Solar Powered Poultry Incubator

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Solar powered poultry egg incubator
Conference Paper · March 2016
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Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on SET: A driving force for sustainable
development tagged COLENG 2016, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
March 7-11, 2016
Proceedings of the
COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

ABEOKUTA
THEME:
SET: A DRIVING FORCE

for
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
CONFERENCE
PROCEEDINGS
CONFERENCE DATES
7TH - 11TH MARCH, 2016
MARCH, 2016
March 7-11, 2016
Proceedings of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
OF THE
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

ABEOKUTA
EDITORIAL BOARD
PROF. J. K. ADEWUMI
DEAN OF THE COLLEGE
DR. A. A. ADEKUNLE
DEPUTY DEAN OF THE COLLEGE
PROF. T. M. A. OLAYANJU
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL & BIO-RESOURCES ENGINEERING
DR. S. O. ISMAILA
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DR. O. U. DAIRO
H. O. D. AGRICULTURAL & BIO-RESOURCES ENGINEERING
MARCH, 2016
March 7-11, 2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Kamoli Akinwale Amusa, Olubusola Olufunke Nuga, Adeoluwawale Adewusi, Ayorinde
Joseph Olanipekun, Olugbenga Akinwumi Akinduko
TWO-LEVEL VERIFICATION VAULT ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM 1–9
Olubunmi Adewale Akinola, Tolulope Ayodeji Awoborode and Segun Micheal Akinnawonu
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF MICROCONTROLLER BASED
AUTOMATIC STORAGE CHAMBER FOR PINEAPPLE FRUITS (Ananas comosus) 10-18
Oluwaseun Ibrahim ADEBISI, Isaiah Adediji ADEJUMOBI, Rufus Akinnusimi JOKOJEJE,

Kamoli Akinwale AMUSA
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
USING LEAST SQUARE REGRESSION APPROACH: FUNAAB 33 KV FEEDER
AS A CASE STUDY 19-29
Isaiah Adediji ADEJUMOBI1, Samuel Tita WARA, Oluwaseun Ibrahim ADEBISI,
Oluwasesan Alaba AKINWANDE
ECONOMICS OF USING ENERGY SAVING LOADS FOR ELECTRICAL SERVICES 30-38
KamoliAkinwale Amusa, Adeoluwawale Adewusi, OlubusolaOlufunke Nuga,

Ayorinde Joseph Olanipekun, OlayemiAdewale Olukoya
PYRO-ELECTRIC INFRAREDSENSOR-BASED INTRUSION DETECTION AND
REPORTING SYSTEM 39-45
Olubusola Olufunke Nuga, Kamoli Akinwale Amusa, Ayorinde Joseph Olanipekun, Omolade
Temitope Odedina
GSM BASED GAS LEAKAGE SECURITY ALERT SYSTEM 46-53
Mamah K. C., Adisa A. F., Aderinlewo A. A. and Ismaila S. O

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A ROLLER
RICE DEHUSKING AND DESTONING MACHINE 54-63
Olubusola Olufunke Nuga, Ayorinde Joseph Olanipekun, Kamoli Akinwale Amusa,

Oluwafemi Samuel Ajayi
DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMETRIC RECOGNITION SYSTEM
(FINGERPRINT AND FACE RECOGNITION) 64-72
Babalola A.A, Ajisegiri E.S.A, Adisa A.F, Kuye S.I and Dairo O.U
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAILED TRACTOR PTO DRIVEN DRILLING RIG FOR
RURAL WATER SUPPLY 73-80
Kuye, S. I., Sulaiman, M. A

FREE LATERAL VIBRATION OF A VISCOELASTIC PIPELINE CONVEYING AN
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID 81-89
Kuye, S. I., Sulaiman, M. A.

ANALYSIS OF A PIPE RESTING ON WINKLER FOUNDATION AND CONVEYING
A NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID 90-99
Festus Gboyega Akinboro, Samuel Tita Wara S. T., Victor Makinde.,
Karmoh A. Adekiunle Amusa, Itunu Confort Okeyode., Aderemi Alidu Alabi.,
Bamidele Adeniyi Onadeko., Olufunmilayo Omotunde Alatise.
ACCESS AND USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY – A DESIGN MODEL OF SOLAR
ENERGY IN NIGERIA 100-107
March 7-11, 2016
Popoola, O. M., Abiola, O. S., Olateju, O. T., Ismaila, S. O.

COMPARISON OF ACCIDENT PREDICTION MODELS FOR TWO-LANE HIGHWAY
INTEGRATING TRAFFIC AND PAVEMENT CONDITION PARAMETERS 108-114
Arije, O. O., B. A. Adewumi, T. M. A. Olayanju and S. O. N. Akwuegbo

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AERODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SELECTED RICE
VARIETIES IN NIGERIA 115-120
Sanusi, O. M., Olaleke, M. O., Ogundana, T. O. and Sanni, Y. Y.

EVALUATING THE BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF AN ARMOUR STEEL PLATE
AGAINST “7.62 x 39MM” AMMUNITION 121-127
Olawale Usman Dairo, Tajudeen Muraina Adeniyi Olayanju, Oluseyi Amusan,

Olayemi Johnson Adeosun, Ademola Ezra Adeleke
PRODUCTION OF BIO-DIESEL FROM JATROPHA CURCAS SEED USING IN-SITU
TECHNIQUE: EFFECT OF CATALYST AMOUNT AND ALCOHOL-SEED RATIO 128-133
Elijah Oladimeji Aina, Alex Folami Adisa, Tajudeen Mukaila Olayanju,

Salami Olasunkanmi Ismaila
DEVELOPMENT OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID OIL EXPELLER 134-138
Ola I.A., Oladepo G.A.,Wahab A.A., Awotedu O. D., Adisa A.F., Aremu, O.O.,
Dairo O.U., Ismaila S.O, Oluwalana E.O.A., Oluwalana S.A., Aderinlewo A.A
and Ajisegiri E.S.A
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A LOW COST CENTRIFUGAL HONEY
EXTRACTOR 139-144
Kehinde Babajide OSIFALA

NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE WEALTH CREATION 145-152
Chukwu, P. M., Adewumi, B. A., Ola, I. A., Akinyemi, O. D. and Onwude, D. I.

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF A COCONUT DEHUSKING MACHINE 153-158
Onwuka O. Ude, Olayide R. Adetunji , Sidikat I. Kuye, Enock O.Dare,and

Kamol O. Alamu.
CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, COATED MILD AND STAINLESS STEELS
IN 1M SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION USING POLARIZATION METHOD 159-164
S. I. Kuye, O. R. Adetunji, N. O. Adekunle, A. Abudu

INVESTIGATION OF CORROSION INHIBITION OF MILD STEEL IN 0.5 M
SULPHURIC ACID IN THE PRESENCE OF SPONDIA MONBIN EXTRACT 165-170
Oluwadare J. Akinyemi, Olayide R. Adetunji, Sidikat I. Kuye, Enock O. Dare

CORROSION PERFORMANCE OF ELECTROPLATED STEEL IN TOMATO,
ORANGE AND PINEAPPLE JUICES 171-176
Joshua Olasunkanmi Oladele, Olawale Usman Dairo, Ayobami Adewole Aderinlewo,

and Olajide P. Sobukola.
DETERMINATION OF SUITABLE THIN LAYER DRYING CURVE MODEL FOR
SPONGE-GOURD SEED (Luffa Cylindrica) 177-183
Olayide Rasaq Adetunji, Obafemi O. Adegbesan and Iliyasu Kayode Okediran

PROTECTIVE EFFICIENCY OF EPOXY RESIN COATING ON MILD
STEEL PLATE IN HCL, NAOH AND DISTILLED WATER MEDIA 184-189
March 7-11, 2016
Hezekiah Oluwole Adeyemi, Bayode Julius. Olorunfemi, Adefemi Adeyemi Adekunle

IMPLEMENTING ERGONOMICS TECHNIQUES OF LIFTING AMONG TRUCK
LOADING WORKERS IN NIGERIA BLOCK MAKING INDUSTRY 190-195
Peter O. Aiyelabowo
RELAY COOPERATION FOR IMPROVED SYMBOL ERROR RATE
PERFORMANCE IN POWER LINE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 196-207
Sobowale A and A. R. C. Ortigara

FROM MDGs TO SDGs: THE NEED FOR GLOBAL THINKING AND
LOCAL ACTIONS IN THE NIGERIAN WATER SECTOR 208-214
Alayaki, F. M. and Ayotamuno. M. J

IDENTIFICATION OF SELF-STABILIZATION OF LATERITE SOILS IN PREDICTING
FIELD PERFORMANCE IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN SOME PROMINENT
NIGERIAN REGIONS 215-221
Dada P.O.O. , and Adewumi J.K.

ASSESSMENT OF MAIZE ROOT GROWTH IN RELATION TO SOIL STRENGTH
ONARTIFICIALLY DESURFACED SOIL USING IMAGE ANALYSIS 222-229
Olayide Rasaq Adetunji, Bodunde Ayodele Balogun and Abioye Taudeen Fasasi
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOTORIZED MAIZE SHELLING MACHINE 230-235
Solomon Olanrewaju Giwa, Collins Neku Nwaokocha, Abayomi Temitope Layeni,

and Musediq Adedoyin Sulaiman
CHARACTERIZATION OF NOISE AND EXHAUST GASES FROM HOUSEHOLD
GENERATORS: A CASE OF SANGO, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA 236-242
Olufemi Adeyemi Adetola, Olawale John Olukunle and Toluwalope Lateef Aremu
DETERMINATION OF SOME ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CASSAVA TUBERS
IN RELATION TO BIOMASS YIELD 243-248
Adegbola Alabi Onipede, Adedayo Adekunle Badejo and Adebola Adebayo Adekunle
SEDIMENT QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF OKE-ITOKU RIVER, ABEOKUTA,
SOUTHWEST NIGERIA 249-254
Adeyemi, Morufu A., Adewumi, Babatunde A. and Ogunsina, Babatunde S.
ASSESSMENT OF SILO MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT:
A CASE STUDY OF SOME ESTABLISHMENTS IN OYO AND OGUN STATES,
NIGERIA 255-261
Anthony Olayinka Adekoya, Peter Olaitan Aiyedun, Olayinde Rasaq Adetunji,
Wasiu Oyediran Adedeji, Sunday Bassey Udo and Adekunle Adedapo Obisanya.
THE EFFECT OF SMART TRAFFIC CONTROLLER SYSTEM ON THE TRAFFIC
CONGESTION AT JIBOWU UNDERBRIDGE IN LAGOS 262-270
Kamol Olabode Alamu, Victor Akin. Olutayo and Olakunle Oresegun
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR THE DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE
COOLING CAPACITY OF AIR-CONDITIONERS IN SETTING UP A COMPUTER-
AIDED DESIGN/COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING LABORATORY 271-277
Kifilideen L. Osanyinpeju, Adewole A. Aderinlewo, Olayide R. Adetunji,

and Emmanuel S. Ajisegiri
DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR POWERED POULTRY EGG INCUBATOR 278-283
March 7-11, 2016
Adinife Patrick Azodo,and Salami Olasunkanmi Ismaila

EFFECTIVE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
AND SUSTAINABILITY: KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES AMONG NIGERIAN
HOUSEHOLDS 284-297
Arije, O. O., B. A. Adewumi, T. M. A. Olayanju, S. O. N. Akwuegbo and B.O Adetifa

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND
ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SELECTED RICE VARIETIES IN NIGERIA 298-302
Dauda Lasisi, Adewale James Adesope, Adedamola Oluremi Oladiji,

Oluseyi Emmanuel Akangbe, Abimbola Olapeju Oyeniyi and Kabiru Ademola Jimo
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A TRACTOR AND SOME TILLAGE
IMPLEMENTS ON A SANDY LOAMY SOIL 303-309
Adewole Ayobami Aderinlewo, Ademola Lawrence Olaoluwa and Olawale Uthman Dairo
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A TWO-ROW COWPEA PLANTER 310-313
Temitayo Abayomi Ewemoje, Ifechukwude Israel Ahuchaogu and Patience Sunday Isaiah
ESTIMATION OF WATERSHED SUSTAINABILITY INDEX OF UNIVERSITY OF
UYO WATERSHED USING UNESCO-IHP HELP TOOL 314-320
Saliu L.A, Otapo A.T and Alashiri O.A

PERFORMANCE AND USAGE OF WIMAX COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
IN LAGOS AND ABUJA-NIGERIA 321-327
Dairo, Olawale Usman, Olukayode, Aanu-Jehofa Ifeobaorun, Adeosun, Olayemi Johnson,

Adeleke, Ezra Ademola and Iyerimah Rita Blessing
LOW COST BIOGAS PURIFICATION SYSTEM FOR RURAL/DOMESTIC USE 328-332
Abiola R.J, Akinyele J.O, Adewuyi A.P and Adetunji J.O

THE USE OF RECYCLED PLASTIC BOTTLES IN REINFORCED CONCRETE
WAFFLE SLAB 333-336
Ademola Aremu, Ademola Seun Duduyemi, Ayobami Olufemi Olasoji

and Joel Ehime Ojiebun
MATURITY-DEPENDENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ÀBÈÈRÈ
(PICRALIMA NITIDA) FRUITS 337-342
Adegbola Alabi Onipede, Adebola Adebayo Adekunle, Adedayo Adekunle Badejo
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE CONTAMINATION SEDIMENT:
A CASE STUDY OF OKE-ITOKU RIVER, ABEOKUTA NIGERIA 343-351
Akangbe O.E, Akinyemi J.O., Adeosun O.J., Badejo A. A and Dairo O.U.
MODELING THE CLIMATE VARIABILITY IMPACTS ON MAIZE YIELD IN RAIN
FOREST ECOLOGICAL ZONE OF NIGERIA 352-359
Adeosun Olayemi Johnson, Adewumi Johnson Kayode, Dairo Olawale Usman,
Dada Pius Olusegun Olufemi and Ajibade Seun Akanni
EFFECT OF FLOW RATE ON THE WATER TREATMENT POTENTIAL
OF MORINGA OLEIFERA SEEDS 360-363
A. E. Adeleke, P. O. Aiyedun and O.U. Dairo

ANALYSIS OF CHANGE OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CASSAVA
BASED ETHANOL-WATER SYSTEM DURING AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION PROCESS 364-370
March 7-11, 2016
Sobowale, A, S.O. Sajo and O. E. Ayodele

ANALYSIS OF RECENT ONSET AND CESSATION OF RAINFALL IN
SOUTHWEST NIGERIA 371-376
Olufemi Bamidele Busari, Olayide Rasaq Adetunji, Peter Olaitan Aiyedun and
Sunday Gbenga.Aderibigbe
DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW COST RICE MILLING MACHINE 377-382
Simeon Olutayo ODUNFA and Samuel Opeyemi AJAYI

IMPACT OF OVERLOADING ON PAVEMENT LIFE DESIGN 383-389
Nureni Asafe Yekini , Agnes Kikelomo Akinwole, Dayo Adekunle Phillips

VIRTUAL LEGISLATION THROUGH TELEPRESENCE: A REAL-TIME COMPUTER
MEDIATED EXPERT SYSTEM FOR NIGERIA NATIONAL ASSEMBLY SYSTEM 390-398
Folasayo Titilola Fayose, Babatope Albert Alabadan , Adesoji Mathew Olaniyan, Segun
Fakayode, Christopher Okonji, A.T. Ajiboye, Emmanuel Sunday Ajayi, Abraham Olusola Oloye,
A.G. Ibrahim
DEVELOPMENT OF A MECHANICAL BIRD SCARING DEVICE 399-403
March 7-11, 2016
CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, COATED MILD AND STAINLESS STEELS IN 1M SODIUM

HYDROXIDE SOLUTION USING POLARIZATION METHOD
Onwuka O. Ude1, Olayide R. Adetunji 1, Sidikat I. Kuye 1, Enock O.Dare,2 and Kamol O. Alamu1*.
1.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, P. M. B. 2240, Abeokuta, Ogun
State. Nigeria.
2.
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Agriculture, P. M. B. 2240, Abeokuta, Ogun State. Nigeria.
*adetunjior@funaab.edu.ng and ebodrev@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Enormous funds are spent on the protection of engineering components

