1.

FUNCTIONS
A. Definition of Function
A function relates an input to an output.

It is like a machine that has an

input and an output.

And the output is related

somehow to the input.

"f(x) = ... " is the classic way of writing a

  f(x)   function.
And there are other ways, as you will see!

Input, Relationship, Output

We will see many ways to think about functions, but there are always
three main parts:

 The input
 The relationship
 The output
 Example: "Multiply by 2" is a very simple function.

Here are the three parts:

Inpu Relationshi
Output
t p
0 ×2 0
1 ×2 2
7 ×2 14
10 ×2 20
... ... ...

For an input of 50, what is the output?

Some Examples of Functions

 x2 (squaring) is a function
 x3+1 is also a function
 Sine, Cosine and Tangent are functions used in trigonometry
 and there are lots more!

But we are not going to look at specific functions ...

... instead we will look at the general idea of a function.

Names

First, it is useful to give a function a name.

The most common name is "f", but we can have other names like "g" ...
or even "marmalade" if we want.

But let's use "f":

We say "f of x equals x squared"

what goes into the function is put inside parentheses () after the name of

the function:

So f(x) shows us the function is called "f", and "x" goes in

And we usually see what a function does with the input:

f(x) = x2 shows us that function "f" takes "x" and squares it.

Example: with f(x) = x2:

 an input of 4
 becomes an output of 16.

In fact we can write f(4) = 16.

 The "x" is Just a Place-Holder!

Don't get too concerned about "x", it is just there to show us where the
input goes and what happens to it.

It could be anything!

So this function:

f(x) = 1 - x + x2

Is the same function as:

  f(q) = 1 - q + q2
 h(A) = 1 - A + A2
 w(θ) = 1 - θ + θ2

The variable (x, q, A, etc) is just there so we know where to put

the values:

f(2) = 1 - 2 + 22 = 3

 Sometimes There is No Function Name

Sometimes a function has no name, and we see something like:

y = x2

But there is still:

 an input (x)
 a relationship (squaring)
 and an output (y)

Relating

At the top we said that a function was like a machine. But a function

doesn't really have belts or cogs or any moving parts - and it doesn't
actually destroy what we put into it!

A function relates an input to an output.

Saying "f(4) = 16" is like saying 4 is somehow related to 16. Or 4 → 16

Example: this tree grows 20 cm every year, so the height of the

tree is related to its age using the function h:

h(age) = age × 20

So, if the age is 10 years, the height is:

h(10) = 10 × 20 = 200 cm
 Here are some example values:

age h(age) = age × 20

0 0
1 20
3.2 64
15 300
... ...

 What Types of Things Do Functions Process?

"Numbers" seems an obvious answer, but ...

... which numbers?

For example, the tree-height function h(age) =

age×20 makes no sense for an age less than zero.
... it could also be letters ("A"→"B"), or ID codes
("A6309"→"Pass") or stranger things.

So we need something more powerful, and that is where  sets  come in:

A set is a collection of things.

Here are some examples:

Set of even numbers: {..., -4, -2, 0,

2, 4, ...}
Set of clothes: {"hat","shirt",...}
Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7,
11, 13, 17, ...}
Positive multiples of 3 that are
less than 10: {3, 6, 9}

Each individual thing in the set (such as "4" or "hat") is called

a member, or element.

So, a function takes elements of a set, and gives back elements of a

set

A Function is Special

But a function has special rules:

 It must work for every possible input value
 And it has only one relationship for each input value

This can be said in one definition:

Formal Definition of a Function

A function relates each element of a set

with exactly one element of another set
(possibly the same set).

 The Two Important Things!

1. "...each element..." means that every element in X is related to

some element in Y.

We say that the function covers X (relates every element of it).

(But some elements of Y might not be related to at all, which is

fine.)
2. "...exactly one..." means that a function is single valued. It will
not give back 2 or more results for the same input.

So "f(2) = 7 or 9" is not right!

"One-to-many" is not allowed, but "many-to-
one" is allowed:

(one-to-many)   (many-to-one)
This is NOT OK in a But this is OK in a
 
function function

When a relationship does not follow those two rules then it is not a

function ... it is still a relationship, just not a function.

Example: The relationship x → x2

 Could also be written as a table:

X: x Y: x2
3 9
1 1
0 0
4 16
-4 16
... ...

It is a function, because:

 Every element in X is related to Y

 No element in X has two or more relationships

So it follows the rules.

(Notice how both 4 and -4 relate to 16, which is allowed.)

Example: This relationship is not a function:

It is a relationship, but it is not a function, for these reasons:

 Value "3" in X has no relation in Y

 Value "4" in X has no relation in Y
 Value "5" is related to more than one value in Y

(But the fact that "6" in Y has no relationship does not matter)
 

Vertical Line Test

On a graph, the idea of single valued means that no vertical line ever

crosses more than one value.

If it crosses more than once it is still a valid curve, but is not a

function.

Some types of functions have stricter rules, to find out more

you can read  Injective, Surjective and Bijective
Infinitely Many

My examples have just a few values, but functions usually work on sets
with infinitely many elements.

Example: y = x3

 The input set "X" is all Real Numbers

 The output set "Y" is also all the Real Numbers

We can't show ALL the values, so here are just a few examples:

X: x Y: x3
-2 -8
-0.1 -0.001
0 0
1.1 1.331
3 27
and so
and so on...
on...

Domain, Codomain and Range

In our examples above

 the set "X" is called the Domain,
 the set "Y" is called the Codomain, and
 the set of elements that get pointed to in Y (the actual values
produced by the function) is called the Range.

We have a special page on  Domain, Range and Codomain  if you want to
know more.

So Many Names!

Functions have been used in mathematics for a very long time, and lots
of different names and ways of writing functions have come about.

