific conductivity allowed in IS is 0µS/cm to 1 S/cm at 25 °C .
3.What are the substances that do not exert electrical conductivity?
Ans:Materials that are poor conductors of electricity are called insulators. Some examples are
solid ionic compounds, non-metal elements, glass and plastics that are polymers of
hydrocarbons. The reason these substances don't conduct electricity is that charges can't
move through them.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : To find the total dissolved solids present in water sample
using digital TDS meter.

SI.N MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

O (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

Tabulation

Result
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.What is the unit of TDS?
Ans: Unit of TDS is mg/L or ppm.
2.How does the high quantity of dissolved solids affect quality of water?
Ans: A large number of salts such as carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, etc. are
found dissolved in natural water. Similarly coastal marine water contains substantial quantity
of these salts. A high content of dissolved solids, elevates the density of water, influences
osmoregulation of fresh water organisms and reduces solubility of gases there by reducing
the quality of water.
3.Name some of salts present in natural water.
Ans: Some salts which are found dissolved in water are carbonates , bicarbonates , chlorides ,
phosphates , sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Iron and Manganese .
Experiment No.: 6
DETERMINATION OF TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Date: 18/09/2020
AIM
To find the total dissolved solids present in water sample using digital TDS meter.
REQUIREMENT
TDS meter with conductivity cell, distilled water, water sample.
PRINCIPLE
A large number of salts such as carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates,
phosphates and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and manganese etc.
are found dissolved in natural water. Similarly coastal marine water contains substantial
quantity of these salts. A high content of dissolved solids, elevates the density of water,
influences osmoregulation’s of fresh water organisms and reduces solubility of gases there
by reducing the utility of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes. Therefore
determination of TDS is one of the important parameter in water analysis.
PROCEDURE The following procedure is to be adopted to standardize the instrument
with measuring cell
a) Take the standard solution of known conductivity at 25 C in a beaker and dip the
measuring cell into it.
b) Set the range switch with the range of standard solution. (20mS)
c) Select the cell constant to one.
d) Set the mode switch to temp and change the temperature to 25 C by using the
temperature knob.
e) Set the mode switch to Tempco position and bring the display to 1.9. If it is not showing,
turn the tempco knob and make it to 1.9.
f) Bring the mode switch to TDS FACTOR and turn the TDS FACTOR knob to make the
display as 0.57.
g) Set the mode switch to 25 C conductivity and measure the conductivity of standard
solution.
The display should show 12.8 mS for 0.1 N KCl solution at 25 C. Now the instrument is
calibrated.
TABULATION:-
TDS
SI.NO Description of samples Range(ppm) value(mg/L)
1 Sample A 20 100
2 Sample B 20 500
3 Sample C 20 750
To measure the TDS of any solution
1. Rinse the cell with the solution whose TDS value is to be measured.
2. Dip the TDS cell in the solution under test.
3. Set the function switch to TDS check position.
4. Read the display, this will be the TDS at 25 C.
5. Bring the range switch at position where maximum resolution is obtained
RESULT
TDS value of the given sample are : Sample A = 100mg/L
Sample B = 500mg/L
Sample C = 750mg/L
INFERENCE :
The permissible limit/upper limit of TDS as per IS code is 500mg/L . Therefore , Sample
A & Sample B is fit for drinking.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and TDS?
Ans: TDS = k * EC , where the value of k = 0.67.
2.What is the value of TDS, if electrical conductivity of water is 2.35 mhos and constant 0.8?
Ans: TDS = k * EC ,
TDS = (0.8) * (2.35 * 10-6) = 1.88 * 10-6 mg/L.
3.Which is the IS code which gives the standards of drinking water?
Ans: IS 10500-2012 has specified drinking water quality standards in India to provide safe
drinking water to the people.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY


NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5
2. Pre lab questions 5
3. Conduction of experiment & 15

tabulation
4. Calculation &Evaluation of result 10
5. Post lab questions 5
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.What is meant by alkalinity in water and waste water?
Ans: on Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Alkalinity of

water is due primarily to the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions.
Carbonates and hydroxide may be significant when algal activity is high and in certain
industrial water and wastewater, such as boiler water. Alkalinity is significant in the
treatment processes for potable water and wastewater.
2.What are the constituents that cause alkalinity to water?
Ans: The alkalinity of natural water is determined by the soil and bedrock through which it
passes. The main sources for natural alkalinity are rocks which contain carbonate,
bicarbonate, and hydroxide compounds. Borates, silicates, and phosphates also may
contribute to alkalinity. Limestone is rich in carbonates, so waters flowing through limestone
regions or bedrock containing carbonates generally have high alkalinity.
3.At what pH range alkalinity is present in water?

Ans: The pH measurements are given on a scale of 0.0 to 14.0. Pure water has a pH of 7.0
and is neutral; water measuring under 7.0 is acidic; and that above 7.0 is alkaline or basic.
DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY
Experiment No. 7
Date: 25/09/2020
AIM
To estimate the amount of alkalinity of the given water sample. A standard solution
sodium carbonate (0.1N) and approximately decinormal solution of dilute HCl acid
are supplied.
REQUIREMENT
Burette, pipette, conical flask, standard HCl (0.1N), sodium carbonate (0.1N),
phenolphthalein indicator and methyl orange indicator.
i. Alkalinity acts to buffer the water in a p H range where the coagulants added to
water can be effective in the water softening processes. It must present in excess of
that destroyed by the coagulation process effective and complete.
ii. Alkalinity is important in calculating the lime and soda – ash requirements in
softening of water by precipitation methods.
iii. Alkalinity is an important factor in determining the amenability of waste waters to
biological treatment.
iv. Highly alkaline water is unpalatable, and hence consumers tend to seek other
supplies.
v. Highly alkaline water is also considered to the unsuitable for boiler feed as it is
corrodes boilers.
So, alkalinity determination is the most important principle test done to water quality
management.
PRINCIPLE
Alkalinity of sample can be estimated by titrating with standard hydrochloric acid.
Titration to pH 8.3 or decolourisation of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate
complete neutralization of hydroxide and half of carbonate while to pH 4.5 or sharp
change from yellow orange of methyl orange indicator will indicate total
alkalinity(complete neutralization of hydroxide, carbonate and bi-carbonate )
Determination of alkalinity is based on the following
reactions - +
(1) OH + H --------- H2O (using phenolphthalein)
2- +
(2) CO3 + H --------- HCO3 (using phenolphthalein)
(3) HCO3 + H ---------H2O + CO2 (using methyl orange)
TABULATION Determination of alkalinity
Sl.No. Volume of water Volume of Indicator

sample (ml) Burrete reading ACID (ml)
Intial Final
1 20 9.5 9.5
Phenolphthalein
0
2 20
9.5 Methyl Orange
22.9 13.4
CALCULATION
Let the volume of acid used to phenolphthalein endpoint A ml and the additional
volume of acid used to methyl orange endpoint B ml
Phenolphthalein alkalinity in terms of CaCO3
A x 50 x N x 1000
X= -----------------------------------ppm = 9 .5𝑥50𝑥0.1𝑥1000
= 2375 ppm
20
20
Methyl orange alkalinity in terms of CaCO3

