 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 

Housing and Health: Time Again for Public Health Action

| James Krieger, MD, MPH, and Donna L. Higgins, PhD

intrusion by disease vectors (e.g., insects and

Poor housing conditions are associated with a wide range of health conditions, in-
rats) and inadequate food storage have long
cluding respiratory infections, asthma, lead poisoning, injuries, and mental health. Ad-
dressing housing issues offers public health practitioners an opportunity to address an been identified as contributing to the spread
important social determinant of health. Public health has long been involved in hous- of infectious diseases.9–11 Crowding is associ-
ing issues. In the 19th century, health officials targeted poor sanitation, crowding, and ated with transmission of tuberculosis12 and
inadequate ventilation to reduce infectious diseases as well as fire hazards to decrease respiratory infections.13–16 Lack of housing
injuries. Today, public health departments can employ multiple strategies to improve hous- and the overcrowding found in temporary
ing, such as developing and enforcing housing guidelines and codes, implementing housing for the homeless also contribute to
“Healthy Homes” programs to improve indoor environmental quality, assessing housing morbidity from respiratory infections and ac-
conditions, and advocating for healthy, affordable housing. Now is the time for public tivation of tuberculosis.17–20
health to create healthier homes by confronting substandard housing. (Am J Public
Health. 2002;92:758–768) Chronic Diseases
In more recent years, epidemiological stud-
Housing is an important determinant of history of involvement in the housing arena, ies have linked substandard housing with an
health, and substandard housing is a major and this involvement is generally accepted by increased risk of chronic illness. Damp, cold,
public health issue.1 Each year in the United other housing stakeholders (e.g., building de- and moldy housing is associated with asthma
States, 13.5 million nonfatal injuries occur in partments, community housing advocates). and other chronic respiratory symptoms, even
and around the home,2 2900 people die in Housing-related health concerns such as lead after potentially confounding factors such as
house fires,3 and 2 million people make emer- exposure and asthma are highly visible. income, social class, smoking, crowding, and
gency room visits for asthma.4 One million The public is also concerned about the unemployment are controlled for.21–31 Water
young children in the United States have quality and accessibility of housing as afford- intrusion is a major contributor to problems
blood lead levels high enough to adversely af- able housing becomes scarcer.8 Elected offi- with dampness. In 1999, eleven million occu-
fect their intelligence, behavior, and develop- cials and communities alike recognize that pied homes in America had interior leaks and
ment.5 Two million Americans occupy homes substandard housing is an important social 14 million had exterior leaks.6 Overcrowding
with severe physical problems, and an addi- justice issue that adversely influences health. and inadequate ventilation also increase inte-
tional 4.8 million live in homes with moder- In this article, we describe some of the evi- rior moisture.32 Damp houses provide a nur-
ate problems.6 dence linking housing conditions to health, turing environment for mites, roaches, respi-
The public health community has grown place public health’s role in addressing hous- ratory viruses, and molds, all of which play a
increasingly aware of the importance of social ing issues in an historical context, provide ex- role in respiratory disease pathogenesis.33–39
determinants of health (including housing) in amples of contemporary local public health Cross-sectional epidemiological studies have
recent years,7 yet defining the role of public activities in the housing arena, and conclude also established associations between damp
health practitioners in influencing housing with suggestions for public health action in and moldy housing and recurrent headaches,
conditions has been challenging. Responsibil- the next decade. fever, nausea and vomiting, and sore
ity for social determinants of health is seen as throats.37,40
lying primarily outside the scope of public HOUSING AS A DETERMINANT Old, dirty carpeting, often found in substan-
health. OF HEALTH dard housing, is an important reservoir for
The quality and accessibility of housing is, dust, allergens, and toxic chemicals.41,42 Expo-
however, a particularly appropriate area for An increasing body of evidence has associ- sure to these agents can result in allergic, respi-
public health involvement. An evolving body ated housing quality with morbidity from in- ratory, neurological, and hematologic illnesses.
of scientific evidence demonstrates solid rela- fectious diseases, chronic illnesses, injuries, Pest infestations, through their association
tions between housing and health. The public poor nutrition, and mental disorders. We pre- with asthma, provide another linkage between
health community is developing, testing, and sent some of this evidence in the following substandard housing and chronic illness. Cock-
implementing effective interventions that section. roaches can cause allergic sensitization and
yield health benefits through improved hous- have emerged as an important asthma trigger
ing quality. Public health agencies have valu- Infectious Diseases in inner-city neighborhoods. Children with
able expertise and resources to contribute to Features of substandard housing, including asthma who are sensitized and exposed to
a multisectoral approach to housing concerns. lack of safe drinking water, absence of hot cockroaches are at elevated risk for hospital-
Public health has a long (albeit intermittent) water for washing, ineffective waste disposal, ization.43 Mouse allergen also acts as a clini-

758 | Public Health Matters | Peer Reviewed | Krieger and Higgins American Journal of Public Health | May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5

cally important cause of allergy and asthma
morbidity.44 Structural defects permit entry of
cockroaches and rodents; leaking pipes and
other sources of water provide them with
water to drink. Inadequate food storage and
disposal facilities provide them with opportu-
nities for obtaining food. Dead spaces in walls
harbor pests and permit circulation among
apartments in multiunit dwellings.11
Deviation of indoor temperature beyond a
relatively narrow range has been associated
with increased risk of cardiovascular dis-
ease.45 Living in cold housing has been asso-
ciated with lower general health status and
increased use of health services.46 These
health concerns have contributed to the de-
velopment of standards for thermal comfort.47
Exposure to toxic substances found in
homes can result in chronic health problems.
