Population-

 Demographic transition (DT) refers to the transition from high birth and
death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country develops from a
pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

 Migration takes place due to two reasons – push factors like natural
disasters, poverty, pressure on resources, unemployment, etc. Pull factors
include better opportunities, employment, health and education and craze
for city life

Theories of human relation with environment

1. Environmental Determinism – here, man is low on technology and is

dependent on the forces of nature
2. Possibilism- here, man develops technology from the resources available to
him which are provided by nature and tries to overpower nature.
3. Griffith Taylor gave a golden path between the two called as neo-
determinism where man can conquer the nature by obeying it or in short,
do progress till the level permitted by nature.

Agriculture-
Crops are grown in three seasons- kharif, rabi and zaid (after harvest of rabi but
before monsoons)

Zaid crops include - Water melon, cucumber , muskmelon and sunflower, rice,
maize, groundnut

Irrigation is of 2 types- protective and productive.

 In protective type, irrigation is done to make sure the supply of moisture to
the crops is proper. In this case, irrigation is used as a supplement to rains.
 In productive irrigation, irrigation is the only source and hence water
supplied through irrigation is quite high.
Farming is of 2 types- dry land farming where rainfall is less than 75cm and
wetland farming when higher than 75cm. crops like jute, sugarcane, rice are
grown in wetland farming.

Crops Cultivated in India

Area under cultivation- rice> wheat> coarse pulses> pulses

Rice-

 Kharif crop. Grown all around the year in south

 Around 3000 varieties grown
 Main states-, Bengal, Bihar, UP, Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu
 One fourth of total cultivable area covered by rice.
 In south, it is mostly irrigated crop.
 In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and
‘boro’.

Wheat-

 Rabi crop needing cold climate. Hence grown in north India and not in
south
 Requires irrigation.
  Main producing states are Punjab and Haryana where yield is as high as
4ton/hectare
 Also produced in gangetic plains, lower Himalayas and malwa plateau.
 Wheat rust a disease turning leaves yellow and hampering photosynthesis

Jowar –

 Kharif as well as Rabi crop. But mainly kharif.

 Grown mostly in Maharashtra along with KA, MP
 It is grown in semi-arid areas and requires less water.
 In north, it is grown as a fodder crop. Rainfed crop in the south of Vindhyas

Bajra-

 Kharif crop
 Grown in hot and dry climates. It is drought resistant
 Grown in MH, Gujarat, Rajasthan, etc
 Cultivated alone and also in mixed cropping
India is the largest producer of millets in world

Maize-

 Kharif crop
 Grown in semi-arid states of central and south India
 Productivity is high among all coarse cereals like jowar, bajra, ragi, etc.
 Mainly grown in MP, AP, Karnataka.

Pulses-

 1/5th of total production of world. India largest producer of pulses.

 Grow in dry areas of central india and plateau
 Main is tur and gram.
 Gram – rabi crop and requires less irrigation. Mainly grown in MP,
Maharashtra, etc
  Tur – kharif crop. Maharashtra largest producer.

Oilseeds-

 Groundnut – kharif as well as rabi, is the main oilseed grown in Gujarat,

Maharashtra and south India. It is an irrigated crop in Tamil Nadu while
rainfed in rest of the areas
 Rapeseed (rabi) and mustard are grown mainly in rajasthan and other
central Indian states. It is irrigated and output can fluctuate due to
droughts. It is a Rabi crop.
 Soyabean is mainly grown in Maharashtra
 Mustard is rabi crop. Rapeseed and Mustard grown most in Rajasthan.

Cotton-

 Kharif crop
 Main areas lost to Pakistan. Still India ranks 4th in the world
 The crop needs clear skies while flowering stage
 Main areas are Gujarat and Maharashtra and northwestern parts of india
 High yields if irrigation is done. Yields low in Maharashtra.

Sugarcane-

 Grows in humid areas and rainfed areas. It can be grown through irrigation
too like in Maharashtra and northwest india.
 It is a water guzzling cash crop
 We rank second after Brazil in sugar production
 Uttar Pradesh has highest production.
Tea-
 Assam is the leading producer followed by WB and TN.
 India largest producer but third largest exporter.