(A+B) x 50 x N x1000 Y =
-----------------------------------ppm = 22 .9𝑥50𝑥1000
= 5725
ppm
20
20
When the water sample is titrated against a standard acid. Phenolphthalein end point
marks the completion of the first two reaction.
The amount of acid consumed corresponds to the hydroxide and one half of the
normal carbonate present. whereas, when the titration is carried out against a standard
acid to methyl orange endpoint, it marks the completion of all the three reaction
given. Therefore , the amount of acid used after the phenolphthalein endpoint
corresponds to one half of normal carbonate and all the bicarbonates ie, the
Alkalinity caused by OH., CO3 and HCO3 )
The alkalinity in water can have the following combinations : (1)OH alone (2) CO 3
alone (3) HCO3 only (4) OH and CO3 together (or) (5) CO3 and HCO3 together. As
OH and HCO3 react to give CO3 they cannot be present together. Also the all the three
ions OH, CO3 and HCO3 cannot co-exist .
PROCEDURE
Pipette out 20ml of the sample water in to a clean conical flask. Add 2 or 3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator and titrate this solution against the standardized
hydrochloric acid till the pink colour disappears. To the same solution add 2or 3
drops of methyl orange indicator and continue the titration till the colour changes
from yellow to orange pH comes down to 4.5, repeat the titration to got concordant
values.
RESULT
1. Phenolphthalein alkalinity of the sample = 2375 ppm

2. Methyl orange alkalinity of the sample = 5725 ppm
3. Hydroxide alkalinity = 0 ppm
4. Carbonate alkalinity = 4750 ppm
5. Bycarbonate alkalinity = 975 ppm
INFERENCE
The Hydroxide Alkalinity is Zero, Carbonate Alkalinity is 4750 ppm and BI-
Carbonate Alkalinity is 975 ppm respectively as X<1/2 here.
(1) When X= 0, OH and CO3 are absent and the alkalinity is due to HCO3 only.
(2) When X = 1/2Y , only CO3 is present because half of the carbonate
neutralization takes place.
CO3 + H --------------- HCO3

Complete carbonate neutralization takes place when methyl orange indicator is
used
CO3 + H ---------- HCO3

HCO3 +H ------- CO2 + H2O
Hence alkalinity due to CO3 = 2 X
(3) When X = Y, OH alone is present since CO 3 and HCO3 are absent. Alkalinity
due to
OH =X=Y
(4) When X is higher than 1/2Y, in addition to OH ions, CO3 ions are also present.
Therefore, half of CO3 = (X –Y), hence alkalinity due to OH = Y-2 (Y-X) =
(2X-Y).
(5) When X is lower than 1/2Y, in addition to CO 3 ions , HCO3 ions are also
present. Alkalinity due CO3 = 2X. Therefore alkalinity due HCO3= (Y-2X).
Result of OH alkalinity as CO3 alkalinity as HCO3 alkalinity as
titration CaCO3 CaCO3 CaCO3
X=0 0 0 Y
X=½Y 0 2X 0
X=Y X 0 0
X> ½ Y 2X-Y 2(Y-X) 0
X<½Y 0 2X Y- 2X
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.How is alkalinity removed from water?
Ans:The dealkalization of water refers to the removal of alkalinity ions from water.
Chloride cycle anion ion exchange dealkalizers remove alkalinity from water.
Chloride cycle dealkalizers operate similar to sodium cycle cation water softeners.
Like water softeners, dealkalizers contain ion exchange resins that are regenerated
with a concentrated salt (brine) solution - NaCl. In the case of a water softener, the
cation exchange resin is exchanging sodium (the Na+ ion of NaCl) for hardness
minerals such as calcium and magnesium.
2.What is the permissible limit of alkalinity in water to be used for RCC works?
Ans: BS 3148 specifies comparative setting time and strength tests besides
recommending the following general limits of inorganic constituents: chlorides
maximum in RCC 500 mg/L; total sulphates 2000mg/L, Total alkalinity 500mg/L,
other dissolved solids maximum 2000 mg/L, and suspended solids maximum 2000
mg/L.
3.A water does not give pink colour when phenolphthalein indicator is added but it
changes colour from yellow to orange when titrate against acid using methyl orange
indicator. What type of alkalinity present in the sample?
Ans: Phenolphthalein is naturally colourless but turns pink in Alkaline solution. The
compound remains colourless throughout the range of acidic pH levels but begin to
turn pink at a pH level of 8.2.
The alkalinity present is acidic in nature in sample, Methyl Orange has a property to
change colour of neutral and alkaline water to yellow. If the water sample is acidic it
turns red immediately.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : Determine the amount of chlorides present in the given
water sample by titration with standard silver nitrate solution.

S MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

I (40) OBTAINED
N
O
1
. Attendance 5
2
. Pre lab questions 5
3 15
. Conduction of experiment &
tabulation
4
. Calculation &Evaluation of result 10
5
. Post lab questions 5
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the sources chlorides in waste water?
Ans: The presence of chlorides in waste water can be attributed to dissolution of salt
deposits, discharge of effluents from chemical industries, oil well operations, sewage
discharges, irrigation drainage contamination from refuge leachates, and seawater intrusion
in coastal areas.
2. What are the harmful effects of chlorides if it exceeds the permissible limits?
Ans: Chlorides can corrode metals and affect the taste of food products. Chlorides can
contaminate fresh water streams and lakes. Fish and aquatic communities cannot survive in
high level of chlorides.
DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDES
Experiment No.: 8
Date: 03/10/2020
AIM
Determine the amount of chlorides present in the given water sample by titration with
standard silver nitrate solution.
REQUIREMENT
Burette, Pipette, Glass rod, Silver Nitrate solution(0.0141N), Potassium chromate
indicator.
The presence of chlorides in natural waters can be attributed to dissolution of salt
deposits, discharge of effluents from chemical industries, oil well operations, sewage
discharges, irrigation drainage contamination from refuge leachates, and seawater intrusion
in coastal areas. Each of these sources may result in local contamination of both surface
water and ground water.
The salty taste produced by chlorides depends on the chemical composition of the
water .A concentration of 250 mg/l may be detectable in some waters containing sodium
ions. On the other hand, the typical salty taste may be absence in water 1000mg/l chloride
when calcium and magnesium ions are predominant. High chloride content also has a
deleterious effect on metallic pipes and structures as well as on agricultural plants.
PRINCIPLE
Chloride is determined by Mohr’s method, titration with standard Silver nitrate
solution using Potassium chromate as indicator in which silver chloride is precipitated at
first. The end of titration is indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess silver
ions. In a natural or slightly alkaline solution potassium chromate can indicate the end point
of silver nitrate. Silver chloride(white colour) is precipitated quantitatively before red Silver
chromate is formed.
AgNO3 + Cl- → AgCl (white) + NO3-
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4 (Red) + 2KNO3
PROCEDURE
a) Take 25 ml of sample in a conical flask.
b) Adjust its pH to be between 7.0 and 8.0 either with sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide
solution.
c) Add 1.0ml of Potassium chromate indicator to get light yellow color.
d) Titrate with standardize Silver nitrate solution till the color changes to reddish brown
tinge.
e) Note down the ml of Silver nitrate used.(A)
TABULATION Titration : Estimation of Chloride
Sample vs. … AgNO3…………
S.NO. Volume of Burette Indicator

sample(ml) reading Volume of
Silver Nitrate
Initial Final (ml)
Potassium
Sample(A)
26.5 26.5 chromate
20 0
3.5 Potassium
0 3.5
Blank(B) 20 chromate
Calculation:
Chloride in mg/l = (A-B)×normality×35.45×1000 =
Volume of the sample

(26.5−3.5)𝑥 0.0141 𝑥 35.45 𝑥 1000
= = 574.82 mg/L
20
(f) Repeat the titration for concordant values.

(g) If more quantity of potassium chromate is added, Ag2CrO4 may form too soon or not
soon enough.
(h) For better accuracy, titrate distilled water in the same manner.
(i) Note the volume of the silver nitrate added for distilled water. (B)
RESULT
Amount of chloride present in the water sample = 574.82mg/L
INFERENCE: Permissible limit of chlorides in water is 250mg/L. Observed value of

chloride in the given sample is 574.82mg/L which is more than the permissible limit hence
the sample is unfit for use.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.What is the permissible limits of chlorides for drinking water purposes?
Ans: The permissible limit of chlorides for drinking water purposes is 250mg/L.
2.What are the treatment methods to remove chlorides from wastewater?
Ans: Many techniques have been adopted in order to reduce the amount of chlorides in
wastewater like demineralization,microfiltration, reverse osmosis, coagulation, precipitation,
electrodialysis.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS BY

EDTA METHOD

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(40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

3. Conduction of Experiment & 15
Tabulation
4. Calculation & Evaluation of 10
Result
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. Define hardness?
Ans : Hardness is a degree of ability of water to cause precipitation of insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts of higher fatty acids from soap solutions.
2. What are the constituents that cause hardness?
Ans : Temporary hardness is caused due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Permanent hardness is non-carbonate hardness and is caused due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides
and nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
3. How do you classify the water based on hardness?
Ans : The water is classified as follow on the basis of hardness :
Hardness (CaCO3 mg/L) Degree of hardness
0-75 Soft
75-100 Moderately hard
150-300 Hard
>300 Very hard
Experiment No. 9 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS BY EDTA METHOD
Date : 10/10/2020
AIM
Determine the amount of total, permanent and temporary hardness of the given sample of
water
REQUIREMENT
Burette, pipette, conical flask, standard flask, beaker and heating mantle, standard EDTA, Eriochrome
black -T indicator, ammonia buffer.
Water hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap, as
hard water requires a considerable amount of soap to produce lather. Scaling of hot water pipes,
boilers and other house hold appliances is due to hard water. Hardness of water is not a specific
constituent but is a variable and complex mixture of cations and anions. It is caused by dissolved
polyvalent ions. In fresh water, the principle hardness causing ions are calcium and magnesium.
However, the ions strontium, iron, barium, and manganese also contribute to hardness.
Although hardness is caused by cations, it may also be classified in terms of carbonate and
non carbonate hardness. Carbonate hardness refers to the amount of carbonate and bi carbonate in
solution that can be removed of precipitated by boiling. This type of hardness is responsible for
deposition of scaling hot water pipes and kettles. Non carbonate hardness is caused by the
association of the hardness causing cation with sulphate, chloride are nitrate and is referred as
permanent hardness because it cannot be removed by boiling.
PRINCIPLE
In alkaline condition, EDTA reacts with calcium and magnesium to form a soluble
chelated complex. Calcium and magnesium ions develop wine red colour with eriochrome black- T
under alkaline condition. When EDTA is added as a titrant ,Ca and Mg divalent ions get
complexed resulting in sharp colour change from wine red to blue which indicates the end point of
titration.
PROCEDURE Determination of total hardness

Take 20ml of water sample in a conical flask. Add 5ml of ammonia buffer solution
followed by 5 drops of eriochrome black-T indicator. Titrate this with standard EDTA solution till
the colour changes wine red to blue. Note down the volume of EDTA required. Repeat the titration
for concordant values (V1).
Determination of Permanent Hardness
Measured 100 ml water sample, and boiled till the sample reduced fifty percent. Then cool
and filtered the sample and make it 100ml using with distilled water in standard measuring flask
.pipette out 20ml and titrate with standard EDTA solution till the colour changes from wine red to
blue. Note down the volume of EDTA required. Repeat the titration for concordant values
(V2)
TABULATION Titration I: Determination of Total Hardness

