1

Contacts

Introduction …………………………………………………………………..…………………………………….… (3)

Unit.1: SI Unit ……………..………………………….……………..…………………………………………….… (3)
Unit.2: SI with Derived Units ……………………………………………………..……………………….….. (5)
Unit.3: Systems of measurements ..……………………………………………………..…………….…... (7)
Unit.4: Scalar and vector quantity ………………………………………………………..……………….. (13)
Unit.5: Density …………………………………………………………………..………………………………..… (17)
Unit.6: Pressure …………………………………………………………………..………………………………… (19)
Unit.7: Pascal’s …………………………………………………………………..……………………………..…… (20)
Unit.8: Viscosity …………………………………………………………………..………………………………… (22)
Unit.9: Newton’s law ……………………..…………………………………………..…………………….…… (24)
Unit.10: Electricity principles …………………………………………………………………..…..…..…… (28)
Unit.11: Charges, Current, Voltage And Resistance (Ohm’s Law) …………………………… (33)
Unit.12: Waves …………………………………………………………………..……………………………….… (39)
Unit.13: Energy …………………………………………………………………..……………………………….… (43)
Unit.14: Physical states of materials …………………………………………………….………………… (49)
Unit.15: Magnetism and Electromagnetic force …………………………………………………….. (55)
Unit.16: Radio activity and its particles ………………………………………………………..………… (59)
Unit.17: Force and its types …………………………………………………………………..…….………… (67)
Unit.18: Hook’s Law …………………………………………………………………..……………………..…… (71)
Unit.19: Weight and gravitational force …………………………………………………………….…… (72)

Introduction

2
 The value of a quantity is generally expressed as the product of a number and a
unit. The unit is simply a particular example of the quantity concerned which is used as
a reference, and the number is the ratio of the value of the quantity to the unit. For a
particular quantity, many different units may be used.
This Brochure is concerned with presenting the information necessary to define and
use the International System of Units, universally known as the SI (from the French
System International Unites).

Unit.1: SI Unit

Fundamental units involved in SI unit:

There is seven base units of the SI, provide the reference used to define all the
measurement units of the International System. The base quantities and base units
are listed, with their symbols in Table below.

Base quantities and dimensions used in the SI

Base quantity Symbol Base unit Symbol

length L, r, x, ..etc. meter m
mass m kilogram kg
time, duration t second s
electric current I, i ampere A
temperature T Degree kelvin °K
amount of substance n mole mol
luminous intensity Iv candela cd

The second:
The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the cesium frequency, the
unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the
cesium 133 atom, to be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the unit
Hz, which is equal to s−1.

The meter:
3
 The meter, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to
be 299 792 458 when expressed in the unit m s−1.

The kilogram:
The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be
6.626 070 15 × 10−34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal
to kg m2 s−1.

The ampere:
The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge
e to be 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is
equal to A s,

The kelvin:
The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
k to be 1.380 649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1, which is equal
to kg m2 s−2 K−1.

The mole:
The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance.
One mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 elementary entities.
This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant,
NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro
number.

The candela:
4
 The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a
given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012
Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the unit lmW−1, which is equal to
cd sr W−1, or cd sr kg−1 m−2 s3.

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Unit.2: SI Derived Units

Derived units are defined as products of powers of the base units. When the
numerical factor of this product is one, the derived units are called coherent derived
units. The base and coherent derived units of the SI form a coherent set, designated
the set of coherent SI units. The word “coherent” here means that equations between
the numerical values of quantities take exactly the same form as the equations
between the quantities themselves. Some of the coherent derived units in the SI are
given special names. Table below lists 22 SI units with special names. Together with
the seven base units they form the core of the set of SI units. All other SI units are
combinations of some of these 29 units.

It is important to note that any of the seven base units and 22 SI units with
special names can be constructed directly from the seven defining constants. In fact,
the units of the seven defining constants include both base and derived units. The
derived units are listed, with their symbols in Table below.

5
 Derived quantities and dimensions used in the SI

Derived quantity Symbol Derived unit Symbol

area square meter m²
volume cubic meter m³
frequency hertz Hz = 1/s
mass density (density) kilogram per cubic meter kg/m³
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
angular velocity radian per second rad/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s²
angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s²
force newton N - (kg.m/s²)
pressure (mechanical stress) newton per square meter N/m²
kinematic viscosity square meter per second m²/s
dynamic viscosity newton-second per square meter N.s/m²
work, energy, quantity of heat joule J - (N.m)
power watt W - (J/s)
electromotive force volt V - (W/A)
electric resistance ohm Ω - (V/A)
magnetomotive force ampere A
luminance candela per square meter cd/m²

SI prefixes
A set of prefixes have been adopted for use with the SI units, in order to
express the values of quantities that are either much larger than or much smaller than
the SI unit used without any prefix. The SI prefixes are listed in Table 5. They may be
used with any of the base units and with any of the derived units with special names.
The SI prefixes are listed, with their symbols in Table below.
For example:
hector (h) = 10²=100 meaning one hundred
kilo (k) = 10³=1 000 meaning one thousand
mega (M) = 10⁶=1 000 000 meaning one million
centi (c) = 10⁻²=0.01 meaning one hundredth
milli (m) = 10⁻³=0.001 meaning one thousandth
micro (μ) = 10⁻⁶=0.000 001 meaning one millionth