Coffee
 Karnataka is the largest producer.
 India sixth largest producer, largest being Brazil.
Jute-
 Jute is termed as future fibre of the world by Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO). Being a tropical crop and its labour intensive nature
India have the high potential of becoming the Jute production house of the
world
 Natural Fibre crop known as golden fibre. 95% of world jute is grown in
India and Bangladesh. Cultivated extensively in Eastern and North East
India
 Condition: Grow in March-May season with hot and humid Climate,
Temperature: 24°C to 35°C, Rainfall: 120 to 150 cm, Soil: loamy and sandy
loam.
 Applicability: Raw material for textile, paper, building and automotive
industries, Use as decorative and furnishing materials, separation, filtration
and drainage in civil engineering work, Rural road pavement construction
and agro plant mulching.
 Environment benefits: bio-degradable and recyclable, use as soil saver, not
generate toxic gases when burnt Fitted in different crop rotations (less
environment cost of cultivation)
 Socio-economic factors Traditional practice of north-east people More
than 60% of total farmers are small and marginal farmers. Labour is readily
available (cultivated in areas of high population density). Less mechanical,
low need of fertilizers and pesticides.
 Challenges Growing demand of synthetic nylon fibre. Obsolete mills and
machinery. Irregular supply of raw material and production. Lesser
knowledge about the jute benefits.
 The Jute Technology Mission for better quality seeds through PPP and to
improve yield and quality.
 National Jute Board exists for research

Colours of revolution -

 Black - petroleum
 blue - fisheries
 brown - leather or cocoa
 golden - horticulture or honey
 grey- fertilizers
 red - meat or tomato
  yellow- oilseed

Blue Economy-
 As per the World Bank, Blue Economy is the sustainable use of ocean
resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while
preserving the health of ocean ecosystem.
 It covers several sectors linked directly or indirectly to the oceans such as
fishing, minerals, shipping and port infrastructure, marine biotechnology,
marine renewable energy, marine tourism, ocean governance and
education

Government Initiatives-
 Mission Fingerling launched with target to enhance fisheries production.
 ‘ReALCraft’ is a work flow based online application system for Vessel
Registration under MS Act and License Certificate under MFR Act to the
fishing vessels operating along the Indian coast
 Ornamental fishery is a sub-sector of the fisheries sector dealing with
breeding and rearing of coloured
 National Policy on Marine Fisheries launched- it focuses on developing
fishing as a profession, use of technology, commercialization of fishing, etc.
 Fisheries and Aquaculture Infra Development Fund setup under NABARD to
fund infra in fishing sector.
 PM Matsya Sampada Yojana

Problems in fishing industry-

 Lack of technology and funds
 Issue of crossing international boundaries
 Trawlers and damage to environment
 Over-fishing, less availability and rise in prices
 Lack of preservation infrastructure.
 Limited development in deep sea fishing as noted by Meenakumari
committee report.

Variations in Agriculture-
 Apiculture- bees
 Pisciculture- fishes
  Sericulture- silk
 Silviculture- forest rejuvenation
 Ratooning- It involves growing of successive crop from the stubble of the
previous crop.It is used for cultivation of sugarcane, banana, pineapple, etc

Types of agriculture-

 Subsistence agriculture- It is classified as primary subsistence agriculture or

slash and burn agriculture. Effects of shifting cultivation include loss of
forest produce, accelerated soil erosion, and increased siltation in tanks
and rivers and invasion of weeds in forest.
 Second type is intensive subsistence agriculture. in intensive, the land is
cultivated extensively with high productivity. But per capita income is low
due to high number of people who are dependent. 2-3 crops in a year.
Highly labour-intensive farming. Land holding is low due to division of land
between families. Produce is mainly for subsistence and extra produce is
sold in the market. Dependent on monsoon rains. Mainly food crops.
 Plantation agriculture- it was started by Europeans. The characteristic
features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large
capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of
cultivation, single crop specialization, cheap labour, and a good system of
transportation
 Commercial grain cultivation- extensive areas of a single crop are planted
and harvested. This type involves complete mechanization from ploughing
to harvesting. The yield per person is high because very less manpower is
needed. The most common crop in this type is wheat cultivated in the
Eurasian steppes.
 Mixed cropping- it involves cultivating crops like wheat, maize, barley, oats,
etc along with fodder crops. Crop rotation and intercropping is practiced
along with animal husbandry.
 Dairy farming- requires high investment and labour. It includes everything
from sheds, storage of milk, rearing of milch animals, their immunization,
facilities of pasteurization, etc. Human labour is required for rearing and
milk extraction. These farms are located near cities where milk and dairy
products are consumed.
 Mediterranean agriculture- Grown in the Mediterranean areas of Europe,
Asia, N America and Australia. The most common fruit grown is grape
 (viticulture). Best quality wines are made and inferior grapes are dried as
currants. Olives and figs are grown. Most crop is in winter season and is
supplied to northern Europe.
 Reasons- weather for summer and winter, fertile soils, irrigation canals,
market and labour, quality and branding, investment, dry summer
favourable for fruit processing and drying
 Market gardening and horticulture- it produces flowers, fruits and
vegetables. These farms are located near cities with good transportation
facilities. Vegetable farming is also called truck farming as it denotes the
distance a truck can cover in one night. Another modern type is poultry
farming famous in USA. Truck farming is a consequence of industrial
revolution. Commodities are perishable and transported daily.
 Cooperative farming- farmers establish cooperative societies and share the
profit amongst them. Societies help the farmers with latest technologies;
help them to sell their produce at better rates, etc. different agro-
processing industries have been established on the cooperative model.
 Collective farming- farmers used to pool labour, land and resources. State
would acquire the produce at fixed prices. Farmers had to pay taxes on
their produce. Extra produce would be distributed among the members.
 Factory Farming- Intensive method of livestock rearing in north western
Europe
 Shifting Cultivation- NITI Aayog proposes a national mission for shifting
cultivation to secure convergence of all ministries.