Std EDTA vs. water sample
Sl.No Indicator
Burrete reading
Volume of water Volume of
sample (ml) EDTA (ml)
Initial Final
1 20 0 15.6 15.6
2 20 0 15.6
3 20 0 15.6
EB-T
Titration II: Determination of Permanent Hardness

Std EDTA vs. boiled water sample
Sl.No. Volume of boiled Volume of Indicator

Burrete reading
water sample (ml) EDTA (ml)
Initial Final
1 20 0 12.3 12.3
2 20 0 12.3
3 20 0 12.3
EB-T
CALCULATION:-
Total Hardness = Volume of EDTA (V1) x 1000mg/l
Volume of sample
= 15.6 x 1000
20
= 780 mg/l
Permanent hardness = Volume of EDTA (V2) x 1000mg/l

Volume of sample
= 12.3 x 1000
20
= 615 mg/l
Temporary hardness = Total hardness - Permanent hardness
= 780 – 615
= 165 mg/l
RESULT
Total hardness of the water sample = 780 ppm
Permanent hardness of water sample = 615 ppm
Temporary hardness water sample = 165 ppm
INFERENCE
Since the total hardness of the sample is more than 600 mg/l. Therefore, the sample is not fit for use.
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the permissible limit of total hardness for drinking water?
Ans : The permissible limit of total hardness in the absence of alternate source for drinking water is
600mg/l .The acceptable limit(requirement) of total hardness is 200 mg/l.
2. Why and how the pH value is adjusted to 10 in EDTA method?

Ans : EDTA is insoluble in water at low pH because H4Y is predominant in that pH (less than 2).
With increasing the pH, each hydrogen ion in the carboxyl groups of EDTA will start to dissociate.
Above pH 10, Y4- is predominant. As we need Y4- to react with the metal ions present in the
titration solution, we use pH 10 buffer such as ammonium chloride.
3. What are the methods to be used to remove temporary hardness?
Ans : The methods to be used to remove temporary hardness are boiling or Clark’s method.

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : ESTIMATION OF IRON IN THE GIVEN WATER
SAMPLE


NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Total 40
Staff Signature
89
PRE LAB QUESTIONS

1. What are the effects if iron is present in water?
Ans : The following are the effects if iron is present in water :
• More than 0.3 mg/l of iron will cause yellow to reddish-brown stains of plumbing fixtures or
almost anything that it contacts.
• If the concentration exceeds 1 mg/l, the taste of the water will be metallic and the water may be
turbid.
• A deficit of iron in the body can leave a person feeling tired and listless, and can lead to a disorder
called anaemia.
• Iron renders the water turbid, imparts colour to water
• Its presence may help in the proliferation of iron reducing bacteria in the aquifer and the pipe lines.
2. What level of iron is recommended for drinking water?
Ans : For the iron ,the desirable limit is 0.3mg/l in water and the tolerable limit is 1.0mg/l. There is no
relaxation in the absence of alternate source in the permissible limit,
Experiment ESTIMATION OF IRON IN THE GIVEN WATER SAMPLE

No.10
Date: 10/10/2020
AIM
To determine the amount of Iron present in the given water sample.
REQUIREMENT
Standard solutions, spectrophotometer, glassware
Although iron has got little concern as a health hazard but is still considered as a nuisance in
excessive quantities. Long time consumption of drinking water with a high concentration of can
lead to liver diseases. Iron rich water when exposed to air, became turbid and highly
unacceptable in aesthetic view point. Iron in excess of 0.3 mg/l cause stains to wash basins and
steel containers. They also form red spot on clothes. Iron promote the growth of iron-bacteria.
This gives rusty appearance to water may also form a slime which causes problems in water
closets, pipes, pumps and distribution systems. High concentration of iron in water is not suitable
for processing of food, beverages, ice, dyeing, bleaching and many other items.
PRINCIPLE
In the phenanthroline method, the ferric form of iron is reduced to ferrous form by boiling with
hydrochloric acid and hydroxylamine hydrochloride. The reduced iron chelates with 1,10
phenanthroline at pH 3.2 to 3.3 to form complex of orange-red colour. The intensity of colour is
proportional to the concentration of iron and obeys Beer’s law.
PROCEDURE
Reagents:
a.Hydrochloric acid, HCl conc, with less than 0.00005% iron.
b. Hydroxylamine solution; dissolve 10g NH2OH.HCl in 100 mL distilled water.
c. Ammonium acetate buffer solution; dissolve 250g NH4C2H3O2 in 150 mL water, add 700
mL glacial acetic acid. Since ammonium acetate may contain a significant amount of iron,
prepare new reference standards with each buffer preparation.
d. Sodium acetate solution; dissolve 200 g NaC2H3O2.3H2O in 800 mL water.
e. Phenanthroline solution; dissolve 100mg 1,10-Phenanthroline monohydrate,
C12H8N2.H2O, in 100 mL water by stirring and heating to 80°C, without boiling, discard if
darkens or add 2 drops conc. HCl to avoid heating.
TABULATION
SI.NO Standard solution concentration absorbance