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 SI prefixes

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

10¹ deca da 10⁻¹ deci d
10² hecto h 10⁻² centi c
10³ kilo k 10⁻³ milli m
10⁶ mega M 10⁻⁶ micro μ
10⁹ giga G 10⁻⁹ nano n
10¹² tera T 10⁻¹² pico p
10¹⁵ peta P 10⁻¹⁵ femto f
10¹⁸ exa E 10⁻¹⁸ atto a
10²¹ zetta Z 10⁻²¹ zepto z
10²⁴ yotta Y 10⁻²⁴ yocto y

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Unit.3: Systems of measurements

There are two main systems for measuring distances and weight, the Imperial
System of Measurement and the Metric System of Measurement. Most countries use
the Metric System, which uses the measuring units such as meters and grams and
adds prefixes like kilo, milli and centi to count orders of magnitude. In the United
States, people use the older Imperial system, where things are measured in feet,
inches and pounds.
The Metric and Imperial systems are both systems of measurement. That is,
they are not just one unit of measure, but are inter-related systems of many units of
measure – measuring length and area, weight and mass, volume, force, energy,
power, time, temperature, luminosity, etc.

Metric and Imperial differ in almost all of the particular units used in the two
systems (metres vs feet, kilograms vs pounds, etc.). However, they share units
measuring time (seconds, minutes, hours) and electricity (volts, amperes, watts,
ohms, etc.) — Time, because no one was successful in decimalizing it, and electricity
because it is newer than either the Metric or Imperial system.
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 The Imperial System is also called The British Imperial because it came from the
British Empire that ruled many parts of the world from the 16th to the 19th century.
After the U.S gained independence from Britain, the new American government
decided to keep this type of measurement, even though the metric system was
gaining in popularity at the time.

If you need to convert from Imperial or US Standard units to Metric, or the other way
around, one of the lists of difference between imperial and metric below should help.

Time:
1 day = 24 hours = 1440 minutes = 86400 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds

Length:
1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 1.609344 km
1 yard= 3 feet = 36 inches =0.9144 meter
1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 meter
1 inch = 2.54 cm

Mass:
1 kilogram = 2.2046 lb
1 pound = 0.45359237 kg
1 metric ton = 1000 kg

Velocity:
15 mph = 22 fps
1 mph= 0.44704m/s

Area:

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 1 mile² = 2.589988110336 km²
1 hectare = 104 m²
43560 ft² =4840 yd² = 4046.8564224 m²

Volume:
1 liter = 1 dm³
1m³ = 1000 liters
1 cm³ = 1 mL
1 ft³=1728 in³=7.48051948051948 gal =28.316846592 liters
1 gallon = 231 in³ = 3.785411784 liters

Density:
1 g/cm³ = 1000kg/m³ = 8.34540445201933 lb/gal

Force:
1 lbf = 4.44822161526050 newton

Energy:
1 calorie = 4.1868 joules
1 BTU = 1055.05585262 joules
1 ft-lb = 1.35581794833140 joules
1 kW-hr= 3.6 MJ

Power:
1 horsepower = 745.69987158227022 watts

Angle:

9
 𝜋 180
rad = deg × deg = rad ×
180 𝜋
1 deg = 60 arcmin = 3600 arcsec

Temperature:
5 9
◦C = (◦F−32) × ◦F = (C × ) + 32
9 5
K = ◦C + 273.15

Pressure:
1 atm =101325 Pa = 1013.25 millibar = 760 mmHg
=14.6959487755134 psi =2116.21662367394 lb/ft²

Flow rate:
Industrial flow measurements include measuring of flow rate of solids, liquids
and gases. There are two basic ways of measuring flow; one on volumetric basis and
the other on weight basis. Solid materials are measured in terms of either weight per
unit time or mass per unit time. Very rarely solid quantity is measured in terms of
volume. Liquids are measured either in volume rate or in weight rate. Gases are
normally measured in volume rate. In this chapter, the flow measurements of liquids
and gases will be discussed in detail rather than that of solids.

Unit of flow rate:

10
 The units used to describe the flow measured can be of several types
depending on how the specific process needs the information.
- Solids: Normally expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute etc.
- Liquids: Expressed both in weight rate and in volume rate. Examples : Tonnes/hour,
Kg/minute, litres/hour, litres/minute, m3/hour etc.
- Gases: Expressed in volume rate at NTP or STP like Std m3/hour, Nm3/hour etc.
- Steam: Expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minutes etc. Steam density at
different temperatures and pressures vary. Hence the measurement is
converted into weight rate of water which is used to produce steam at the
point of measurement.