Mines-
The main mineral deposit areas are the Chhota Nagpur plateau which contains
iron ore, coal, bauxite, manganese, etc. The second area includes the south-
western region from Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala which is rich in iron
ore, bauxite and coal at Neyveli. Next region is the Gujarat and Rajasthan region
near Alwar. It is rich in zinc and copper. Marble, sandstone, granite are also found
here. Reserves of dolomite, feuller’s earth are also found. Monazite and Thorium
are found in beaches of Kerala. The Himalayan belt also has many mineral
deposits especially in Assam. The Assam, Mumbai High and Gujarat region has
petroleum and gas reserves.

 Iron Ore- India has 20 million tones of reserves of hematite and magnetite
iron ore. Both are high quality hence are in great demand all over. These
 mines are mainly based in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
Andhra, etc. Being a weight reducing product, iron refineries are located
near the mines itself. Thus, mining as a primary sector industry is
concentrated in these pockets. Also, manufacturing as a secondary industry
is also present in these areas. These areas are very well connected with
railways. The chhota Nagpur plateau mines carry on export from the ports
like Paradwip. In Karnataka, Bellary is well connected to Goan ports and
railways and Mangalore.
 Manganese – Orissa is the leading producer. Other producers are
Karnataka, Maharashtra’s vidarbha region, the Balaghat-Chhindwara belt of
MP. These regions are located far away from steel plants. Manganese is
mainly used for smelting of iron and for ferrous alloys.
 Bauxite- Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra are main producers.
Aluminum is made from Bauxite. It is mainly found on plateaus or on
coastal regions with lateritic rocks.
 Copper- it’s main use is in electrical and electronics industry. It is ductile,
malleable. It is also mixed with gold. It is mainly found in Jharkhand,
Rajasthan, Balaghat belt of MP, etc.
 Mica- it is most important non metallic mineral used in making thin but
tough sheets. They are heat insulators. It is mainly found in Hazaribagh-
Koderma belt of Jharkhand, Orissa, Jaipur-Udaipur belt of Rajasthan,
Nellore area of AP, etc. It is known as brown diamond.
 Coal- 300 billion tones of reserves. Apart from Neyveli, we get bituminous
and non-coking coal in India mainly from the Gondwana period and tertiary
deposits. Mainly found in the river belts of Mahanadi, Sone and Damodar.
Also found in Vidarbha.
 Petroleum – Mainly found in Digboi, Naharkatiya, Assam, Mumbai high and
Ankleshwar, Hazira, Mehsana in Gujarat. . It has been now discovered in
the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin too.
 Uranium- Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several
locations along the Singbhum Copper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar
and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh,
Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
Uranium mineralization in Meghalaya has been found over a large area
around Domiasiat, Wahkyn, Lostoin etc.
 Natural Gas- National Gas Grid planned. Urja Ganga plan to supply piped
natural gas to east India.
  Igneous minerals i.e those forced up from cracks- tin, copper, lead, zinc.
 Sedimentary- coal, some types of iron, gypsum and potash salt.
 Weathering rocks- bauxite
 Alluvial deposits- goal, silver, platinum.

Inland Waterways-

 NW1- Allahabad- Haldia in three stages- Allahabad –Patna, Patna-Farakka,

Farakka- Haldia.
 NW2- Sadiya-Dhubri stretch on Brahmaputra
 NW3- Kottapuram-Kollam in Kerala along the Champakara and
Udyogmandal canal.
 NW4 - Kakinada- Puducherry canals along with Godavari and Krishna rivers
(1078 km)
 NW5 -East Coast Canal integrated with Brahmani river and Mahanadi delta
rivers (588 km)

Factors Deciding Location of industries-

 Raw materials- coal, iron, sugarcane vs cotton
 Power- like aluminum, chemicals, etc need high amount of power
 Market- cotton, petroleum are near market
 Transport- all major plants are on trunk rail routes
 Labour
 Industrial policy of states-
 Historical factors.