annually as a result of corrosion. Degradation can set in, due to electrochemical reaction
that takes place between materials and the environment leading to reduced performance.
The associated downtime caused by replacement and maintenance of vessels and other
equipment necessitated seeking for techniques and method to efficiently combat
corrosion. This study evaluated the corrosion behaviour of brass, Coated Mild Steel
(CMS) and Stainless Steel (SS) in sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Three samples (1 x 30 x
30 mm3) each were used for Potentiostatic Polarization Experiment (PPE). The samples
were cleaned, and soaked in 1M NaOH solution. Open circuit potentials and current
densities of the samples were obtained from PPE which were used to evaluate their
corrosion rates. The pH of the media was recorded before and after each experiment.
The results obtained using PPE in NaOH (in mm/y) were 0.057, 0.102 and 0.071; for
brass, CMS and SS respectively. The pH of the medium was measured as 10.9.The
results revealed that brass has least corrosion rate in Sodium Hydroxide. The highest
corrosion rate was obtained for CMS. It can be concluded that brass and SS had very
low corrosion rates in Sodium Hydroxide using PPE method.
Keywords: Corrosion, Coated Mild Steel, Stainless Steel, Brass, Sodium Hydroxide,
Potentiodynamic Polarization
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is the degradation of material resulting from exposure and interaction with the environment. It exists
as part of our everyday life, in extreme situations catastrophic failures such as sudden collapse can occur when
the load bearing capability of a structure is undermined. The usefulness of a metal for an engineering service is
determined by its mechanical properties (Adetunji and Adewoye 2010).
Corrosion damage can also result in life threatening situation which are not as dramatic as structural collapse
such as contamination of beverages by corrosion product from storage tanks and piping, also possible toxic level
of lead in drinking water supplies as a result of contamination by corrosion products from lead piping and tanks
which are mainly introduced through corrosion of lead bearing plumbing materials (Eun et al, 2011). The
problem is basically that the metals which we use in practical operations are unstable in the environment in
which we wish to use them (Kwok, et al., 2000). Nature gives us iron ore in the form of hematite (-Fe2O3),
which we reduce to metal. This metal on exposure to air and water is unstable and tends to go back to its original
state.
Loto, et al., (2012) wrote a technical report on Corrosion Polarization Behaviour of Type 316 Stainless Steel in
Strong Acids and Acid Chlorides. He concluded that an appreciable corrosion resistance of the tested 316
austenitic stainless steel specimens was exhibited in the sulphuric acid test environments at both the intermediate
(9.1M; 48.5%) and at the high concentrations (18.2M; 97%), particularly in the test environments that did not
contain added NaCl. The concentrated H2SO4 (18.2M) showed near absolute passivity. The addition of sodium
chloride, however, shifted the polarization behaviour into active corrosion reactions, though still minimally.
Jong, et al., (2013) studied the passive film of type 316 stainless steel. The passive films grown on AISI 316
stainless steel in NaCl solutions were investigated by potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance
measurements and Mott-Schottky analysis. The passive films are composed of p-type inner layer and n-type
outer layer in both neutral and acidic solutions, regardless of whether the negative resistance is observed in the
films. The defect or charge carrier densities are lowered by increasing the passivation potential with no evidence
of chloride penetration into the passive film in agreement with the prediction of point defect model, and the
passive film is shown to continue to grow and become more protective with time. The densities were lower for
the films formed in neutral solutions compared to those in acidic solutions, which is attributed to thickening of
159
March 7-11, 2016
the passive film. The densities are also affected by the content of dissolved oxygen being higher for the passive
film formed in non-deaerated solutions than in deaerated acidic solutions suggesting that chemical species
necessary for passivation are apparently provided by dissolved oxygen.
Sekunowo et al., (2013) studied potentiostatic polarisation responses of mild steel in seawater and acid
environments. He concluded that the potentiostatic polarization of mild steel in hydrochloric acid and seawater
has been investigated. Mild steel intrinsic characteristics approximated by its constituent elements significantly
impacted the corrosion responses given that both media contain chloride ions as the most aggressive specie, the
acidity of corrosion product appears to have distinguished the corrosion rates of the mild steel in each of the
environment simulated. The acid nature of corrosion product in this study adversely affected the stability of
protective film. It may be concluded that any effort made to reduce corrosion product acidity and its
accumulation will go a long way in mitigating corrosion of mild steel in both media.
Loto et al., (2013) experimented the effect of ferrous gluconate inhibition on the electrochemical behaviour of
mild steel in 3.5% NaCl. He concluded that from the investigation into the use of FG as an inhibitor in 3.5%
NaCl solution, the following deductions were made. According to Rihan and Nesic (2006), a novel apparatus,
high-pressure/high-temperature nickel flow loop, was constructed to study the effect of the flow on the rate of
erosion–corrosion of mild steel in hot caustic. It has been successfully used to measure the corrosion rate of 1020
steel in 2.75 M NaOH solution at a temperature of 160 oC and velocities of 0.32 and 2.5 m/s. In situ
electrochemical methods were used to measure the corrosion rate such as the potentiodynamic sweep, the
polarization resistance method, and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). Also used were the weight-
loss method and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
Eight electrodes/coupons were used to monitor the metal loss rate; four were placed at the low velocity section,
while the other four were placed in the high velocity section. The first three coupons in each section were placed
within the disturbed flow region, while the fourth was placed in a fully developed flow region. The corrosion rate
of the coupons in the high velocity section was generally higher than that of the coupons in the low velocity
section. One coupon in the disturbed flow region had a significantly higher corrosion rate than the others (Rihan
and Nesic, 2006).
Moayed et al., (2009) studied Pitting Corrosion Inhibition of Mild Steel by Nitrite in Concrete Pore Solution by
Polarization and Zero Resistance Ammetery (Zra) Techniques. He concluded that Pitting corrosion of mild steel
in saturated Ca(OH)2 solution containing different concentration of NaCl depends on chloride concentration
which decreases linearly with the logarithmic values of Cl- concentration. Nitrite ions show an inhibition
characteristic on pitting corrosion of mile steel in saturated
Temperature has a great effect on the rate of metal electrochemical corrosion (Mohammed et al., 2008).
Chemical and electrochemical corrosion is either chemical or electrochemical in nature. The distinction between
chemical and electrochemical corrosion is based on the corrosion causing mechanism. Chemical and
electrochemical corrosion are not mutually exclusive and can occur simultaneously.
Since the corrosion reactions involve the transfer of electrons and ions between the metal and the solution the
rates are equivalent to electric currents. The rates of these reactions depend on the potential difference between
the metal and the solution, i.e. the potential of the metal.
As the potential of the metal becomes more positive, the rates of anodic reactions increase and the rates of
cathodic reactions decrease. The converse effect on the reaction rates occurs as the potential of the metal
becomes more negative. At higher potentials the nucleation rate increases faster than the step propagation rate
and the electro-deposition of each layer proceeds with the formation of a large number of nuclei (Pirvu et al.,
2009). From the relationships between the potential of a metal and the currents flowing (equivalent to rates of the
corrosion reactions) the corrosion behaviour can be understood. The reference electrode is chosen to give a
stable and reproducible potential in the solution.
Enormous funds are spent on the protection of engineering components and structures annually as a result of
corrosion. Degradation can set in, due to electrochemical reaction that takes place between materials and the
environment leading to reduced performance. The associated downtime caused by replacement and maintenance
of vessels, pipes, valves and other equipment necessitated seeking for techniques and method to efficiently
combat corrosion. This study evaluated the corrosion behaviour of brass, Coated Mild Steel (CMS) and Stainless
Steel (SS) in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) using Polarization Method.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The sample metallic material used for this research work is stainless steel, mild steel coated with red oxide and
brass. The sample electrolyte is Sodium hydroxide. Other equipment and tools are, Potentiostat Apparatus,
Thermometer, Weighing Balance and pH meter – USP41.The experimental set up for the study of the
potentiodynamic polarisation study of the corrosion performance of coated Mild Steel, Stainless Steel and Brass
in Sodium Hydroxide was done in steps.
160
March 7-11, 2016
The first step was metallic samples preparation. The metallic samples (CMS, SS and Brass) of size 20mm x
20mm were cut from the standard size of 1.2 x 2.4 m flat sheet metals of thickness 2mm each using snip at the
central workshop, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. The second step included corrosion medium
(NaOH) preparation in the laboratory of the department of Chemistry. Corrosion analysis involves the particular
surface of interest, And so other surface which were not required of the corrosion analysis were isolated. This
was done using synthetic epoxy.
The next step involved the connection of metallic samples to the electrodes. One side of themetallic sample was
covered with a tape. Epoxy was prepared and placed all over the surface which was not needed for the corrosion
analysis. The epoxy was then allowed to solidify for a day. Continuity of the connection was checked to ensure
proper connection between the wires and samples.The basic electro-chemical cell involves a working electrode,
reference electrode, counter electrode and solution media. Since the Working electrode (WE) is the electrode in
an electrochemical system on which the reaction of interest is occurring.The working electrodes were CMS, SS
and Brass. The reference electrode used was silver – silver chloride and the counter electrode used was carbon
electrode with NaOH as medium.
The pH values of the media (Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)) were determined by dipping the pH meter into the
solution of the medium and the values of 12.7 was recorded. The entire electrode was fully immersed into the
medium for the experiment.
The equilibrium potential assumed by the metal in the absence of electrical connections to the metal is called the
Open Circuit Potential, Eoc. The terms Eoc (Open Circuit Potential) and Ecorr (Corrosion Potential) are usually
interchangeable, but Eoc is preferred. This is done by the use of a multimeter to measure the E oc value for the
given electrochemical cell at a measured pH value. It is very important to allow sufficient time for the E oc to
stabilize before beginning the electrochemical experiment. A stable E oc is taken to indicate that the system being
studied has reached "steady state", i.e., the various corrosion reactions have assumed a constant rate. Some
corrosion reactions reach steady state in a few minutes, while others may need several hours. The value of either
the anodic or cathodic current at Eoc is called the Corrosion Current hours. The value of either the anodic or
cathodic current at Eoc is called the Corrosion Current.
The different electrodes were connected to potentiostat. This potentiostat was connected to a computer-
controlled system. The corrosion monitoring was done in real time in which the reading values were determined
from the computer Graphics User Interface (GUI) where a plot of voltage versus time and current versus time
was shown. The different readings for the current and voltage were then exported to excel for further analysis.
This determines how slow or fast a potential window can be scanned, this is most important for experiments that
requires high scan rates; the experiment was run at a scan rate of 20mV/s. This was done to ensure that the
potentiostat would detect a quantitative amount of corrosion i.e. the potentiostat does not run too fast and also
does not run too slow.
A Graph plot of Potential Versus logarithm of current was drawn using software application (Origin 6.0).
Polynomial line of best fit which obeys the Butler-Volmer equation for the cathodic corrosion occurring were
determined. The Eoc potential was also plotted on the graph. Using Tafel analysis, an extrapolation of the linear
portion of the cathodic curve to the corrosion potential to indicate the corrosion current (I coor) at which corrosion
is occurring.A potentiostat that will maintain an electrode potential within 1 mV of a pre-set value over a
wide range of applied currents was used. For the type and size of standard specimen supplied, the
potentiostat should have a potential range from -0.6 to 1.6 V and an anodic current output range from 1.0
to 10μΑ.
The potential-measuring circuit should have a high input impedance on the order of 10" to 10Ω to minimize
current drawn from the system during measurements. Such circuits are provided with most potentiostats.
Instruments should have sufficient sensitivity and accuracy to detect a change of 1.0 mV over a potential
range between -0.6 and1.6 V.
Corrosion Rate Analysis

According to literature, after determining the Icorr which is the corrosion current, it can be determined by
subjecting it to the formula below (ASTM G 102-89, 1999),
where
Ki = 3.272 m/(amp-cm-year) ,EW = equivalent weight,d = density,A = Cross Sectional area of sample exposed to
the medium,Icoor= Corrosion Current determine for data analysis
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March 7-11, 2016
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result obtained from potentiostatic polarization experiments for Coated Mild Steel in Sodium Hydroxide,
Stainless Steel in Sodium Hydroxide and Brass in Sodium Hydroxide are found in Tables 1 to 3.
Table 1: Determination of Corrosion Rate Analysis

Sample Density Atomic Length (mm) Width (mm) EW
(g/cm3) Weight (g)
Mild Steel 6.98 56 21.3 21.6 28
tainless Steel 7.9 56 19.4 20.4 28

Brass 8.56 56 22.6 20.5 32.1
Values obtained from the experimental procedures were substituted in the equation (1) above and the results are
as shown in the table 1 above. The amount of electron involved during the reaction (n) = 2 and the Atomic
Weight of the materials (Mild Steel, Stainless Steel and Brass) is 56g
Table 2: Measured Value of Corrosion Open Circuit Potentials
Sample Media Eoc (V)
Mild Steel Coated with red oxide NaOH -0.65
Stainless Steel NaOH -0.167
Brass NaOH -0.129
Table 3: Corrosion Rate of Brass, Coated Mild and Stainless Steels

Sample Media Area(mm2) Log Icorr CR(mm/y)
Mid Steel Coated with red oxide NaOH 460.08 3.55916742 0.10153
Stainless Steel NaOH 395.76 2.42229089 0.07095
Brass NaOH 463.3 2.1614496 0.05724
DISCUSSION
Stainless Steel in Sodium hydroxide has a high resistance to corrosion with the electrode Potential measured at --
0.129 V and corrosion current density as 2.4222A/mm as shown in Figure 1. In the case of Brass, it was
susceptible to corrode in Sodium hydroxide media with electrode Potential measured at -0.129 V and the
corrosion current density as 2.1614496 A/mm as shown in Figure 2. Coated Mild Steel has very low resistance to
corrosion in sodium hydroxide medium as seen in Figure 3 with the electrode Potential measured at -0.65V and
corrosion current density as 3.55916742A/mm. SS was able to resist corrosion in sodium chloride due to
formation of protective oxide. Brass had the least corrosion rate in NaOH as result of its inactivity in the
medium. These results were in line with the work of Jong et al.,2013 and that of Rihan and Nesic, 2006.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that brass and stainless steel had very low corrosion rates in Sodium Hydroxide using
Potentiostatic method. The corrosion rate of Coated Mild steel was slightly high in Sodium Hydroxide using the
method. Therefore, both brass and stainless steel materials can be used to store alcoholic beverages since it is
alkaline in nature. They can also be used in the construction of pipes and valve components for transportation of
the products from the Brew house to the filling machine in the Packaging hall of the brewery.
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March 7-11, 2016
Cathodic Current
Eoc -0.129
Icorr 2.1614496
0.0
Measured Current
POTENTIAL V
-0.5
-1.0
1 10
LOG Icorr
Figure 1: Graph of E Vs log Icoor of Stainless Steel in NaOH
Cathodic Current
Eoc -0.65
-0.2 Icorr 3.55916742

Measured Current
-0.4
POTENTIAL V
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
0.1 1 10
LOG Icorr
Figure 2: Graph of E Vs log Icoor of Brass in NaOH
Cathodic Current
Eoc -0.129
Icorr 2.1614496
0.0
Measured Current
POTENTIAL V
-0.5
-1.0
1 10
LOG Icorr
Figure 3: Graph of E Vs log Icorr of Coated Mild Steel in NaOH
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Jong J. K. and Yu M. Y. 2013. Study on the passive film of type 316 stainless steel.International Journal of
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stainless steel in strong acids and acid chlorides.International Journal of Electrochemical Science. Vol. 7: Pg.
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INVESTIGATION OF CORROSION INHIBITION OF MILD STEEL IN 0.5 M SULPHURIC ACID IN

THE PRESENCE OF SPONDIA MONBIN EXTRACT
S. I. Kuye1, O. R. Adetunji1, N. O. Adekunle1, A. Abudu1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
*Corresponding author: ibiyemikuye@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Many synthetic compounds have shown good anticorrosive activity but
most of them are highly toxic to both human beings and environment. These toxic
effects have led to the investigation of natural products which are eco-friendly and
harmless as anticorrosion agents. Corrosion performance of mild steel in 0.5 M
sulphuric acid solution in the presence of Hog plum (Spondias mombin) extract was
investigated in this work. Corrosion parameters studied were weight loss, corrosion rate
and corrosion inhibition efficiency. Mild steel plate of 5 mm thickness was cut into 8 cm
x 3 cm coupons and immersed in the corroding medium. Extract of Hog plum ( leaves,
fruits and bark) in 20, 50, and 100 % concentrations was used as inhibitor. Weight loss
experiments were carried out by deep immersion for 35 days. The specimens were
brought out at intervals of 7 days, cleaned, reweighed and weights recorded. The results
obtained showed that weight loss was highest in the 100% extract of fruits and lowest in
the 20% of bark. Corrosion rate decreased with immersion time for all the samples but
the highest was recorded in 100% fruit extract while the lowest was in 20% of the bark
extract. Corrosion inhibition efficiency was highest in the 20% bark extract (82.17% on
the 16th day and 76.35% on the 40th day).The 20% concentration solution of hog plum
bark extract proved to be the best in the H2SO4 acidic environments.
Keywords: corrosion inhibition, Hog plum extract, sulphuric acid, deep immersion
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is a deteriorative loss of a metal as a result of dissolution environmental reaction, it could be prevented
by inhibitors which are substances that when added in relatively low concentrations to the environment, decrease
its corrosiveness. Corrosion inhibitors can be chemicals, either synthetic or natural and can be classified
according to Gentil et al. (2003) by:
i. the chemical nature as organic or inorganic;
ii. the mechanism of action as anodic, cathodic or an anodic-cathodic mix and by adsorption action
iii. the oxidants or non-oxidants
In general, the inorganic inhibitors have cathodic or anodic actions. The organic inhibitors have both actions,
cathodic and anodic and a protective adsorption film (Autolab, 2011). The vapour of some certain salts
condenses after boiling to form volatile anodic inhibitors and is hydrolysed by any moisture to liberate protective
ions.
Inorganic inhibitors like chromates, nitrates, phosphates and silicates are widely used for corrosion inhibition
(Bethencourt, 1998). Chromate is generally accepted as efficient corrosion inhibitor that can passivate
metals by forming a monoatomic or polyatomic oxide film at the electrode surface, but it is also known
to promote corrosion, acting as a cathodic reaction, possible process for chromates is the reduction or
decomposition of the inhibitor on the metal surface, followed by precipitation. Chromates are reduced to
Cr(III)hydroxide or oxyhidrixide on the metal surface that results in corrosion current density decrease
(Igual-Muñoz et al.; 2004). However, the main disadvantage is the toxic effect of chromium (VI) oxide oxidation
state (Igual-Muñoz,et al.; 2004). Synthetic or inorganic corrosion inhibitors have certain side effects such as high
toxicity to both human beings and environment (Patel, 2013). The biological toxicity of these products,
especially organic phosphate, is documented specifically about their environmental harmful characteristics
(Patel, 2013). The toxicity may manifest either during the synthesis of the compound or during its applications.
Such inhibitors may cause reversible or irreversible damage to organs, viz., kidneys or liver.
Organic inhibitors have been the most widely used in most industrial processes because of their ability to form a
protective layer on the metal surface in media with high hydrocarbons content. At present there are a number of
organic inhibitors belonging to different chemical families such as fatty amides (Olivares-Xometl, et al.; 2006),
pyridines (Abd El-Maksoud and Fouda, 2005; Noor, 2009), imidazolines (Martinez-Palou et al., 2004) and other
1, 3-azoles (Popova et al., 2007; Antonijevic et al.; 2009 and polymers (Tallman, 2002) have showed excellent
performance as corrosion inhibitors.
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The adsorption of amine salts of oleic acid was investigated on iron in 0.5M H 2SO4, by Szauer and Brandt
(1981). It was observed that the adsorption process proceeded through the preferable bonding between oleic acid
and the metal surface.
Bockris and Yang (1991) studied the mechanism of corrosion inhibition of iron in acid solution by acetylenic
alcohols. It was suggested that formation of a compact three-dimensional protective layer on the electrode
surface is key for effective inhibition of corrosion.
Corrosion protective performance of nano-structured methyl orange doped Polyaniline (PANI) and Camphor
Sulphonic Acid (CSA) doped poly (1- naphthylamine) (PNA) dispersed polyurethane-based composite coatings
against mild steel has been investigated by (UffanaRiaz, et al.; 2009). The influence of the dopant on the
passivation of metal was analyzed using two different dopants. The corrosion protective performance of the
coatings against mild steel was evaluated by the physico-mechanical properties and corrosion rate measurements.
Thiazoles, benzotriazole, triazoles give good protection except in strongly acidic media, where tetrazoles
and imidazoles are revealed to be good. However, introduction of substituent groups can change that.
Amines show high inhibition efficiency in chloride and acidic solutions, but due to high concentration
the application is not economical (Antonijevic and Petrovic, 2008).
Natural products have been studied extensively as corrosion inhibitors both in product mixtures extracted from
natural sources such as plants or essentially pure products derived from animals or plants (i.e. vitamins and
aminoacids) (Palou et al, 2014).
From the economic and environmental view points, plant extracts are excellent alternatives as inhibitors because
of their availability and biodegradability and can be obtained in a simple way and purification methods are not
required (Palou et al, 2014). The extracts are generally obtained from cheap solvents that are widely available, at
a low cost and with low toxicity; the aqueous extract is more relieved, but due to the low solubility of many
natural products in water, common ethanol extracts are also obtained. These extracts contain a variety of natural
products such as essential oils, tannins, pigments, steroids, terpenes, flavones and flavonoids, among other well-
known active substances used as corrosion inhibitors. In general, these compounds present conjugated aromatic
structures, long aliphatic chains such as nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen hetero atoms with free electron pairs that
are available to form bonds with the metal surface; in most cases, they act synergistically to exhibit good
efficiency regarding the corrosion protection. This can be demonstrated in the case of Ginkgo bilobain which the
main components, flavonoids and terpenoids have been identified (Palou et al, 2014). This extract has
demonstrated excellent efficiency as corrosion inhibitors with potential applications in the Oil Industry
concerning the corrosion inhibition of Q235A steel. The antibacterial activity of the extracts against oil field
microorganisms has also been proved (Obot, et al.; 2010).
The growing interest and attention of the world towards the protection of the environment and the hazardous
effects of using chemicals on the ecological balance, has gradually changed the traditional approach on corrosion
inhibitors.
The main disadvantage of using plant materials as corrosion inhibitors is their frequently low stability, they are
readily biodegradable; however, this disadvantage can be minimized or avoided by adding biocides such as N-
cetyl-N,N,N-trimethyl ammonium bromide (Palou et al, 2014). Obiukwu, et al., (2013) used Vernonia
amygdalina (Bitter Leaf) and Azadirachta indica (Dogoyaro) immersed in hydrochloric acid solution,
tetraoxosulphate (IV) acid solution, trioxonitrate (v) acid solution to inhibit corrosion on stainless steel, and
reported that the Azadirachta indica had a better effect with an inhibitive efficiency of 85% for stainless steel
compared with an efficiency of 69% for stainless steel smeared with Vernonia amydgalina, adsorption process
was seen to evolve forming protective layer on the surface of the metal.
Nnanna and Owate (2014) worked on green corrosion inhibition for aluminium from extracts of moringa oleifera
in acidic solution of 0.5M HCl using gravimetric and thermometric techniques at 30 o and 60oC. Results obtained
showed that Moringa oleifera functioned as an excellent corrosion inhibitor for aluminium in the acidic
environment. Inhibition efficiency increased with extract concentration but decreased with temperature. The
adsorption of Moringa oleifera on Al surface is agreed with Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
Loto, et al (2011) inhibited the effect of corrosion using kola tree and tobacco extracts on Austenitic Stainless
Steel in Acid Chloride Environment which showed that the addition of different concentrations of the plants
extracts gave some reduction in the active corrosion reactions behaviour of the steel specimen in the strong acid
chloride. Effective protection of the austenitic stainless steel was minimally achieved in nearly all the extracts for
the greater part of the experimental period. Adindu, et al. (2013) carried out a corrosion inhibition of stainless
steel (316l) using Cola Nitida, Cola Acuminata and Cola Garciniain in soil and acidic environments. The results
showed that the lowest and highest corrosion rates were observed in the soil and 2M HCl acid environments
respectively. Cola Garcinia (Bitter Cola) exhibited the best inhibition in the soil and 2M HCl acid environments
while Cola Acuminata (White Cola) showed the best inhibition in the seawater and 1M HCl acid environments.
The inhibition was attributed to the adsorption of the inhibitors on the surfaces of the stainless steel specimens.
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March 7-11, 2016
Belkhaouda, et al (2013) in their corrosion inhibition experiment of Carbon steel in hydrochloric acid solution
with Chenopodium ambrorsioides extract, they also showed the excellent inhibitory properties of Coconut Coir
Dust Extract (CCDE) on aluminium in 1 M HCl.
Walker (197η) observed that the bitter taste in plants’ barks, seeds or leaves is attributed to the presence of
tannins. Thus, tannins could be obtained by water extraction from a variety of barks, stems, seeds and fruits.
Hog plum (Spondias mombinLinnor Spondias purpurea var. lutea) belongs to the family of Anacardiacae, and
according to (Ayoka, 2008) it grows in the rain forest and in the coastal areas and can reach a height of 15 –
22m. The trunk has deep incisions in the bark, which often produce a brown resinous substance. The leaves and
the flowers are at the end of the branches. The tree strips itself of most of the leaves before it starts to flower. The
fruit is a 0.038m long oval, yellow plum having a leathery skin and a thin layer of fruit pulp with a very exotic
taste. It hangs in numerous clusters of more than a dozen on the tree. The fruit is very rich in vitamins B 1 and C2
and exists as an oval seed. The mode of propagation of the plant is by seeds and cuttings. Other common names,
according to Morton (1987) are Bala (Costa Rica), Jobito (Panama), Jobo blanco (Colombia), Jobo corronchoso
(Venezuela), Hoeboe (Surinam), Acaiba, Caja, Pau da tapera (Brazil), Ubo (Peru), Hobo (Mexico), Iyeye
(Yoruba), Uvuru (Igbo).
This paper investigated the inhibition efficiency of Hog plum extract on mild steel in 0.5 M H 2SO4 acid solution.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Materials
The plant that was used as corrosion inhibitor for this project was sourced locally from the school environment
of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta while the metal (5mm mild steel) was obtained at Musnaj
steel venture, Ifesowapo iron/building material Orile – Iganmu, Lagos. The 0.5M H2SO4 acid was sourced from
Chicollo Nigeria limited, Ilasamaja, Lagos.
METHODOLOGY
Preparation of specimen
The mild steel (5mm) sample was cut into rectangular coupons (specimens) of dimension of 80mm by 30mm. A
3 mm diameter hole was drilled in each specimen, through which a twine was passed to aid suspension and total
immersion in the corroding medium (Loto, 2003).
Preparation of inhibitors
Fresh fruits (unripe), bark and leaves of Spondias Mombin were grounded separately using small amount of
distilled water to extract the juice (solution) at a ratio of 500ml (distilled water) to 1 kilogram. Each mixture was
poured into a sieve and the juice extracted. Corrosion inhibitors of 10ml, 5ml and 2ml were prepared from each
extract (leaves, fruit and bark) and added to 250ml solution of 0.5 M sulphuric acid (H2SO4) serving as the
corroding medium (Loto, 2003; Adindu et al., 2013).
Procedures of the experiment