Measurement of flow rate:

The measurement of flow rate taken at actual conditions should be converted
either to Standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (760 mm Hg) base (STP base) or to
Normal temperature (20°C) and pressure (760 mm Hg) base (NTP base).

Flow meter is a device that measures the rate of flow or quantity of a moving
fluid in an open or closed conduit. Flow measuring devices are generally classified into
four groups. They are :
1. Mechanical type flow meters. Fixed restriction variable head type flow
meters using different sensors like orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle,
pitot tube, dall tube, quantity meters like positive displacement meters,
mass flow meters etc. fall under mechanical type flow meters.
Fixed restriction variable head type flow meters using different sensors like
orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle, pitot tube, dall tube, quantity meters
like positive displacement meters, mass flow meters are the popular types
of mechanical flow meters.
In the variable head type flow meters, a restriction of known dimensions is
generally introduced into pipeline, consequently there occurs a head loss or
pressure drop at the restriction with increase in the flow velocity.
Measurement of this pressure drop is an indication of the flow rate.

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The terms T, A, ρ, V, P and Z represent Temperature, Area, Density, Stream
velocity, Pressure and Central line elevation respectively. If this elevation is
quite small such that Z2 – Z1 is negligible, the Bernoulli’s equation for an
incompressible (ρ1 = ρ2) frictionless and adaptive flow is written as:

This is equation for the ideal volume flow rate.

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 2. Inferential type flow meters. Variable area flow meters (Rotameters),
turbine flow meter, target flow meters etc.
3. Electrical type flow meters. Electromagnetic flow meter, Ultrasonic flow
meter, Laser doppler Anemometers etc. fall under electrical type flow
meters.
4. Other flow meters. Purge flow regulators, Flow meters for Solids flow
measurement, Cross-correlation flow meter, Vortex shedding flow meters,
flow switches etc.
The working principle construction, calibration etc. of the above flow meters will be
discussed in the following sections.

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Unit.4: Scalar and vector:

Some physical quantities such as length, area, volume and mass can be
completely described by a single real number. Because these quantities are
describable by giving only a magnitude, they are called scalars. [The word scalar
means representable by position on a line; having only magnitude]. On the other
hand physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, force and acceleration
require both a magnitude and a direction to completely describe them. Such
quantities are called vectors.
If you say that a car is traveling at 90 km/hr. you are using a scalar quantity,
namely the number 90 with no direction attached, to describe the speed of the car.
On the other hand, if you say that the car is traveling due north at 90 km/hr, your
description of the car's velocity is a vector quantity since it includes both magnitude
and direction

Representation of vectors
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 Because a vector has a direction as well as a magnitude, we can represent a
vector by drawing a line. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the
vector given some appropriate scale, and the direction of the line represents the
direction of the vector. We call this representation a directed line segment.

Representation of vectors

Types of Vectors
1- Zero Vector:
A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector (or
null vector). Zero vector cannot be assigned a definite direction as it has zero
magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as having any
direction.
2- Unit Vector:
A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The unit
vector in the direction of a given vector a r is denoted by aˆ.
3- Coinitial Vectors:
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
4- Collinear Vectors:
Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same
line, irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.
5- Negative of a Vector:
A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector but direction is
opposite to that of it, is called negative of the given vector.

Addition of vector:
A vector simply means the displacement from a point A to the point B. As
shown geometrically in Figure below.

14
 Now consider a situation that a girl moves from A to B and then from B to C.
The net displacement made by the girl from point A to the point C, is given by the
vector A C and expressed as

This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.

Subtraction of vector:
Subtraction of one vector from another is performed by adding the
corresponding negative vector. That is, if we seek a−b we form a + (−b). This is shown
geometrically in Figure below. Note that in the right-hand diagram the arrow on b has
been reversed to give −b.

Scalar Product:
If we have two vectors A and B, then their scalar (or dot) product is defined as:

A.B = A B cos θ

Where A and B are the magnitudes of the vectors and 𝜃 is the smallest angle (<180°)
between them when their tails touch, as in Figure below. Because A,B and cos θ are
all scalars, then so is the scalar product A.B (read as A‘‘ dot ’’B),hence the name scalar
product.

Vector Product:
15
 The vector or cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as another vector:

C=A×B
whose magnitude is:
│C│=│A││B│ sin θ

Where θ is the angle (< 180°) between A and B, and whose direction is perpendicular
to both A and B in the sense of the righthand rule (Fig. below)

Multiplication of two vectors:

A vector can be multiplied by a scalar quantity to produce another vector. Thus, if

we have a vector A and a scalar C, then the product of the two is another vector CA.
The properties of CA are:

1. It has the same direction as the first vector A if C is positive and has the
opposite direction to A if C is negative. If C= 0, clearly CA is 0 as well

2. Its magnitude is increased or decreased by the magnitude of C. So, if C = 0.5,

then the magnitude of the new vector will be one half the magnitude of A. If
C =-3, then the magnitude of CA will be three times that of A.

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Unit.5: Density
16
 The density of material shows the denseness of that material in a specific given
area. A material’s density is defined as its mass per unit volume. Density is essentially
a measurement of how tightly matter is packed together. It is a unique physical
property for a particular object. Table below contains some of materials densities.