Here are some common terms you should get familiar with:

Example: z = 2u3:

 "u" could be called the "independent variable"

 "z" could be called the "dependent variable" (it depends on the
value of u)

Example: f(4) = 16:

 "4" could be called the "argument"

 "16" could be called the "value of the function"

Example: h(year) = 20 × year:

 h() is the function

  "year" could be called the "argument", or the "variable"
 a fixed value like "20" can be called a parameter

We often call a function "f(x)" when in fact the function is really "f"

Ordered Pairs

And here is another way to think about functions:

Write the input and output of a function as an "ordered pair", such as

(4,16).

They are called ordered pairs because the input always comes first, and
the output second:

(input, output)

So it looks like this:

( x, f(x) )

Example:

(4,16) means that the function takes in "4" and gives out "16"

Set of Ordered Pairs

A function can then be defined as a set of ordered pairs:

Example: {(2,4), (3,5), (7,3)} is a function that says

"2 is related to 4", "3 is related to 5" and "7 is related 3".

Also, notice that:

 the domain is {2,3,7} (the input values)

 and the range is {4,5,3} (the output values)

But the function has to be single valued, so we also say

"if it contains (a, b) and (a, c), then b must equal c"

Which is just a way of saying that an input of "a" cannot produce two
different results.

Example: {(2,4), (2,5), (7,3)} is not a function because {2,4} and

{2,5} means that 2 could be related to 4 or 5.

In other words it is not a function because it is not single valued

 

A Benefit of Ordered Pairs

We can graph them...

... because they are also  coordinates !

So a set of coordinates is also a function (if they follow the rules above,
that is)

 A Function Can be in Pieces

We can create functions that behave differently depending on the input

value

Example: A function with two pieces:

 when x is less than 0, it gives 5,

 when x is 0 or more it gives x2
Here are some example values:
x y
-3 5
-1 5
 
0 0
2 4
4 16
... ...

Read more at  Piecewise Functions .

Explicit vs Implicit

One last topic: the terms "explicit" and "implicit".

Explicit is when the function shows us how to go directly from x to y,

such as:

y = x3 − 3

When we know x, we can find y

That is the classic y = f(x) style that we often work with.

 Implicit is when it is not given directly such as:

x2 − 3xy + y3 = 0

When we know x, how do we find y?

It may be hard (or impossible!) to go directly from x to y.

"Implicit" comes from "implied", in other words

shown indirectly.

Graphing

 The Function Grapher can only handle explicit functions,

 The Equation Grapher can handle both types (but takes a little
longer, and sometimes gets it wrong).
 Conclusion
 a function relates inputs to outputs
 a function takes elements from a set (the domain) and relates
them to elements in a set (the codomain).
 all the outputs (the actual values related to) are together called
the range
 a function is a special type of relation where:
 every element in the domain is included, and
 any input produces only one output (not this or that)
 an input and its matching output are together called an ordered
pair
 so a function can also be seen as a set of ordered pairs

B.Operations with Functions

We can add, subtract, multiply and divide
functions!

The result is a new function.

Let us try doing those operations on f(x) and g(x):

Addition

We can add two functions:

(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

 Note: we put the f+g inside () to show they both work on x.

Example: f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x2

(f+g)(x) = (2x+3) + (x2) = x2+2x+3

Sometimes we may need to  combine like terms :

Example: v(x) = 5x+1, w(x) = 3x-2

(v+w)(x) = (5x+1) + (3x-2) = 8x-1

The only other thing to worry about is the Domain (the set of numbers
that go into the function), but I will talk about that later!

Subtraction

We can also subtract two functions:

(f-g)(x) = f(x) − g(x)

Example: f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x2

(f-g)(x) = (2x+3) − (x2)

Multiplication

We can multiply two functions:

(f·g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)

Example: f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x2

(f·g)(x) = (2x+3)(x2) = 2x3 + 3x2

 
 Division

And we can divide two functions:

(f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)

Example: f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x2

(f/g)(x) = (2x+3)/x2

Function Composition
There is another special operation called Function
Composition,   (g º f)(x)
read that page to find out more!

Domains

It has been very easy so far, but now we must consider the  Domains  of
the functions.

The domain is the set of all the values that go into a function.

The function must work for all values we give it, so it is up to us to make
sure we get the domain correct!

Example: the domain for √x (the square root of x)

We can't have the square root of a negative number (unless we use

imaginary numbers, but we aren't doing that here), so we
must exclude negative numbers:

The Domain of √x is all non-negative Real Numbers

On the Number Line it looks like:

 Using  set-builder notation  it is written:

{x  | x ≥ 0}

"the set of all x's that are a member of the Real Numbers,
such that x is greater than or equal to zero"

Or using  interval notation  it is:

[0,+∞)

It is important to get the Domain right, or we will get bad results!

So how do we work out the new domain after doing an operation?

How to Work Out the New Domain

When we do operations on functions, we end up with the restrictions of

both.

It is like cooking for friends:

 one can't eat peanuts,

 the other can't eat dairy food.

So what we cook can't have peanuts and also can't have dairy products.

Example: f(x)=√x and g(x)=√(3−x)

The domain for f(x)=√x is from 0 onwards:

The domain for g(x)=√(3−x) is up to and including 3:

 So the new domain (after adding or whatever) is from 0 to 3:

If we choose any other value, then one or the other part of the new
function won't work.

In other words we want to find where the two domains intersect.

Note: we can put this whole idea into one line using  Set
Builder Notation :

Dom(f+g) = { x  | x Dom(f) and x Dom(g) }

Which says "the domain of f plus g is the set of all Real

Numbers that are in the domain of f AND in the domain of g"

The same rule applies when we add, subtract, multiply or

divide, except divide has one extra rule.

An Extra Rule for Division

There is an extra rule for division:

As well as restricting the domain as above, when we divide:

(f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)

we must also make sure that g(x) is not equal to zero (so we

don't  divide by zero ).

Here is an example:

Example: f(x)=√x and g(x)=√(3−x)

(f/g)(x) = √x / √(3−x)

1. The domain for f(x)=√x is from 0 onwards:

2. The domain for g(x)=√(3−x) is up to and including 3:

 3. AND √(3−x) cannot be zero, so x cannot be 3:

(Notice the open circle at 3, which means not including 3)

So all together we end up with:

 Summary

 To add, subtract, multiply or divide functions just do as the

operation says.
 The domain of the new function will have the restrictions of both
functions that made it.
 Divide has the extra rule that the function we are dividing by
cannot be zero.