(i) The metal (mild steel) was cut into different coupons and tagged. using a cello tape and with the aid of a
twine passed through the 3.00 mm diameter holes in the coupons to aid suspension and total immersion
in the corroding medium
(ii) The initial weight of each coupon was taken with a weighing balance and recorded
(iii) The tagged coupons were completely immersed in 250 ml beakers containing the corroding media for
40days.
(iv)The coupons were brought out at interval of 7 days, cleaned and reweighed and weights are recorded.
Experimental calculations
Corrosion rate was calculated according to Callister, Jr and Rethwisch (2009) as
KW
CR 
At (1)
where, C is the corrosion rate
ΔW is the weight loss in mg , ρ is the density of the mild steel (g/cm3)
A is the exposed area of the coupons (cm2), t is the immersion time (h)
K is the rate constant (K = 87.6 for mm/yr.)
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March 7-11, 2016
Corrosion Inhibition Efficiency (CIE)

The percentage corrosion inhibition efficiency was calculated according to Belkheir et al. (2014) as
 W 
E w  100  1  corr 
 Wocorr  (2)
where Wcorr and Wocorr are the corrosion rates of the mild steel in the presence and absence of the organic
compounds, respectively.
RESULTS
The results of the weight loss and corrosion rate are shown in Table 1 while those of the corrosion inhibition
efficiency are shown in Table 2.
Table 1: Chemical composition of the mild steel

Element Si C Cu S P Al Mn Ti Ni Iron
%Composition 0.073 0.05 0.51 0.062 0.013 0.017 0.4 0 0.5 98.375
Table 2: Weight loss (mg) and corrosion rate (mm/yr.) values of mild steel exposed to 0.5M H 2SO4 in the
presence of Hog Plum extract
C/N Initial 7thday 14th day 21th day 28th day 35th day
Wt(g)
Wt CR Wt CR Wt loss CR Wt CR Wt loss CR
loss (mm/ loss (mm/y (mg) (mm/y loss (mm/y (mg) (mm/y
(mg) yr.) (mg) r.) r.) (mg) r.) r.)
B1 88.08 1700 4.71 2410 3.34 3590 3.31 4370 3.02 4870 2.70
B2 87.74 1820 5.04 3030 4.19 4200 3.87 5210 3.60 5720 3.17
B3 86.46 3190 8.83 5340 7.39 6070 5.60 6240 4.32 6260 3.47
C1 84.01 2950 8.16 4980 6.89 5910 5.45 6140 4.25 6460 3.58
C2 87.32 2520 6.97 4240 5.87 5190 4.79 5860 4.05 5930 3.28
C3 86.16 3020 8.36 4820 6.67 5170 4.77 6040 4.18 6110 3.38
D1 84.07 2610 7.22 4240 5.87 4730 4.36 5470 3.78 5750 3.18
D2 85.82 2520 6.97 3290 4.55 3440 3.17 3470 2.40 3490 1.93
D3 86.41 900 2.49 980 1.36 1270 1.17 1390 0.96 1430 0.79
Table 3: Corrosion inhibition efficiency, CIE% distribution of mild steel samples in 0.5M H 2SO4 environments
in the presence of Hog Plum extract
Environment Corrosion inhibition efficiency distribution, CIE (%)
8thday 16thday 24thday 32thday 40thday
B1 66.64 58.66 39.27 27.23 19.16
B2 64.31 48.14 28.99 13.25 5.09
B3 37.46 8.54 -2.75 -4.10 -3.89
C1 42.21 14.73 0 -2.41 -7.19
C2 50.64 27.35 12.11 2.41 1.80
C3 40.79 17.45 12.48 -0.72 -1.20
D1 48.87 27.35 20.00 8.92 4.79
D2 50.64 43.69 41.83 42.17 42.22
D3 82.37 83.17 78.53 76.87 76.35
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Key:
B1 – Mild samples inhibited with hog plum leaves extract at 100%
C1 – Mild samples inhibited with hog plum fruit (unripe) extract at 100%
D1 – Mild samples inhibited with hog plum bark extract at 100%
Wt. Loss – Weight loss (mg)
CR – Corrosion rate (mm/yr.)
CIE - Corrosion inhibition efficiency distribution, (%)
DISCUSSION
Generally, it was observed that weight loss increased with immersion days. Highest loss was recorded in the
solution containing 100% fruit extract (this might be because unripe fruits were used), this was followed by B3
and C3 solutions while the lowest weight loss was in the order B1 > D2 > D3. Corrosion rate decreased generally
with immersion time. Highest value was given by C1 and the lowest was given by D3.
Highest corrosion inhibition efficiency recorded was 83.17% on the 16 th day and 76.35% on the 40th day which
occurred in D3. Whereas, CIE in the solution containing the fruit extract increased with increase in
concentration, reverse is the case for the bark extract where CIE increased with decrease in concentration and the
leave extract did not give a regular trend.
CONCLUSION
The corrosion inhibition of Hog Plum extract on mild steel in 0.5 M H 2SO4 was investigated in this paper. The
results obtained showed that weight loss was highest in the 100% extract of fruits and lowest in the 20% of bark.
Corrosion rate decreased with immersion time for all the samples but the highest was recorded in 100% fruit
extract while the lowest was in 20% of the bark extract. Corrosion inhibition efficiency was highest in the 20%
bark extract (82.17% on the 16th day and 76.35% on the 40th day).The 20% concentration solution of hog plum
bark extract proved to be the best in the H2SO4 acidic environments with mild steel.
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presence of azoles. Corrosion Science; 51(6) 1228-1237.
Autolab B. V., 2011. Metrohm, Autolab application note COR05.
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spondias mombin. African Journal of Biomedical Research, Vol. 11; 129 – 136
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of austenitic stainless steel in acid chloride environment. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., Vol. 6.
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CORROSION PERFORMANCE OF ELECTROPLATED STEEL IN TOMATO, ORANGE AND

PINEAPPLE JUICES
*1Oluwadare J. AKINYEMI*, 1Olayide R. ADETUNJI, 1Sidikat I. KUYE, 2Enock O.

DARE
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, P.M.B.
2240, Abeokuta
2
Chemistry Department, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, P.M.B. 2240, Abeokuta,
Nigeria.
* Corresponding author: ojakins2005@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Fruit juice processing facilities, storage and fruits disposable cans are sourced
based on several considerations ranging from cost, durability and health implications. This
study evaluated the corrosion performance of electroplated steel in three media (tomato,
orange and pineapple juices). These media were chosen due to their social and economic
importance. Samples were prepared by cutting 0.5 mm thick electroplated steel plate into 3 x
3 cm. Three of the prepared samples were used for Potentiodynamic Polarization Experiments
(PPE) while 54 samples were used for Weight Loss Method (WLM). Each of the prepared
samples for WLM was cleaned, weighed and immersed in the media for 30 days. The samples
were removed at the end of immersion, cleaned and reweighed. The weight losses obtained
for WLM were used to evaluate the corrosion rates. The results obtained for the corrosion
rates in mm/y using PPE in tomato, orange and pineapple juices were 0.039, 0.148, and 0.014
respectively. The measured pH values for the media ranged from 3.9 to 8.4. The corrosion
rate of electroplated steel was highest in Tomato juice than in Orange and Pineapple juices
after 30 days immersion in the media.
Keywords: Potentiodynamic polarization, Weight loss, fruit juices, corrosion rates
INTRODUCTION
Metallic materials are given prominent considerations in agro based machinery especially in fruit juice
processing. Such metallic materials include electroplated steel. The corrosion performance differs even when
they are exposed to the same environment. Adequate protection of steel is therefore a necessary consideration in
its wide applications including fruit juice processing, storage and waste fruits disposable cans. Highly
industrialized nations often vote about five percent of annual budget to combat the menace of corrosion of
facilities and infrastructures (Adetunji and Aiyedun, 2012).
Many methods are often applied to protect steel from corrosion. Such methods are application of organic
coatings (painting), cathodic protection (using sacrificial anode or impressed current) or coating with a thin layer
of corrosion resistance metal (Abiola et al., 2007).
Juice contains only the natural ingredients contained in fruit and vegetables, that are fruit juice or fruit juice
concentrate, water, natural flavourings and fruit pulp (Cho et al., 2004). Tomato is one of the most widely
consumed vegetable crops in the world, not only because of its volume, but also because of its overall
contribution to nutrition and its important role in human health (David et al., 2002). The nutritional components
of this major crop are of particular concern to researchers and producers throughout the world. In recent years,
gene modification techniques have been introduced into tomato crop improvement, which greatly altered tomato
variety characteristics. There have been some reports on the evaluation of the quality of transgenic tomatoes. The
attributes of fruit quality include not only the flavor, color, nutritional content and firmness, but also shelf life,
processing qualities and resistance to pre and post-harvest pathogens (David et al., 2002).
Pineapples are actually not just one fruit but a composite of many flowers whose individual fruitlets fuse together
around a central core. Each fruitlet can be identified by an "eye," the rough spiny marking on the pineapple's
surface. Pineapples have a wide cylindrical shape, a scaly green, brown or yellow skin and a regal crown of
spiny, blue-green leaves (Dilis and Trichopoulou, 2010).
Metal degradation is a major concern in the food industry. A corrosive environment, wear and the combination
of corrosion and wear can cause degradation of equipment and thereby financial inconvenience relating to the
renewal or repair of damaged equipment. Additionally, material degradation resulting in metal release can
eventually cause health risks for consumers. Metals are generally prone to corrosion because most of them occur
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naturally as ores, which is the most stable state of low energy and there is a net decrease in free energy ΔG from
metallic to oxidized state (Nestor, 2004).
Metallic materials are often used as storage can for fruit juice which leads to the deterioration of the can. The
challenge of selecting metallic materials for fabricating fruit juice extracting machine and non-durable agro
processing machinery is enormous due to corrosion of metals.
This research work focused on the corrosion performance of electroplated steel in tomato, orange and pineapple
juices.

Electroplated steel samples were sourced from Tower Aluminium Rolling Mill, Sango-Otta in Nigeria. The
sample’s thickness is 0.η mm. Fresh fruits of Tomato, Orange and Pineapple were sorted and their juices were
extracted. The plastic containers were first washed with detergent, rinsed in distilled water and were cleaned and
allowed to dry for hours. Each of the measured samples was deeply inserted into identified plastic containers
containing tomato, orange and pineapple juices.
The sourced samples were cut into sizes 3 cm by 3 cm using a shearing machine, scriber, steel rule and
engineer’s try square. The cut samples were η4 pieces of the same thickness for the samples. The prepared
samples for WLM was cleaned, weighed and immersed in the media for 30 days. The immersed samples for 30
days were examined under the optical microscope.
Direct measurement of corrosion rate from weight loss
The samples were measured at the end of given time by weight balance to determine the weight loss directly (as
the final weight) and corrosion rate was also calculated mathematically according to this formula [7].
(mm/yr) (1)
Where, CR = corrosion rate in millimeter per year, W = weight loss in mg, this was done by subtracting the final
weight measured from initial weight which gave the weight loss (weight difference), = density of each sample
in mg/m3, A = Area, the area of each samples was determined by calculating the total surface area in m2 and T =
Time, this was an exposure time in hours of each of the samples spent inside the different concentrations of the
fruit juice.
Experimental set up for potentiodynamic polarization

The sample for the experiment was prepared using synthetic epoxy to cover one surface of the sample. The
equipment used was a locally made potentiostat consisting of a working electrode (sample), reference electrode
(silver-silver chloride), counter electrode (carbon) and solution media (fruit juice).The sample was connected to
the electrode with connecting wires and covered with a tape. The epoxy was allowed to solidify after a day.
Continuity of the connection was checked to ensure proper connection between the wires and samples.
The entire electrodes were then dipped into the different media for each experiment. This formed the
electrochemical cell where open circuit potentials (Eoc) were determined by the use of a multimeter. With a
steady potential the electrodes were connected to the potentiostat which in turn was connected to a computer
controlled system. The experiment was run at a scan rate of 20 mV/s to ensure corrosion detection. The corrosion
monitoring was done with values determined from the computer graphics user interface where a pot of voltage
and current was shown. The result is shown in Table 1. According to literature [8] (ASTM G 89-102, 1999), after
determine the Icorr which is the corrosion current, it can be determined by subjecting it to the formula below
(2)
where
Ki = 3.272 m/(amp-cm-year) ,EW = equivalent weight, d = density in g/cm3
A = Cross Sectional area of sample exposed to the medium, I corr= Corrosion Current determine for data
analysis, C.R = the corrosion rate.

The weight loss per surface area of electroplated steelin tomato juice with reference to time of immersion had an
average decreasing trend to certain level before increasing (Figure 1). The pH of tomato juice decreased from
acidity to neutral over the time of immersion.
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The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in tomato juice with reference to time of immersion had an averagely
decreasing trend. The tomato juice had lesser aggression on the material after longer duration of immersion and
as pH value averagely decreased to neutral over the time of immersion. The corrosion rate of electroplated steel
in tomato juice reduced over the time of immersion.
The weight loss per surface area of electroplated steel in orange juice with reference to time of immersion had an
average decreasing trend to certain level before increasing (Figure 2). The pH of orange juice decreased from
acidity to neutral and even tended towards alkalinity over the time of immersion. That implies that orange juice
had less aggression on the protective samples.
The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in orange juice with reference to time of immersion had an averagely
decreasing trend. The orange juice had lesser aggression on the material after longer duration of immersion and
as pH value averagely decreases steadily from acidity to alkalinity over the time of immersion. The corrosion
rate of electroplated steel in orange juice reduced over the time of immersion.
The weight loss per surface area of electroplated steel in pineapple juice with reference to time of immersion had
an average decreasing trend. The pH of pineapple juice varied over the time of immersion. Effect of pH in
relation to weight loss is shown in Figure 3. That implies that the products of corrosion on the samples have
lesser impacts of the pH of the pineapple juice.
The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in pineapple juice with reference to time of immersion had an averagely
decreasing trend. The pineapple juice had lesser aggression on the material after longer duration of immersion
and as pH value tended towards neutral over the time of immersion. The relationship between corrosion rate and
time of immersion is shown figure 2.The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in pineapple juice reduced over the
time of immersion
Figures 4-6 showed the determination of current densities of electroplated steel in the media. Figure 7 contained
the optical microstructures of electroplated steel samples in various media. The corrosion rate of electroplated
steel in Pineapple juice reduced over the time of immersion.
Table 1: Potentiodynamic result of corrosion rate of Electroplated Steel in different media
Sample Media Density Area Log Icorr CR(mmpy)

g/cm3 (mm2)
Electroplated Steel Tomato Juice 7.1 945.4 2.98920311 0.03854563777
Electroplated Steel Orange Juice 7.1 945.4 1.1471322 0. 0.1478866915
Electroplated Steel Pineapple Juice 7.1 945.4 1.0551544 0.013602904
Figure 1: Weight loss/sq. meter of Electroplated steel in media against immersion time (days)
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Figure 2: Plot of corrosion rate of Electroplated steel in media against immersion time (days)
Figure 3: pH of Electroplated steel in media against immersion time (days)
Cathodic Current
0.5 Eoc -0.194
Icorr 2.98920311
Measured Current
0.0
POTENTIAL V
-0.5
-1.0
0.1 1 10
LOG Icorr
Figure 4: Potential V vs Log Icorr for Electroplated Steel in Tomato Medium
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March 7-11, 2016
Cathodic Current
Eoc 0.19
0.4 Icorr 1.1471322
Measured Current
0.2
0.0
POTENTIAL V -0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0.1 1 10
LOG Icorr
Figure 5: Potential V vs Log Icorr for Electroplated Steel in Orange Medium
Cathodic Current
0.4 Eoc -0.198
Icorr 1.0551544
0.2 Measured Current