The principle of density was discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes. It is

easy to calculate density if you know the formula and understand its related units

Density Calculated:
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 Mathematically, the density of an object is expressed as follows:
Density = Mass x Volume
ρ=mv
Where,
• ρ is the density , m is the mass and V is the volume

Unit of Density

• Though SI unit of density is kg/m³, for convenience we use g/cm³ for solids,
g/ml for liquids and g/L for gases.
• Density can be explained as the relationship between the mass of the
substance and volume it takes up.
• In a qualitative term, it shows how much heavy an object is at constant volume.
• Different substances have different density, which means for the same volume
of different substances weigh differently.

Applications of Density:

Many applications of density are there in our real-life like a few examples are in pipe
design, shipbuilding, helium balloons, weight distribution in the aero plane and the fact
that ice floats on water.
• The knowledge of densities of two substances helps you in separation
techniques. For example, separation of oil from water. Leakage of an oil tank in
the ocean then oil drops starts to float on the water due to their less density in
the water.
• Another well-known application of density is determining whether an object will
float on water or not. Floating of ships and diving of submarines are due to their
density difference.

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Unit.6: Pressure

18
 Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. The force applied is
perpendicular to the surface of objects per unit area. The basic formula for pressure is
F/A (Force per unit area). Unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa). Types of Pressures are
Absolute, Atmospheric, Differential, and Gauge Pressure
The amount of force exerted (thrust) on a surface per unit area is defined
as ‘Pressure’. It can also be defined as the ratio of the force to the area (over which the
force is acting).

Formula and Unit of Pressure

Pressure (P) = Thrust/ Area

The SI unit is ‘pascals (Pa)’. 1 Pa = 1N/m2

Example: It is easier to hammer a sharp pin than to hammer a blunt pin. This is because
the area at the end of the sharp pin is smaller than the area at the end of a blunt pin.
This leads to an increase in pressure leading to hammer the sharp pin easily.

Types of Pressure

• Atmospheric Pressure

• Absolute Pressure

• Differential Pressure

• Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure

The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air surrounding
the earth exerts a pressure known as the ‘atmospheric pressure’. Its value at sea level
is 101325 Pa.
It is measured using a mercury barometer (hence atmospheric pressure is also known
as barometric pressure), indicating the height of a column of mercury which exactly
balances the weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer. It can be
expressed in several different systems of units such as millimeters (or inches) of

19
mercury, pounds per square inch (psi), dynes per square
centimeter, millibars (mb), standard atmospheres, or kilopascals.

The atmospheric pressure decreases near Earth’s surface, with height at a rate of about
3.5 millibars for every 30 meters (100 feet).

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Unit.7: Pascal’s Law

Consider the image given below. The column is filled with fluid. The ends of
each column A and B have been blocked by a piston. If piston A is pressed, what do
you think will happen to piston B? Piston B is going to rise up. We have just applied
Pascal’s law to our fluid pressure.

The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or

transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all directions.
The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid. Pascal
also found that the pressure at a point for a static fluid would be same across all
planes passing through that point in that fluid. Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s
principle.

20
 Pascal Law Formula
Following is the formula of Pascal law:
F = PA
Where,

• F is the force applied

• P is the pressure transmitted
• A is the cross-sectional area

Applications of Pascal’s Law

• Hydraulic Lift: The image you saw at the beginning of this article is a simple line
diagram of a hydraulic lift. This is the principle of working of hydraulic lift. It
works based on the principle of equal pressure transmission throughout a fluid
(Pascal’s Law).
• The construction is such that a narrow cylinder (in this case A) is connected to a
wider cylinder (in this case B). They are fitted with airtight pistons on either
end. The inside of the cylinders are filled with an incompressible fluid.
• Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted equally to piston B without
diminishing, on use of an incompressible fluid. Piston B effectively serves as a
platform to lift heavy objects like big machines or vehicles. Few more
applications include a hydraulic jack and hydraulic press and forced
amplification is used in the braking system of most cars

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Unit.8: Viscosity

21
 Imagine trying to drink apple juice, but it slides down your throat like apple
sauce. Or having to drink a container of yogurt like milk because it is so runny, instead
of scooping it with a spoon. You would probably think there is something wrong with
each of these products. In fact, you probably wouldn't want to eat either of them. The
thickness of a substance is called viscosity.

Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to flow. It can also be described in terms of a

fluid's thickness. Think of a funnel. Water runs through a funnel really quickly because
it has very little resistance to flow, or very little viscosity. In other words, it isn't very
thick. On the other hand, if you run pudding through a funnel, it may take a little
longer. This is because it has more resistance to flow, more viscosity, and is thicker.

How to Measure Viscosity

Viscosity can be measured with a viscometer, a piece of equipment that measures
the force necessary to move through a liquid. Or, it can be measured with household
instruments, such as measuring how far a liquid can move on a slight incline after a
certain amount of time.
The idea behind measuring viscosity is to determine how resistant that material is to
flowing. If a fluid can flow down a slight incline very quickly, it has very little
resistance to flow. If it takes a lot of force to move through a liquid, it has a lot of
resistance to flow. A fluid will be more resistant to flow the more internal friction it
has.