The association of passive exposure to indoor
tobacco smoke with respiratory disease is well
documented.48–50 Poor ventilation may in-
crease exposure to smoke.37 Indoor exposure
to nitrogen dioxide (from inadequately vented
or poorly functioning combustion appliances)
has been associated with asthma symptoms.37
Exposure to volatile organic compounds
(emitted by particle board and floor cover-
ings) may be associated with asthma and sick
building syndrome.37 Moderately elevated
levels of carbon monoxide (from poorly func-
tioning heating systems) cause headache,
whereas higher levels result in acute intoxica-
tion.51 The relation between lead exposure
(from leaded paints) and neurodevelopmental
abnormalities is clearly established,52,53 and
additional evidence suggests an association
with hypertension.54 Asbestos exposure (from
deteriorating insulation) can cause mesothe-
lioma and lung cancer.55 Polyvinyl chloride
flooring and textile wall materials have been
associated with bronchial obstruction during
the first 2 years of life.56 Residential exposure
to radon, which is increased by structural de-
fects in basements, can cause lung cancer.57
Old carpeting can contain pesticide residues
and other compounds such as polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons.58,59
Injuries
The importance of designing homes to pre-
vent injuries has received long-standing atten-
tion,60 especially with regard to reducing
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 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
burns and falls.61 Attributes of substandard
housing that increase the risk of injury in-
clude exposed heating sources, unprotected
upper-story windows and low sill heights,62
slippery surfaces,63 breakable window glass in
sites with a high likelihood of contact, and
poorly designed stairs with inadequate light-
ing.64 Building design and materials influence
the risk of injury from fires. These hazards
are frequently present in temporary accom-
modations provided to homeless women and
young children.20
Childhood Development and Nutrition
Recent analyses of longitudinal cohorts of
children have examined the influence of child-
hood housing conditions on the subsequent
development of chronic diseases. A study con-
ducted in Britain demonstrated modest associ-
ations of inadequate ventilation with overall
mortality (respiratory mortality was not specif-
ically examined) and type of water supply
with coronary heart disease mortality, inde-
pendent of other measures of deprivation.65
Another cohort study suggested that recurrent
periods of housing deprivation during the par-
ticipants’ first 33 years of life were associated
with disability or severe ill health.27
Lack of affordable housing has been linked
to inadequate nutrition, especially among chil-
dren. Relatively expensive housing may force
low-income tenants to use more of their re-
sources to obtain shelter, leaving less for other
necessities such as food.66 Children from low-
income families receiving housing subsidies
showed increased growth compared with chil-
dren whose families were on a subsidy waiting
list, an observation consistent with the idea
that subsidies provide a protective effect
against childhood undernutrition.67 Tempo-
rary housing for homeless children often lacks
cooking facilities, leading to poor nutrition.20
Mental Health
Substandard housing may also adversely
affect mental health, although the evidence is
more tentative. Excessive indoor temperature
has been linked with irritability and social in-
tolerance.68,69 Damp, moldy, and cold indoor
conditions may be associated with anxiety
and depression.70 A study in Glasgow demon-
strated that dampness was significantly and
independently associated with poorer mental
Krieger and Higgins | Peer Reviewed | Public Health Matters | 759
health.71 Crowding was associated with psy-
chological distress among women aged 25 to
45 in London.72 Homelessness and living in
substandard, temporary housing has been re-
lated to behavioral problems among chil-
dren.73 Substandard housing conditions may
lead to social isolation because occupants are
reluctant to invite guests into their homes.
High-rise buildings may inhibit social interac-
tion because they lack common spaces.74
In summary, substandard housing affects
multiple dimensions of health. There is evi-
dence that, in part, poor housing conditions
contribute to increasing exposure to biological
(e.g., allergens), chemical (e.g., lead) and phys-
ical (e.g., thermal stress) hazards, which di-
rectly affect physiological and biochemical
processes. In addition, concerns about sub-
standard housing and fear of homelessness
are psychosocial stressors that can lead to
mental health problems. Preliminary research
has suggested that residents’ perceptions of
their homes (e.g., pride in and satisfaction
with their dwelling and concerns about in-
door air quality) are associated with self-rated
health status.75 Stress induced by substandard
housing may also play a pervasive role in un-
dermining health by increasing the allostatic
load76 on the body; this hypothesis merits fur-
ther investigation. For example, excessive
noise (common in poorly insulated housing
units) has been associated with sleep depriva-
tion that leads to psychological stress and acti-
vation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
axis and sympathetic nervous system. These
factors are major contributors to allostatic
load (the wear and tear accumulated by an
organism as a result of physiological re-
sponses to environmental stressors).77,78
Neighborhood Effects
Beyond the condition of the housing unit
itself, the site of the home may be a determi-
nant of health. Neighborhood-level effects on
health have been documented; these include
elevated rates of intentional injury,79,80 poor
birth outcomes,81 cardiovascular disease,82
HIV,83 gonorrhea,84 tuberculosis,85 depres-
sion,86 physical inactivity,87,88 and all-cause
mortality89–91 in neighborhoods of low socio-
economic status, independent of individual-
level risk factors. Several features of these
neighborhoods may contribute to poor

health. Air quality may be poor because of
their proximity to sources of vehicle exhaust
emissions such as major roads, bus depots,
airports, and trucking routes.92 These sources
also create substantial noise exposure, which
may be associated with a range of adverse
health effects.93 Sites of improper waste dis-
posal can harbor pests, which can then infest
homes. Yet it is possible to design neighbor-
hoods to promote health by considering side-
walk and street design, the presence of green
spaces and recreational sites, and the location
of schools, work, and shopping within walking
distance of homes.94,95
Social dimensions of neighborhoods also
affect health. Sampson and colleagues exam-
ined the relation between collective efficacy
(a combination of trust, social cohesion, and
informal social control) and violence in Chi-
cago neighborhoods and concluded that rates
of neighborhood violence were lower in areas
with high collective efficacy.79 In addition,
physical insecurity and violence can cause
people to stay in their homes,96 thus limiting
physical activity.