C.Composition of Functions
"Function Composition" is applying one function to the results of
another:

The result of f() is sent through g()

It is written: (g º f)(x)

Which means: g(f(x))

Example: f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x2

"x" is just a placeholder. To avoid confusion let's just call it

"input":
 f(input) = 2(input)+3

g(input) = (input)2

Let's start:

(g º f)(x) = g(f(x))

First we apply f, then apply g to that result:

(g º f)(x) = (2x+3)2

 What if we reverse the order of f and g?

(f º g)(x) = f(g(x))

First we apply g, then apply f to that result:

(f º g)(x) = 2x2+3

We get a different result!

When we reverse the order the result is rarely the same.

So be careful which function comes first.

Symbol

The symbol for composition is a small circle

(g º f)(x)

It is not a filled in dot: (g · f)(x), as that means multiply.

Composed With Itself

We can even compose a function with itself!

Example: f(x) = 2x+3

(f º f)(x) = f(f(x))

First we apply f, then apply f to that result:

(f º f)(x) = 2(2x+3)+3 = 4x + 9

We should be able to do it without the pretty diagram:

(f º f)(x)= f(f(x))

 = f(2x+3)

 = 2(2x+3)+3

 = 4x + 9

Domains

It has been easy so far, but now we must consider the  Domains  of the
functions.

The domain is the set of all the values that go into a function.

The function must work for all values we give it, so it is up to us to make
sure we get the domain correct!

Example: the domain for √x (the square root of x)

We can't have the square root of a negative number (unless we use

imaginary numbers, but we aren't), so we must exclude negative
numbers:
 The Domain of √x is all non-negative Real Numbers

On the Number Line it looks like:

Using  set-builder notation  it is written:

{x  | x ≥ 0}

Or using  interval notation  it is:

[0,+∞)

It is important to get the Domain right, or we will get bad results!

Domain of Composite Function

We must get both Domains right (the composed function and the first

function used).

When doing, for example, (g º f)(x) = g(f(x)):

 Make sure we get the Domain for f(x) right,

 Then also make sure that g(x) gets the correct Domain

Example: f(x) = √x and g(x) = x2

The Domain of f(x) = √x is all non-negative Real Numbers

The Domain of g(x) = x2 is all the Real Numbers

The composed function is:

(g º f)(x)= g(f(x))

 = (√x)2

 = x

Now, "x" normally has the Domain of all Real Numbers ...
 ... but because it is a composed function we must also consider
f(x),

So the Domain is all non-negative Real Numbers

Why Both Domains?

Well, imagine the functions are machines ... the first one melts a hole
with a flame (only for metal), the second one drills the hole a little bigger
(works on wood or metal):

What we see at the end is a drilled hole, and we

may think "that should work for
wood or metal".

But if we put wood into g º f then the first

function f will make a fire and burn everything
down!

So what happens "inside the machine" is important.

De-Composing Function

We can go the other way and break up a function into a composition of

other functions.

Example: (x+1/x)2

That function can be made from these two functions:

f(x) = x + 1/x

g(x) = x2

And we get:

(g º f)(x)= g(f(x))

 = g(x + 1/x)
  = (x + 1/x)2

This can be useful if the original function is too complicated to work on.

Summary

 "Function Composition" is applying one function to the results of

another.
 (g º f)(x) = g(f(x)), first apply f(), then apply g()
 We must also respect the domain of the first function
 Some functions can be de-composed into two (or more) simpler
functions.

D. Classifications of Mathematical Functions

A function in mathematics is an association between input values and
output values, in which each input value is associated with exactly one
output value. That association is often given by a formula, and it is that
sort of function that this article will focus on. However, a function could
be defined in other ways, such as by a table (as one might make for
scientific observations) or simply by a description (for instance, your
distance from home is a function of the time of day, since at each time of
day you are at exactly one place, and therefore a particular distance from
home).

The set of possible input values for a function is called its domain, and
the set of possible output values is called the codomain. The term
“range” is sometimes used instead of “codomain,” but “range” is also
sometimes used to mean “image” (see below), so “range” is confusing and
NAQT generally avoids it. The domain and codomain of a function could
be any set at all — consisting of numbers, matrices, people, flowers, etc.
— but most of high school and earlier math, and this article, are
concerned with functions whose domain and codomain are both sets of
numbers (especially the set of all real numbers).

Mathematical functions can be classified based on properties of

formulas, how the functions can be used, features of their graphs, and in
other ways. As a result of these multiple classifications, many functions
are in more than one of the following categories.

Polynomials are functions made of terms added together, in

which each term is a number times a product of variables raised to
nonnegative-integer powers. For instance, 3x2y and –πx7y2z3 are each
terms, so 3x2y – πx7y2z3 is a polynomial. (Individual terms are also
considered polynomials.) Much of math is concerned with polynomials
involving only one variable, such as –x3 + 2x2. The number at the
beginning of each term is called a coefficient.
 Since simple numbers (“constants”) can also be written as the
same number times any variable to the zeroth power (that is, 6 is the
same as 6x0), numbers are also considered terms and polynomials.
So x + 6 is a polynomial, as is just –4.

Polynomials can be classified according to their number of terms:

a polynomial with one term, like 2x or –12x2, is called a monomial; a
polynomial with two terms is called a binomial; and a polynomial with
three terms is called a trinomial.