Viscosity Equations
22
 One way to think about viscosity is that it is the amount of force required to get
that substance moving. It is the force per unit area, so viscosity is equal to force
divided by area. With an ideal fluid (called a Newtonian fluid), it is also directly
proportional to what is called the shear rate. Shear rate is the speed that the liquid is
moving divided by the distance that is moves. In order to end this equation with the
proper units, the proportionality constant is included. This constant is called the
viscosity coefficient (n).
The viscosity coefficient is multiplied by shear rate in order to equal viscosity.
So, for every 1 unit increase in viscosity, the shear rate must increase by a certain
amount (depending on the liquid). For example: for every 1 Pascal second (Pa s)
increase in viscosity of water, the shear rate must increase by 0.00089 s. So, we
multiply the shear rate by 'n', which is equal to 0.00089 Pa.

Viscosity equation for Newtonian fluids

In this equation, the sheer rate is known as dv/dr. This simply refers to the
velocity divided by the distance. The 'd' before the v and the r refers to a derivative of
each being taken. Since we typically measure viscosity by watching how quickly
something spreads over a certain area, this is the formula that is often used.
This formula also shows that this all equals F/A. Recall that viscosity is equal to force
divided by area; the F refers to force and the A refers to area. Therefore, F/A is
another way to refer to viscosity.

Effect of temperature on viscosity

Viscosity depends strongly on temperature. In liquids it usually decreases with
temperature, whereas in gases it increases. This article discusses several models of
this dependence, ranging from rigorous first-principles calculations for monatomic
gases, to empirical correlations for liquids.
Understanding the temperature dependence of viscosity is important in many
applications, for instance engineering lubricants that perform well under varying
temperature conditions (such as in a car engine), since the performance of a lubricant
depends in part on its viscosity. Engineering problems of this type fall under the
purview of tribology.

23
Here dynamic viscosity is denoted by μ and kinematic viscosity by . The formulas
given are valid only for an absolute temperature scale; therefore, unless stated
otherwise temperatures are in kelvins

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Unit.9: Newton’s law

Newton’s laws of motion, relations between the forces acting on a body and
the motion of the body, first formulated by English physicist and mathematician Sir
Isaac Newton.

Newton’s laws of motion relate an object’s motion to the forces acting on it. In
the first law, an object will not change its motion unless a force acts on it. In the
second law, the force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration. In the
third law, when two objects interact, they apply forces to each other of equal
magnitude and opposite direction.

Newton’s laws of motion are important because they are the foundation of
classical mechanics, one of the main branches of physics. Mechanics is the study of
how objects move or do not move when forces act upon them.

Newton’s first law:

24
 Newton’s first law states that, if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed
in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant
speed unless it is acted upon by a force. This postulate is known as the law of inertia.

The law of inertia was first formulated by Galileo Galilei for horizontal motion
on Earth and was later generalized by René Descartes. Before Galileo it had been
thought that all horizontal motion required a direct cause, but Galileo deduced from
his experiments that a body in motion would remain in motion unless a force (such as
friction) caused it to come to rest.

Force as a vector:
vector quantities are quantities that possess both magnitude and direction. A
force has both magnitude and direction, therefore:

Force is a vector quantity; its units are newtons, N.

Forces can cause motion; alternatively, forces can act to keep (an) object(s) at rest.
A resultant force is the single force which represents the vector sum of two or more
forces.

25
For example, two forces of magnitudes F1, F2 acting upon a particle have a resultant
as shown:

In order to add two forces together, the ‘start’ of the second force needs to be moved
to the ‘end’ of the first force, with the resultant going from the start of the first force
directly to the end of the second force (as shown in the diagram). This rule is then
extended when considering more forces.

Newton’s second law:

Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force
can produce on the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of
the momentum of a body is equal in both magnitude and direction to the force
imposed on it. The momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass and its
velocity. Momentum, like velocity, is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and
direction. A force applied to a body can change the magnitude of the momentum, or
its direction, or both. Newton’s second law is one of the most important in all
of physics. For a body whose mass m is constant, it can be written in the form
F = ma
Where:
F (force) and a (acceleration) are both vector quantities.
If a body has a net force acting on it, it is accelerated in accordance with the equation.
Conversely, if a body is not accelerated, there is no net force acting on it.

26
Free body diagram:
A free body diagram consists primarily of a sketch of the body in question and
arrows representing the forces applied to it (TO the body) Another way is to say the
force of something ON the body. The selection of the body to sketch may be the first
important decision in the problem-solving process.

Newton’s third law:

Newton’s third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to
one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The third law is
also known as the law of action and reaction. This law is important in analyzing
problems of static equilibrium, where all forces are balanced, but it also applies to
bodies in uniform or accelerated motion. The forces it describes are real ones, not
mere bookkeeping devices. For example, a book resting on a table applies a
downward force equal to its weight on the table. According to the third law, the table
applies an equal and opposite force to the book. This force occurs because the weight
of the book causes the table to deform slightly so that it pushes back on the book like
a coiled spring.