CALCULATION
f. Stock iron solution; slowly add 20 mL conc H 2SO4 to 50 mL water and dissolve
1.404g ferrous ammonium sulphate, Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O; add 0.1N KMnO4 dropwise
until a faint pink colour persists, dilute to 1 L with water and mix; 1 mL=200 µgFe.
g. Standard iron solutions: (i) Take 50 mL stock iron solution in volumetric flask
and dilute to 1 L; 1 mL = 10.0 µgFe; (ii) Take 5 mL stock solution into a 1 L volumetric
flask and dilute to the mark with distilled water: 1 mL = 1.0µg Fe.
Procedure:
a. Total iron : Take 50 mL of mixed sample into a 125 mL conical flask. If this volume
is expected to contain more than 200 µg iron use a smaller portion and dilute to 50 mL.
Add
2 mL conc HCl 1 mL NH2OH. HCl solution, a few glass beads and heat to boiling till
the volume is reduced to 15-20 mL, cool, and transfer to a 50 mL volumetric flask. Add
10 mL NH4C2H3O2 buffer solution and 4 mL phenanthroline solution, dilute to the
mark with water. Mix and allow 10-15 min. for colour development. Take photometer
readings at 510nm.
b.Dissolved iron : Filter sample through a 0.45 µm membrane filter into a vacuum flask
containing 1 mL conc.HCl/100 mL sample. Analyse as above and express as total
dissolved iron.
c. Ferrous iron : Acidify freshly collected sample with 2 mL conc. HCl/100 mL of
sample, withdraw 50 mL portion, add 20 mL phenanthroline solution and 10 mL NH 4C2H3O2
solution, mix. Measure the colour after 15 minutes.
d. Calculate ferric iron by subtracting ferrous from total iron.
e. Colour measurement: Prepare a series of standards by accurately pipetting volumes of standard iron
solution into 125 mL conical flask, dilute to 50 mL. Follow steps as in a and plot a calibration curve.
Use weaker standard for measuring 1-10µg iron.
RESULT
The amount of Iron in the given sample = 0.47 mg/l
INFERENCE
Since, the desirable limit of iron is 0.3mg/l and the given sample is exceeding the limit. Therefore, it is
not fit use of drinking.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the health effects of iron in drinking water?
Ans : The health effects of iron in drinking water are as follows :
a) Iron is essential for good health because it transports oxygen in your blood.
b) In the body iron is strongly bound to transferrin, which enables exchange of the metal between cells. The
compound is a strong antibiotic, and it prevents bacteria from growing on the vital element. When one is
infected by bacteria, the body produces high amounts of transferrin.
c) When iron exceeds the required amount, it is stored in the liver. The bone marrow contains high
amounts of iron, because it produces haemoglobin.
d). Iron deficits lead to anaemia, causing tiredness, headaches and loss of concentration. The immune
system is also affected.
e) In young children this negatively affects mental development, leads to irritability, and causes
concentration disorder. Young children, pregnant women and women in their period are often treated with
iron (II) salts upon iron deficits.
f) When high concentrations of iron are absorbed, for example by hemochromatosis patients, iron is
stored in the pancreas, the liver, the spleen and the heart. This may damage these vital organs.
2. How can iron be removed from water?

Ans : Iron can be removed from water in following ways :
a) Polyphosphate Treatment.
b) Ion Exchange Method
c) Greensand (Adsorptive/Oxidative) Filtration.
d) Chlorination (Oxidation) Plus Filtration.
e) Lime softening
f) Conventional treatment (coagulation, flocculation, settling, filtration) g) Using Membranes
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : Determination of fluoride in the given sample of water
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : NIEHAUN


NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.What are the methods used to determine fluoride content of sample?
Ans : Fluoride present can be determined by either Spectrophotometer and ion electrode method.
2.What is the minimum fluoride required for life?
Ans : The minimum fluoride required for life is 1 mg/l.
3.Fluoride is called as a two edge sword. Why?
Ans : Fluoride is called as a two edge sword because deficiency of fluoride intake leads to dental
caries while excess consumption leads to dental and skeletal fluorosis.
Experiment No.11
DETERMINATION OF FLUORIDE IN THE GIVEN SAMPLE
Date: 17/10/2020
OF WATER
AIM
To determine the amount of fluoride in the given sample of water.
REQUIREMENT
Standard solutions, spectrophotometer, glasswares
Presence of largr amounts of fluoride is associated with dental and skeletal fluorosis (>1.5 mg/l) and
inadequate amount with dental caries (< 1 mg/l).
PRINCIPLE
The test based on the fact that fluoride ion combines with zirconium ion to form a stable complex
ion ZrF5 and this results in bleaching the red colour of zirconium and alzarine combination. The
decrease in intensity of colour is directly proportional to fluoride concentration.
PROCEDURE
Reagents
a. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, conc., reagent grade

b. Silver sulphate, Ag2SO4, crystals, reagent grade
c. Stock fluoride solution. Dissolve 221.0mg anhydrous sodium fluoride, NaF, in distilled water and
dilute to 1000 mL; 1 mL = 100µg F
d. Standard fluoride solution. Dilute 100 mL stock fluoride solution to 1000 mL with distilled water;
1 mL = 10µg F
e. SPADNS solution: Dissolve 958mg SPADNS, sodium 2 - (parasulphophenylazo)-1,8
dihydroxy- 3,6-naphthalenedisulphonate, in distilled water and dilute to 500 mL; protect from light -
stable for 1 year.
f. Zirconyl-acid reagent: Dissolve 133mg zirconyl chloride octahydrate, ZrOCl2.8H2O, in about
25 mL distilled water, add 350 mL conc HCl and dilute to 500 mL.
97
TABULATION
SI.NO Standard F solution mg/l F- Absorbance

1. SPADNS solution 0.98 -0.493
CALCULATION
Mg/F-/L = A/B × I/R
where:
A = µg F- reading from the standard curve
B = volume of diluted or undiluted sample taken for colour development, mL
R = when sample is diluted, volume of sample taken for dilution/final volume after dilution.
g. Mixed acid zirconyl-SPADNS reagent: Mix equal volumes of SPADNS solution and zirconyl-
acid reagent - stable for 2 years.
h. Reference solution: Add 10 mL SPADNS solution to 100 mL distilled water. Dilute 7 mL conc
HCl to 10 mL with distilled water and add to SPADNS solution - stable for 1 year. Set the instrument
to zero with this solution. i. Sodium arsenite solution: Dissolve 5g NaAsO2 and dilute to 1L with
distilled water (NOTE: toxic - avoid ingestion).
Procedure:
a. Standard Curve Preparation: Take the following volumes of standard fluoride solution and
dilute to 50 mL with distilled water and note down the temperature
b. Pipette 10.00 mL of mixed acid-zirconyl-SPADNS reagent to each standard and mix well.
Avoid contamination. Set photometer to zero absorbance with the reference solution and
obtain absorbance readings of standards (at 570nm). Plot a curve of mg F- versus absorbance.
Prepare a new standard curve whenever a fresh reagent or a different standard temperature is
used.
c. Sample Pre-treatment: If the sample contains residual chlorine remove it by adding 1 drop
(0.05 mL) NaAsO2 solution / 0.1mg residual chlorine and mix.
d. Colour Development: Use a 50 mL sample or a portion made to diluted to 50 mL with distilled

water. Adjust sample temperature to that of the standard curve. Set reference point of photometer
as above. Add 10.00 mL acid-zirconyl-SPADNS reagent, mix well and read absorbance. If the
absorbance falls beyond the range of the standard curve, repeat using a diluted sample
RESULT
The amount of fluoride in the given sample of water = 0.98 ppm
INFERENCE
Since the permissible limit of fluoride in water is <1 mg/l. The given water sample has fluoride
level of 0.98 mg/l, so it is suitable for drinking.
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What are the methods available to remove fluoride from water?
Ans : The methods available to remove fluoride from water are Adsorption on activated carbon and activated
alumina, Nalgonda technique using alum and lime ,Precipitation , Ion exchange resin beds,Membrane
processes and other miscellaneous methods.
2. Which are the states facing excess fluoride problem in ground water in India?
Ans : The states facing excess fluoride problem in ground water in India Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar and Kerala
3. How can you increase fluoride concentration in drinking water with deficiency of fluorine?
Ans : We can increase fluoride concentration in drinking water with deficiency of fluorine by adding
sodium fluoride, sodium silicofluoride, calcium fluoride and hydrofluosilicic acid.