Each polynomial has a degree. For polynomials of one variable,

the degree is the largest exponent on the variable, so for the polynomial
4x3 – x2, the degree is 3. For polynomials of multiple variables, to find
the degree you calculate the sum of the variables’ exponents on each
term, then choose the largest such sum, so the degree of 3x6y5 – x2y3 is
calculated by adding 6+5 = 11 for the first term and 2+3 = 5 for the
second and noting that 11 is larger, so the degree is 11. A polynomial
that is just a constant has degree 0. A polynomial with degree 1, like 3x,
is called linear; a polynomial with degree 2, like 3x2 – 8x + 4, is
called quadratic; a polynomial with degree 3 is called cubic; continuing
with increasing degrees, the terms are quartic, quintic, sextic, and so on,
though terms corresponding to degrees larger than 5 are seldom used.
For technical reasons that are beyond the scope of this article, the zero
polynomial (i.e., f(x) = 0) is said to have a degree of –∞ or an undefined
degree.

The fundamental theorem of algebra is the statement that every

single-variable polynomial, other than constants, has a root in the
complex numbers, which means that if f(x) is a polynomial, then the
equation f(x) = 0 has at least one solution where x is some complex
number.

There are formulas to find those roots for linear, quadratic, cubic,
and quartic polynomials, though the latter two formulas are extremely
complicated. The Abel-Ruffini theorem, also called Abel’s impossibility
theorem, is the statement that there is no way to find a formula for the
solutions of all quintic or higher-degree polynomials, if the formula must
be based on the traditional operations (addition/subtraction,
multiplication/division, and exponentiation/taking roots). That
impossibility is the topic that began an area of study called Galois gal-
wah theory, which is part of abstract algebra.

Quadratics are, as mentioned above, polynomials of degree 2. The

graph of a quadratic equation will be in the shape of a parabola that
opens straight up (if the coefficient on the x2 term is positive) or straight
down (if that coefficient is negative). It is possible to find the roots of a
quadratic by graphing it, factoring it, completing the square on it, or
using the quadratic formula (itself derived by completing the square) on
it. If the quadratic is in the form ax2 + bx + c, then the
expression b2 – 4ac, which appears in the quadratic formula, is called
the discriminant. If the discriminant is positive, the quadratic will have
two real roots; if the discriminant is zero, the quadratic will have one real
root (said to have a multiplicity of 2); and if the discriminant is negative,
the quadratic will have two non-real complex roots (and if the coefficients
of the quadratic are real numbers, the complex roots will
be conjugates of each other).
 Rational functions consist of one polynomial divided by another
polynomial. The denominator polynomial cannot be the zero
polynomial, because dividing by zero is undefined. Examples
therefore include 1/x, x2/(x – 3), and (x2 + 1)/(x2 – 1). Every
polynomial can be considered to be a rational function because 1
is a polynomial and dividing by 1 doesn’t change an expression (so
to consider the polynomial x3 as a rational function, think of it
as x3/1). It is often instructive to study the asymptotes of rational
functions, which are places in which their graphs approach a line
(or occasionally other shape), usually getting infinitely close to but
not crossing it. That analysis may require performing long
division on the numerator and denominator polynomials to find
their greatest common factor.
 Periodic functions are those whose graph repeats a pattern
(specifically, the graph has translational symmetry). Technically
speaking, a function of one variable f is periodic if f(x+p) = f(x) for
every x in the domain of the function and some positive number p,
which is called the period, because the graph repeats itself
every p units. While the trigonometric functions are the periodic
functions most commonly encountered by high school math
students, some other functions like triangle waves are also
periodic; in general, functions representing waves tend to be
periodic. A Fourier fur-ee-ay series is a way to rewrite (almost)
any periodic function in terms of only sine and cosine functions.
 The trigonometric functions represent relations between angles
and sides of triangles. They are often illustrated using points and
segments related to a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin,
called the unit circle. By far the most commonly discussed
trigonometric functions are
the sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant,
and cotangent functions. There are many interesting relationships
between these: the graphs of sine and cosine are translations of
each other; the tangent function equals the sine function divided
by the cosine function; the cosecant, secant, and cotangent
functions are the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent
functions, respectively; and there are many other relationships
called trigonometric identities.
 The inverse trigonometric functions are, as one might expect,
the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions. (Note that
“inverse” in this case refers to a function that “undoes” another,
not to “multiplicative inverse,” also called “reciprocal.”) They are
sometimes just called “inverse sine,” etc, and are also given with
the prefix
“arc”: arcsine, arccosine, arctangent, arccosecant, arcsecant,
and arccotangent. They are sometimes notated in the form sin–
1 for arcsine, but that notation can be confusing, so NAQT tends to
prefer “arcsine,” etc. Because the trigonometric functions are not
bijective (see below), to have inverses it is necessary to restrict the
domains of the inverse trigonometric functions; for instance,
arcsin(x) is only defined for x between –1 and 1, inclusive.
 Injective functions, or injections, are functions that do not repeat
any outputs. For instance, f(x) = 2x is injective, because for every
possible output value, there is only one input that will result in
that output. On the other hand, f(x) = sin(x) is not injective,
because (for instance) the output 0 can be obtained from several
 different inputs (0, π, 2π, and so on). If you have the graph of a
function, you can determine whether the function is injective by
applying the horizontal line test: if no horizontal line would ever
intersect the graph twice, the function is injective.
 Surjective functions, or surjections, are functions that achieve
every possible output. For instance, if you are thinking of functions
whose domain and codomain are both the set of all real numbers,
then f(x) = tan(x) is surjective, because every real number is an
output for some input. But f(x) = x2 is not surjective, because (for
instance) –3 is not an output for any real-number input. The
term image is sometimes used for the set of all output values that
a function actually achieves; a surjective function, then, is one
whose image equals its codomain.
 A function that is both injective and surjective is called bijective, or
a bijection. If a function is bijective, then it has an inverse.
Furthermore, a function can only have an inverse if it is bijective.
 Even functions satisfy the rule f(–x) = f(x) for every x in the domain
of the function. The graph of an even function has reflection
symmetry over the y-axis. Even functions are so named because if
a polynomial’s exponents (on the variable) are all even, then the
polynomial is an even function; for instance, x2, 3x6, and –
x8 + 7x4 are all even. There are other even functions, though, such
as the cosine and absolute value functions.
 Odd functions satisfy the rule f(–x) = –f(x) for every x in the domain
of the function. The graph of an odd function remains the same
when it is rotated 180° around the origin. Odd functions are so
named because if a polynomial’s exponents (on the variable) are all
odd, then the polynomial is an odd function; for instance, x3, 4x7,
and –x5 + 2x3 are all odd. There are other odd functions, such as
the sine and cube root functions.
 Many functions are neither even nor odd, such as x2 + x. Only one
function is both even and odd: the zero function, f(x) = 0
 Exponential functions are those of the form f(x) = bx,
where b (called the base) is a positive number other than 1.
Exponential functions are used to model
unrestricted growth (such as compound interest, and
animal populations with unlimited food and no predators)
and decay (such as radioactive decay). The phrase
“the exponential function” refers to the function f(x) = ex,
where e is a specific irrational number called Euler’s number,
about equal to 2.718. Exponential functions have the interesting
property that their derivatives are proportional to themselves.
 Logarithmic functions, or logarithms, are functions of the
form f(x) = logbx, where b is again a positive number other than 1
(and again called the base). They are the inverses of the
exponential functions with the same bases. Logarithmic functions
are used to model sensory perception and some phenomena in
probability and statistics. The phrase “the logarithm” can refer to a
logarithmic function using the base 2 (especially in computer
science; this is also called the binary logarithm), e (especially in
higher math), or 10 (especially in lower levels of math and physical
sciences). The phrase natural logarithm refers to the logarithm
base e, and the phrase common logarithm usually refers to the
logarithm base 10.
  Continuous functions, studied in calculus, are functions where
the limit approaching each point equals the function’s value at
that point. In particular, there are no holes, jumps,
or asymptotes “in the middle of the graph.” Continuity is really a
property of a specific point; a continuous function is a function
that is continuous at every point. Continuity is often explained as
a function’s graph being drawable in one motion without lifting the
writing utensil from the paper. All polynomials are continuous, as
are the sine and cosine functions, exponential and logarithmic
functions, and the absolute value function. Some examples of
non-continuous functions are many rational functions, as they
often have holes or asymptotes; the tangent, cosecant, secant, and
cotangent functions, which have asymptotes; and the floor and
ceiling functions, which have jumps.
 Differentiable functions, also studied in calculus, are functions for
which the derivative can be found (because a particular limit,
called a difference quotient, exists). Like continuity,
differentiability is really a property of a specific point, and a
differentiable function is one that is differentiable at every point.
Every differentiable function is continuous, but some continuous
functions are not differentiable; mathematicians thus say that
differentiability is a stronger property than continuity. In terms of
graphs, a differentiable function has a “smooth” graph with
no corners or cusps (and also, because continuity is required, no
holes, jumps, or asymptotes). All polynomials are differentiable, as
are the sine and cosine functions, and exponential and logarithmic
functions. However, the absolute value function f(x) = |x| is not
differentiable because it has a “corner” at x = 0 (but recall that it is
still continuous).