**********************************************************************

27
Unit.10: Electricity principles

Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy

source which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy,
like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called
primary sources. Everything in the universe is made of atoms—every star, every tree,
every animal. The human body is made of atoms. Air and water are, too. Atoms are
the building blocks of the universe. Atoms are so small that millions of them would fit
on the head of a pin.
Atoms are made of even smaller particles. The center of an atom is called the
nucleus. It is made of particles called protons and neutrons. The protons and
neutrons are very small, but electrons are, much smaller. Electrons spin around the
nucleus in shells a great distance from the nucleus.

Electrical Materials:
A material that contains many free electrons and is capable of carrying an
electric current is called a conductor. Metals and (generally) water are conductors.
Gold, silver, aluminum and copper are all good conductors. Materials that contain
relatively few free electrons are called insulators. Non-metallic materials such as
wood, rubber, glass and mica are insulators. Fair conductors include the human body,
earth, and concrete.

Generating Electricity:
There are several ways to produce electricity. Friction, pressure, heat, light,
chemical action, and magnetism are among the more practical methods used to make
electrons move along a conductor.
28
Injuries caused by electric current:
Electric current can pass through the body when the body becomes part of the
electric circuit. Electric current flowing through the body can cause:
1- electric shock
2- electrocution
3- burns caused by electric current and arc flash
The severity of the injury depends on:
1- Amount of current flowing through the body.
2- Path of the current through the body.
3- Length of time the body is in the circuit.
4- The voltage of the current.

A person receiving a shock caused by grabbing a bare conductor can generally

release himself when the current passing through his body is less than 15 mA. The
high resistance of a dry skin is rapidly broken down by a high voltage. High voltages
can cause violent muscular contraction, often so severe that the victim is thrown
clear.

Characteristics of Series-Parallel Circuits:

With simple series circuits, all components are connected end-to-end to form
only one path for electrons to flow through the circuit:

With simple parallel circuits, all components are connected between the same two
sets of electrically common points, creating multiple paths for electrons to flow from
one end of the battery to the other:

29
With each of these two basic circuit configurations, we have specific sets of rules
describing voltage, current, and resistance relationships:

Series Circuits:
• Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.
• All components share the same (equal) current.
• Resistances add to equal total resistance

Parallel Circuits:
• All components share the same (equal) voltage.
• Branch currents add to equal total current.
• Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.

DC Source

In a DC circuit, electrons emerge from the minus or negative pole and move towards
the plus or positive pole. Some of the physicists define DC as it travels from plus to minus

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is defined as the flow of charge that changes direction periodically.
The result obtained will be, the voltage level also reverses along with the current.
Basically, AC is used to deliver power to industries, houses, office buildings, etc.

30
Difference Between Single Phase & Three Phase
The power supply system is mainly classified into two types, i.e., single phase and the
three-phase system. The single phase is used in a place where less power is required
and for running the small loads. The three phases are used in large industries,
factories and in the manufacturing unit where a large amount of power is required

31
 Most commonly the type of power referred to is:

• Power
(physics), the rate of doing work; equivalent to an amount of energy consumed per un
it time
• Electric
power, the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit; usually
produced by electric generators or batterie

The power sources

Electrical Systems Design. Electrical system designs include lighting

systems, power systems, instrumentation and controls systems, and lightning
protection.

Static Electricity control

Static electricity is an electrical charge that cannot move. It is created when two
objects or materials that have been in contact with each other are separated. When
in contact, the surface electrical charges of the objects try to balance each other. A
good example of this in everyday life is lightning. Lightning is produced by a discharge
of electricity from one cloud across an air gap to another cloud or between a cloud
and the earth.

32
Sources of Static Electricity Static electricity is commonly produced when:
1- liquid flows through a pipe or hose, or through an opening in a pipe or
hose
2- spraying or coating
3- blending or mixing
4- filling tanks, drums, cans or pails
5- dry powdered material passes through chutes or pneumatic conveyors
6- non-conductive conveyor belts or drive belts and moving appliances are
plugged into electrical outlets

**********************************************************************

Unit.11: Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is
directly proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and
inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. The formula for Ohm’s law is V=IR.
This relationship between current, voltage, and relationship was discovered by German
scientist Georg Simon Ohm. Let us learn more about Ohms Law, Resistance, and its
applications

Voltage, Current and Resistance:

Voltage:
A force or pressure must be present before water will flow through a pipeline.
Similarly, electrons flow through a conductor because a force called electromotive
force (EMF) is exerted. The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. The symbol for voltage
is the letter E. A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

33
Current:
For electrons to move in a particular direction, it is necessary for a potential
difference to exist between two points of the EMF source. The continuous movement
of electrons past a given point is known as current. It is measured in amperes. The
symbol for current is the letter I and for amperes, the letter A. An ammeter is used to
measure current in amperes. A microammeter or a milliammeter may be used to
measure smaller units of current.
There are two types or current:
1- Direct current (DC)
2- Alternating current (AC)