POTENTIAL V
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.1 1
LOG Icorr
Figure 6: Potential V vs Log Icorr for Electroplated Steel in Pineapple Medium
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 7: Electroplated Steel in (a) in air (b) in tomato (c) orange (d) pineapple juices X 640
DISCUSSION
The corrosion rates of Electroplated steel obtained from both experiments followed the same trend of low
corrosion values in pineapple juice. Corrosion current density was obtained from Tafel plots (Figures 4-6)
extrapolation which was used to calculate the corrosion rate using equation 2. The cut edges of WL samples had
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March 7-11, 2016
negligible effect on the corrosion rates obtained due to strong metallic between electroplated steel layer and base
steel. The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in tomato juice varied from 0.022079 mm/yr for 5 days immersion
time to 0.179924 mm/yr for 30 days. The weight loss also varied from 2.111 g/m 2 for 5 days immersion time to
43.667 g/m2 for 15 days immersion time. The value rose to 103.222 g/ m2 after 30days. The pH of tomato in
electroplated steel increased steadily from 4.96 for 5 days to 8.38 for 30 days. The pH rose from acidity to
neutral over a long duration of immersion.
The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in orange juice increased from 0.011621 mm/yr for 5 days to 0.166173
mm/yr for 10 days. The value then dropped steadily to 0.079019 mm/yr for 30 days of immersion. The weight
loss per surface area varied from 1.111 g/m2 for 5 days to 45.333 g/ m2 for 30 days immersion time. The pH also
varied from 4.16 for 5 days to 5.21 for 30 days immersion time.
The corrosion rate of electroplated steel in pineapple juice varied from 0.011621 mm/yr for immersion time of 5
days to 0.123177 mm/yr at immersion time of 25 days. The weight loss per surface area recorded continuous
increase from 1.111 g/m2 for 5 days immersion time to 58.889 g/m2 for 25 days. The pH values rose from 4.10
for 5 days to 4.34 for 30 days immersion time.
The corrosion rate and weight loss per surface area were higher in tomato juice then followed by orange and
pineapple juices. The pH of pineapple was lower than that of tomato and orange juice. This explained the results
obtained for the corrosion rate and weight loss per surface area as illustrated in Figure 9, 10 and 11. These results
agreed with the earlier researchers like Jekayinfa et al, (2005).
The electroplated samples which were soaked for 30 days in different corroding media of tomato, orange and
pineapple juices as investigated in the laboratory decreased in corrosion rates in order of 0.179924, 0.079019 and
0.046095 mm/yr respectively. The corrosion rates that were determined by Potentiostat also decreased in the
order of 0.03854563777, 0.01478866915 and 0.013602904 mm/yr respectively. It was then observed in both
experiments that tomato juice had much effect on electroplated steel samples while the least effect of corrosion
was observed with pineapple juice.
CONCLUSION
From the experiment carried out and the result obtained in the study, the followings could be concluded.
The measured pH values for the media ranged from weak acidic to neutral. The corrosion rate of Electroplated
steel was highest in juices of Tomato, higher in Orange and lower in Pineapple after 30 days immersion in the
media as determined from weight loss experiment.
This trend was also confirmed by Potentiodynamic Polarization Study. Very low corrosion rates were obtained in
the three media studied confirming the suitability of Electroplated steel as storage or packaging material for the
juices.
REFERENCES
Adetunji, O.R. and Aiyedun, P.O. 2012. Corrosion behaviour of Steel in Cassava Juice, Maize Pulp and Sea
Water Solution, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 13(2): 13-17.
Abiola, O.K., James, A.O and Oforkar, N.C. 2007. Inhibition of Acid corrosion of mild Steel by Pyridoxal and
Pyridoxol Hydrochloride, Int. Journal of Electrochemical Science (2): 200-230.
Cho, E., Seddon, J.M., Rosner, B., Willett, W.C. and Hankinson, S.E. 2004. Prospective study of intake of fruits,
vegetables, vitamins, and carotenoids and risk of age-related maculopathy. Journal of Arch Ophthalmol, 122(6):
883-92.
David, A. B., William, J. H., Christa, M. and Pamela, D. 2002. Postharvest fruit quality of transgenic tomatoes
suppressed in expression of a ripening-related expansion. Journal of Post-harvest Biol Technol. 25: 209-220.
Dilis, B. and Trichopoulou, A. 2010. Antioxidant Intakes and Food Sources in Greek Adults. The Journal of
Nutrition. Bethesda. 140(7): 1274-1279.
Nestor, P. 2004. Electrochemistry and corrosion science, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA. pp 207-
219.
Fontana, M.G. and Greene, N.D. 1983. Corrosion Engineering 3 rd edition, McGrawhill International, London pp
216. ASTM G 89-102, 1999
Jekayinfa, S.O., Waheed, M.A., Adebiyi, K.A. and Adebiyi, F.T. 2005. Effect of cassava fluid on Corrosion
Performance of Mild Steel. Journal of Anti-corrosion Methods and Materials, 22(5): 280-300.
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PROTECTIVE EFFICIENCY OF EPOXY RESIN COATING ON MILD
STEEL PLATE IN HCL, NAOH AND DISTILLED WATER MEDIA
Olayide Rasaq Adetunji1*, Obafemi O. Adegbesan1 and Iliyasu Kayode Okediran2
1,
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta, P.M.B.2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Osun State University, Osogbo.
*Corresponding Author; adetunjiolayide@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Mild steel is one of the major construction materials, which is extensively
used in chemical and allied industries for the handling of acid, alkali and salt
solutions. It is occasionally coated with epoxy resin to elongate its service life. This study
therefore investigated the protective efficiency of epoxy resin coating on mild steel plate in
1M HCl, NaOH, and distilled H2O media. Coated and uncoated mild steel plates were cut
into corrosion coupons, weighed and immersed completely in the media for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25
and 30 days. Weight of each sample was taken after each test period. Weight losses were
recorded and corrosion rates were calculated. Temperature and pH of the media were
recorded. Protective efficiency of coated mild steel at each duration was also determined.
Microstructural images of the corroded coated and uncoated mild steel immersed for 30
days were captured using optical microscope. The result shows that the epoxy resin coated
mild steel plate offers better corrosion resistance in distilled H 2O and 1M HCl, but
ineffective in 1M NaOH. Conclusively, epoxy resin coating on the mild steel plate
improved its anticorrosion performance in distilled water and hydrochloric acid media.
Keywords; mild steel, epoxy resin, HCl, NaOH, H2O, corrosion protection
INTRODUCTION
Protection is offered by a coating system comprising a combination of a suitable epoxy resin paint, an
intermediate coating to offer additional film thickness and protection, it forms a barrier on the surface and a
finish that offer appropriate aesthetics and protection against uv rays, rain and other environmental
conditions.Coatings are widely used in optical, microelectronic, packaging, biomedical and decorative
applications (Adetunji and Aiyedun, 2012). The traditional choice of specific coatings on a cost/performance
basis has to a large extent been altered because of safety and health standards, and air pollution. There has been
extensive research and development in the area of coatings along certain lines such as water based, continuous
solids and powder coatings. A wide variety of modified polymer coatings for specific properties have been
reported in literature. Examples of such coatings include: acrylic coatings with copper nanofillers for harder
coatings with a combination of high elastic modulus, scratch resistance and wear resistance, hyper branched
nanocomposite coatings for scratch resistance, adhesion and flexibility, corrosion resistant polyaniline coatings,
polystyrene modified with oligostyrenes coatings for adhesive and anti-corrosive properties,
silica/fluoropolymer hydrophobic coatings for rust – resistance, coatings for anti-fog and self-cleaning
applications, and self-healing coatings (Ganesh et al., 2009).
Epoxy coatings hold prime position in the coating industry due to their overall good properties: chemical and
corrosion resistance, good mechanical properties, excellent adhesion to a variety of substrates, and dielectric
properties, high tensile, flexural and compressive strength and thermal stability (Hang et al., 2010). Corrosion is
in fact an electrochemical process where the electrical cell is composed of an anode (the corrosion site), an
electrolyte (the corrosive medium), and a cathode (Vashi and Naik, 2010). Corrosion can be minimized by
employing suitable strategies which in turn stifle, retard or completely stop the anodic or cathodic reaction or
both. Among the several methods of corrosion control are cathodic protection, anodic protection coating,
alloying, the use of chemical inhibitors and protective coating (Umoren, 2008).
Mild steel is one of the major construction materials, which is extensively used in chemical and allied industries
for the handling of acid, alkali and salt solutions (Nurul and Kassim, 2013). For cleaning and descaling;
acid solution is also widely used in industry (Witoldet al., 2010). Acid cleaning baths are employed to remove
undesirable scale from the surface of the metals. Once the scale is removed, the acid is then free for further
attack on the metal surface. The use of organic coating is one of the most practical methods for protection against
corrosion, especially in acidic media (Touir et al., 2008).Acid solutions, widely used in industrial acid cleaning,
acid descaling, acid pickling, require the use of corrosion barrier in order to restrain their corrosion attack on
metallic materials.
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Corrosion naturally impacts our daily life through chemical reactions that occur between a metal or metal
alloys and its environment because metal tends to return to their more stable, oxidized state. Corrosion
occurs with both industrial, domestic environment and the corrosion of metal surface increases significantly
as the structure ages (Adeloju, 1993). Corrosion should be prevented by the safest and lowest cost method
during the earliest stage of corrosion through the use of epoxy resin based paints. Therefore, this
research work focused on evaluation of the protective efficiency of epoxy resin coating on mild steel plate in
HCl, NaOH and distilled water.

The materials employed in the research included Samples of Mild Steel Plate (epoxy coated and uncoated plate):
Plastic Containers: it contains the coupons and the test solution of HCl, NaOH and H 20.Methylated Spirit: after
the removal of the coupon from the solution, it was employed to clean the metal in other to loosen corrosion
products. pH Meter (Jenway 3015): it was used to measure the PH value of the test solution prior to, and after
each test period had elapsed.Analytical Weighing Balance (Mettler PA214) was employed for measuring the
mass of each coupon before immersion and after every test period had elapsed, so as to determine the weight loss
arising from the subsequent mass difference. Optical Microscope was employed to study the microstructures of
selected samples of fresh and immersed (epoxy coated and uncoated) mild steel sheet respectively.
Methods
The method adopted was the coupon immersion corrosion test. The coupons in this study were made from mild
steel plate (which are categorized into the epoxy coated and un-coated respectively). The test solutions were 1M
HCl, 1M NaOH and distilled H2O. Each of the test specimens (coupons) from 1 mm plate was marked with a
unique identification code, dimensioned (25 mm × 25 mm), cleaned ( using nonmetallic brush ) to remove
grease and oxidation films, rinse in distilled water (containing detergent) and dried. Two groups of coupons
were formed, one group contained fifty four epoxy coated and the othercontained uncoated mild steel plate
respectively. The epoxy resin coated groups were coated using painting brush and red paint (gloss paint). The
samples were then sun dried.The setups were kept at room temperature undisturbed and were investigated at an
interval of five days through 30 days. At every interval, the coupons, (3 epoxy coated and 3 uncoated specimen
from each test solution) were removed and rinsed to remove residual test solution and loose corrosion products
as the case may be, and then cleaned with spirit and dried. Each coupon was reweighed and the change in weight
during immersion was used to determine the corrosion rate. In addition, the pH of each inspected solution was
measured and recorded at the required interval. Analyzed comparison was also made from results obtained from
the coupon immersion test experiments through calculations, tables, and graphs. Also, continued immersion of
the coupons into the retardant solutions was used to monitor the extent of corrosion as a function of time.
Determination of Weight Loss and Corrosion Rate
The weight loss (WL) is the intended difference in mass of a selected coupon between the final and initial stage
of test while the rate of corrosion depicts the amount of corrosion occurring per unit time (for example, mass
change per unit area per unit time, penetration per unit time).A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight
loss method. The method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal to the corrosive environment for
a specified time followed by cleaning to remove corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss
in weight. The rate of corrosion (R) that was used for this study is calculated using the equation;
(1)
such that: R=corrosion rate (in mm/yr.), K= constant (87.6), W= weight loss (in mg) of the
coupon in time. t= time of exposure (in hours), A= surface area of each exposed coupon (6.25 cm2) and ρ=
density of the coupon (7.85g/cm3 for the mild steel).
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Determination of Corrosion Coating Efficiency
The Protection efficiency of the epoxy resin coating on mild steel is computed by this formula as applied by
Adetunji, et al., 2015:
Ieff = (2)
where
Ieff= Efficiency of the coating (%), R0 = Corrosion rate of the mild steel without epoxy coating present,
R1= Corrosion rate of the mild steel with epoxy coating present.

The outcome of this study comprised values of the weight losses, corrosion rates, coating (epoxy resin)
efficiency and resulting pH of solutions which are presented in this section. Tables 1 and Figures 1 and 2
contained data on the above parameters. Both Coated Mild Steel (CMS) and Uncoated Mild Steel (UCM)
corrosion rates results are presented in both table and figures.
Table 1:Weight Loss, Corrosion Rate, and Protection Efficiency of Epoxy Resin Coating (in 1M HCl)
Against Immersion Time
Immersion Time Wt.UCS (mg) Wt.CMS (mg) CRC(mm/yr) CRU(mm/yr) Prot. Ef.(%)
(Hrs)
120 222.533 54.733 3.31 0.814 75.4
240 204.2 87.2 1.52 0.649 57.3
360 219.367 141.233 1.09 0.700 35.6
480 419.4 176.633 1.56 0.657 57.9
600 299.567 185.067 0.89 0.551 38.2
720 287.867 191.633 0.71 0.475 33.4
Table 2: Weight Loss, Corrosion Rate, and Coating Efficiency of Epoxy Resin Coating (in 1M NAOH)
Against Time
Imm. time(Hrs) Wt.UCS (mg) Wt.CMS (mg) CRC(mm/yr) CRU(mm/yr) Prot. Ef.(%)
120 0.533 147.333 0.00794 2.19 -2.75 × 104
240 1.033 136.4 0.00769 1.01 -1.31 × 104
360 1.033 116.6 0.00512 0.578 -1.12 × 104
480 0.433 150.967 0.00161 0.562 -3.47 × 104
600 2.667 147.467 0.00794 0.439 -5.43 × 103
720 16.633 150.667 0.0412 0.374 -8.06 × 102
Microstructures of Coated and Uncoated Mild Steel Samples
The microstructures contained in Figure 3 indicated the extent of corrosion of uncoated mild steel and the
resistance of the coated mild steel samples. The dark patches on the photomicrographs of the uncoated mild steel
are evidences of corrosion.
DISCUSSION
Inferences from the coupon immersed in media showed that the coupons produce visible appearance of rust at
day 5. It was noticed that the coating on the coupon were totally removed leaving the coupon barely exposed in
the solution and the colour of the solutions were changed to red. The NaOH solutions containing the UMS
produce no visible form of rust there was a slight increase in the pH value of both NaOH solution. Inferences
from the coupon set up for HCl showed that the coupons produce visible appearance of rust at day 5 (relatively
minute), the HCl solution containing UMS was found to contain tiny pieces of scale formed in the solution
whereas the CMS in HCl produce
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Figure 1: Corrosion rate of CMS and UMS in distilled water against Time
X40 X40
000 0
Fig.2a Photomicrographs of CMS(HCl) and UMS (HCl) @ 720H
X40 X40
0 0
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March 7-11, 2016
Fig.2b Photomicrographs of CMS(NaOH) and UMS (NaOH) @ 720H
X40 X40
0 0
Fig.2c Photomicrographs of CMS(H2O) and UMS (H2O) @ 720H
no visible form of rust there was also an increase in the pH of the HCl solution. Also inferences from the coupon
set up for H2O at day 5 shows that the coupon produces a slight form of rust in the solution containing UMS, the
solution was a little bit milky whereas no visible form of rust was observed in the H 2O solution containing CMS.
The trend continued up to day 30 with an increase in the pH value of NaOH solution containing CMS coupon.
The colour of the solution remains red. A significant value of weight loss was recorded whereas the NaOH
solution containing the UMS coupon produces no visible form of corrosion but an increase in the pH value was
recorded. At day 30, corrosion product (Fe 3+) on the UMS coupon in HCl solution has accelerated. The UMS
coupon gave high cloudy/hazy appearance in HCl solution. There was also a decrease in the pH value of the
UMS whereas no visible form of corrosion occurs in the solution containing CMS coupon but a slight increase in
the pH value. At day 30, corrosion product (Fe3+) on the UMS coupon in H2O solution has accelerated. The UMS
solution becomes milkier .there was an increase in the pH value towards basicity whereas the solution holding
the CMS coupon produces no visible form of rust instead a slight decrease in pH value was recorded.
From the computed average pH index, the highest pH (pH = 14.21) level was found in the NaOH solution
containing CMS, second to this was also found in the NaOH retardant solution(CMS), the least pH (pH=0.42)
was found in the HCl solution containing CMS. It became evident that dissolved steel ions contributed to the
increased alkalinity of the solutions.Comparing this experimental work and the researches of Samad et al., 2014
and Rajasekharam, et al. 2013, there is an agreement that the corrosion rate of the three categories of CMS in the
selected media decreases with an increase in immersion time which proves that the corrosion resistance of epoxy
coated mild steel increases with the immersion time except in NaOH medium
CONCLUSION
The summary of results of study carried out to determine the coating efficiency of epoxy resin coating on mild
steel plate showed the followings;
The epoxy resin coating on the mild steel plate was able to protect it up to an average rate of 95.3% in distilled
water compared to the 49.6% in the 1M HCl solution and ineffective in the NaOH solution.In the selected media,
the uncoated mild steel plate yielded to a higher corrosion rate than the epoxy coated mild steel plate. The
margin being more in the 1M HCl solution compared to the distilled water.Overview of pH gave the highest
value in NAOH showing the contribution of rapid dissolution rate of mild steel in solution alkalinity.The action
of epoxy resin coating on the mild steel sheet had offered it a level of protection which if applied in practice,
could be likened to have provided an increased service life.
REFERENCES
Adeloju, S, Understanding Metallic Corrosion at a Glance, 3rd Ed. Firebird Press NSW 1993.
Adetunji, O.R. and Aiyedun, P.O (2012): Corrosion Behaviour of Aluminium Zinc Alloy Coated Steel in
Cassava Juice, Maize Pulp and Sea Water Solution,Pacific Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 13 (2):13-17
188
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Published by Akamai University of United States of America. Available on line at
http:/www.akamaiuniversity.us/PJST.htm
Adetunji, O.R.,Aiyedun,P.O and Bello, O.S. (2015): Anticorrosive Property of Potassium Dichromate Film
on Galvanized Coating in Distilled Water,Solid State Phenomena Journal, Vol. 227 pp 135-138, Trans Tech
Publications, Switzerland doi: 10.4028/ www. Scientific.net/SSP.227.135.
Ganesh A.A, Naik .A, Vijay K.S, Venkatesha T.V and Sherigara B. 2008 “An Electroactive co Polymer as
Corrosion Inhibitor for Steel in Sulphuric Acid Medium”.Applied Surface Science; 254(17):5569.
Hang, X.T, Truc, T. A., Olivier, V. M., Catherine, G., N. and Nadine, P. (2010).Corrosion protection
mechanisms of carbon steel by an epoxy resin containing indole-3 butyric acid modified clay. Progress in
Organic Coatings, vol. 69 pp. 410-416.
Nurul I.K and Kassim .J “The Effect of Temperature on the Corrosion Inhibition of Mild Steel in 1 M HCl
Solution by Curcuma Longa Extract”. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. Vol 8 (2013) pp 7138 –
7155.
Rajasekharan. V, T. Stalin S. Viswanathan and P.Manisankar “Electrochemical Evaluation of Anticorrosive
Performance of Organic Acid Doped Polyaniline Based Coatings”.International Journal of
ElectrochemicalScience. Vol 8 (2013) pp 11327 – 11336.
Samad A.A, Yaser.S, and Zaki. M, (2014) Influence of Paint on Steel Corrosion for Marine Applications.
Journal of Surface Engineered Materials and Advanced Technology, 2014, Vol.4, pp.189-195.
Touir, R. Cenoui, M., El Bakri, M. &Ebn Touhami, M. (2008). Sodium Gluconate as Corrosion and Scale
inhibitor of Ordinary Steel in Simulated Cooling Water. Corrosion Science. Vol 50 (June 2008) pp.1530-1537.
Umoren S.A. 2008 Inhibition of aluminium and mild steel corrosion in acidic medium using gum Arabic.
ellulose; 15: 751-61.
Vashi R.T., and Naik D., “Hexamine as Corrosion Inhibitors for Zinc in Phosphoric Acid”, Journal of chemistry,
2010; 7(S1-S6).
Witold . Brostow, Madhuri. D, Piotr. R.” Modified Epoxy Coatings on Mild Steel: Tribology and Surface”.
Energy.European Polymer Journal Vol 46 (2010) pp 2181–2189.
189
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DEVELOPMENT OF A MOTORIZED MAIZE SHELLING MACHINE
Olayide Rasaq Adetunji1*, Bodunde Ayodele Balogun1 and Abioye Taudeen Fasasi 1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
*Corresponding author:*adetunjiolayide@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Maize is a very useful plant for man and animal. It is a major raw material
for industries, especially for production of starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food
sweeteners and bio fuels. Its processing is laborious and time consuming. This mobile
machine was designed to shell maize and to separate the cob from the grains. The shelling
unit is made up of the shelling drum, which is a closed cylinder with four rows of square peg
tooth. The driven pulley is fixed on the drum shaft. The power from petrol engine is
transmitted to the drum shaft through the pulley and belt connections on the petrol engine
and the machine drum shaft. The machine is operated by one horse power petrol engine. The
other facilities include hopper, grains and cobs discharge units. The shelling drum with its
crushing teeth facilitates the shelling operation through rotating at a reasonable speed of 300
r.p.m. The performance evaluation shows that; the shelling capacity of the machine is 600
kg/hr with shelling and cleaning efficiencies of 99.5% and 99.37 % respectively. The
breakage percentage is 0.406%. The developed machine is capable of shelling maize
efficiently and economically.
Keywords: maize, shelling, development, machine
INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zeamas) belongs to the grass family. It is grown everywhere in the world and requires plenty of rainfall
and sun for optimum yield. It can be grown throughout the year where farming is mechanized with efficient
irrigation system. Maize is a tall plant grown for its large yellow grains. It is the most important cereal plant after
wheat and rice in the world.Maize is a cereal grain primarily known as corn in North America. Grains are fruits
of cultivated grass belonging to monocotyledonous family Gramineae (Ogunwede,2003).Maize production
expanded greatly in the Southern States of United States of America just as it was in Africa and Asia (Onwualu
et al., 2006).Maize has a distinct growth form, with the lower leaves being like broad flags, generally 50-100
centimeters long and 5-10 centimeters wide, the stems are erect, conventionally(Joshua and Mendoza, 2007).
Threshing or shelling consists of separating the grains, or the shells in the case of groundnuts, from the portion of
the plant that holds them. This separation, done by hand or machine, is obtained by threshing, by friction or by
shaking the products; the difficulty of the process depends on the varieties grown, and on the moisture content
and degree of maturity of the grainManual shelling machine, which are relatively common and sometimes made
by local artisans, permit easier and faster shelling of ears of maize. These are come in several models, some of
them equipped to take a motor, they are generally driven by a handle or a pedal. Use of manual shellers generally
requires only one worker with yields of from 14 to 100kg/hr, they are well-adapted to the needs of small-scale
production(Fao, 992).
The available local threshers, were equipped with rotating threshing drums, rollers etc. which causes damages to
the seed. Also the cost of purchasing such threshers were too high for the poor rural farmers and therefore
necessitated the improved design of low cost system that will be affordable and also increase threshing efficiency
but reduce the damage done on the seed (Nwakire, 1989).In Africa, maize has become a staple food crop that is
known to the poorest family. It is used in various forms to alleviate hunger and such form includes pap, maize
flour etc. Maize processing and preservation must be done to an optimum condition. The major steps involved in
the processing of maize are harvesting, drying and dehiscing (Kumar and Gupta, 2003). The process of maize
threshing involves the removal of grain from their cobs. The process can be traced as far back as the discovery of
the crop as a source of nutrition. Maize is passed in cob or instantly threshed mainly by machines. The need for
more efficient methods of maize threshing has over the years resulted in studies carried out on the threshers
(Kaul and Egbo,1985).The larger, free – standing threshers are more productive and convenient, but more
expensive. They are often with cleaning and separation device for the removal of unwanted material. The
relatively large size of maize grain facilitates the use of both cleaning fans for the blowing away of the dust and
light particles, and of simple reciprocating sieves for the removal of sand, stripped cob centers and broken or
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undersized grain. Depending on the type of thresher and on the number of operators employed, the capacity of
these machines can be four times larger than that of the smaller rotary threshers.
Dehusking of the cob may be carried out with a special device installed within the threshing machine. The usual
method of dehusking is to provide sets of contra-rotating rollers whose projections pull the husk away from the
cob. It is possible to shell and husk maize, despite some loss of capacity, within the threshing sections itself.
However, it is recommended to obtain the advice of individual manufacturers on the practicability of this
approach. The working lifetime of the various components of these machines should be relatively high since no
wearing or rubbing parts are employed. Thus, the need for spare parts such as bearings, drum part and screws
should be relatively low. However, difference in materials of construction does occur and not typical
replacement rates can be quoted. No skilled labor is required to run these machines since it is only necessary to
manually feed the cobs and dispose of the grain and cob centers. The number of laborers employed has a
pronounced influence on the work rate of the machines particularly that of the smaller units with manual loading
(Ebegbod, 1988).The most important aspect of post-harvest operation of maize is threshing, which involves
detaching of the maize grain from its cobs (Hannal and Stephen, 1970).
In Nigeria and other part of Africa shelling of maize in rural areas is by hand. It is a tedious operation and it may
take weeks before threshing can be completed. It is associated with pains and swollen fingers and may pull
children out of school. Also farmers are not getting maximum returns from maize farming because the corn gets
spoilt before shelling is completed (Joshi, 1981). The rural farmers cannot afford commercial shelling machine
and the manual shelling is inefficient, this necessitates the design of low cost maize shelling machine that
increases shelling efficiency and also reduces damage done to corn kernel.

