Contents

CHAPTER 6 Static Series Compensators: GCSC, TSSC, TCSC,

and SSSC 209
6.1 Objectives of Series Compensation 209
6.1.1 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation 210
6.1.2 Voltage Stability 211
6.1.3 Improvement of Transient Stability 212
6.1.4 Power Oscillation Damping 213
6.1.5 Subsynchronous Oscillation Damping 214
6.1.6 Summary of Functional Requirements 215
6.1.7 Approaches to Controlled Series Compensation 216
6.2 Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators 216
6.2.1 GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC) 216
6.2.2 Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) 223
6.2.3 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 225
6.2.4 Subsynchronous Characteristics 236
6.2.5 Basic Operating Control Schemes for GCSC, TSSC,
and TCSC 239
6.3 Switching Converter Type Series Compensators 243
6.3.1 The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) 244
6.3.2 Transmitted Power Versus Transmission Angle
Characteristic 245
6.3.3 Control Range and VA Rating 248
6.3.4 Capability to Provide Real Power Compensation 250
6.3.5 Immunity to Subsynchronous Resonance 254
6.3.6 Internal Control 257
6.4 External (System) Control for Series Reactive Compensators
259
6.5 Summary of Characteristics and Features 261

CHAPTER 7 Static Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators: TCVR

and TCPAR 267
7.1 Objectives of Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators 267
7.1.1 Voltage and Phase Angle Regulation 269
7.1.2 Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators 270
7.1.3 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control 272
7.1.4 Improvement of Transient Stability with Phase
Angle Regulators 274
7.1.5 Power Oscillation Damping with Phase Angle
Regulators 276
7.1.6 Summary of Functional Requirements 277
7.2 Approaches to Thyristor-Controlled Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulators (TCVRs and TCPARs) 277
7.2.1 Continuously Controllable Thyristor Tap Changers 280
7.2.2 Thyristor Tap Changer with Discrete Level Control 286
7.2.3 Thyristor Tap Changer Valve Rating Considerations 289
7.3 Switching Converter-Based Voltage and Phase Angle
Regulators 290
7.4 Hybrid Phase Angle Regulators 293
Contents

CHAPTER 8 Combined Compensators: Unified Power

Flow Controller (UPFC) and Interline Power
Flow Controller (IPFC) 297
8.1 Introduction 297
8.2 The Unified Power Flow Controller 299
8.2.1 Basic Operating Principles 300
8.2.2 Conventional Transmission Control Capabilities 301
8.2.3 Independent Real and Reactive Power Flow Control 305
8.2.4 Comparison of UPFC to Series Compensators
and Phase Angle Regulators 308
8.2.5 Control Structure 315
8.2.6 Basic Control System for P and Q Control 319
8.2.7 Dynamic Performance 322
8.2.8 Hybrid Arrangements: UPFC with a Phase
Shifting Transformer 329
8.3 The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) 333
8.3.1 Basic Operating Principles and Characteristics 334
8.3.2 Control Structure 343
8.3.3 Computer Simulation 344
8.3.4 Practical and Application Considerations 346
8.4 Generalized and Multifunctional FACfS
Controllers 348

CHAPTER 9 Special Purpose Facts Controllers: NGH-SSR

Damping Scbeme and Thyristor-Controlled
Braking Resistor 353
9.1 Subsynchronous Resonance 353
9.2 NGH-SSR Damping Scheme 358
9.2.1 Basic Concept 358
9.2.2. Design and Operation Aspects 361
9.3 Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) 362
9.3.1 Basic Concept 362
9.3.2 Design and Operation Aspects 364

CHAPTER 10 Application Examples 373

10.1 WAPA's Kayenta Advanced Series Capacitor (ASC) 373
10.1.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 373
10.1.2 Functional Specification 376
10.1.3 Design and Operational Aspects 377
10.1.4 Results of the Project 380
10.2 BPA's Slatt Thyristor-Controlled
Series Capacitor (TCSC) 382
10.2.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 382
10.2.2 Functional Specifications 384
10.2.3 Design and Operational Aspects 387
10.2.4 Results of the Project 392
 Contents

10.3 TVA's Sullivan Static Synchronous

Compensator (STATCOM) 394
10.3.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 394
10.3.2 STATCOM Design Summary 396
10.3.3 Steady-State Performance 400
10.3.4 Dynamic Performance 401
10.3.5 Results of the Project 407
10.4 AEP's Inez Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 407
10.4.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 407
10.4.2 Description of the UPFC 411
10.4.3 Operating Performance 414
10.4.4 Results of the Project 423