E. Graph of a Function
The graph of a function f is the set of all points in the plane of the form
(x, f(x)). We could also define the graph of f to be the graph of the
equation y = f(x). So, the graph of a function if a special case of the graph
of an equation.

Example 1.

Let f(x) = x2 - 3.

Recall that when we introduced graphs of equations we

noted that if we can solve the equation for y, then it is easy
to find points that are on the graph. We simply choose a
number for x, then compute the corresponding value of y.
Graphs of functions are graphs of equations that have been
solved for y!

The graph of f(x) in this example is the graph of y = x2 - 3. It

is easy to generate points on the graph. Choose a value for
the first coordinate, then evaluate f at that number to find
the second coordinate. The following table shows several
values for x and the function f evaluated at those numbers.

x -2 -1 0 1 2
 f(x) 1 -2 -3 -2 1

Each column of numbers in the table holds the coordinates

of a point on the graph of f.

Exercise 1:

(a) Plot the five points on the graph of f from the table above,
and based on these points, sketch the graph of f.

(b) Verify that your sketch is correct by using the Java

Grapher to graph f. Simply enter the formula x^2 - 3 in the f
text box and click graph.

Example 2.

Let f be the piecewise-defined function

To express f in a single formula for the Java Grapher or Java

Calculator we write

(5 - x^2)*(xLE2) + (x - 1)*(2Lx).

The factor (xLE2) has the value 1 for x <= 2 and 0 for x > 2.

Similarly, (2Lx) is 1 for 2 < x and 0 otherwise. If we evaluate
the sum above at x = 3, the first product is 0 because (xLE2)
is 0 and the second product is (3 - 1)*1=2. In other words,
for x > 2, the formula evaluates to x - 1. If x <= 2, then the
formula above is equal to 5 - x^2, which is exactly what we
want!

The graph of f is shown below.

Exercise 2:

Graph the piecewise-defined function

(1 - x)*(xLE4) + (2*x - 11)*(4Lx)

We have seen that some equations in x and y do not describe y as a

function of x. The algebraic way see if an equation determines y as a
function of x is to solve for y. If there is not a unique solution, then y is
not a function of x.

Suppose that we are given the graph of the equation. There is an easy
way to see if this equation describes y as a function of x.

Vertical Line Test

A set of points in the plane is the graph of a function if and

only if no vertical line intersects the graph in more than one
point.

Example 3.

The graph of the equation y2 = x + 5 is shown below.

By the vertical line test, this graph is not the graph of a

function, because there are many vertical lines that hit it
more than once.

Think of the vertical line test this way. The points on the
graph of a function f have the form (x, f(x)), so once you know
the first coordinate, the second is determined. Therefore,
there cannot be two points on the graph of a function with
the same first coordinate.

All the points on a vertical line have the same first

coordinate, so if a vertical line hits a graph twice, then there
are two points on the graph with the same first coordinate. If
that happens, the graph is not the graph of a function.
 2. THE LIMIT OF FUNCTION AND CONTINUITY
A. Definition of a Limit of a Function
Let f(x) be a function that is defined on an open
interval X containing x=a. (The value f(a) need not be defined.)