The major component parts of this machine are the support, shelling drum, hopper, upper and lower concave
cylinders, shaft, tyres, cob collector and petrol engine. The shelling drum is made up of a cylinder with square
tooth rod arranged longitudinally along the length of the cylinder and another rows of square thick plate arranged
horizontally in form of a spiral flutes on the cylinder. The materials used for the construction of these
components are mild steel plate (thickness 1mm) mild steel rod, angle bars, mild steel electrodes and paint.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
This maize threshing machine was designed to cater for the needs of small scale farmers for domestic use, or co-
ownership by small farmers or use by independent farmer on a daily hire bases for commercial purpose. The
machine is movable with four tyres and can be driven from one farm location to another by pulling by hand or
attached to moving truck. It is also of low cost when compared with imported threshers like combine harvesters,
pickers or other foreign threshers which are very expensive and beyond the financial capacity of rural farmers.
The uniqueness of this design is that the cylinder drum has a spike tooth rods arranged longitudinally in 3 rows
along the length of the shelling drum.It also has 3 rows of 10mm square bars arranged horizontally in form of a
spiral flute along the length of the drum. This kind of design improves the shelling efficiency and the quality of
corn kernels obtained.The spiral flutes feed the corn ears through the concave cylinder (acting as conveyor) and
at the same time shell ears by its shearing force action on the ear. The concave space (volume) is designed to
accommodate about 20-25 corn ears at a time. Thereby giving it higher output capacity. The primary function of
the concave cylinder is to hold the corn ear for repeated hitting action on the head. Threshing is obtained by the
impact of the spike tooth rod on the head.
The factor that can make corn ear remain unthreshed in this kind of arrangement may be due to immaturity of the
corn kernels or high moisture content of the corn ears. Closed gate is attached at the base of the hopper to
prevent grains and corn ears from being discharged through the hopper opening, during threshing. The cob is
being discharged from the concave space at a very high speed, therefore, an attachment box is place at the cob
discharge outlet, and this will prevent the cob from causing injury to the operators, customers, or its neighbors or
passerby. It also helps to reduce the operational areas. The box is also attached to the machine to reduce vibration
and prevent the movement of the machine while in operation.The machine is safe to operate, low vibration,
having no part which can be in contact with the user and jeopardize its integrity.
Hopper Size
Hopper is designed to be fed in a vertical position only. The base of the hopper is designed to take corn ears
along its entire length (horizontal position) or along its vertical position.
The hopper is also design to take at as much as 30 corn ears at least 3 corns ears enters the shelling chamber
during feeding, and a shut gate is provided to serve two purposes;To control the flow of corn into the hopper and
also prevent threshed corns kernels and corn ear from discharging through the hopper during shelling operation.
The volume of the hopper is given by the formula in equation 1 (Adetunji and Quadri, 2010).
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March 7-11, 2016
V (1)
where V= volume of the hopper, B= Base area of the hopper
and H = Height of the hopper
But B = (2)
Where L = Length of the base and W = width of the base
Main Frame
The total weights carried by the main frame are: weight of the hopper; weight of the threshing chamber; the
bearings and pulleys. The two design factors considered in determining the material required for the frame are
weight and strength. In this work, angle steel bar of 2mm thickness is used to give the required rigidity.
Design Analysis
The weight, W, of threshing bar is given by:
W = mg, (3)
where:
m = mass of threshing bar; g = acceleration due to gravity. Mass, m, of threshing bar:
m = ρ x V, (4)
where: ρ = density of mild steel; V = volume of threshing bar. Volume, V, of threshing bar:
V = l x b x h, (5)
where 1 = length;b = breadth;h = height.
Shaft Design
A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross-section having such elements as gears,
pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets and other power transmission elements mounted on it ( Shigley,1986). The
shaft of this machine has a threshing tool welded to it at two opposing sides and a pulley mounted on it. It is
supported on bearings. Shaft design consists primarily of the determination of the correct shaft diameter to
ensure satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft is transmitting power under various operating and loading
conditions. Shafts are either solid or hollow. The following presentation is based on shafts of ductile materials
and circular cross-section. The length of the shaft has been pre-determined at 770mm.
Force Required Threshing Maize along the Length of the Threshing Bars
The threshing bars, which are attached to the shaft contained in the threshing chamber, rotate with the shaft,
giving rise to centripetal force:
F = m ω2r, (6)
where:
F = centripetal force; m = mass of threshing bars; w = angular velocity; r = radius of the arm of the threshing bar.
To determine the mass, m, of the threshing bars:
Mass (m) = density (ρ) x volume (V), (7)
and Volume (V) = length (L) x breadth (B) x thickness (t). (8)
Determination of Angular Velocity, ω

The angular velocity, ω, is given by:
ω = 2πN/60, (9)
Where:
N = speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
The Radius, r, of the Threshing Arm

The radius, r, of the threshing arm increases along the length of the shaft and also decreases towards the other
end of the shaft, where: r = radius of threshing arm and it is given as
rmax = 0.082m (assumed), rmin = 0.055m (assumed),
so that centripetal force at rmax (F) = mω2rmax, (10)
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Centripetal force at rmin (F) = mω2rmin. (11)
Determination of Threshing Torque

The torque, T, is given by:
T = F x r, (12)
where:
F = Force available along the threshing bar; r = threshing radius.
Determination of Power Delivered by Shaft along the Length of Threshing Bars

The power is given by
Power = energy/time = (work done)/time = (force x distance)/time = force x velocity, (13)
Velocity = ωr, (14)

where: ω = angular velocity; r = radius.
Therefore, power = Fωr. (15)
Determination of Torsional Moment, MT

The torsional moment, MT, is given by
MT = 9,550 x KW/N, (16)
where KW = power delivered; N = revolutions per minute.
Determination of Maximum Bending Moment

The maximum bending moment, Mbmax, is given by
Mbmax = (MV2 + MH2)1/2. (17)
Power Requirement
Maximum threshing force = Mω2r (18)

where
angular velocity =ω =
According to (Abdulkadiret al., 2009).
Machine Fabrication
The construction process involves cutting, shearing, drilling, welding, grinding polishing, assembling and
spraying.

The picture of the fabricated maize threshing machine is given in Figure 1 while the isometric drawing is given
in Figure 2. The total cost of this machine was about one hundred and fifty thousand Naira (N150,000:00).
Fig.1 Fabricated maize shelling machine
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March 7-11, 2016
Fig.2 Isometric Drawing of Maize shelling Machine
The machine Efficiency and Capacity

The designed and constructed maize thresher was tested and evaluated; the efficiency of 97.9% was obtained
with the throughput capacity 600kg/hr.
Table 1 Parameters of the maize shelling machine

S/N Type Symbol Value
1 Hopper volume V 0.00466 m3
2 Overall Height H 0.443 m
3 Threshing bar weight W 2.16 Kg
4 Angular velocity Ω 83.7 rads/s
5 Max. Force F 832 N
6 Threshing Torque Т 45.76 Nm
7 Power P 3.83 Kw
8 Electric motor P 5.5 Hp
9 Pulley weight W 10.01 N
10 Torsional Moment Mt 11.4 Nm
Discussion of Result
The result obtained as contained in Figures 1 & 2 and Table 2 showed that the fabricated machine was able to
shell maize corn at efficiency of 97.9% and the throughput capacity obtained was 600 kg/hr. The performance
evaluation results of these machine were in agreement with findings of earlier researchers like Fashina and
Abdullahi (1995), Adetunji and Quadri (2010), and Adetunji el.al. (2013).
CONCLUSION
Having carried out this research work, it can be concluded that; the maize shelling machine designed,
constructed and evaluated in performance had truly bridge the gap between manual hand shelling or shelling
with hand tools and the highly expensive improved threshers. The machine is highly efficient and economical. It
is capable of improving farmer’s productivity and profitability.
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March 7-11, 2016
REFERENCES
Adetunji, O.R and Quadri, A.H (2010): Design and Fabrication of an Improved Cassava Grater Pacific Journal
of Science and TechnologyVol. 12(2): pp. 120-129. Published by Akamai University of United States of
America. Available on line at http:/www.akamaiuniversity.us/PJST.htm
Adetunji, O.R., Dairo, O.U., Aina, T. and Osunlana, A.S. (2013): Development of an Improved Garri Shifting
Machine, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. Vol. 14(2): 54-61. Published by Akamai University of
United States of America. Available on line at http:/www.akamaiuniversity.us/PJST.htm
Abdulkadir, B.H., Mattew, S.A., Olufemi, A.O., and Ikechukwu, C.U. (2009). The Design and construction of
maize threshing Machine. Assumption University Journal of Technology, 12(3) pg. 199 - 206.
FAO., (1992). Maize in human nutrition.FAO Food and Nutrition Series, No. 25. Food and Agriculture
Organization, www.fao.org.
Fashina, A.B. and Abdulahi, H. (1994). Performance evaluation of a locally developed direct-power-take off
driven maize thresher. Journal of Agricultural Technology, NBTE, Vol. 2(1), 1-5.
Hall, A.S, Holowenko, A.R, and Laughlin H.G,1998, Theory and problems of machine design Shum”s outline
series, S.I (metric) ed. Mcgraw- Hill, New York, NY, USA, Pp. 113-4.
Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C. (1970)Mechanics of machines: elementary theory and example. Edward Arnold,
London, England.
Joshi, H.C. (1981). Design and selection of thresher para meters and components. Journal of Agricultural Mech.
In Asia, Africa and Latin America; Vol. 12(2), 61-70.
Joshua and Mendoza (2007). Design of corn shelling machine, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mexico
National Autonomous University of Higher Education Mexico. Unpulished thesis.
Kaul, R.N. and Egbo, C.O.(1985). Introduction to Agricultural Mechanization Macmillan, London, England
Ogunwede, O.I. (2003). Design and Construction of Plastic Crushing Machine.Unpublished Postgraduate
Diplome thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology (FUT) Mina, Nigeria.
Onwualu, A.P., Akubuo, C.O., and Ahaneku, I.E. (2006).Fundamental of Engineering for Agriculture.
Immaculate Publications Limited Enugu Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Technology Vol. 30, No. 2. June 2011. 54
Khumi,R.S. and Gupta, J.K. (2005)Theory of machines. Two colour edition Eurasia publishing house (PVT)
New Delhi
Shigley, J.E. (1986) Mechanical Engineering Design. S.I (metric) ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
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THE EFFECT OF SMART TRAFFIC CONTROLLER SYSTEM ON THE TRAFFIC CONGESTION
AT JIBOWU UNDERBRIDGE IN LAGOS
1
Anthony Olayinka Adekoya, 2Peter Olaitan Aiyedun, 2Olayinde Rasaq Adetunji,
3
Wasiu Oyediran Adedeji, 4Sunday Bassey Udo &5Adekunle Adedapo Obisanya.
1
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State.
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos.
4
Department of Industrial Maintenance Engineering, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos.
5
Department of Chemical Engineering, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos.
Corresponding Author: tonyterry2001@yahoo.com,
ABSTRACT: It is obvious in urban cities that the occurrence of traffic congestion at the
road intersections is one of the major problems. The present traffic light controlling system
could not sufficiently tackle the traffic congestion because they are not robust enough to
handle all the necessary controls in the design. Some of the problems associated with the
present traffic control design are: (a) fixed time interval, (b) No mechanism provided for
the occurrence of an emergency vehicle in the present design. The proposed system
provides the use of Programmable Logic Control (PLC) and a sensor to be attached to the
traffic design to view the congestion lane (check the number of vehicles on each line
quickly in less than 2 seconds) and send a signal to the Green light to come on so that the
line with the highest number of vehicles can go and send Red to the other lanes. The
emergency vehicle such as ambulance, fire brigade and police will be stuck especially at the
traffic light junction. To solve these problems, “Smart Traffic Controlling System” is used.
The proposed system handles the occurrence of emergency vehicle and makes all the
signals red except one when the emergency vehicle passes. The Proposed system works
efficiently over the present traffic controlling system in respect of less waiting time,
efficient operation during emergency mode and reduces the risk of accident.
Keyword: Programmable Logic Control (PLC), LogixPro, Sensors Assembly, Smart Traffic
Light control, Vehicles.
INTRODUCTION
Traffic signals are signaling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other locations to
control conflicting flows of traffic. Smart Traffic Controller system is a new system that combines existing
technology with artificial intelligence to create lights that truly think for themselves’. It is also known as
intelligent traffic lights and advanced traffic lights this system differs to the traditional Traffic light system.
Traffic light are the most convenient means of controlling traffic in a busy junction. We can see that these signals
fail to control the traffic effectively when a particular lane has got more traffic than the other lanes. This situation
makes that particular lane more crowdie than the other lanes.
Manytraffic light systems operate on a timing mechanismthat changes the lights after a given interval.
Anintelligent traffic light system senses the presence orabsence of vehicles and reacts accordingly. The
ideabehind smart traffic systems is that drivers will notspend unnecessary time waiting for the traffic lightsto
change. A smart traffic system detects traffic inmany different ways.In practical situations sensors are used to
detect presence of vehicles in a lane and calculate the density and sends an interrupt signal to the control unit. In
PLC the status of the sensors are checked and certain logical operations are performed to decide which lane is to
be serviced first. (Albagul 2013)
This research paper suggests the use of sensors to detect the heavy vehicular area and send the information to the
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) who processed the information in less than 20seconds and send signal to
the LED bulb to show green for the heavy lane to move while RED lights comes up on the other light lane for
vehicle to stop. Whereas the present traffic system uses counter to counted upto 120 seconds before the light turn
green for the vehicle to move.
The main aim in designing and developing of the Smart Traffic Signal Simulator is to reduce the waiting time of
each lane of the cars and also to maximize the total number of cars that can cross an intersection given the
mathematical function to calculate the waiting time.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Figure 1 shows the present design at Jibowu Under bridge (Lagos) where vehicles have to wait for the counter to
finish counting upto 120 seconds before showing green light for the vehicle to move. Before counting upto 120
seconds, there would have been a heavy traffic on all the lanes.
Figure1: Vehicles waiting for the counter to finish counting and turn green light on
Figure 2. Traffic congestion at Jibowu underbrigde due to count down timer
In order to implement the propose system Simulator, one needs to setup and assemble the hardware components
and write a program to control the smart traffic signal simulator. The layout of the smart traffic control system is
displayed in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6. The blocks which are labeled SA1, SA2, SB1, SB2, SC1,
SC2, SD1 and SD2 are the inductive sensors which sense the presence of cars.
Figure 3 Situation when Road A is closed for Vehicles in Road B to move unhindered
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Figure 4 Situation when Road B is closed for Vehicles in Road A to move unhindered
Figure 5 Congestion in Road A and C sensors override timer by clearing the congest area.
Figure 6 Congestion in Road B jam-packed and the sensors have to override timer by clearing the congest area.
Figure 3 and figure 4 shows the situation where by the traffic control system will work based on the set time. As
for Figure 3 the yellow lamp on ROAD B and ROAD D should flicker after some time set for the green light on
that same roads to turn on to inform the cars on the road to get ready to stop. As for figure 4 the yellow lamp on
ROAD A and ROAD C should flicker after some time set for the green light on that same roads to turn on to
inform the cars on the road to get ready to stop. Figure 5 shows a situation where by ROAD A and ROAD C is
jam-packed and the sensors have to override the normal timing programme so that both roads can be free which
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March 7-11, 2016
make it more intelligent. The sensors on ROAD B and ROAD D can also do that in case they are in a jam-packed
situation. Fig 6 shows a situation whereby ROAD B is jam-packed and the sensors have to override the normal
timing programme so that the road can be free.
The traffic signal system consists of four important parts. The first part is the controller which represents the
brain of the traffic system. It consists of a computer that controls the selection and timing of traffic movements in
accordance to the varying demands of traffic signal as registered to the controller unit by sensors. The sensors
which detect the presence ofvehicles, the light emitting diodes (LED) which act as the actuator and the
countdown timers which is displayed in Flowcode. The programmable logiccontroller PLC is used as the
controller of the trafficsignal. The PLC used is Allen Brandley. The PLC, which needs to be plugged to the
system is directly attached to the computer in order to program it. The wiring for the output and inputsignals is
done from PLC. Figure 7 shows theAllen Bradley micrologix 1500 PLC to which a 220V AC power is supplied.
There is also a DB9 connector that is connected to the COM port of computer using RS-232 serial cable, for
Micrologix 1500 programming and serial communication during runtime. Next to the Micro Logix 1500 PLC,
As for the INDUCTIVE object detector,
INDUCTIVE Sensor is used. The sensor task is to detect the presence of vehicles. It is functioning
continuouslyby giving a logic 0 when there are no vehicles and logic 1 when there are vehicles present.
Therefore, they can detect the length of the queue depending on where they are placed. The indicator lamps are
used in order to show the Traffic light changing according to the program. The indicator lamp light will change
according to output by the Micrologix 1500 PLC. In each lane, there are three indicator lamps according to
traffic lights colors which consist of red, yellow and green. When the green indicator lamp is ON then the red
indicator lamp will be OFF and vice-versa. Fig 8 shows the connection of the input and output ports of the PLC
to sensors and indicator lamps. The Micrologix 1500 PLC has 12 Input and 12 Output ports. Out of which 8input
port is used for the sensors and the 12 output ports are used for the indicator lamps. The output ports, which are
from OUT 0 to OUT 11, give either logic 0 or 1 to the indicator lamp. Meanwhile, the input ports, which are
from IN 0 to IN 7, receive input signal from the sensors. The input and output ports of the PLC will be connected
to the sensors and the indicator lamps. There will be a centered camera on each lane to detect the presence of
emergency vehicles and give the signal to the PLC so as to allow the emergency vehicles to pass.
The sensors were interfaced with RS-LOGIX 500 software. This interface is synchronized with the whole
process of the traffic system. The RS-LOGIX 500 software also works well as the interface between the traffic
controller hardware with the traffic sensors and the traffic expert. The software can be used to perform traffic
data interchange and it enables the proposed smart traffic controller system to realize several traffic flow
optimization strategies at a single or network junction depending on the programming.
Figure 7 Micrologix 1500 PLC.
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Figure 8 Connection of the input and output ports of the PLC to the sensors and indicator lamps.
Software Simulation
After the hardware had been setup, a program written in the Micrologix 1500 PLC programming language in the
editor is downloaded into the PLC. Furthermore, the countdown timer interfacing according to the traffic system
using a seven segment display is controlled by a PIC microcontroller which is programmed using Flowcode V5
for PICmicros. The whole system is been simulated using Flowcode V5 for PICmicros and logix pro.
Implementation
The first step in the simulator implementation is to install the hardware components. The connection of the
Micrologix 1500 PLC, inductive sensors, indicator lamps should be wired correctly. Then the program codes that
had been developed simultaneously are downloaded to the Micrologix 1500 PLC. In each lane, two inductive
sensors have been installed. Therefore, the program will check first the condition of the sensors, whether they are
triggered or not. The total number of sensors triggered will be used in the ladder logic program to determine the
appropriate timing for the green signal to illuminate. After the green signal finishes the illumination timing, the
yellow signal will illuminate for 2 seconds and then finally the red signal will illuminate. After that, the traffic
signal will wait or gives way for vehicles in the other roads depending on the situation of the sensors in that road.
Peradventure if non of the road has a serious traffic jam the system will work based on the preset timing system
that have been programmed into the PLC.
RESULT AND DISCUSION