Resistance:
The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some opposition.
This opposition is known as resistance. Resistance can be useful in electrical work.
Resistance makes it possible to generate heat, control current flow, and supply the
correct voltage to a device.
In general, resistance in a conductor depends on four factors: the material from which
it is made, the length, the cross-sectional area, and the temperature of the material. !
Material:
Different materials have different resistances. Some, such as silver and copper,
have a low resistance, while others, such as iron have a higher resistance. !
Length:
For a given material that has a constant cross-sectional area, the total
resistance is proportional to the length. The longer the conductor, the greater the
resistance. !
Cross-Sectional Area:
Resistance varies inversely with the cross-sectional area of the conductor. In
other words, the resistance decreases as the cross-sectional area increases. !

Temperature:
Generally, in metals, the resistance increases as the temperature increases. For
non-metals, the reverse is usually true.
The symbol for resistance is the letter R. Resistance is measured by a unit called the
ohm. The Greek letter omega (Ω) is used as the symbol for electrical resistance.

34
The factors that affect resistance

Resistors in series; resistor in parallel:

Resistance in series:
A series generally means connected along a line, or in a row, or in an order.
In electronics, series resistance means that the resistors are connected one after the
other and that there is only one path for current to flow through.

35
Laws of Series Circuits:

1- Individual resistance adds up to the total circuit resistance

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 …

2- Current through the circuit is the same at every point.

3- Individual voltages throughout the circuit add up to the total voltage

Resistance in parallel:

There are many different ways to organize a parallel circuit. In the practical world,
most of the wiring is done in parallel so that the voltage to any one part of the network
is the same as the voltage supplied to any other part of it.

Laws of Parallel Circuits:

1- The reciprocals of all the individual resistances add up to the reciprocal of the
total circuit resistance.

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 …

2- Voltage through the circuit is the same at every point.

3- Individual current draws throughout the circuit add up to the total current
draw.
DC and AC circuits

Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in

a direct current (DC). Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of
electrons through a conductor, like a wire. The difference between AC and DC lies
in the direction in which the electrons flow. In DC, the electrons flow steadily in a

36
 single direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons keep switching directions,
sometimes going "forward" and then going "backward."
Alternating current is the best way to transmit electricity over large distances.

Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law gives an idea about the force between two point charges. By the
word point charge, we mean that in physics, the size of linear charged bodies is very small
as against the distance between them. Therefore, we consider them as point charges as it
becomes easy for us to calculate the force of attraction/ repulsion between them.

We can show it with the following explanation. Let’s say that there are two charges
q1 and q2. The distance between the charges is ‘r’, and the force of attraction/repulsion
between them is ‘F’. Then
F ∝ q1q2
Or, F ∝ 1/r2
F = k q1q2/ r2
where k is proportionality constant and equals to 1/4 π ε0. Here, ε0 is the epsilon naught
and it signifies permittivity of a vacuum. The value of k comes 9 × 109 Nm2/ C2 when we
take the S.I unit of value of ε0 is 8.854 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2.

principle of superposition

1- principle of superposition: - (geology) the principle that in a series of stratified

sedimentary rocks the lowest stratum is the oldest
- principle, rule - a rule or law concerning a natural phenomenon or
the function of a complex system; "the principle of the conservatio
n of mass"; "the principle of jet propulsion"; "the righthand rule for
inductive fields"

37
 - geology - a science that deals with the history of the earth as recor
ded in rocks
2- principle of superposition - the displacement of any point due to the
superposition of wave systems is equal to the sum of the displacements of the
individual waves at that point; "the principle of superposition is the basis of the
wave theory of light"

Electric field of point charge

A charged particle (a.k.a. a point charge, a.k.a. a source charge) causes an
electric field to exist in the region of space around itself. This is Coulomb’s Law for the
Electric Field in conceptual form. The region of space around a charged particle is
actually the rest of the universe. In practice, the electric field at points in space that
are far from the source charge is negligible because the electric field due to a point
charge “dies off like one over r-squared.” In equation form, Coulomb’s Law for the
magnitude of the electric field due to a point charge reads

𝐾 [𝑞]
𝐸=
𝑟²

where
𝐸 is the magnitude of the electric field at a point in space,
𝑁.𝑚²
𝐾 is the universal Coulomb constant 𝐾 = 8.99 × 10⁹
𝐶²
𝑞 is the charge of the particle that we have been calling the point charge
𝑟 is the distance that the point in space, at which we want to know 𝐸 , is from the point charge that is
causing 𝐸 .

Ohm's law
Ohm's law is a law that states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current flowing through the resistance.
Ohm's law is named for German physicist Georg Ohm (1789-1854).
A simple formula, Ohm's law, is used to show the relationship of current, voltage, and
resistance.
38
We can calculate, using Ohm's law, what resistor is needed to get a specific current.
Ohm's law is a law that states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current flowing through the resistance.