The number L is called the limit of function f(x) as x→a if and only if, for

every ε>0 there exists δ>0 such that

|f(x)−L|<ε,

whenever

0<|x−a|<δ.

This definition is known as ε−δ− or Cauchy definition for limit.

There’s also the Heine definition of the limit of a function, which states

that a function f(x) has a limit L at x=a, if for every sequence {xn}, which
has a limit at a, the sequence f(xn) has a limit L. The Heine and Cauchy
definitions of limit of a function are equivalent.

B. One Sided Limits

Let limx→a−0 denote the limit as x goes toward a by taking on values
of x such that x<a. The corresponding limit limx→a−0f(x) is called
the left-hand limit of f(x) at the point x=a.

Similarly, let limx→a+0 denote the limit as x goes toward a by taking on

values of x such that x>a. The corresponding limit limx→a+0f(x) is called
the right-hand limit of f(x) at x=a.

Note that the 2-sided limit limx→af(x) exists only if both one-sided limits

exist and are equal to each other, that is limx→a−0f(x) =limx→a+0f(x). In
this case,

limx→af(x)=limx→a−0f(x)=limx→a+0f(x).

Example 1.

Using the ε−δ− definition of limit, show that limx→3(3x−2)=7.

Solution.
Let ε>0 be an arbitrary positive number. Choose δ=ε3. We see that if
0<|x−3|<δ,

then

|f(x)−L|=|(3x−2)−7|=|3x−9|=3|x−3|<3δ=3⋅ε3=ε.

Thus, by Cauchy definition, the limit is proved.

Example 2.

Using the ε−δ− definition of limit, show that limx→2x2=4.

Solution.
For convenience, we will suppose that δ=1, i.e.

|x−2|<1.

Let ε>0 be an arbitrary number. Then we can write the following

inequality:

∣∣x2−4∣∣<ε,⇒|x−2||x+2|<ε,⇒|x−2|(x+2)<ε.

Since the maximum value of x is 3 (as we supposed above), we obtain

5|x−2|<ε(if |x−2|<1),or|x−2|<ε2.

Then for any ε>0 we can choose the number δ such that

δ=min(ε2,1).

As a result, the inequalities in the definition of limit will be satisfied.

Therefore, the given limit is proved.

Example 3.

Using the ε−δ− definition of limit, find the number δ that corresponds to

the ε given with the following limit:

limx→7√x+2=3,ε=0.2
Solution.
According to the definition of limit,

|f(x)−3|<ε,if|x−7|<δ.

Substituting f(x) and ε, we get

∣∣√x+2−3∣∣<0.2,⇒−0.2<√x+2−3<0.2,⇒3−0.2<√x+2<3+0.2,⇒2.8<√x+2<3.2
Square all three parts of the inequality.

7.84<x+2<10.24,⇒5.84<x<8.24,⇒−1.16<x−7<1.24,

which is equivalent to the inequality

|x−7|<1.16

Thus, we can choose the number δ=1.16 to satisfy the original inequality

for ε.

Example 4.

Prove that limx→∞x+1x=1.

Solution.
We can apply the similar techniques to limits at x→∞. Assume ε>0. We
must have

∣∣∣x+1x−1∣∣∣<ε,⇒∣∣∣(1+1x)−1∣∣∣<ε,⇒∣∣∣1x∣∣∣<ε.

We can choose a number N, depending on ε, such that |x|>N. Then the

inequality ∣∣1x∣∣<ε will be satisfied if

|x|>1ε=N.

This means that at large N (as x→∞)

limx→∞x+1x=1.

The graph of the function is sketched in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Example 5.

Prove that limx→∞2x−3x+1=2.

Solution.
We assume that ε>0. Find a number N such that for any x>N the
following inequality is valid:

∣∣∣2x−3x+1−2∣∣∣<ε.

Convert this inequality to get

∣∣∣2x−3x+1−2∣∣∣<ε,⇒∣∣∣2x−3−2(x+1)x+1∣∣∣<ε,⇒∣∣∣2x−3−2x−2x+1∣∣∣<ε,
⇒∣∣∣−5x+1∣∣∣<ε,⇒|x+1|>5ε.

Since 0<x<N, then x+1>0, so we can simply write

x+1>5εorx>5ε−1.

By setting N=5ε−1 (or N=0 if this difference is negative), we obtain

∣∣∣2x−3x+1−2∣∣∣<εfor allx>N.

This means that (see Figure 2)

limx→∞2x−3x+1=2.

C. Theorems on Limits
We will now prove that a certain limit exists, namely the limit
of f (x) = x  as x approaches any value c.  (That f(x) also
approaches c should be obvious.)
 
 
THEOREM.   If f (x) = x, then for any value c that we might name:

For, if a sequence of values of the variable x approaches c as a

limit (Definition 2.1), then a sequence of values of the function  f(x)
= x will also approach c as a limit (Definition 2.2).
 
For example,
 Theorems on limits
To help us calculate limits, it is possible to prove the following.
 
Let f and g be functions of a variable x.  Then, if the following
limits exist:

1  (f + g)  =  A + B.
 
)
 
2  (f g)  =  AB.
 
)
A
3 f
   g = ,  if B is not 0.
)
B

In other words:
1)  The limit of a sum is equal to the sum of the limits.
2)  The limit of a product is equal to the product of the
limits.
3)  The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the
limits,
3)  provided the limit of the denominator is not 0.