Disparities in Housing, Disparities
in Health
Exposure to substandard housing is not
evenly distributed across populations. People
of color and people with low income are dis-
proportionately affected. For example, Blacks
and low-income people are 1.7 times and 2.2
times more likely, respectively, to occupy
homes with severe physical problems com-
pared with the general population.6 People
with low income are more likely to live in
overcrowded homes. Disparities in asthma
morbidity may be attributable, in part, to dis-
proportionate exposure to indoor environ-
mental asthma triggers associated with living
in substandard housing.97,98 Injuries occur
more commonly in low-income households
because of substandard conditions and a lack
of resources to repair them. Clutter stemming
from lack of storage space and hazardous
cooking facilities also contribute to increased
risk of injury from fire.99 Homes of people
with low income are more likely to be too
warm or too cool because they are less well
insulated, often have relatively expensive
forms of heating such as electric baseboards,
and frequently lack air conditioning.100,101 Ad-
760 | Public Health Matters | Peer Reviewed | Krieger and Higgins
 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
N
HEIGHBOR’S SMOKING
COMBINES WITH A
STRUCTURAL DEFECT
When 5-year-old Jose and his 3-
year-old sister Maria suddenly devel-
oped breathing problems, their doctor
was puzzled. The usual medical treat-
ments didn’t work, and the symptoms
persisted even after their mother fol-
lowed instructions to rid the apart-
ment of rugs, dust, and cockroaches.
The pediatrician initially disregarded
the mother’s frustration with her
neighbor’s smoking—until she real-
ized that the smoke flowed right into
Jose and Maria’s apartment through
a large hole in the living room
wall.1(p8)
ditionally, occupants often cannot afford to
pay for the energy needed to make their
homes comfortable. As housing and energy
prices continue to climb, low- and moderate-
income households make tradeoffs between
having enough food, staying warm, and living
in adequate housing, with resultant adverse
effects on health.
PUBLIC HEALTH AND HOUSING:
A LONG-STANDING RELATIONSHIP
The notion of housing as a public health
issue is not new. In the middle of the 19th
century, pathologist Rudolf Virchow advised
city leaders that poorly maintained, crowded
housing was associated with higher rates of
infectious disease transmission.102 Engels, in
his study of the working class in England,
noted that “There is ample proof that the
dwellings of the workers who live in the
slums, combined with other adverse factors,
give rise to many illnesses.”103 “Slum clear-
ance” and improving the quality of housing
and sanitation were important components of
19th- and early-20th-century campaigns to
control typhus, tuberculosis, and other infec-
tious diseases.104–106
Interest in housing as a determinant of
health has fluctuated in response to housing-
related infectious disease outbreaks (e.g., chol-
era in New York City in the 1830s), social un-
rest and class conflict, industrialist interest in
American Journal of Public Health | May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5
maintaining a healthier workforce, and eco-
nomic downturns leading to crises in housing
availability and quality.107 Thus, interest in
housing and health increased in the early
19th century because of concerns regarding
infectious diseases. Later in the century, the
sanitary reform movement was spurred by
urban industrialization and growing class con-
flict. The depression and social unrest of the
1930s brought renewed public health atten-
tion to housing. During the post–World War
II period, a lack of affordable housing, exacer-
bated by the return of veterans and migration
from the rural South, increased the promi-
nence of the housing issue. In the 1960s
through the 1980s, activists addressed racial
disparities in housing, the civil rights move-
ment resulted in legislation prohibiting dis-
crimination in housing, and indoor lead expo-
sure became a major public health concern.
Although a comprehensive history of public
health involvement in housing is beyond the
scope of this article, we next provide several
illustrative examples.
In the early 1800s, the relation between
housing conditions and health was recognized
among public health practitioners in the
United States108–112 and Europe113–115 and led
to the rise of the sanitary reform movement.