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE


NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS

1. Why do you determine residual chlorine in water treatment practice and water supply mains?
Ans : Residual chlorine is measured to ensure effective disinfection without wastes of chlorine in water
treatment plant.
2. Why it is necessary to maintain 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l residual chlorine in water distribution main?
Ans : It is necessary to maintain 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l residual chlorine in water distribution main To prevent further
contamination in distribution system.
3. Give the chemical formula of bleaching powder.
Ans : The chemical formula of bleaching powder is Ca(OCl)2

Experiment No. DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE
12
Date 17/10/2020
AIM
To determine the residual chlorine in the given water sample.
REQUIREMENT
Burette, Pipette , Conical flask, Measuring cylinders, 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate
solution.
SIGNIFICANCE
Living micro-organisms like algae, fungi, bacteria are harmful if they are present in
drinking water. Control of these micro-organisms is achieved by chlorination. However, if there is
excess chlorine drinking water is undesirable. Hence the amount of free chlorine in drinking
water is estimated prior to domestic supply.
PRINCIPLE
The principle involved in estimation of free chlorine is that when a measured quantity of
water is treated with excess of potassium iodide the free chlorine in water oxidizes the
corresponding amount of potassium iodide to iodine. The liberated iodine is estimated by titration
against standard sodium thiosulphate solution using starch as indicator.
Cl2 + KI --------------→ 2KCl + I2 I2 + 2 Na 2S

2 O3 -----------→Na 2S 4 O 6 + 2 NaI
TABULATION
S.NO. Volume of sample(ml) Burette reading Volume of Indicator

Initial Final Sodium
Thiosulphate (ml)
1 20 0 1 1 Starch Indicator
2 20 0 1
3 20 0 1
CALCULATION
Burette readings x N of sod.Thiosulphate x35.45 x1000

Free chlorine in mg/l = -------------------------------------------------------------------- ml
of sample
= 1 x 0.025 x 35.45 x 1000 mg/l

20
= 44.3125 mg/l
PROCEDURE
1. Take 20 ml sample in a conical flask.
2. Add 10ml of Potassium iodide solution.
3. Add 2ml of conc.Hydrochloric acid to reduce pH to a low value between 3.5 to 4.2 to avoid
Conversion of Cl2 into HOCl and OCl-.
4. Allow reaction to complete. It will turn yellow.
5. Titrate with Sodium thiosulphate solution till the yellow colour turns to light yellow.
6. Add two to three drops of starch indicator to produce blue colour.
7. Again titrate with Sodium thiosulphate solution
8. Note the end point when deep blue colour changes to colourless.
RESULT
The amount free residual chlorine present in the given water sample is = 44.3125 mg/l
INFERENCE
The acceptable limit of residual chlorine is 0.2 mg/l. There for the given sample with residual chlorine
with 44.3125 mg/l is not suitable for use.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. What is the % of active available chlorine in bleaching powder?
Ans : The active available chlorine in bleaching powder is 20 to 30 %.
2. Name any three disinfectant which can commercially be employed in water treatment?
Ans : The three disinfectant which can commercially be employed in water treatment are Chlorine, Ozone,
Ultraviolet radiation.
3. Free available chlorine is more effective than combined chlorine.Why?
Ans : Free available chlorine is more effective than combined chlorine as diffusion of HOCl into cell wall of
bacteria is quite high as compared to combined available chlorine.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the given
sample of water.


NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Calculation &Evaluation of
4. result 10
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.What are the factors affecting dissolved oxygen content in surface water?
Ans: Factors affecting dissolved oxygen content in surface water are temperature , oxidation reaction ,
reduction reaction , sunlight , movement of water etc.
2.Write significance of DO determination in water.
Ans: Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important indicators of water quality. It is
essential for the survival of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Experiment No.: 13
Date: 27/10/2020
DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXGEN
AIM
To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the given sample of water.
REQUIREMENT
Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, Stopper bottle, Sodium thiosulphate, Potassium dichromate, Starch,
HCL, KI, MnSO4, Alkaline KI.
PRINCIPLE
Atomic oxygen decomposes KI liberating free iodine. This can be titrated against
standard sodium thiosulphate solution.But as oxygen in water is present in the molecular
form,its conversion in to atomic state is necessary, which is done by react the water sample
with manganese hydroxide.
2MnSO4+ 4NaOH ------------→2Mn(OH)2 + 2 Na2 SO4
2Mn(OH)2 + O2 ----------------→ 2MnO(OH)2 Basic Manganese oxide
2MnO(OH)2 + 2H 2SO4-------→ 2MnSO4 + 4H2O +2(O)
2KI + O + H2 SO4 ------------→ K2 SO4 +H2O +I2
PROCEDURE
1. Collect the water sample in a 300 ml BOD bottle up to the neck.