The traffic signal operation will start by the traffic lights illuminating in red for 1 minute in ROAD A and ROAD
C and green in ROAD B and ROAD D after 45 second of the beginning of the operation the yellow indicator
lamp on ROAD B and ROAD D starts flickering. Then operation proceeds by illuminating in red for 1 minute in
ROAD B and ROAD D and green in ROAD A and ROAD C after 45 second of the beginning of the operation
the yellow indicator lamp on ROAD A and ROAD C starts flickering. The sequence continues on and on until
sensors are triggered in any of the roads. NOTE: Any road that is jam-packed will have its way except if the
following situation occurs:
I. All the road are jam-packed.
II. ROAD A and ROAD B or ROAD D is jam-packed.
III. ROAD C and ROAD B or ROAD D is jam-packed.
In the above cases the system will run based on the timing programme that has been pre-written.
The seven segment display will be the one to inform drivers about the time left for them to wait in a descending
order. In this work several inductive sensors were used to detect the presence of vehicles in all four directions.
This functions as when a vehicle blocks the sensor at a certain distance, the sensor is triggered and this will
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inform the Micrologix 1500 PLC that there is a vehicle in the specific lane. If there are no vehicles on the road in
all four directions, then the lights will change from green to yellow in 2 seconds and from yellow to red in
another 2 seconds. This process goes on in a cycle from the ROAD A, followed by the ROAD B, ROAD C and
lastly the ROAD D. For example, if there are 2 vehicles on the ROAD A then the time taken from the green light
to shift to yellow is 16 seconds. That goes equally for all the other roads. In the model made, each vehicle
represents several vehicles; therefore if there is 1 vehicle blocking the sensor placed at the sides of the road then
the sensor will be triggered and informs the Micrologix 1500 PLC PLC that there are vehicles in those specific
lanes.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:
O:2/2 and O:2/4 comes on for 100 milliseconds during which O:2/1 flickers after 50 milliseconds of operation of
O:2/2 and O:2/4.
O:2/0 and O:2/6 comes on for 100 milliseconds during which O:2/5 flickers after 50 milliseconds of operation of
O:2/0and O:2/6.
Push buttons I:1/0 and 1:1/1 serves as a sensor in this simulation.
Whenever I:1/0 is actuated it stops (2.) from operating and allows (1.) to operate.
Whenever I:1/1 is actuated it stops (1.) from operating and allows (2.) to operate.
Figure 7: Countdown timer interfacing according to the traffic system using a seven segment display.
Figure 9 Sows the opening page for programming.
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Figure 10 Shows the ladder logic program for the traffic control.
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Figure 13 Shows the process of verifying the program for correction.
Figure 14 Shows the process of downloading your program to your PLC.
CONCLUSION
The effect of Smart Traffic Controller system over the Present Traffic Controller System can not be over
emphasized. Smart Traffic Controller System control up to 4-phases traffic system with the traffic flow
optimization strategies, It Optimize the traffic flow at network junctions, also it measurably improve traffic flow,
reduce environmental pollution caused by traffic and most importantly reduce accident and increase road safety.
The smart traffic light that had been developed presents several advantages. Since the waiting time of the
vehicles for the lights to change is optimal, the emission of carbon monoxide from the vehicles is reduced. This
will give a positive effect to the green house effect towards the environment. The smart traffic system will also
save the motorists’ time and reduce their frustration while waiting for the lights to change since it helps reducing
congestion in the traffic intersections. Another advantage is that there is no interference between the sensor rays
and there is no redundant signal triggering.
REFERENCES
Abdul Kareem, E.I., et.al (2011)., “An Intelligent Traffic Light Monitor System using an Adaptive Associative
Memory”, International Journal of Information Processing and Management, Vol.2.
Albagul, A., et.al (2013). “Design and Fabrication of a Smart Traffic Light Control System”
Azura C. S. et.al (2004) “MATLAB Simulation of Fuzzy Traffic Controller for Multilane Isolated Intersection”
www.enggjournals.com/ijcse/doc/IJCSE10-02-04-11.pdf
Dobre, C., Szekeres, A., Pop, F., & Cristea, V., Intelligent Traffic Lights to Reduce Vehicle Emissions.
Proceedings 26th European Conference on Modelling and Simulation, Koblenz, Germany, 2012.
Huska, A., Application of Plug and Play Distributed Sensor Networks to Traffic Control Signals, University of
Idaho Master of Science Thesis, Computer Engineering, May, 2006.
Martínez, R., et.al (200η). “Specifications for the Smart Traffic Light Control System using LED technology”,
Report No. UPM/GR/27, V1.0, Dec. 2005.
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Monica V., et.al (2012) “On Urban Traffic Modelling and Control” http://www.ceai.srait.ro/index.php/
ceai/article/ view/307
Mwangi, C. M., et.al (2010) “Design and simulation of a fuzzy logic traffic signal controller for a signalized
intersection” e-learning.jkuat.ac.ke/journals/ojs/index.php/jscp/article/view/699
Solomon S., (1999). “Sensors Handbook”. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tomescu, O. et.al 2008) “Adaptive Traffic Light Control System using AD HOC
Vehicular Communications Network” www.scientificbulletin.upb.ro/rev_docs_arhiva/ full6a2_686823.pdf
Weng, X.X., Yao, S.S. and Zhu, X.F., Architecture of Multi-agent System for Traffic Signal Control. Proceeding
of International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision. Kunming, China, 2004.
Wu, S., et.al (2000) “Network-Wide Traffic Responsive Signal Control in Urban Environments”, Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Computational Intelligence & Neurosciences, Atlantic City, New Jersey,
February 27-March 3, 2000.
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DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR POWERED POULTRY EGG INCUBATOR
Kifilideen L. Osanyinpeju1*,Adewole A. Aderinlewo 1, Olayide R. Adetunji 2 , Emmanuel S. Ajisegiri 1

1 Agricultural and Bio-Resource Engineering, College of Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture
Abeokuta
2. Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta
* Corresponding Author:prof_4us@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Chick production from developing embryo is a profitable business in Nigeria

due to the high demand of protein. The constantfailure of electricity supply in Nigeria
obstructs operation of incubator and reduce its performance. This study developed solar
powered poultry egg incubator. The dimension of the designed incubator was
610mm×607mm×1649mm with capacity of 150eggs. From the design calculation the sizes
of the solar panel, charge controller, batteries and inverters required were 480W, 40A,
400AH and 2000W respectively. The heat loss through the walls by conduction, air
convection and ventilation hole were 59.77, 10.9741 and 0.0003222W respectively The
heat generated by 150eggs due to the metabolic activities was 21.9W. Out of the 146eggs
loaded 64% of the eggs were fertile while the percentage of chicks that hatched, chicks with
unabsorbed yolk, fully developed chicks but not hatched and banger were 44%, 40%, 13%
and 3% respectively. All the embryos in the fertile egg developed to the last stage (21 st
day) of incubation period. The low hatchability may be as a result of the faulty hygrometer
used which led to increase in the number of opening made at the last stage. The
modification of the developed incubator would improve the efficiency of the incubator.
Keywords: Incubator; Temperature; Hatchability; Poultry Egg; Relative humidity; Solar

system.
Introduction
Incubation of egg is a process of transforming embryo in an egg into chick under favorable environmental
condition with or without the consent of mother birds.
There are two ways hatching of eggs can take place; one is by natural incubation which involves the broody bird
sitting on a clutch of eggs while the other way is by artificial incubation which involves the use of incubator.
The most important difference between natural and artificial incubation is that the parent provides warmth and
stirring of the eggs by contact rather than surrounding the egg with warm air and provision of artificial stirrer.
A broody hen can just hatch about 10-12 eggs at once in 21 days, which reduces its productivity as it takes time
to incubate and hatch the chicks. More so, some large birds such as condors and albatross, may lay only a single
egg every two years.
An incubator is a machine for keeping fertilized eggs warm, as the embryo transform into a chick in 21days.
Incubator for egg hatching has made a great impact in the agriculture world. It increases the production of
chicken, duck, turkey and their eggs to the food industry.
The high demand of chicken, fowl, turkey etc in market, hotels, guesthouses and hospital has make chick
production form developing embryo to become commercialized. Constant power supply is necessary for all
incubators especially when the eggs are to be hatched. If there is any breakdown in the power supply then the
eggs lose their hatching value. The solar incubator on the other hand does not face this problem. The solar
incubators also have the advantage of been reliable, light in weight and handy for carrying. Silent and power
saving incubator is an innovative machine for rural poultry farming.
The solar system has proven to serves as a source of power for the incubator which could provide continuous
power supply throughout the period of the incubation without failing. The main objective of this study is develop
a solar powered poultry egg incubator.
Temperature, humidity, ventilation and turning during the incubation period markedly affect the hatchability of
fertile eggs and chick quality (Benjamin, 2012). The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature
required for the embryo development over a specific period. The humidity is also critical, and if the air is too dry
the egg will lose too much water to the atmosphere, which can make hatching difficult or impossible. The
minimum and maximum temperature recommended for the first 18 days were 37.7oC and 39.3oC respectively.
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After 18 days of incubation, the temperature was reduced from 37.8 oC to 36.0oC until the chicks were hatched.
Hence for the whole period of incubation, the temperature was maintained within the range of 36 oC and 39oC as
recommended by previous research workers (Oluyemi and Roberts 1988). The minimum and maximum
humidity values recommended within 18 days were 52% and 62% respectively. After the 18th days, the relative
humidity was increased from 55% to 71% until the end of the period of incubation as recommended in pervious
works (Komolafe et al; 1981, oluyemi and Roberts 1988). Hence for the whole period of incubation, the relative
humidity was varied between 52% and 71%.
The use of solar energy has been gaining significance as a continuous supply of alternative power source, which
seems to have an answer to frequent power constraints faced by farmers. Continuous supply of conventional
energy in Nigeria is a mirage, due to frequent power outage Kuye el al (2008).
The components of solar powered system used in the powering the solar incubator are PV solar
module/cells/arrays, Charge controller, Deep cycle Battery, and Solar inverter (Zeman, 2001).
Design Analysis and Construction
The incubator design calculations were based on the conditions required for the machine to work effectively.
Some of the conditions were the temperature of the incubator which was to be maintained, relative humidity and
the turning mechanism which turns few seconds after every one hour.
Design of ventilation holes
According to Theraja, (2003)

Angular speed of the fan in rev/sec = Vfan= 0.05revs/seconds
Taking the diameter of fan as 250mm
Radius of the fan=r=(d/2)=(250/2)=0.125mm
Speed of fan in m/s= Vfan = =ωr=0.0η × 2 × π × 0.125=0.0393m/s....
Total cross-sectional area of the ventilation holes =At
Volume airflow rate through the ventilation hole= total cross-sectional area of the ventilation holes × speed of
fan = At ×Vfan………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
3
Volume of the incubator chamber =total volume of the air in the chamber =
Safe time require to empty all the air in the chamber= T safe =3hours= 10800seconds
Volume airflow rate
...........................................................................................
3
fan T /s
2
T
2
Since T Total cross-sectional area of the ventilation hole
T
Where, r the radius of the ventilation hole
0.01330m or 13.30mm
Total Heat Loss through the Walls of the Incubator

The formula used to calculate heat loss by conduction was:
∑RTH = the overall conduction thermal resistance

ΔT= temperature difference (K)
A= surface area of the incubator walls (m2)
L = thickness of the incubator walls (m)
K = thermal conductivity of each wall (W/mK-1)
Q = the rate of conduction heat loss through each wall
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Heat Loss by Air Convection on the Outer Surface of the Walls
The formula used to calculate the heat loss by convection was:
From Mahesh (2008),
The Grashof number for fluid (air) for the wall =
GrLT
Where, g=acceleration due to gravity (m2/s)
mean film temperature (K-1)
ΔT=difference in temperature between the wall surface and the ambient air (K)
Lc =characteristic length of the wall (m)
2
/s)
From Mahesh (2008), the Rayleigh number for fluid (air) on the outer wall= Ra=Gr L×Pr
Where, Pr=Prandtl number for fluid (air) on the outer wall
Gr =Grashof number for fluid (air) on the outer wall
Ra= Rayleigh number for fluid (air) on the outer wall
From Mahesh (2008), Nu=0.59Ra1/4 .......................................................................
Where, Nu=Nusselt number for fluid (air) on the outer wall
Ra= Rayleigh number for fluid (air) on the outer wall
From Mahesh (2008), The average convective heat transfer coefficient for the wall=
………………………………………………………………………………………….
QC = hc A (TS -T∞ ) ………………………………………………………………………………….
Where, QC = the convective heat transfer on the wall of the incubator
hc= The average convective heat transfer coefficient for the wall
A= area of the outer wall
Ts =temperature of the wall surface,
T∞ =air temperature
Quantity of Heat Loss by Ventilation Hole
Quantity of heat loss by ventilation hole was calculated using QV=ρV∆T ………………………………..
Where, V= Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 3
/s ........................................ ρ at 38.ηoC was found
3
to be 1.135kg/m
∴ QV = 1.135×0.00002184×(38.5-25)=0.0003346W
Heat Production by Eggs

Heat production due to the metabolic activities of the eggs was estimated using the average of Lourens et al
(2005) heat production rate of 137mW for small egg and 155mW for big egg. A heat production rate of 146mW
was used for the design.
Therefore the heat generated by one egg due to metabolic activities 146mW
The heat generated by 150 eggs due to the metabolic activities W= 146mW
W
Design of the Solar System

The first step in designing a solar PV system for the egg incubator is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system which is as follows:
The electric loads in the incubator system are electric fan, electric motor and electric bulbs which are to be
powered by the solar system.
Energy consumption of all loads in the egg incubator= PBTB+PMTM+PFTF
Where
PB ,PM and PF are the power rating of the bulb, electric motor and electric fan respectively.
PB ,PM and PF are taking as 1OOW, 1hp(750W) and 20W respectively.
Considering the starting torque of the electric motor where the starting electric current is two times the operating
electric current. The electric power of the electric motor was calculated as:
PM =1hp×2 or (750 ×2 watts)=2hp or (1500watts)
While TB ,TM and TF are the time of usage of the bulb, electric motor, and the fan per day respectively.
Since the loads (electric bulb and electric fan) are required to be working for the whole day while the electric
motor is to be rocking 2seconds after every one hour throughout the whole day.
TB=24hours=86400seconds,
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TM=2×24=48seconds,
TF =24hours=86400seconds,
Energy consumption of all loads in the egg incubator= 100×86400+1500×48 +20×86400
=10440000Joules ………………………………………………………………………………………..
Sizing of the PV Modules (Solar Panel or Cell)

Size of solar modules
Taking the hours of sunshine as 7hours or 25200seconds we have
Size of solar modules in watts=10440000/25200=414.29Watts or 414.85J/s
480Watts power rating of solar panel would be needed
Size of Batteries
To determine the size of the battery (total capacity) the equation below is used:
Taking the norminal battery voltage as 12Volts.