Iron and Steel Industry-

 India ranks 3rd in world. India currently has around 110 MTPA (Million Tons
Per Annum) steel capacity. It aims to create additional 190 MTPA capacity
by 2025-26. Around $1 billion investment is required to develop 1 MTPA
steel capacity
 TISCO since pre-independence times. After 2nd five year plan, focus on
capital goods. Hence plants established at Rourkela, Bokaro, Durgapur, etc.
 The government is looking at creating a fund under India’s first sovereign
wealth fund, NIIF, which will address capital requirements of domestic steel
companies.
  Govt has proposed a National Steel Policy that includes to develop a self-
sufficient steel industry that is globally competitive. The policy proposes
setting up Greenfield Steel Plants along the Indian coastline under the
Sagarmala Project, 300MT steel making capacity by 2030.
 Another policy for giving preference to domestically manufactured iron and
steel products in government procurement.

Problems in steel industry-

 High capital cost has eroded competitiveness of Indian steel industry.
 High debt of steel companies
 Issue of dumping by China and import duty to protect domestic consumers.
 Lack of quality coking coal
 Problem of environmental clearances in India hampers the steel industry.
Issue of tribals and forested lands being cut down.
 Example- SC ban on Goa iron mining, protests against POSCO plant in
Orissa, etc.

Sugar industry-
 2nd biggest agro-based industry after cotton. The industry gives sugar,
jiggery, ethanol and also runs co-generation plants based on biomass from
bagasse
 India ranks 2nd in world after Brazil. The industry provides income for lakhs
of farmers and also to farm labourers.
 Maharashtra, UP, Tamil Nadu at top.
Problems-
 Unsold stock
 Drought and low price led to less revenues
 State Administered Price SAP is higher than FRP.
 Pending dues to farmers
 Takeover of mills due to losses
 Restrictions like ethanol blending target and export quota, stockholding
restrictions

Way ahead- Rangarajan formula of giving 70% value of sales of mills to farmers
and allowing farmers to sell at any mill, not to increase FRP when sugar prices
themselves are low, create buffer stock of sugar to maintain prices
Cotton Industry-
 Present since ancient times. British encouraged cotton production as raw
material but led to decrease in cotton textiles.
 The industry recovered after 1947 and by 2016, there were around 3400
cotton mills in India and employ more than 60 lakh people.
 Reasons for cotton industry- tropical climate, cheap and skilled labour,
good export conditions
 Cotton industry can be divided into 2- organized and decentralized industry
like handlooms, powerloom and Khadi industry.
 Since it does not lose weight, the labour, capital and market conditions
determine the location of cotton industries.
 Government initiatives- Khadi, Indian Handloom Tag, online e-commerce
 Concerns- synthetic fibres, agri distress, choice of public fashion, lack of
technology and lack of power for powerlooms

Petroleum industry-
 Show on map oil refineries at Mumbai, Chennai, Cochin, Jamnagar, Digboi,
etc
 Use of crude oil to get petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha, organic polymers,
etc
 In spite of being heavily dependent on imports, India produced about 37
million tons of crude oil in 2016. It also has 23 refineries with total capacity
of 230 MMT.
 India has reserves of petroleum in Arabian Sea, KG Basin and inland ones at
Assam.
 Indian refineries produce a lot of petroleum products that are marketed all
over.
 Market is under CPSE like IOC and ONGC.
 Government initiatives- HELP, strategic reserves, buying foreign fields,
deregulation of petrol and diesel pricing, dynamic fuel pricing
 Concerns- oil price crash, environment, advent of electric cars, etc
 Govt says the Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemical Investment Region
(PCPIR) saw good amount of investment. Regions include Dahej, Paradwip,
Vizag, etc.

Gas as a source of Energy-

 National Gas Grid of 16000km pipelines proposed.
 Urja Ganga project for East India
 City Gas Distribution Projects inaugurated. CNG for transportation, PNG for
cooking
 Objectives- Gas imbalance, availability of gas, development of city gas
networks
 Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board is responsible for
implementation. As per 2017-18 report, more than 1200 CNG stations,
32000 commercial establishments have been covered with an aim of CGD
project to 50% of population.