2. Add 2ml of MnSO4 and 2ml of alkaline KI solution to the BOD bottle. The tip of the
pipette should be below the liquid level, while adding these reagents.
3. Keep the stopper with care to exclude air bubbles and mix by repeatedly inverting the
bottle two to three times. If oxygen is present brown precipitate will be formed. If oxygen
is absent , white precipitate will be formed.
4. Allow sufficient to settle the precipitate leaving clear liquid within the upper portion. Now
add 2ml of conc.H 2SO4 and shake well. All the precipitate gets completely dissolved and
get a clear yellow solution.
TABULATION
Titration 2 : Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen
SI.NO Burette reading Volume of Na2 S2 Indicator

Volume of O3 (ml)
Water
sample(ml) Initial Final
1 300 0 49 49 Starch
Calculations:
1 ml of sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to 0.2 mg of oxygen
We are taking 200 ml of sample (203 ml is equivalent to 200 ml )
(200 × 300) /(300 -4) = 203 ml
So 1 ml of sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to (0.2 × 1000)/200 = 1 mg/l Therefore, dissolved
oxygen content = volume of titrant used.
5. Then pipette out 203 ml of the above solution in a conical flask and titrate against sodium
thiosulphate solution till it became pale yellow.
6. Add two to three drops of starch solution the solution turns to blue colour.
7. Titrate against sodium thiosulphate drop by drop till the disappearance of blue colour. Note the
reading.
RESULT
The amount dissolved oxygen in the given sample of water = 49mg/l
INFERENCE : The minimum amount of DO required is 4 mg/L . The sample is having DO

as 49 mg/L . Hence it is suitable for aquatic life.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.Explain the reason for taking 203 ml instead of 200 ml sample in DO test.
Ans: 1 ml of sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to 0.2 mg of oxygen

We are taking 200 ml of sample (203 ml is equivalent to 200 ml )
(200 × 300) /(300 -4) = 203 ml.
2.Two samples were collected at the same spot in the river. One is analysed immediately and
the other one is checked for DO in the laboratory. Which one give you lower result? Write
reason.
Ans: The sample which is checked for DO in the laboratory will give lower result because
many organic reactions may occur and bacteria may take up some amount of DO in the
water during the time taken to transfer the sample to the lab.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT : To determine the biochemical oxygen demand of the given sewage
sample.
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE :NILESH KUMAR

75

NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Calculation &Evaluation of
4. result 10
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.Define BOD.
Ans: Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample
at certain temperature over a specific time period.
2.Which type of organic matter is measured in BOD test?
Ans: Biological matter is measured in BOD test.

Experiment No.: 14 DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND
OF WATER
Date: 27/10/2020
AIM
To determine the biochemical oxygen demand of the given sewage sample.
REQUIREMENT
BOD bottles, BOD incubator, Phosphate buffer, Calcium chloride, Ferric chloride,
Acid alkali Solution, Manganese sulphate, Sodium thiosulphate, Potassium iodide, Pot.
Dichromate, Starch, Seed.
SIGNIFICANCE
BOD data have wide applications in environmental engineering practice. It is the
principle test applied to domestic and industrial wastes to determine pollutional strength in
terms of oxygen required for stabilization.It is also important in the design of treatment
facilities.After treatment plants are placed in operation ,the test is used to evaluate the
efficiency of various units.
PRINCIPLE
The BOD of domestic and industrial waste waters in the amount of molecular oxygen required
to stabilize the decomposable matter present in it by aerobic biochemical action.
Oxygen demand is exerted by three classes of matter,carbonaceous materials,
oxidisable nitrogen and certain chemical reducing agents.In practice the usual laboratory
BOD test ,samples are incubated for a period of 5 days at 20 C.
In order for organic matter to be oxidized by bacteria ,it must serve as food material from
which the organisms can derive energy for their growth and reproduction.
In the BOD test, the waste water supplies the biological food and the dilution water the
dissolved oxygen. The biological reaction that takes place is Waste organics + DO
---------------------------→CO2 + New colonial growth
Nitrifying bacteria can exert an oxygen demand in the BOD test by performing the following
reaction
Nitroso bacteria Nitro - Bacteria
NH3 + DO -----------------------------→NO2 + DO -----------------------→NO3
When bacteria die they become food material for other bacteria, and a further
transformation to CO2 ,H 2O and all tissue occurs. Living bacteria, as well as dead ones,
serve as food material for higher organisms such as protozoans.
The principle nutrients for the growth of microorganisms in the metabolism of
organic matter are nitrogen and phosphorous. In this test, these are provided in the
phosphate buffer solution which contains inorganic phosphate and ammonium chloride.
TABULATION
Sl.No Volume Dilution Initial DO Final DO Initial DO 5 day

Final
. of ratio of blank BOD
(D0) (D5) DO of
sample (C0)
blank At
(C5) 200C
1 10 6 3 5.6 89.4
5
CALCULATION
5 day BOD At 200C = (D0 - D5) × volume of bottle - (C0 - C5) = (6−3)𝑥 300 – (5.6-5)= 89.4mg/L
10
ml of sample
PROCEDURE
Preparation of dilution water

Place the desired volume of distilled water in a 5 litre flask. Aeration is done bubbling
compressed air through water. Add 1 ml of phosphate buffer, 1 ml of magnesium sulphate
solution, 1 ml of calcium chloride solution and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution for every litre
of distilled water. In case of wastewater are not expected to have sufficient bacterial
population add seed to the distilled water. Generally 2 ml of settled sewage is sufficient for
1000 ml of dilution water.
Procedure
1.If the wastewater sample is strong, it has to be diluted with dilution water.
2. strong waste –0.1, 0.5, 1 %
Settle domestic sewage – 1, 2.5, 5 %
Treated effluent –5, 12.5, 25%
River water –25% to 100%
3.Take the diluted sample in 2 BOD bottles
4.Fill another 2 BOD bottles with diluted water
5.Immediately find DO of the one diluted wastewater sample and one blank sample by Winklers
Method.
6.Incubate the other two BOD bottles at 20 0C for 5 days . They are to be tightly closed to prevent
any entry air into the bottles.
7.Determine the DO of the incubated sample after 5 days by winklers method.
RESULT
The amount of BOD in mg/l of water sample = 89.4 mg/L.
INFERENCE : The maximum limit of BOD is 40mg/L.BOD in the sample is 89.4mg/L which
is not preferable.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1.Light must be excluded from the incubator in BOD test.Why?
Ans: Light must be excluded from the incubator in BOD test because in light, bacteria may react
differently and reaction rate may differ.
2.Why was the 5 day incubation has been selected for BOD determination?
Ans: The standard oxidation (or incubation) test period for BOD is 5 days at 20 degrees
Celsius (°C) (BOD5). The BOD5 value has been used and reported for many applications,
most commonly to indicate the effects of sewage and other organic wastes on dissolved
oxygen in surface waters.
3.What are the limitations of BOD test?
Ans: A major disadvantage of the BOD test is the amount of time (5 days) required to obtain
the results. BOD test is a slow process.
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : NILESH KUMAR