Since the sunshine hours is taking as 7hours, the battery is required to store charge based on the remaining hour
without light which is 17hours.
Let total energy required for the whole day=Eday

Time which energy is required in the incubator per day=T day =24hours=8640seconds
Time without sunshine=Two=17hours=61200seconds
The total energy required by the incubator for the period without sunshine is calculated as:
The total energy required by the incubator for the period without sunshine
=7395000Joules
The size of battery=(7395000/12)=6165250Ampsecond
Since battery is size in AmpHours, therefore the size of the battery is:
Size of the battery =6165250Amp [1/3600 hours]=171.18AmpHours
For long life span of solar battery the battery should not be discharged below 50% of its capacity. Therefore the
size of the solar battery is multiplied by 2.
The size of the battery=171.18×2
The size of the battery =342.36AmpHours
Therefore, the size of the battery that would be needed is 400AH.
Sizing of the Solar Charge Controller

To figure out what size of solar charge controller needed the following procedure was used:
Size of Solar Charge Controller in Amps=(solar panel wattage)/(norminal battery voltage)
The norminal battery voltage is taking as 12V
The size of the solar charge controller that would be needed is 40Amps
Sizing of the Solar Inverter

For safety, the power rating of solar inverter should be equal or more than the total loads (electric fan (20W),
electric motor 1hp (750W) and electric bulb (100W)) in the incubator in watt at any instant.
Considering the starting torque of the electric motor where the starting electric current is two times the operating
electric current. The electric power of the electric motor is calculated as:
PM =power of electric motor=1hp×2 or (750 ×2 watts)=2hp or (1500watts)
The total power of loads in the solar incubator =P T = 100+ 20+1500
The total power of loads in the solar incubator =1620watts
Since the total power of load needed by the egg incubator is 1620W, therefore, a solar inverter that has at least
1620 watts continuous power rated would be selected.
The size of the solar inverter that would be needed is 2000Watts
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Figure 1: Isometric drawing of the designed solar powered egg incubator
Figure 2: View of the Egg Incubator during Construction
Figure 3: View of the Synchronization of the Constructed Egg Incubator and the Installed Solar System in
Operation and View of the Solar Panels during Installation.
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Automatic Control System
Automation was used to reduce the need for human involvement in the production of chicks using control system
and information technologies. It was introduced in the egg incubator to save labor, energy, improve quality,
accuracy and precision of the incubator system with minimal or reduced human intervention.
However, the parameters of the incubation process that required automation are humidity, temperature, turning
and ventilation. Automatic control units were provided for temperature and turning to minimize human
intervention in area of turning and provide accuracy and correct precision in area of temperature control.
Automatic control units (Automation) for the turning system

For automatic control of the turning system the following control devices were used:
1. On delay timer (Controller) 2. Off delay timer (Controller) 3. Contactor (electric control switch or
electromechanical device) 4. electric motor (actuator) 5. Switch 6. Capacitor
Automatic Control Units (Automation) for the temperature control

For automatic control of the turning system the following control devices were used:
1.Thermostat (Controller) 2. Contactor (electric control switch or electromechanical device) 3.Sensor (Probe) 4.
heater (Electric bulb) 5. Dimmer (Variable Resistor) for heater 6. Fan (For uniform distribution of heat) 7.
Dimmer(Rheostat) for fan. The control of humidity was achieved with Hygro-thermometer clock and. Sensor
(Probe)
Results and Discussion

The developed egg incubator and the solar system were installed in Agricultural and Bio Resource Engineeering
laboratory of Agricultural Engineering department located in AMREC Building at Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta.
To have successful hatchability of the fertile eggs tests and performance evaluation were carried out on the
installed incubator and the solar system.
Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Interior Temperature of the Incubator

The ambient temperature has great influence on the interior temperature of the incubator which made the interior
of the incubator not having a constant temperature throughout the period of incubation but the interior
temperature of the incubator was still maintain within the recommended range of 36 oC to 39oC with the help of
the thermostat. This same observation was reported by Adewumi (2006).
The thermostat was set to 39oC. The effect of ambient temperature on the interior temperature of the egg
incubator is shown in table 1.
Table 1: The effect of ambient temperature on the interior temperature of the egg
Time Temperature, oC Temperature, oC Electric Bulb Electric Bulb
(Incubator) (Ambient) (time on), seconds (time off), seconds
7:00am 36 24.7 20 5
7:30am 36 24.6 20 5
8:00am 36 24.5 17 5
8:30am 36 24.6 16 6
9:00am 36 24.4 14 7
9:30am 36 24.9 14 7
10:00am 36 25.2 12 8
10:30am 36 25.8 12 8
11:00am 36 26.8 11 9
11:30am 37 27.1 10 10
12:00noon 37 27.3 10 10
12:30pm 37 27.6 9 12
1:00pm 37 28.3 9 13
1:30pm 38 29.0 8 14
2:00pm 38 29.9 8 15
2:30pm 38 30.3 8 15
3:00pm 38 30.1 8 16
3:30pm 38 30.2 8 17
4:00pm 38 33.2 7 20
4:30pm 39 33.7 7 24
5:00pm 39 32.2 7 28
5:30pm 39 32.7 7 26
6:00pm 38 31.6 7 20
6:30pm 38 30.1 8 12
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Figure 4: Temperature of incubator and ambient temperature against time
Daily Average Interior Temperature throughout the Incubation Period

The daily interior temperature of the egg incubator and its average for each day were taken throughout the
incubation period.
Table 2: Table showing the average daily temperature of the incubator with day of incubation
Day of Incubation Average daily temperature of the Incubator, oC
1 37.6
2 37.6
3 37.5
4 36.9
5 37.8
6 37.8
7 37.1
8 37.2
9 37.5
10 37.4
11 37.9
12 37.7
13 37.3
14 37.8
15 37.2
16 37.8
17 38.0
18 37.8
19 37.0
20 37.2
21 37.0
Throughout the period of incubation the temperature was maintained within the recommended range of 36 oC to
39oC. This was achieve by setting the thermostat to temperature of 39oC for the first 18th day of incubation and
38oC for the last three days of incubation.
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Figure 5: Graph showing the average daily temperature of the incubator with day of incubation
PERFORMANCE TEST ON THE EGG INCUBATOR

S/N STATUS TRAY 1 TRAY 2 TRAY 3 TRAY TRAY 5 TOTAL
4
1 H 06 14 07 10 04 41
2 I 17 07 08 10 11 53
3 U 02 07 13 07 08 37
4 F 04 01 02 01 04 12
5 B 01 01 - - 01 3
6 G - - - - - -
7 BRT - - - - 03 03
8 BRV - - - 01 - 01
TOTAL 030 030 030 030 030 150
Table 3: The table below shows the results for the status of egg loaded in each crate after 21 days of incubation:
Figure 6: Bar Chat for the Status of Egg Loaded in each Crate after 24 th day of Incubation
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Table 4: Performance Evaluation of Loaded Eggs on Each Tray
TRAY Number of Number of Total number of Fertility of the Hatchability of
hatched fertile eggs eggs eggs (%) the fertile eggs
(%)
AM1 06 13 30 43.3 46.2
AM2 14 23 30 73.3 60.9
AM3 07 22 30 73.3 31.8
AM4 10 18 29 62.1 55.6
AM5 04 17 27 62.0 23.5
Total 41 93 146
Fertility of Egg
Fertility of eggs = (number of fertile eggs)/(total number of eggs )
The total number of the infertile egg and Total number of eggs are 53 and 146 respectively.
Number of fertile eggs =total number of eggs-number of infertile eggs = 146 - 53 = 93
Fertility of eggs = 93/146 =63.7% =64%
Hatchability of the Fertile Eggs

Hatchability of the fertile egg in the chamber=(number of hatched eggs)/(total number of fertile eggs)×100%
Total number of chick that hatched was 41 while total number of fertile eggs was 93.
Hatchability of the fertile egg in the chamber=41/93×100%
Hatchability of the fertile egg in the chamber =44.09% =44%
Chick with Unabsorbed Yolk

Percentage of chicks with unabsorbed yolk = (number of chicks with unabsorbed yolk)/(total number of fertile
eggs)×100%
The total number of chicks with unabsorbed yolk was 37 while the total number of fertile eggs was 93. The chick
with unabsorbed yolk was as a result of slow development at the last stage of incubation.
% of chicks with unabsorbed yolk =(37)/93×100%=39.8% = 40%
Dead in germ (early dead of embryo) was not recorded in any of the tray. All the embryos in the fertile eggs
developed to the last stage (21st day). Some hatched; some fully developed but could not hatch while some with
unabsorbed yolk.
It is generally accepted that hatched eggs, late hatching, unhatched eggs and dead chicks can be used to evaluate
the incubation process, to help determine where improvements can be made.
No dead in germ of the developing embryo was achieved due to uninterrupted power supply provided by the
solar power throughout the period of the incubation.
After the 18th day of incubation there was challenge. The hygrometer used could not sense the relative humidity
of the interior chamber except that of the ambient relative humidity due to faulty probe (sense).
The rate of evaporation of water in the container used for humidifier increased which lead to increase in the
number of opening made. The increase in rate of evaporation was as a result of large number of developed
embryo in the chamber which absorbed more of the evaporated water.
Although the temperature was maintained within the recommended range but there was significant quantity of
heat loss during the process which led to temperature fluctuation.
It was observed that relative humidity is the most critical factor of incubation during the point of hatching.
Correct relative humidity is needed for successful emerge of the chick from the shell. If the relative humidity is
low the shell would be so hard for the chick to pipe and to break the shell would also be difficult.
Figure 7: The Chamber on the 18th day and after 18th day of the Incubation period respectively
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March 7-11, 2016
Figure 8: View of the hatched normal chicks that are healthy and the hatched chicks with broken leg
respectively
Figure 9: View of the chick with unabsorbed yolk and chick that were fully developed but not hatched
respectively
Conclusion
Production of chicks from a developing embryo is a very sensitive task which required proper monitoring. Any
little failure in any of the parameters of production during the period of incubation would lower the hatchability
of the fertile eggs especially temperature which is the most critical parameter.
At the last stage of incubation humidity is another most critical factor that must be taking into consideration for
successful hatching of the chick that were able to survival to the last stage of incubation.
To have the best result of hatchability of the fertile eggs the incubator system should be designed in such a way
that there would be minimal opening of the incubation system.
For automated system, turning of the egg crate should be done at a low speed and few seconds after every one
hour to prevent cracking or breaking of the egg due to vibration or collusion of the eggs with the components of
the incubator such as crate support, connectors, linkages etc.
The modification of the developed incubator would improve the efficiency of the incubator.
REFERENCES
Abdulkarim, H.T., (2012). Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar Energy for Electric Power Generation in
Nigeria. Department of Electrical/Electronics, College of Education, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
Adeosun O.J. (1997). Further Work on the Development (Design and Construction) of a Low-Cost Incubator.
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Adewumi, B.A., (2006). Design and Construction of Solar Incubator for Rural Farmers in Nigeria. Department
of Agricultural Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
Alan, T., Leonard T., Ray F., (1967). The complete poultry man. Faber and Faber Limited.
Benjamin N.1, (2012). Modification of the Design of Poultry. Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Adamawa State, Nigeria.
287
March 7-11, 2016
Gbabo A., (2004). Design, Construction and Performance Evaluation of an Electric Powered Egg
Incubator.International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology. Department of Agricultural and
Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State.
Kuyi S.I.; Adekunle N.O.; Adetunji O.R.; and Olaleye D.O. (2008). Design and Construction of Solar Incubator.
Proceedings of the Third Conference on Science and National Development.
Lior N., (2008). Energy Resources and Use: The Present Situation and Possible Paths to the Future. Energy
33:842-857 Publisher Full Text.
Lourens, A.H, (2005). Effect of Eggshell Temperature during Incubation on Embryo Development, Hatchability
and Post Hatch Development Poultry Sci. 84: 914-920.
Okonkwo, W.I, (200η). “Passive solar heating for poultry chick brooding in Nigeria”, National center for Energy
Research and Development, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
Olakunle, J. (2013). Design and construction of an Inverter Using Solar Cell as a Source of Charger. Department
of Science Laboratory Technology (Physics unit), Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos.
Mahesh, M.R., (2008). Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer. College of Engineering, Dhul, Maharashtra.
Williams, R.H; and Carl, J.W. (1990). Energy from the Sun. Amer. Sci. J. 43: 41
Zeman, M. (2001). Photovoltaic System. Delft University of Technology.
288
March 7-11, 2016
THE USE OF RECYCLED PLASTIC BOTTLES IN REINFORCED CONCRETE WAFFLE SLAB
1
Abiola R. J, 2*Akinyele J.O, Adewuyi A.P2 and Adetunji R.O3
1
Department of Engineering, Oak Builders, Lagos Nigeria
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
Nigeria
*Corresponding author: joakin777@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT : The current trend of indiscriminate dumping of plastic wastes has lead
researchers to look into the reuse of these materials especially in the building industry. In
this work, waste plastic bottles were recycled to 5 mm diameter polymer rod and were used
to replace wire mesh in the topping of waffle slab. The flexural strength and deformation of
18 waffle slabs with sizes of 600 mm × 600 mm× 120 mm , 700 mm × 700 mm × 120 mm,
and 800 mm × 800 mm × 120 mm were determined with three samples for each size. The
topping of nine slabs were reinforced with the polymer rod while the remaining nine were
reinforced with wire mesh which served as the control. The laboratory test carried out
showed that the young modulus of elasticity for polymer rod and wire mesh was 12,766
N/mm2 and 30,469 N/mm2 respectively. The average crack width for the waffle slabs
reinforced with polymer rods and wire mesh range from 1 mm to 2.3 mm having maximum
deflection of 42.93 mm and 40.64 mm respectively. The average ultimate flexural load was
50KN for both samples. The study concluded that the polymer rod could be used as topping
in waffle slab.
Keywords: silo, water, ergonomics, conference, engineering
INTRODUCTION
The search for alternative material for reinforcement in concrete has lead to many discovery, since steel which
has been the major materials in reinforced concrete have been found to get corrode easily when exposed to
weather conditions, together with it non availability and very high cost. Some of the materials that have been
used in place of concrete in research are Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP), Glass Reinforced Polymers (GRP)
and many more; most of these materials have been found to be good but will require some modifications before
it can take the place of iron steel in construction. The durability performance of FRP reinforcement is considered
by some to offer a possible solution to the problem of corrosion of steel reinforcement (Gowripalan 1999, Ko,
1997). The advantages of FRP which included enhanced erection and handling speed was discussed by Karbhari
and Zhang, 1999.
In order to drastically improves the performance of concrete and negates its disadvantages, fibers modeled from
recycled polyethylene terephthalate (R-PET) can be used instead of steel rod when light reinforcement is
required achieving same result (Banthia and Sheng, 1996).
The use of Recycled polyethylene terephthalate (R-PET) as reinforcing short fibers in structural concrete can
provide greater crack control and ductility enhancement capacities for quasi-brittle concrete as well as mass
consumption alternative, which is a very important issue in the merit of recycling wasted materials. The current
applications of RPET in construction industry is using them as resin for polymer concrete and synthetic coarse
aggregate for lightweight concrete. These types of application, however, have usage limitation in construction
industry due to a difficulty of mass consumption. In order to overcome the limitation, numerous studies have
been undertaken. One of the solutions to this limitation is using RPET as reinforcing short fibers in concrete to
improve structural performance (Kim et al. 2008).
The aim of this work is to examine the use of RPET as alternative to wire mesh in waffle slabs in other to
overcome the problem of corrosion of steel and for the proper disposal of the non biodegradable plastic bottles
from our environment.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Materials
Polymer Rods: The PET bottles were gathered in large quantity, washed, dried and transported to polymer
factory where the bottles were first grinded to lumps by grinding machine. The lumps were further taken to
extrusion/palletizing machine. The lumps were introduced to the intake of the extrusion machine after the
333
March 7-11, 2016
temperature was set at 180oc. The lumps began to melt and come out in the form of 5mm rods. The rods were
made to pass through the first cooling bath in order to cool the temperature and the second cooling bath so as to
harden it. The mechanical properties of both the polymer rod and wire mesh were determined using a universal
testing machine.
Figure 1: Polymer rod passing through the first water bath
Form work: The formwork was made of wooden planks and boards. The formwork was constructed having the
following dimensions 600 mm x 600 mm x 120 mm, 700 mm x 700 mm x 120 mm, 800 mm x 800 mm x 120
mm for the various sizes of the slab produced. The mould used for the hollow of the slab was produced using
polystyrene of size 150 mm by 150 mm.
Waffle slab sizes

Three sizes (600 mm × 600 mm, 700 mm × 700 mm, and 800 mm × 800 mm) of waffle slab were produced with
minimum of three samples for each size making total of 18 slabs. The slabs were reinforced according to the
structural design. The top reinforcements of 9 slabs were reinforced with the polymer rod while the remaining 9
slabs were reinforced with wire mesh which serves as the control. Waffle slabs were design in line with BS
8110.
Placing and compaction of specimens:

Prior to usage, reinforcement was taken from where stacked and was free from mud, oil, paint, and loose rust
which can weaken the bond of concrete. 8mm diameter size steel rod was used for the rib portion of the waffle
slabs having yield strength of 460 N/mm2 in accordance with BS 4449 standard. The bars were rigidly fixed in
correct position to prevent displacement during concreting.
Eighteen specimens of waffle slabs were prepared and the ribs of all the slabs were reinforced with 2Y8 steel
bars at the bottom. The recycled polymer rods were used as the top reinforcement for nine samples while the
remaining nine which serves as control were reinforced with wire mesh at the top. Before placement of the
concrete, the form works were primed with oil so as to enhance easy removal of the concrete. The fresh concrete
mix for each sample was fully compacted by tamping rod, to remove trapped air, which can reduce strength of
the concrete. Since the hydration of cement does take time, the concrete was cured for 28 days by covering it
with jute sack and by sprinkling water on it to achieve its potential strength and durability.
Flexural Test:
Flexural strength also known as modulus of rupture is defined as a material's ability to resist deformation under
load. After curing and de-moulding of the form work, the waffle slabs were moved to the Load cell machine in
the laboratory for flexural test. According to BS EN 12390: 5-200, three points loading was adopted for all the
sizes of the slab. Slabs of sizes 600 mm x 600 mm and 800 mm x 800 mm were tested with the waffle face
pointing upward while slabs of sizes 700 mm x 700 mm were tested with the waffle side turned upside down.
Two rollers were placed under the specimen at both edges while two were placed at the top in an equidistant
manner. The specimen was placed in the Load cell machine in such a way that the load was applied at the central
surface of the specimen through a device called hydraulic power jack. The axis of the specimen was well aligned
with the axis of the loading device. Three dial gauges of 0.01 mm with 25.4mm precision were mounted under
the machine with the tip of the gauges placed on the specimen to measure deflection. The first dial gauge placed
at the right side measured deflection D1, the second dial gauge placed at the center measured deflection D2 while
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March 7-11, 2016
the third dial gauge at the left side of the specimen measured deflection D3. The load was applied gradually
through the power jack at every 5 KN and the corresponding deflections were measured and recorded. The
specimen was loaded to failure and the applied load at failure causes crack to develop under the slab. No initial
crack was observed for all the specimen and the final cracks were well distributed across the specimen. The
crack width for each specimen was measured using vernier caliper. Figures two and 3 showed the slab setup.
Figure 2: Loading of slab samples
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Mechanical properties of reinforcements.
The mechanical properties of both the wire mesh and polymer rods were determined from a universal testing
machine. The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material can withstand before failure,
while the young modulus quantifies the elasticity of the materials. From the results in Table 1, The young
modulus of the wire mesh is more than that of the polymer rod by over 100%, this implies that the elasticity of
the polymer rod is very low when compared to that of the wire mesh, and this may be a disadvantage to it use in
other types of slabs apart from waffle slabs that has reinforced ribs which provided the required strength for the
slab. But using it at the top slab portion in waffle slab may be of a very good value to the aim of this work, since
the slab topping of waffle slab only support compressive loading in the slab.
Table 1. Mechanical Properties of Reinforcements
S/N Reinforcement Tensile Stress Strain Young Diameter

Type Strength σ ε Modulus
(kN) E (mm)
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
1 Polymer Rod 5.215 414.880 0.0325 12,766 4
2 Wire mesh 7.480 1,523 0.0500 30,460 2.5
Flexural Test: The results of the flexural tests showed that waffle slab of size 800mm x 800mm reinforced with
polymer have maximum deflection of 40.13 mm with maximum crack width of 2.6mm at the applied load of
50KN. The result of the same sizes reinforced with wire mesh has maximum deflection of 40.69mmwith
maximum crack width of 2 mm at the applied load of 50kN.
The waffle slab of size 700mm x 700mm reinforced with polymer has maximum deflection of 42.93 mm with
maximum crack width of 1mm at the applied load of 50kN. The result of the same sizes reinforced with wire
mesh has maximum deflection of 38.86 mm with maximum crack width of 1 mm at the applied load of 45kN.
The waffle slab of size 600mm x 600mm reinforced with polymer has maximum deflection of 39.37 mm with
maximum crack width of 1mm at the applied load of 45kN. The result of the same sizes reinforced with wire
mesh has maximum deflection of 37.37mm with maximum crack width of 1 mm at the applied load of 45kN.
From the above results, apart from the deflections of the polymer reinforced waffle slabs that are generally
higher than that of wire mesh reinforced slabs, which can be attributed to the low modulus of elasticity of the
polymer rod. The failure loads for the two samples with different dimensions are the same. The implication of
this development is that the waffle slab ribs play a major role in the integrity of a waffle slab structure, while the
slab portion with the different reinforcement distributes the loads to the ribs, and provide structural stability.
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March 7-11, 2016
Since the polymer rod is used in the toping of the waffle slab in this experiment, coupled with the positive results
obtained, the material can be used for the intended purpose of replacing wire mesh in waffle slab toppings.
Figure 3: Deflection of 800 x 800 mm wire mesh slab Figure 4: Deflection of 800 x 800 mm polymer reinforced waffle slab.
CONCLUSION
The use of polymer rod as alternative to wire mesh have been examined in thi8s work, it was discovered the
modulus of Elasticity of the wire mesh is over 100 percent greater than that of the polymer rod, but the
performance of the polymer material in waffle slab when compared to the wire mesh reinforced waffle slab
showed that the polymer rod can perform well when used as topping in waffle slab.
REFERENCES
Banthia, N. and Sheng, J. (1996).Fracture toughness of micro-fiber reinforced cement composites. Cement and
Concrete Composites, 18(4). 251-269.
British Standard Institution.BS (1997). Structural use of concrete - Code of practice for design and construction
Part 1. BS 8110 – 1. London. British Standard Institution.
Kim, J.H.J., Park, C.G., Lee, S.W., Lee, S.W. and Won, J.P. (2008) Effects of the geometry of recycled PET
fiber reinforcement on shrinkage cracking of cement-based composites, Composites Part B: Engineering, 39(3) :
441-450.
Gowripalan N. 199, “ Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) Application for prestressed concrete bridges”
Proceedings of ACUN 1 Conference composite: Innovations and structural applications UNSW, Australia.
Karbhari VC.M and Zhang S. 1999, “ Durability of Fibre reinforced Composite in Civil Infrastructure- Issues,
results and implications” Developments in Design Standards for Advanced Composites in Infrastructure
Applications, CRC-ACS, Australia.
Ko, K. 1997. “ Fibre Architecture based design of ductile composite rebar for concrete structure”. Proceedings of
ICCM-11: International Conference on composite materials, Australia Composites Structures Society, Australia.
336
Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on SET: A driving force for
sustainable development tagged COLENG 2016, Federal University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, March 7-11, 2016
DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW COST RICE MILLING MACHINE