Industrialization caused a rapid growth in
urban populations that was not matched by a
sufficient increase in adequate housing. Build-
ers, eager to capitalize on the need for hous-
ing, built inferior housing in congested areas
of cities. In 1844, Engels observed, “in a
word, we must confess that in the working-
men’s dwelling of Manchester [England], no
cleanliness, no convenience, and conse-
quently no comfortable family life is possible;
that in such dwellings only [beings] robbed of
all humanity, degraded, reduced morally and
physically to bestiality, could feel comfort-
able and at home.”103 Common characteristics
of the housing of the working poor through-
out the 19th century and into the early 20th
century included insufficient light and air, few
toilet and bathing facilities, and overcrowding.
In New York City, windows in many tenement
rooms opened into an air shaft instead of di-
rectly to fresh air and hallways were reported
to be “pitch-black.”116 It was reported that en-
tire families lived in single rooms and that as
many as 30 people occupied single rooms in

lodging houses.117 These conditions were
graphically documented by Edwin Chad-
wick118 in England and by John Griscom119
and Jacob Riis120 in New York City.
The response to this situation established
the basis of public health action at the local
and national levels and clearly established the
link between public health and housing. In
the United States, the sanitary reform move-
ment was carried out by boards of health and
in some cases by voluntary health associa-
tions consisting of physicians, public officials,
and other civic-minded citizens. They edu-
cated the public on hygiene, lobbied for pol-
icy reform, and sought to eliminate “crowded,
poorly ventilated, and filthy [housing], impure
water supplies, inadequate sewerage, and un-
wholesome food.”102 In New York City, the
Council of Hygiene’s report on the sanitary
conditions of the city resulted in the first
health and housing laws in the nation (the
New York Metropolitan Health Act of 1866
and the New York Tenement House Law of
1867). Multiple reports followed, as did legis-
lation requiring windows that opened to out-
side air in place of air shafts, separate “water
closets” for each apartment, functional fire es-
capes, adequate lighting in hallways, proper
sewage connections, and regular waste re-
moval. These reforms succeeded in control-
ling the epidemics of infectious diseases.
The recognition of lead-based paint as a
health hazard is another important chapter in
the history of public health involvement in
housing. As early as 1914, the health conse-
quences of lead exposure were discussed in
the medical literature. By the mid-1920s,
there was strong evidence that lead poisoned
those exposed to it and was especially harm-
ful to children.121,122 In the early 1930s, the
Baltimore Health Department responded to
this threat by educating its constituents. It
continued an aggressive campaign throughout
the 20th century, providing free diagnostic
tests for lead poisoning, inspecting houses, re-
quiring the removal of lead by landlords, and
mandating the inclusion of warning labels for
lead-based paint.122 Unfortunately, it was not
until the 1940s and early 1950s that other
state and local health departments began
warning their constituents about the dangers
of lead paint; this delay was due in part to the
obstructionist actions of the Lead Industries
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 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
Association.121 Gradually, local bans were im-
plemented across the United States. Ulti-
mately, the Consumer Product Safety Com-
mission prohibited the use of all lead paint
after 1978.
The American Public Health Association
(APHA) began its involvement in housing is-
sues in 1937 with the formation of its Com-
mittee on Hygiene of Housing. In 1941,
C. E. A. Winslow (president of APHA, editor
of the Journal, and chair of the Hygiene and
Public Health Committee) invigorated APHA’s
commitment. He observed,
Thirty years ago, our major emphasis was
transferred from the physical environment to
the individual. Today, we must shift our gaze
from the individual back to the environment,
but in a broader sense…to the whole social
and economic environment in which the indi-
vidual lives and moves and has his being.123
He therefore led the Hygiene and Public
Health Committee in an examination of the
components of healthy housing in terms of
physical, physiological, and psychological
needs. The committee prepared a report
called the “Basic Principles of Healthful Hous-
ing” and developed an evaluation procedure
to “appraise existing housing in objective
quantitative terms.”124 This assessment tool
was used in many American cities to examine
housing stock and was incorporated into
urban planning efforts at the urging of the US
Public Health Service. APHA has periodically
updated these guidelines on healthy hous-
ing.125–127 The last version was published in
1986.128 In 1999 and 2000, APHA released
policy statements concerning public health’s
role in codes regulating the design, construc-
tion, and use of buildings.129,130
PUTTING HEALTH INTO HOUSING—
WHAT IS PUBLIC HEALTH DOING
ABOUT IT TODAY?
Current public health efforts to improve
housing conditions include a continuation of
these historical activities as well as new strat-
egies based on emerging issues such as in-
door environmental quality. We now de-
scribe some of the activities of Public
Health—Seattle & King County (PHSKC) and
of sister agencies in larger American cities.
Krieger and Higgins | Peer Reviewed | Public Health Matters | 761
Guidelines, Codes, and Enforcement
The development and enforcement of most
housing codes are the responsibility of hous-
ing and construction departments. Our health
department, like most others, issues and en-
forces housing codes that address a limited
set of concerns (e.g., plumbing, sanitation, oc-
cupancy). Local codes are based on national
uniform codes that set minimal standards for
new housing construction, fire safety, plumb-
ing, and mechanical systems. However, these
codes consider only a subset of the conditions
that affect housing quality. For the most part,
they do not address the maintenance or re-
mediation of substandard conditions in exist-
ing buildings. Many jurisdictions have promul-
gated general health and nuisance codes that
allow public health to intervene in situations
in which an immediate threat to health exists,
although such codes are applied infrequently
to substandard housing conditions. A major
limitation on the usefulness of codes is the
difficulty in implementing them. Resources
for inspection and enforcement are spread
across multiple agencies that lack adequate
staff and do not coordinate efforts. Another
constraint is the current political climate,
which favors market-based solutions and indi-
vidual legal action rather than public sector
regulation and enforcement.