INDEX 425

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 431

 Preface

Both authors of this book, Hingorani and Gyugyi, have been deeply involved in
pioneering work in this new technology of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACfS).
Hingorani pioneered the concept and managed a large R&D effort from EPRI, and
Gyugyi invented and pioneered several key FACfS Controllers while leading a devel-
opment team at Westinghouse. In fact, both have been involved in pioneering advances
in many other applications of power electronics.
FACfS is one aspect of the power electronics revolution that is taking place in
all areas of electric energy. A variety of powerful semiconductor devices not only
offer the advantage of high speed and reliability of switching but, more importantly,
the opportunity offered by a variety of innovative circuit concepts based on these
power devices enhance the value of electric energy. This introduction is partly devoted
to briefly conveying this perspective before discussing various specifics of Flexible AC
Transmission, the subject matter of this book. After all, technologies from the transistor
to microelectronics have revolutionized many aspects of our lives; there is no reason
why power devices shouldn't have a significant impact on our lives as well, at least where
energy is concerned. The power electronics revolution is happening, and applications of
power electronics will continue to expand.
In the generation area, the potential application of power electronics is largely
in renewable generation. Photo voltaic generation and fuel cells require conversion
of de to ac. Generation with variable speed is necessary for the economic viability of
wind and small hydrogenerators. Variable-speed wind generators and small hydrogen-
erators require conversion of variable frequency ae to power system frequency. These
applications of power electronics in the renewable generation area generally require
converter sizes in the range of a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. Continuing
breakthroughs will determine if these technologies will make a significant impact on
electric power generation. In any case, they serve the vital needs of small, isolated
loads where taking utility wires would be more expensive. In thermal power plants,
considerable energy could be saved with the use of variable speed drives for pumps
and compressors.
In the coming decades, electrical energy storage is expected to be widely used
in power systems as capacitor, battery, and superconducting magnet technologies

xiii
xiv Preface

move forward. Batteries are widely used already for emergency power supplies. These
require ac/dc/ac converters in the range of a few kilowatts to a few tens of megawatts.
On the other hand, variable speed hydrostorage requires converters of up to a few
hundred megawatts.
In the distribution area, an exciting opportunity called Custom Power enables
at-the-fence solutions for delivery to industrial and commercial customers, value-
added reliable electric service (which is free from significant voltage reductions) distor-
tions, and over-voltages. It is now well known that voltage reductions of greater than
15 or 20% and of duration greater than a few cycles (resulting from lightning faults
and switching events on the transmission and distribution system) lead to significant
losses for the increasingly automated processing and manufacturing industry. The
Custom Power concept incorporates power electronics Controllers and switching
equipment, one or more of which can be used to provide a value-added service to the
customers. In general, these Custom Power applications represent power electronics
in the range of a few tens of kilowatts to a few tens of megawatts of conversion or
switching equipment between the utility supply and the customer.
In the transmission area, application of power electronics consists of High-Volt-
age Direct Current (HYDC) power transmission and FACfS. HVDC, a well-estab-
lished technology, is often an economical way to interconnect certain power systems,
which are situated in different regions separated by long distances (over 50 km subma-
rine or 1000 km overhead line), or those which have different frequencies or incompati-
ble frequency control. HVDC involves conversion of ac to de at one end and conversion
of de to ac at the other end. In general, HVDC represents conversion equipment sizes
in the range of a hundred megawatts to a few thousand megawatts. Worldwide, more
than 50 projects have been completed for a total transmission capacity of about 50,000
MW (100,000 MW conversion capacity) at voltages up to ±600 kV. For remote, modest
loads of a few to ten MW, breakeven distance for HVDe may be as low as 100 km.
In general, FACTS-the subject matter of this book and a relatively new technol-
ogy-has the principal role to enhance controllability and power transfer capability
in ac systems. FACTS involves conversion and/or switching power electronics in the
range of a few tens to a few hundred megawatts.
On the end-use side, power electronics conversion and switching technology has
been a fast-growing area for over two decades for a wide range of needs. The fact is
that electricity is an incredible form of energy, which can be converted to many
different forms to bring about new and enabling technologies of high value. Conversion
to pulses and electromagnetic waves has given us computers and communications.
Conversion to microwave has led to microwave ovens, industrial processes, and radar.
In arc form, electricity serves its high value in arc furnaces, welding, and so on. Efficient
lighting, lasers, visuals, sound, robots, medical tools, and of course, variable speed
drives and the expanding need for dc power supplies are among the many other
examples. Complementing the Custom Power technology is the whole area of power
conditioning technology used by customers, under the term Power Quality. Uninter-
ruptible power supplies (UPS) and voltage regulators represent a major growth area
in power electronics. In end use, the converter sizes range from a few watts to tens
of megawatts.
Considering the opportunities in power electronics through reduction in cost,
size and losses, we are in an early stage of the power electronic revolution, and there
is a bright future ahead for those who are involved. Potentially, there is a significant
commonality and synergism between the different areas of applications in generation,