Also, if c does not depend on x -- if c is a constant -- then

4
 
)

 
To see that, let x approach 4: e.g.,
   
1 1 1 1  1 
           
4  .  .  .
4 4 4 4
2 4 8 1 3
6 2
Then the value of 5 -- or any constant -- does not change.  It is
constant!
When c is a constant factor, but f depends on x, then
5
 
)
A constant factor may pass through the limit sign.  (This follows
from Theorems 2 and 4.)  For example,

Example 1.   Quote Theorems 1) through 5) to prove the following:

 Solution.   x2 = x · x.  And we have proved that    
exists, and is equal to 4.  Therefore,    
 according to Theorem 2.
That is,

It should be clear from this example that to evaluate the limit

of any power of x  as x approaches any value, simply evaluate the
power at that value. 
 1. ANALYTIC CONTINUATION
A. Analytic Function
A complex function is said to be analytic on a region   if it is complex differentiable at
every point in  . The terms holomorphic function, differentiable function, and complex
differentiable function are sometimes used interchangeably with "analytic function"
(Krantz 1999, p. 16). Many mathematicians prefer the term "holomorphic function" (or
"holomorphic map") to "analytic function" (Krantz 1999, p. 16), while "analytic" appears
to be in widespread use among physicists, engineers, and in some older texts (e.g.,
Morse and Feshbach 1953, pp. 356-374; Knopp 1996, pp. 83-111; Whittaker and
Watson 1990, p. 83).

If a complex function is analytic on a region  , it is infinitely differentiable in  . A complex

function may fail to be analytic at one or more points through the presence
of singularities, or along lines or line segments through the presence of branch cuts.

A complex function that is analytic at all finite points of the complex plane is said to

be entire. A single-valued function that is analytic in all but possibly a discrete subset of
its domain, and at those singularities goes to infinity like a polynomial (i.e., these
exceptional points must be poles and not essential singularities), is called
a meromorphic function.

B. Complex Numbers

A Complex Number

A Complex Number is a combination of a

Real Number and an Imaginary Number

  Real Numbers  are numbers like:

1 12.38 −0.8625 3/4 √2 1998

Nearly any number you can think of is a Real Number!

Imaginary Numbers  when squared give a negative result.

Normally this doesn't happen, because:

 when we square a positive number we get a positive result, and

 when we square a negative number we also get a positive result
(because a negative times a negative gives a positive), for example −2 × −2 = +4

But just imagine such numbers exist, because we will need them.

The "unit" imaginary number (like 1 for Real Numbers) is i, which is the
square root of −1

Because when we square i we get −1

i2 = −1

Examples of Imaginary Numbers:

3i 1.04i −2.8i 3i/4 (√2)i 1998i

And we keep that little "i" there to remind us we need to multiply by √−1

Complex Numbers

A Complex Number is a combination of a Real Number and an Imaginary

Number:

Examples:

1+i 39 + 3i 0.8 − 2.2i −2 + πi √2 + i/2

 Can a Number be a Combination of Two Numbers?

Can we make up a number from two other numbers? Sure we can!

We do it with  fractions  all the time. The fraction 3/8 is a number

made up of a 3 and an 8. We know it means "3 of 8 equal parts".

Well, a Complex Number is just two numbers added together (a

Real and an Imaginary Number).

Either Part Can Be Zero

So, a Complex Number has a real part and an imaginary part.

But either part can be 0, so all Real Numbers and Imaginary Numbers are also
Complex Numbers.

Complex Imaginary
Real Part  
Number Part
3 + 2i 3 2  
5 5 0 Purely Real
−6i 0 −6 Purely Imaginary

Complicated?

Complex does not mean complicated.

It means the two types of numbers, real and imaginary, together

form a complex, just like a building complex (buildings joined
together).

A Visual Explanation

You know how the number line goes left-right?

Well let's have the imaginary numbers go up-down:

And we get the  Complex Plane

A complex number can now be shown as a point:

 The complex number 3 + 4i

Adding

To add two complex numbers we add each part separately:

(a+bi) + (c+di) = (a+c) + (b+d)i

Example: add the complex numbers 3 + 2i and 1 + 7i

 add the real numbers, and

 add the imaginary numbers:

(3 + 2i) + (1 + 7i)
= 3 + 1 + (2 + 7)i
= 4 + 9i

Let's try another:

Example: add the complex numbers 3 + 5i and 4 − 3i

(3 + 5i) + (4 − 3i)
= 3 + 4 + (5 − 3)i
= 7 + 2i

On the complex plane it is:

Multiplying
To multiply complex numbers:

Each part of the first complex number gets multiplied by

each part of the second complex number

Just use "FOIL", which stands for "Firsts, Outers, Inners, Lasts" (see  Binomial

Multiplication  for more details):

Firsts: a × c
Outers: a ×
di
Inners: bi ×
c
Lasts: bi ×
di
(a+bi)(c+di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2

Like this:

Example: (3 + 2i)(1 + 7i)

(3 + 2i)(1 + 7i)= 3×1 + 3×7i + 2i×1+ 2i×7i

 = 3 + 21i + 2i + 14i2

 = 3 + 21i + 2i − 14  (because i2 = −1)

 = −11 + 23i

And this:

Example: (1 + i)2

(1 + i)(1 + i)= 1×1 + 1×i + 1×i + i2

 = 1 + 2i − 1  (because i2 = −1)

 = 0 + 2i

But There is a Quicker Way!

Use this rule:

(a+bi)(c+di) = (ac−bd) + (ad+bc)i

 Example: (3 + 2i)(1 + 7i) = (3×1 − 2×7) + (3×7 + 2×1)i = −11 + 23i

Why Does That Rule Work?

It is just the "FOIL" method after a little work:

(a+bi)(c+di) =ac + adi + bci + bdi2  FOIL method

 =ac + adi + bci − bd  (because i2 = −1)
 =(ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i  (gathering like terms)

And there we have the (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i  pattern.

This rule is certainly faster, but if you forget it, just remember the FOIL method.

Let us try i2

Just for fun, let's use the method to calculate i2

Example: i2

We can write i with a real and imaginary part as 0 + i

i2 = (0 + i)2= (0 + i)(0 + i)

 = (0×0 − 1×1) + (0×1 + 1×0)i

 = −1 + 0i

 = −1

And that agrees nicely with the definition that i2 = −1

So it all works wonderfully!

Learn more at  Complex Number Multiplication .

Conjugates

We will need to know about conjugates in a minute!

A  conjugate  is where we change the sign in the middle like this:

A conjugate is often written with a bar over it:

Example:
 5 − 3i   =   5 + 3i

Dividing

The conjugate is used to help complex division.