In 2000, members of APHA’s Joint Hous-
ing and Health Committee met with officials
from the International Code Council and
NFPA International (formerly the National
Fire Protection Association) to emphasize the
need for more involvement from public
health professionals in the development of na-
tional building standards and codes. As a re-
sult, APHA is now represented on several key
NFPA International committees.131
At the local level, recent guideline develop-
ment has been directed at indoor mold con-
tamination. The New York City Department
of Health has issued Guidelines on Assess-
ment and Remediation of Fungi in Indoor En-
vironments.132 The California legislature
passed the Toxic Mold Protection Act of
2001, which calls for setting standards for
permissible levels of mold exposure and re-
quires disclosure of mold contamination in
real estate transactions. Some jurisdictions are
using the more general health codes to ad-
dress substantial mold contamination.

Healthy Homes
The emergence of asthma as a major pub-
lic health issue has led to renewed interest in
improving indoor environmental quality and
in integrating these newer efforts with ongo-
ing work addressing other indoor health haz-
ards such as lead and injury risk factors. Our
department and many other local health juris-
dictions (e.g., Boston, Cambridge, Cleveland,
Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, San Diego,
San Francisco) have developed “Healthy
Homes” initiatives as a response. These proj-
ects provide education and resources to sup-
port household members in taking actions to
improve the quality and safety of their home
environments. The Seattle–King County
Healthy Homes Project133,134 employs com-
munity health workers who use a home envi-
ronmental checklist to assess exposures,
knowledge, and actions related to indoor
asthma triggers and indoor chemical hazards.
The checklist guides the development of a
specific, computer-generated home environ-
mental action plan for each household. The
community health worker makes 5 visits over
1 year in which she works with clients to
carry out the action plan by offering educa-
tion and social support, encouraging changes
in habits (e.g., household cleaning, tobacco
use), providing materials to reduce exposures
(e.g., bedding covers, vacuum cleaners, door-
mats, cleaning kits, integrated pest manage-
ment supplies), helping repair minor deficien-
cies (e.g., small holes that allow pests to enter,
minor leaks), assisting tenants in working with
their landlords or relocating if needed, and
providing counseling and referral for other
household concerns. The project’s scope is
being expanded to include injury hazards,
and Healthy Homes projects in jurisdictions
with higher prevalences of lead exposure
have also integrated lead assessment and
abatement.
In addition to community health workers,
other public health workers promote Healthy
Homes principles. For example, the PHSKC
Home Health Hazards Project trained public
health nurses to conduct in-home environ-
mental assessments and education to address
fall hazards, infant and toddler safety issues,
and indoor air quality.
Limited resources have restricted the
scope of most Healthy Homes projects to ed-
762 | Public Health Matters | Peer Reviewed | Krieger and Higgins
 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
H
OVERCROWDING, LEAKS, AND
MOLD LEAD TO ASTHMA
I have a 6-year-old patient who
presented with severe asthma (no
previous history; no previous symp-
toms recognized by mom) after mov-
ing into a large multifamily dwelling.
Public Health nurse described mold
on walls, dripping faucets, one small
window in the whole place, roach in-
festation, mom and 3 kids slept in
one room on a mattress on the
floor.1(p4)
ucating household members, asking them to
take individual actions, and assisting them
with minor repairs. However, more substan-
tial structural remediation is often necessary
to reduce sources of exposure. For example,
we found structural deficits permitting water
intrusion in over 20% of the low-income
homes included in our Healthy Homes proj-
ect. Remediation is often not completed
given the lack of landlord interest or of re-
sources to make the improvements (e.g., in-
stallation of ventilation systems, removal of
water-damaged carpet or wallboard, replace-
ment of windows).
Several Healthy Homes projects, with sup-
port from the Department of Housing and
Urban Development (HUD), federal home
loan programs, energy assistance grants, and
other sources, are assessing the benefits of
more aggressive structural remediation inter-
ventions. For example, with HUD support,
PHSKC is remediating 70 homes at an aver-
age cost of $8000 each over the next 3
years. Examples of remediation activities in-
clude removing and replacing extensive
mold- or water-damaged material, installing
continuously operating whole-house exhaust
ventilation systems, repairing plumbing
leaks, and removing carpeting. We have con-
sidered landlord–tenant issues in the devel-
opment of this project. Owners agree that
rent will not be increased as a result of re-
mediation and that tenants will be guaran-
teed the right to remain for at least 24
months after remediation, unless they violate
the terms of the initial rental agreement.
Boston and Cleveland are completing similar
projects.
American Journal of Public Health | May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5
Additional support for lead control has
come from the federal government. Congress
enacted the Residential Lead-Based Paint
Hazard Reduction Act of 1992 with the goal
of eliminating lead-based paint hazard in all
housing as expeditiously as possible and pre-
venting further childhood lead poisoning.