NO (40) OBTAINED
1. Attendance 5

tabulation
Total 40
Staff Signature
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1.Define COD.
Ans : The chemical oxygen demand (COD) represents the amount of oxygen in milligrams required to
oxidize all the organic pollutants present in water to carbon dioxide and water.
2. Why do COD and BOD value usually give different results for the same waste water?
Ans : COD and BOD value usually give different results for the same waste water as COD gives a
measure of total oxidizable organic matter and BOD is a measure of biodegradable organic matter.
Experiment No. 15 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
Date: 27/10/2020
AIM
To determine the chemical oxygen demand of the given sewage sample.
REQUIREMENT
Round bottom flask, condenser, heated ferrous ammonium sulphate, potassium
dichromate, ferroin indicator, mercury sulphate, silver sulphate, concentrated sulphuric acid,
GENERAL
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) represents the amount of oxygen in milligrams
required to oxidize all the organic pollutants present in water to carbon di oxide and water. This
oxidation can be represented by the general equation.
Cn Ha Ob Nc + (n + a/4 - b/2 - ¾ c) O2 ----------→n CO2 + (a/2 -3/2 c) H 2O +c NH3
PROCEDURE
1.Place 0.4g of HgSO4 in the reflux flask.
2. Add 20ml of sample (or an aliquot diluted to 20ml)
3. 10ml of more concentrated dichromate solution are placed into flask together with glass beeds.
4. Add slowly 30ml of H 2SO4 containing Ag 2SO4 and mix thoroughly.
5. Connect the flask to condenser. Mix the contents thoroughly before heating.
6. Improper mixing results in bumping and the sample may be blown out.
7. Reflux for a minimum period of 2 hours. Cool and wash down the condenser with distilled water.
8. Dilute the sample to make up 150ml and cool.
9. Titrate excess K 2Cr 2O 7 with 0.1N Fe(NH4)2SO 4 using ferroin indicator.
10. Sharp colour change from blue green to wine red indicates the end point.
11. Reflux the blank in the same manner using distilled water instead of sample.
109
TABULATION
Sl.No Volume of Initial Final Volume of

sample burette burette ammonium
reading reading ferrous
sulphate
Blank 20 0 8 8
(A)
Sample
(B) 20 0 5 5
CALCULATION
(A - B ) × N × 8 × 1000
COD(mg/litre) = -------------------------------------- = (8-5) x 0.1 x 8 x 1000 = 120 mg/l
Volume of sample 20
Where
V =Volume of water sample
A = Blank titre value
B =Titre value with the water sample
N = Normality of the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution
110
RESULT
The chemical oxygen demand of the given sample is = 120 ppm.
INFERENCE
Since, the acceptable limit of COD in drinking water is < 250 mg/l . Therefore, the given
sample is suitable for drinking purpose.
POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the major limitations of the COD test?
Ans: The limitations of COD is its inability to differentiate between biologically oxidizable and
biologically inert organic matter. It does not provide any evidence of the rate at which the biologically
active material would be stabilized under conditions in nature.
2. What is the BOD to COD ratio of wastewater?
Ans: It varies with different types of wastewater. It is usually less than 1. COD is higher than BOD,
maximum of up to 4 times in medium scale industries but it varies based on the industrial process and
nature of the raw materials used.

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SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

15CE407L - ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

NAME OF THE STUDENT : NEHAUN

SI.NO DATE NAME OF EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGNATURE

7 25/09/202 Determination of Alkanity

Determination of free residual chlorine in water

Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen by Winkler’s

Determination of Biochemical Oxygen

Total Mark : Average(40):

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE: NEHAUN

SI.N MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

2. Pre Lab Questions 5

3. Conduction Of Experiment & 15

4. Calculation & Evaluation O 10

5. Post Lab Questions 5

3.What does it indicate if the pH value of water is less than 7 ?

Sl.No Sample no. pH value

1.What is the significance of pH of water in water treatment plants?

2. What is the reason for maintaining a constant moderate temperature in

SUB CODE & NAME:: 15CE407L ENVIRONMENTAL ENGG. LAB

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : NEHAUN

SI MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS MARKS

2. Pre Lab Questions 5

5. Post Lab Questions 5

2. Explain classification of solids?

Total fixed solid = (W3 -W1) × 1000 × 1000 mg/l

SUSPENDED SOLIDS (FILTERABLE) AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Total dissolved solids = Total solids – Total suspended solids

POST LAB QUESTIONS

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : NEHAUN

SI.N MARKS SPLIT UP MAXIMUM MARKS

2. Pre Lab Questions 5

Ans - The causes of turbidity in water are:

2. What are the units generally used to measure turbidity?

Experiment No. 3 DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY

SI SAMPLES RANGE (NTU) TURBIDITY (NTU)

02. 0 to 100 NTU 100 NTU 100.00

03. 0 to 1000 NTU 400 NTU 400.00

POST LAB QUESTIONS

3. What are turbidity standards for packaged mineral water?

Ans- Turbidity standards for packaged mineral water are as follows:

4. Calculation & Evaluation f

5. Post Lab Questions

Ans: The advantages of using a coagulant in water treatment are as follows :-

2.What is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?

• Coagulation is a process of addition of coagulant to destabilize a stabilized charged particle.

• Flocculation is affected by several parameters, including mixing speeds, mixing intensity,

Ans: The cause of alkalinity reduction in coagulation process are :

Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]

Experiment No. 4 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM COAGULANT DOSE BY

To determine the optimum coagulant dose.

Jar test apparatus, Alum solution, Hydrochloric acid, Sodium hydroxide.

Chemical coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation together reduce suspended and

1. Measure initial turbidity of the sample using Nephelo turbiditymeter.

11.Note the optimum coagulant dose for lowest residual turbidity.

JAR Nos DOSAGE OF COAGULANT RESIDUAL TURBIDITY

1. 2 mg/L 10.4 NTU

2. 4 mg/L 6.8 NTU

3. 6 mg/L 3.2 NTU

4. 8 mg/L 5.6 NTU

5. 10 mg/L 7.7 NTU

6 12 mg/L 12.5 NTU

Optimum alum dose