1
Olufemi Bamidele Busari, 1Olayide Rasaq Adetunji*, 1Peter Olaitan Aiyedun and
2
Sunday Gbenga.Aderibigbe
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture,
2
Department of Plant Physiology and Crop Production, College of Plant Science and Crop Production,
Federal University of Agriculture,.
*Corresponding Author; adetunjiolayide@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Rice is generally considered as semi aquatic annual plant that survives as
perennial in the tropics or subtropics. The high cost of the available rice milling machine
affects the production of rice in large quantity. Therefore, there is need for a low cost rice
milling machine with high efficiency and reduced operating noise. A rice milling machine
was developed consisting of the feeding unit, milling unit, cleaning unit, separating unit
delivery unit and the frame. The rice milling machine has a capacity of 12 kg/hr and
powered by a 3hp electric motor. The process of milling involves the interaction of machine
and seed for the release of grains through blown air from impeller. The performance
parameters include, percentage of broken rice, milling efficiency of paddy varieties,
wholeness and machine efficiency which were evaluated at five different moisture content
groups namely; A, 11.00-12.99%, B, 13.00-14.99%, C, 15.00-16.99%, D, 17.00-18.99%
and E, 19.00-20.99%. Four varieties of paddy, NEL-42, NE 2, F55 and OFADA were used.
The highest milling efficiency of 64 % was obtained for all varieties of paddy at A. The low
percentage of broken rice and milling efficiency of 64% for paddy variety NEL-42 proved
the effectiveness of the machine.
Keywords: Rice, Milling machine, Efficiency, Moisture content
INTRODUCTION
Rice is generally considered as a semi aquatic annual plant, although it could survive as a perennial in the tropics
or subtropics. It grows widely in the tropics where rainfall is abundant because it is a cereal that requires plenty
of sunshine and water. It remains article of food for many countries and it is a basic food for world population.
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants oryza (Asian rice) sativa or oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal
grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world’s human population, especially in
Asia. It is the grain with the second highest worldwide production after corn.
Rice cultivation is well suited to countries and regions with low labour costs and high rainfall, as it is labour
intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a
steep hill or mountain area with the use of water controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are
native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it common place in many
cultures worldwide (Koya and Adekoya, 1994). The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields
while, or after, setting the young seedlings (Popoola, 2007).
Rice processing involves harvesting, drying, threshing and milling. Each grain of rice is encased in an easily
removed protective hull. Rice is milled to remove the hull, bran and other unwanted materials (Matz, 1970).
In the rice industry, milling is referred to as overall operations in rice mill-cleaning, shelling, bran removal and
size separation. The purpose of rice milling is to remove the chaffs (Luh, 1980). Traditionally, after harvest, in
some rice growing areas, rice milling is accomplished by very primitive methods such as pounding the rough
rice in a wooden mortar with pestle and then winnowed to remove the chaff from the grain. This practice make
local production of rice very low with poor quality( Ibukun, 2008). The country depends largely on foreign
importation. The rice milling machine is an improvement of traditional rice winnower. It consists of hopper,
sheller, cleaner, separator (sieve) delivery unit and the frame. Most locally available machines are beyond the
reach of farmers due to high cost (Oni, 1988).
Since rice will most likely remain the basic food of the ever increasing world population, efforts have to be made
to increase its production by developing a low cost milling machine. Winnowing of the grains after shelling to
remove chaffs and Rice is generally considered as a semi aquatic annual plant, although it could survive as a
perennial in the tropics or subtropics (Garial and O’Callaghan, 1990). It grows widely in the tropics where
rainfall is abundant because it is a cereal that requires plenty of sunshine and water (Douglas and Glenn, 1982).
377
It remains article of food for many countries and it is a basic food for world population. Therefore, this research
work focussed on the development of low cost rice milling machine.

Different manufacturing processes are involved in the fabrication of rice milling machine. The machine consists
of so many components which must be put together appropriately that their interaction with one another would
produce the desired output called rice milling machine. Some of the processes include: cutting, drilling, turning
welding and forming.
Materials
In the design and fabrication of a rice milling machine, it is very important to carefully select the material and
method. This is to ensure that the final product meets its specification and work as intended. In the selection of
suitable material that will satisfy this design and product requirement, it is necessary to look at many aspects so
that the components and assembly are fabricated within the resources available. The materials employed are
contained in Table 1.
Table 1: Materials Used
S/No Name Material Used
1 Hopper Mild steel

2. Hopper shelling drum Mild steel
3. Drum shaft Mild steel
4. Magnet Magnet
5. Transmission belt Rubber/Leather
6 Pulley Mild steel
7 Shaft Mild steel sheet metal
8 Impeller Stainless sheet metal
9 Perspex Plastic
10 Tube/Hose Rubber
11 Prime Mover Electric Motor
12 Body frame assembly Angle iron mild steel
Design Consideration
In the design of rice milling machine, the following factors are considered:
The production cost of the equipment must be cheap. It must be affordable. The equipment should be portable.
Maintenance cost must be bearable. The design concepts listed below are also considered. Cleaning and
separation should be accomplished in the minimum possible space. The grain should move in a direction
different from the motion of chaff to separate the grain from chaff
The knowledge of aerodynamic properties of rice such as drag coefficient and terminal velocity are necessary in
the design since air will be used as a carrier for separating the rice from the unwanted materials.
When a particle (like rice) is immersed in a flowing fluid (air), the resultant force acting on it is resolved into
two components. These are:
(i) The lift force (FL)
(ii) Drag force (FD)
The equation for calculating the drag and lift force can be derived by dimensional analysis on the assumption
that the object has a projected area AP moving through a fluid of density  F , and velocity V.
Therefore,
C D AP  F V 2
FD  (1)
2
C A  V2
and FL  L P F (2)
2
378
where CD = the coefficient of drag force, CL = the coefficient of lift force

Most of the grains are free to assume any random orientation. The net resistance force F r will be given in terms
of overall drag coefficient C as
CAP  F V 2
Fr  (3)
2
where Fr = resistance drag force (N)
C = dimensionless overall drag coefficient
 F = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
V = relative velocity between the main body of fluid and object (m/s)
If sphere is placed in a fluid flow, the frictional drag is usually neglected because of the small surface area on
which the frictional effects can act. Thus, for a sphere of diameter d p, moving at a velocity V, through a fluid of
viscosity µ, Stokes’ law gives drag force as (Ahrajahpour, 200θ)
FD  3Vd p
and this can be equated to
C D AP  F V 2
FD 
2
The projected area Ap can be taken as the frontal area which is equal to
d p2
Ap 
4
The drag coefficient is found to be
24
CD 
NR
Where NR = Reynolds number
However, the use of the above formula for calculating CD is restricted to NR less than unity since flow clashes
behind sphere-like object and the profile drag is composed primarily of frictional drag section since the inertia
forces may be neglected.
F dV
and NR 

where d = the effective dimension of the object such as diameter of a sphere µ = absolute viscosity of fluid.
When air is used for separation of a product such as rice, from foreign materials associated with it such as chaff,
the knowledge of terminal velocity of the particles involved would be useful to define the range of air velocities
effecting good separation of the grain. (Olorunnisola, 2005)
The forces involved by a falling particle are given as:
dV
M  Fg  Fr (4)
dt
M r g ( p   F )
but Fg 
r
and
Fr  CA p  F V 
2
 2g 
therefore,
dV g ( p   F ) C (V 2 F A)
 
dt p 2 gM
The sign of the g (gravity) term is positive for a particle starting from rest or having an initial downward
velocity. The sign is negative for an initial upward velocity. If  p is larger than  F , the particle motion will be
downward when steady-state has been reached. If the fluid is denser than the particle, that is,  F is larger than
 p , the particle will rise during the steady-state condition.
dV
M = net accelerational force in the fluid flowing direction
dt
379
For constant velocity, steady state conditions, dV/dt = 0, and the terminal velocity can be derived by setting the
gravitational force Fg equal to the resisting drag force Fr and putting V as Vt
Thus, Fg = Fr, when V=Vt then
 p F 
M p g   CA p  F V 
2
    2 g 
 p 
so that
1
/2
 2M p g 2 ( p   F 
Vt    (5)
 CA p  p  F 
 
Where g = acceleration due to gravity
Mp = mass of particle
 p = specific weight of particle
 p = specific weight of fluid
Ap = projected area of the particle normal to the motion
C = particle aerodynamic drag coefficient, dimensionless
V = relative velocity
t = time
F = force
The overall drag force coefficient C = CF + CD.
When the flow is laminar, CF is generally negligible. For turbulent flow, CF is usually negligibly small except for
streamlined bodies (Olorunnisola, 2005).
The formula for escape velocity can be derived from conservation of energy, in order to escape, an object must
have at least as much kinetic energy as the increase of potential energy required to move to infinite height. To
escape from a single body, the escape velocity is the kinetic energy equivalent to minus gravitational potential
energy (Gariboldi, 1988)
1 GMm
mVe2 
2 r
2GM 2
Ve   (6)
r r
where
Ve = escape velocity, G = gravitational constant, M = mass of the body being escaped from m =
mass of the escaping body, r = distance between the center of the body and the point at which escape
velocity is being calculated µ = standard gravitational parameter.
The Hopper
The machine was designed for small and medium scale users, so the hopper was designed for a capacity of about
35,100cm3. This was achieved by making the upper part of the hopper to be 45cm in length and breadth 45cm,
while the lower part of the hopper has length and breadth 7cm each with the height 30cm.
The capacity of the hopper is calculated as the area of its side multiplied by the length of the hopper.
Volume = ½ (7+45) x 30 x 45 = 35,100 cm3
The Shelling Unit
(a) Shelling Drum
This unit is made of a spiked tooth shelling drum and perforated concave. The shelling drum consists of studs
that will cause the shelling action when the drum rotates. The drum is housed in the concave and drum cover
made from a horizontal cylinder. The concave is the lower half of the cylinder, perforated to serve as discharge
holes for the shelled materials while the upper half is the cover and carries the hopper.
The parameters of the shelling drum are, the drum diameter, the drum length, the drum speed and number of
beaters on the drum (Koya and Adekoya, 1994)).
380
The drum length was obtained from the equation below as it was reported by Douglas and Glenn, 1982.
q = qo LM (11)
where L = drum length, M = number of (row of) beaters, q = feed rate of sheller (kg/s),
qo = permissible feed rate (kg/s).
According to Resnikov (1991), permissible feed rate of sheller is 0.4 – 0.6kg/s.
(b) Criteria for the Performance Evaluation of the Rice Milling Machine
Operating time was used as one of the criteria for my performance.
Four varieties of paddy at five levels of moisture content groups viz: A(11.00 – 12.99)%, B(13.00 – 14.99)%,
C(15.00 – 16.99)%, D(17.00 – 18.99)%, E(19.00 – 20.99)% was also used.
Data were analyzed to obtain the mean, chart and graph.
Minitab 16 was used for the analysis of variance at 5% level of significant.
The low cost machine was evaluated using established performance coefficients shown below.
Moisture content wet basis was determined. Coefficient of shelling, Coefficient of wholeness,
Shelling efficiency, Cleaning efficiency, Broken rice (%) ,. Head rice (%), Shelling capacity, HC=shelling
capacity, HO = total shelling output kg, Es = shelling efficiency, TO = operating time, hr
Shelling recovery

The developed rice milling machine is shown in Figure 1. The total cost of the machine was four seven thousand
Naira. The four varieties of paddy at five levels of moisture content groups viz: A(11.00 – 12.99)%, B(13.00 –
14.99)%, C(15.00 – 16.99)%, D(17.00 – 18.99)%, E(19.00 – 20.99)% was also used.
Fig.1: Orthographic views of the developed Rice Milling Machine
DISCUSSION OF RESULT
The highest shelling efficiency was obtained for all varieties of paddy at 11.00 – 12.99% moisture content. The
shelling efficiency at 11.00 – 12.99% for NEL-42 was 64%. For all varieties of paddy, as moisture content
increased, the shelling efficiency decreased.The percentage of whole kernel decreased as moisture content
increased. Moisture content had significant effect on shelling recovery. 11.00 – 12.99% and 13.00 – 14.99%
moisture content had more significant effect than 15.00 – 16.99% and 17.00 – 18.99% while 19.00 – 20.99% had
the least significant effect on shelling recovery as shown on Table 2.
381
There was an increased broken rice as moisture content increased for all paddy varieties. The maximum head
rice 80% was recovered at a single pass within 11.00 – 12.99% and 15.00 – 16.99% moisture content ranges as
shown on fig. 1.It was observed that shelling capacity decreased from 11 as moisture content increased except
for Ofada variety which increased at 15.00 -16.99% before finally decreased with increased moisture
content.The maximum capacity utilization was observed at 11.00 – 12.99% and 13.00 – 14.99% moisture
Table 2: Shelling recovery of paddy at different moisture content in %
MCw.b.(%) Group NE L-42 NE 2 F 55 OFADA
11.00 – 12.99% A 76 75 72 70
13.00 – 14.99% B 71 73 68 61
15.00 – 16.99% C 66 53 55 57
17.00 – 18.99% D 58 53 46 47
19.00 – 20.99% E 43 42 46 36
content wet basis, while, the least 86% was observed at 19.00 – 20.99% for all paddy varieties except for Nerica
L-42. These results were in agreement with earlier researchers like Adewumi et al.,2007 and Akintunde, et al.,
2005.
.
CONCLUSION
A low cost rice milling machine has been designed, constructed and tested. The results of the study show that the
moisture content of the paddy significantly affected the performance of the machine. The machine worked more
efficiently as the moisture content of the paddy decreased. As moisture content increased, there was an increase
in broken rice.
At 11.00 – 12.99% moisture content, the shelling efficiency of NEL-42 variety of paddy was 64% while the
percentage whole kernel for all paddy varieties decreased as moisture content increased. Also, because of its
cheap cost, it is likely to satisfy Nigerian market
REFERENCES
Adewumi, J.K., Olayanju, T.M.A. and Adewuyi, S.A. (2007). Support for small rice threshers in Nigeria. A-
DFID/PROPCOM, Nigeria project 68pp.
Ahrajahpour, O. (2006). Effect of Moisture on Terminal Velocity of Wheat Varieties. International Journal of
Agriculture and Biology, 10-13.
Akintunde, B.O., Oyawale, F.A. and Tunde-Akintunde, T.Y.(2005). Design and Fabrication of a Cassava
Peeling Machine. Nigerian Food Journal. 23(231-238).
Douglas, M.C. and Glenn, D. (1982). Foods and Food Production Encyclopedia. VanReinho. D., New York.
Gariboldi, F. 1988. Rice Milling Equipment Operation and Maintenance. FAO Agricultural Service Bulletin 22.
Gorial, B.Y., and O’Callaghan, J.R. (1990). Aerodynamic properties of grain/straw materials. Journal of
Agricultural Engineering Research, 4,27-290.
Ibukun, E.O. 2008. Effect of prolonged parboiling duration on proximate composition of rice. Academic
Journals Vol.3 (7), pp. 323-325, July.
Koya, O.A. and Adekoya, L.O. (1994). Some Physical and Aerodynamic Properties Relevant in Destining some
Grain Crops. Journal of Technology.
Luh, B.S. (1980).Rice Production and Utilization. AVI Publishing Company Inc, Westport.
Matz, S.A. (1970).Cereal Technology. AVI Publishing Company Inc, Westport.
Olorunnisola, A.O. (2005). Improvement of an Existing Low Cost Wooden Groundnut Sheller. Journal of
Applied Science. Engineering Technology.5(71-74).
Oni, E.I. (1988). Design and Construction of Rice Blowing Machine. Unpublished B.Sc Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan.
Popoola, C.A. (2007). Design, Fabrication and Evaluation of a Rice Milling Machine. Unpublished M.Sc Thesis,
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, University of Ibadan.
382
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Kifilideen Lekan Osanyinpeju Adewole Aderinlewo

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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

SET: A DRIVING FORCE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Oluwaseun Ibrahim ADEBISI, Isaiah Adediji ADEJUMOBI, Rufus Akinnusimi JOKOJEJE,

KamoliAkinwale Amusa, Adeoluwawale Adewusi, OlubusolaOlufunke Nuga,

Mamah K. C., Adisa A. F., Aderinlewo A. A. and Ismaila S. O

Olubusola Olufunke Nuga, Ayorinde Joseph Olanipekun, Kamoli Akinwale Amusa,

Kuye, S. I., Sulaiman, M. A

Kuye, S. I., Sulaiman, M. A.

Popoola, O. M., Abiola, O. S., Olateju, O. T., Ismaila, S. O.

Arije, O. O., B. A. Adewumi, T. M. A. Olayanju and S. O. N. Akwuegbo

Sanusi, O. M., Olaleke, M. O., Ogundana, T. O. and Sanni, Y. Y.

Olawale Usman Dairo, Tajudeen Muraina Adeniyi Olayanju, Oluseyi Amusan,

Elijah Oladimeji Aina, Alex Folami Adisa, Tajudeen Mukaila Olayanju,

Kehinde Babajide OSIFALA

Chukwu, P. M., Adewumi, B. A., Ola, I. A., Akinyemi, O. D. and Onwude, D. I.

Onwuka O. Ude, Olayide R. Adetunji , Sidikat I. Kuye, Enock O.Dare,and

S. I. Kuye, O. R. Adetunji, N. O. Adekunle, A. Abudu

Oluwadare J. Akinyemi, Olayide R. Adetunji, Sidikat I. Kuye, Enock O. Dare

Joshua Olasunkanmi Oladele, Olawale Usman Dairo, Ayobami Adewole Aderinlewo,

Olayide Rasaq Adetunji, Obafemi O. Adegbesan and Iliyasu Kayode Okediran

Hezekiah Oluwole Adeyemi, Bayode Julius. Olorunfemi, Adefemi Adeyemi Adekunle

Sobowale A and A. R. C. Ortigara

Alayaki, F. M. and Ayotamuno. M. J

Dada P.O.O. , and Adewumi J.K.

Solomon Olanrewaju Giwa, Collins Neku Nwaokocha, Abayomi Temitope Layeni,

Kifilideen L. Osanyinpeju, Adewole A. Aderinlewo, Olayide R. Adetunji,

Adinife Patrick Azodo,and Salami Olasunkanmi Ismaila

Arije, O. O., B. A. Adewumi, T. M. A. Olayanju, S. O. N. Akwuegbo and B.O Adetifa

Dauda Lasisi, Adewale James Adesope, Adedamola Oluremi Oladiji,

Saliu L.A, Otapo A.T and Alashiri O.A

Dairo, Olawale Usman, Olukayode, Aanu-Jehofa Ifeobaorun, Adeosun, Olayemi Johnson,

Abiola R.J, Akinyele J.O, Adewuyi A.P and Adetunji J.O

Ademola Aremu, Ademola Seun Duduyemi, Ayobami Olufemi Olasoji

A. E. Adeleke, P. O. Aiyedun and O.U. Dairo

Sobowale, A, S.O. Sajo and O. E. Ayodele

Simeon Olutayo ODUNFA and Samuel Opeyemi AJAYI

Nureni Asafe Yekini , Agnes Kikelomo Akinwole, Dayo Adekunle Phillips

CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, COATED MILD AND STAINLESS STEELS IN 1M SODIUM

*adetunjior@funaab.edu.ng and ebodrev@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Enormous funds are spent on the protection of engineering components

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Corrosion Rate Analysis

Table 1: Determination of Corrosion Rate Analysis

Mild Steel 6.98 56 21.3 21.6 28

tainless Steel 7.9 56 19.4 20.4 28

Table 2: Measured Value of Corrosion Open Circuit Potentials

Sample Media Eoc (V)

Mild Steel Coated with red oxide NaOH -0.65

Stainless Steel NaOH -0.167

Brass NaOH -0.129

Table 3: Corrosion Rate of Brass, Coated Mild and Stainless Steels

Stainless Steel NaOH 395.76 2.42229089 0.07095

Brass NaOH 463.3 2.1614496 0.05724

1Oluwadare J. AKINYEMI, 1Olayide R. ADETUNJI, 1Sidikat I. KUYE, 2Enock O.