The trick is to multiply both top and bottom by the conjugate of the bottom.

Example: Do this Division:

2 + 3i4 − 5i

Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate of 4 − 5i :

2 + 3i4 − 5i×4 + 5i4 + 5i  =  8 + 10i + 12i + 15i216 + 20i − 20i − 25i2

Now remember that i2 = −1, so:

=  8 + 10i + 12i − 1516 + 20i − 20i + 25

Add Like Terms (and notice how on the bottom 20i − 20i cancels out!):

=  −7 + 22i41

Lastly we should put the answer back into a + bi form:

=  −7 41 + 2241i

DONE!

Yes, there is a bit of calculation to do. But it can be done.

Multiplying By the Conjugate

There is a faster way though.

In the previous example, what happened on the bottom was interesting:

(4 − 5i)(4 + 5i) = 16 + 20i − 20i − 25i2

The middle terms (20i − 20i) cancel out! Also i2 = −1 so we end up with this:

(4 − 5i)(4 + 5i) = 42 + 52

Which is really quite a simple result. The general rule is:

 (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2

We can use that to save us time when do division, like this:

Example: Let's try this again

2 + 3i4 − 5i

Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate of 4 − 5i :

2 + 3i4 − 5i×4 + 5i4 + 5i  =  8 + 10i + 12i + 15i216 + 25

=  −7 + 22i41

And then back into a + bi form:

=  −7 41 + 2241i

DONE!

 Notation

We often use z for a complex number. And Re() for the real part and Im() for

the imaginary part, like this:

Which looks like this on the complex plane:

The Mandelbrot Set

 The beautiful Mandelbrot Set
(pictured here) is based on Complex
Numbers.

It is a plot of what happens when we

take the simple equation z2+c (both
complex numbers) and feed the result
back into z time and time again.

The color shows how fast z2+c grows,

and black means it stays within a
certain range.

Here is an image made by zooming

into the Mandelbrot set

And here is the center of the previous

one zoomed in even further:

C. Complex Plane

No, not that complex
plane ...
 ... this complex plane:

A plane for complex num
bers!

(Also called an "Argand Diagram")

Real and Imaginary make Complex

A  Complex Number  is a combination of a Real Number and an Imaginary

Number:

A  Real Number  is the type of number we use every day.

Examples: 12.38, ½, 0, −2000

When we square a Real Number we get a positive (or zero) result:

22 = 2 × 2 = 4
12 = 1 × 1 = 1
02 = 0 × 0 = 0

What can we square to get −1?

?2 = −1

Squaring −1 does not work because  multiplying negatives gives a positive : (−1)
× (−1) = +1, and no other Real Number works either.

So it seems that mathematics is incomplete ...

... but we can fill the gap by imagining there is a number that, when
multiplied by itself, gives −1
(call it i for imaginary):

i2 = −1

An  Imaginary Number , when  squared  gives a negative result

.
Examples: 5i, -3.6i, i/2, 500i

And together:

A  Complex Number  is a combination of a Real Number and an Imaginary

Number
 Examples: 3.6 + 4i, −0.02 + 1.2i, 25 − 0.3i, 0 + 2i

Putting a Complex Number on a Plane

You may be familiar with the  number line :

But where do we put a complex number like 3+4i ?

Let's have the real number line go left-right as usual, and have the imaginary
number line go up-and-down:

We can then plot a complex number

like 3 + 4i :

3 units along (the real axis),

and 4 units up (the imaginary
axis).

     
 

And here is 4 - 2i :

4 units along (the real axis),

and 2 units down (the imaginary
axis).

And that is the complex plane:

 complex because it is a combination of real and imaginary,

 plane because it is like a geometric plane (2 dimensional).

Whole New World

Now let's bring the idea of a plane ( Cartesian coordinates ,  Polar

coordinates ,  Vectors  etc) to complex numbers.
It will open up a whole new world of numbers that are more complete and
elegant, as you will see.

Complex Number as a Vector

We can think of a complex number as a  vector .

This is a vector.
It has magnitude (length) and direction.

And here is the complex

number 3 + 4i

as a Vector:

Adding

You can add complex numbers as vectors, too:

To add the complex numbers 3 +  

5i and 4 − 3i :

add the real numbers, and

add the imaginary numbers

separately, like this:

(3 + 5i) + (4 − 3i) =(3 + 4)+ (5 − 3)i

=7+ 2i

Polar Form
  

Let's use 3 +
4i again:

    
 

Here it is in polar

form:

So the complex number 3 + 4i can also be shown as distance (5) and angle
(0.927 radians).

Let's see how to convert from one form to the other using  Cartesian to Polar
conversion :

Example: the number 3 + 4i

From 3 + 4i :

 r = √(x2 + y2) = √(32 + 42) = √25 = 5

 θ = tan-1 (y/x) = tan-1 (4/3) = 0.927 (to 3 decimals)

And we get distance (5) and angle (0.927 radians)

Back again:

 x = r × cos( θ ) = 5 × cos( 0.927 ) = 5 × 0.6002... = 3 (close enough)

 y = r × sin( θ ) = 5 × sin( 0.927 ) = 5 × 0.7998... = 4 (close enough)

And distance 5 and angle 0.927 becomes 3 and 4 again

In fact a common way to write a complex number in Polar form is

x + iy =r cos θ + i r sin θ

=r(cos θ + i sin θ)

And "cos θ + i sin θ" is often shortened to "cis θ", so:

 x + iy = r cis θ

cis is just shorthand for cos θ + i sin θ

So we can write:

3 + 4i = 5 cis 0.927

In some subjects, like electronics, "cis" is used a lot!

Summary

 The complex plane is a plane with:

 real numbers running left-right and

 imaginary numbers running up-down.

 To convert from Cartesian to Polar Form:

 r = √(x2 + y2)

 θ = tan-1 ( y / x )

 To convert from Polar to Cartesian Form:

 x = r × cos( θ )

 y = r × sin( θ )

 Polar form r cos θ + i r sin θ is often shortened to r cis θ