Federal funds are now provided to state and
local health departments to determine the ex-
tent of childhood lead poisoning, screen chil-
dren for elevated blood lead levels, help en-
sure that lead-poisoned infants and children
receive medical and environmental follow-up,
develop neighborhood-based efforts to pre-
vent childhood lead poisoning, and safely re-
move lead from houses.135,136
Exposure Assessment and Consultation
for Individuals
Local health departments offer indoor en-
vironmental quality assessment of homes
through visual inspection and, in some cases,
through quantitative measurement of expo-
sure to biological contaminants and toxic
substances such as pesticides and heavy met-
als. They also provide education on reducing
exposure.
Community Assessment
One barrier to developing effective housing
policy is the lack of information on housing
quality at the community level. Although the
US Census Bureau’s American Housing Sur-
vey collects housing quality data for larger
metropolitan areas every 6 years, smaller-
area data for most municipalities and neigh-
borhoods are not available. A few municipal
housing departments collect supplemental
local data (e.g., the New York City Depart-
ment of Housing Preservation and Develop-
ment). We are unaware of any American local
health jurisdictions that systematically collect
and analyze local data related to housing and
health, although some have in the past.10 Brit-
ish local health districts are more involved in
housing assessment. More than one-half of
their annual health reports include a discus-
sion of housing issues.137 The City of Glasgow
conducted a comprehensive survey of hous-
ing conditions in the mid-1980s.100 It re-
vealed substantial proportions of homes with
dampness and mold, deteriorated external
structural envelopes, and inadequate heating
systems.

Services for Homeless People
Public health agencies frequently offer
clinical assessment and management services
to homeless shelter clients. Some of these
agencies are responsible for operating shel-
ters. Efforts to return the homeless to
stable housing or to prevent eviction in the
first place are less common. For example, the
San Francisco Department of Public Health
purchases buildings and renovates them for
supportive housing for homeless or near-
homeless people with substance abuse, men-
tal health, or other chronic health conditions.
This activity requires the patching together
of multiple funding sources from the state
and local levels. The program has decreased
the use of hospital-based acute care health
services.
Collaboration
Typically public health agencies do not
build, maintain, or own housing stock; nor
do they design housing developments or
issue building permits. To promote healthy
housing, they must collaborate with other en-
tities who are more directly involved in the
housing sector. Our Healthy Homes Project
works with the local public housing authority
to increase its awareness of the impact of
housing conditions on asthma. The housing
authority moved Healthy Homes clients to
the top of its waiting list and offered housing
that met Healthy Homes criteria. For clients
already living in public housing units, the
agency immediately repaired unhealthy con-
ditions, gave priority to eradication of
roaches, and moved the tenant to a more
suitable unit (e.g., a second-floor unit with
less dampness) if necessary. The project also
refers clients to local weatherization pro-
grams that have resources to improve venti-
lation and energy efficiency. The New York
City Department of Health is partnering with
the housing authority to implement a pilot
integrated pest management project to re-
duce exposure to pesticides and cockroach
antigens. The Boston Healthy Homes Project
works with a community development corpo-
ration to arrange grants to low-income home
owners for remediation of conditions with
adverse health effects. It is developing a deci-
sion-making tool to assist housing rehabilita-
tors in incorporating affordable modifications
May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5 | American Journal of Public Health
 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
that improve respiratory health. The health
authority in Cornwall, England used National
Health Service funds to install central heat-
ing in homes that were damp and inhabited
by children with asthma. An uncontrolled
evaluation demonstrated significant reduc-
tion in dampness in children’s bedrooms and
in asthma morbidity.138
Advocacy
Public health workers support individuals
and communities seeking better housing. For
example, when public health staff assisted
Healthy Homes participants in asking their
landlords to make repairs, the tenants’ re-
quests were often more adequately addressed
than when tenants tried on their own. Home
visitors from the New York City Department
of Health assist tenants by encouraging land-
lords to correct hazardous conditions before
enforcement action is initiated. Some local
health departments have successfully advo-
cated with local elected officials and agencies
on behalf of increasing the availability of af-
fordable, healthy housing. Public health work-
ers have supported the efforts of community
organizations fighting for improved housing
conditions.139
Public health advocates can point to evi-
dence demonstrating that residents of sub-
standard housing who move to improved liv-
ing environments enjoy better health
outcomes. Low-income seniors who moved
from deteriorated, single-room, roach-infested
apartments with inadequate kitchen and bath
facilities into a new, well-designed senior
apartment building with a senior center had
lower mortality and improved self-reported
health status after 8 years than a comparison
group who were eligible to live in the new
building but did not move.140 Low-income
families who moved from substandard hous-
ing to newly constructed public housing
made fewer outpatient medical visits than
did a similar group who did not move.141 A
small Danish study showed that lung func-
tion, symptoms, and medication use im-
proved among asthmatic, dust-mite–allergic
patients who moved to homes with effective
ventilation systems compared with others
who did not move.142 However, a recent re-
view of the health effects of housing inter-
ventions found that “because of the method-
Krieger and Higgins | Peer Reviewed | Public Health Matters | 763
ological limitations of the studies, it is impos-
sible to specify the nature and size of the
health gain,” even though most studies did
report benefits.143 Preliminary findings from
a study in Boston (not included in the afore-
mentioned review) indicate that families that
received a housing subsidy experienced in-
creased safety, fewer behavioral problems
among boys, and improved health among
heads of households.144
Public Education and Awareness
Public health agencies provide information
to the public regarding ways to make homes
healthier and safer. They participate in distri-
bution of smoke detectors,145 offer educa-
tional resources in print and on Web sites re-
garding indoor environmental quality, and
help with efforts to eliminate hazardous
wastes and toxins from homes.
WHAT NEXT?
Public health workers continue to build on
a long tradition of engagement with housing
and health issues. Many of the efforts we
have described are yielding benefits, although
most are small in scale relative to the need.
Expansion of capacity is an important priority
and is dependent on securing adequate re-
sources. We conclude by suggesting what this
expanded capacity might look like and what it
might accomplish.
Making Housing Codes Healthier
Refinement of housing codes to reflect cur-
rent knowledge of healthful housing is ur-
gently needed.146 Enhanced national uniform
codes or guidelines that address factors affect-
ing health such as ventilation,147,148 moisture,
carpeting, molds, injury hazards,99 exposure
to toxic substances, privacy, noise, lighting
and other factors that are applicable to both
new and existing housing stock would be a
valuable asset for local public health agencies
seeking to upgrade local housing codes.9 As
noted above, APHA’s Joint Housing and
Health Committee has established a public
health “foothold” in national standards and
code development. Continued and expanded
efforts by the committee will help to include
public health practitioners in such national
endeavors. It may also be useful for national

organizations, expert panels, and local health
departments to develop guidelines (rather
than codes).
Revised codes and enhanced guidelines
can lay the groundwork for an expanded pub-
lic health role in housing quality consultation,
education, and enforcement. Local public
health agencies need guidelines in order to
respond to concerns about housing quality
brought to them by the public, community or-
ganizations (e.g., tenant unions and housing
advocacy groups), and other service provid-
ers. These agencies must have the capacity to
assess whether units meet standards, to edu-
cate property owners and builders about how
to implement guidelines, and to impose sanc-
tions if standards are not met. Some owners
of substandard property, especially landlords
who own only a few units, lack the resources
to improve their properties. Public health can
take the lead in advocating for policies and
resources to assist them.
Sustaining and Expanding Healthy
Homes Programs
Evidence is accumulating that Healthy
Homes programs yield measurable health
benefits. These programs are popular with the
public and current capacity cannot meet de-
mand. Options for expansion include increas-
ing program staffing and incorporating
Healthy Homes activities into the regular du-
ties of other home visitors (e.g., public health
nurses, environmental health professionals,
and community health workers). Advocating
for payment by health insurers for some of
these activities (in the context of health as-
sessment and education for patients with
asthma) may help fund this expansion.
Assessment
Many state and local health departments
produce community health assessment re-
ports, yet few include measures of housing
quality and resident satisfaction with housing.
Special reports that describe housing status
in more detail, using qualitative as well as
quantitative methods and incorporating vi-
sual documentation of housing conditions,
could be powerful tools to focus attention on
housing issues. Such assessment data could
be invaluable for housing advocates attempt-
ing to improve housing in their communities.
764 | Public Health Matters | Peer Reviewed | Krieger and Higgins
 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
F
HAMILY IN SHELTER TO AVOID
LEAD EXPOSURE
I just witnessed the reunifica-
tion of a young mother with her 3
children in a homeless shelter. The
family had previously lived together
in an overcrowded apartment with
other extended family members.
When the 3 children (ages 2, 5, and
6) all tested high for lead, the
mother voluntarily signed the chil-
dren over to custody of the Depart-
ment of Social Services so they
could be placed in a lead-free
home. The mother then tried and
failed to find safe and affordable
apartment for her family; moving to
a shelter became her only chance
to live with her children in safety.
She is now homeless, searching for
affordable housing, with little hope
for securing a unit. At least her chil-
dren have their mother back.
(Boston Medical Center Web site.
Available at http://www.bmc.org/
program/doc4kids/append.htm.
Accessed March 1, 2002.)
For example, the documentation in prose and
photos by Jacob Riis of tenement conditions
in New York City in the late 1800s helped in-
tensify the tenement reform movement.120
Collaboration and Cross-Sectoral
Planning
At the Milbank Memorial Fund meeting on
housing and health in 1950, a participant
noted that “the knitting together of various
local [city] departments in an attempt to solve
a problem of mutual concern [housing] is an
important and long overdue step forward in
public administration.”124 This still holds true
in 2002. A single public health agency can-
not achieve the goal of ensuring access to
healthy housing and building healthy neigh-
borhoods. For example, the revision of hous-
ing codes and development of guidelines dis-
cussed above will require collaboration with
other government agencies that regulate
housing construction, tenants, community
housing advocacy groups, nonprofit housing
organizations, community development cor-
porations, builders, home owners, landlords,
architects, and urban planners.
American Journal of Public Health | May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5
Public health representatives can partici-
pate in local planning processes and offer
consultation to housing agencies and develop-
ers. They can encourage the use of Health
Impact Assessment149,150 methods to consider
the health implications of new construction
and zoning decisions. They can encourage de-
velopment of policies and actions that incor-
porate the principles of healthy housing into
housing construction and maintenance. They
can advocate for the design of healthy com-
munities that offer opportunities for physical
activity, social interaction, and community
building activities.
Public health workers can collaborate
with community housing advocates by pro-
viding them with assessment data, offering
technical assistance (e.g., with program plan-
ning, evaluation, and fundraising), and en-
dorsing their efforts. Working closely with
advocates and residents, public health work-
ers can also develop culturally appropriate
educational materials that explain healthy
housing guidelines.
Closer collaboration with public housing
agencies will protect the health of the most
vulnerable populations. Partnering to make
public housing units safe and healthy, sup-
porting health promotion and community
building activities, and developing mecha-
nisms to identify children whose health is ad-
versely affected by housing conditions and to
rehouse them promptly are only some of the
possibilities.
Advocacy
Public health workers should take the lead
in advocating for housing policies that ensure
access to affordable, healthy housing units
and the elimination or remediation of un-
healthy housing stock. Burridge and Or-
mandy note:
The deficiencies in the housing stock will not
be remedied by the waving of some legislative
wand. At best, legal intervention can provide
some normative standards for fiscal or coercive
action, and a framework for intervention.
Deeper solutions lie in the political arena.
There is a pressing need for a public housing
policy which embraces the perspectives of pub-
lic health and the maintenance of a healthy na-
tional housing stock.151
Other arenas for advocacy include provid-
ing energy assistance for people with low in-
come, expanding medical insurance coverage

for items that make homes healthier (e.g., al-
lergy-control bedding encasements, radiator
covers, window guards, home assessments),
and providing subsidies in the form of rental
vouchers for use in the private housing market.
The extent to which these efforts will actu-
ally occur is dependent on the resources and
organizational capacity of public health agen-
cies. Staff already working on housing-related
issues (e.g., in environmental health and
health assessment units) can form a multidis-
ciplinary team to initiate housing and health
activities. This team can develop a strategic
plan to address housing issues in collabora-
tion with other public health staff and exter-
nal partners. Resources to implement local
public health housing activities will come
from a combination of local sources, federal
agencies, and national foundations. An impor-
tant challenge is to develop sustainable and
increased funding. Public health housing ad-
vocates may be able to interest the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, other fed-
eral agencies, local housing developers, and
health care payers in supporting their efforts.
Political factors also influence the ability of
public health to respond to housing issues.
Substandard housing is an environmental jus-
tice issue. The inequitable socioeconomic dis-
tribution of substandard housing reflects un-
derlying disparities in income, assets, and
power. Tenants are often powerless to im-
prove their housing conditions in the context
of the low vacancy rates, high rental costs,
weak tenant protection laws, and politically
influential landlord associations commonly
found in American cities. Public health assets
can help remedy this imbalance in power. Yet
these circumstances also constrain public
health practitioners, many of whom are reluc-
tant to antagonize powerful local political in-
terests and the elected officials who support
them. The absence of organized community
advocacy groups that can effectively balance
landlords’ influence further inhibits public
health action. The current political climate is
not supportive of a proactive, regulatory ap-
proach to addressing housing issues. Moving
beyond an advisory, incentive-based ap-
proach will require courageous public health
officials who can ally themselves with sup-
portive community organizations and local
elected officials.
May 2002, Vol 92, No. 5 | American Journal of Public Health
 PUBLIC HEALTH MATTERS 
Today, several issues drive the housing and
health agenda: increased asthma morbid-
ity,152,153 unaffordable urban housing, urban
sprawl, and a renewed interest in social deter-
minants of health. This new era of unafford-
able housing and the health and social disin-
tegration that accompanies it will demand
further public health attention. Sprawl that
began almost 50 years ago with “White
flight” from urban areas is also beginning to
have deleterious effects on health154 and will
likely result in an increased public health in-
terest in housing, housing environments, and
health. These issues, along with the growing
interest in the return of public health to its
roots in addressing social factors affecting
health, are converging to establish housing as
a priority public health issue.
We have learned much in the past decade
about how to make homes healthier places in
which to live. Public health has a long history
of promoting healthy housing. In recent years,
we have been less engaged. It is time for us to
build on this groundwork and do our share in
ensuring that everyone has a safe and healthy
home.
About the Authors
James Krieger is with Public Health—Seattle & King County
and the Schools of Medicine and Public Health, University
of Washington, Seattle. Donna L. Higgins is with the Cen-
ters for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga.
Requests for reprints should be sent to James Krieger,
MD, MPH, Public Health—Seattle & King County—EPE,
999 Third Ave, 12th Floor, Seattle, WA 98104-4039.
This article was accepted January 28, 2002.
Contributors
J. Krieger developed the initial concept for this manu-
script. Both authors developed the final concept, re-
viewed relevant literature, and wrote the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We thank the following colleagues for their thoughtful
comments on drafts of this manuscript and for provid-
ing information about their valuable efforts in address-
ing housing and health issues in their communities:
Daniel Moran and David Williams (Public Health—Seat-
tle & King County), Rajiv Bhatia (San Francisco Depart-
ment of Public Health), Andrew Goodman and Jennifer
Leighton (New York City Department of Health), Mar-
garet Reid (Boston Public Health Commission), Eliza-
beth Fee (National Library of Medicine), Theodore M.
Brown (University of Rochester), and Carolyn Beeker
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
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