**********************************************************************

Unit.12: Waves

A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium without giving the

medium, as a whole, any permanent displacement. The general name for these waves
is progressive wave. If the disturbance takes place perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave, the wave is called transverse. • If the disturbance is along
the direction of propagation of the wave, it is called longitudinal.

Transverse and longitudinal wave

Transverse wave: the displacements or oscillations in the medium are
transverse to the direction of propagation e.g. electromagnetic (EM) waves, waves on
strings

Longitudinal wave: the oscillations are parallel to the direction of wave propagation e.g. sound waves

39
Wave properties

1.Wavelength: The distance between one point on a wave and the exact same place
on the next wave.
2. Frequency: How many waves go past a point in one second; unit of measurement is
hertz (Hz). The higher the frequency, the more energy in the wave.
10 waves going past in 1 second = 10 Hz
1,000 waves go past in 1 second = 1,000 Hz
3. Amplitude: How far the medium moves from rest position (where it is when not
moving).
4. Wave speed: Depends on the medium in which the wave is traveling. It varies in
solids, liquids and gases.

Sound is a wave:
A wave is some disturbance caused when energy is traveling from one object
to another. When sound travels, it moves the air around it, creating high and low
pressure points, or waves.
Your ears can detect the waves, and you perceive this as sound.

40
Pressure wave
a wave (such as a sound wave) in which the propagated disturbance is a
variation of pressure in a material medium — called also P-wave

Electromagnetic wave

Definition: Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations
between an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating
magnetic and electric fields.

Wave Equation

For a one dimensional wave equation with a fixed length, the function u (x, t)
describes the position of a string at a specific (x) and (t) value. This leads to the classical
wave equation

∂²u 1 ∂²u
= .
∂x² 𝑣² ∂t²
where (v) is the velocity of disturbance along the string. Setting boundary conditions
as x=0, u (x=0, t) =0 and x=ℓ, u (x=ℓ, t) =0 allows for this partial differential equation
to be solved. Assuming the variables xx and ( t ) are independent of each other makes
this differential equation easier to solve, as you can use the Separation of
Variables technique

The phase of waves

In physics and mathematics, the phase of a periodic function F of

some real variable t is the relative value of that variable within the span of each
full period.

41
The phase is typically expressed as an angle 𝜙(t) , in such a scale that it varies by one
full turn as the variable t goes through each period (and 𝜙(F) goes through each
complete cycle). Thus, if the phase is expressed in degrees, it will increase by 360°
as t increases by one period. If it is expressed in radians, the same increase in t will
increase the phase by 2π.
This convention is especially appropriate for a sinusoidal function, since its value at
any argument t then can be expressed as the sine of the phase 𝜙(t) , multiplied by
some factor (the amplitude of the sinusoid). (The cosine may be used instead of sine,
depending on where one considers each period to start.)

Euler's formula

The central mathematical fact that we are interested in here is generally called
“Euler’s formula”, and written

Using equations 2 the real and imaginary parts of this formula are

In the next section we will see that this is a very useful identity (and those of a
practical bent may want to skip ahead to this), but first we should address the
question of what exactly the left-hand side means. The notation used implies that it is
“the number e raised to the power iθ” and a striking example of this is the special
case of θ = π, which says

42
which relates three fundamental constants of mathematics (e, i, π) although these
seem to have nothing to do with each other.

**********************************************************************

Unit 13. Energy

Energy does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats on the water.
It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite
songs and lights our homes at night so that we can read good books. Energy helps our
bodies grow and our minds think. Energy is a changing, doing, moving, working thing.
Energy is defined as the ability to produce change or do work, and that work can be
divided into several main tasks we easily recognize:
Energy produces light.
Energy produces heat.
Energy produces motion.
Energy produces sound.
Energy produces growth.
Energy powers technology.

Forms of energy
There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories–potential
or kinetic.

43
- Potential Energy
Potential Energy: is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational
energy. There are several forms of potential energy, including:
1- Chemical Energy:
is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that
holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and
propane are examples of stored chemical energy. During photosynthesis,
sunlight gives plants the energy they need to build complex chemical
compounds. When these compounds are later broken down, the stored
chemical energy is released as heat, light, motion, and sound.
2- Stored Mechanical Energy:
is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs
and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
3- Nuclear Energy:
is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the
nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined
or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a
process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into
helium atoms in a process called fusion. In both fission and fusion, mass is
converted into energy, according to Einstein’s Theory, E = mc2
4- Gravitational Energy:
is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains
gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir
behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

44
- Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy is motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules,
substances, and objects.
1- Electrical Energy:
is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called
atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons,
and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move.
Electrons moving through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another
example of electrical energy.
2- Radiant Energy:
is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant
energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Light is
one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.
3- Thermal Energy, or heat:
is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substances. The faster molecules and atoms
vibrate and move within substances, the more energy they possess and the
hotter they become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
4- Motion Energy :
is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another.
According to Newton’s Laws of Motion, objects and substances move when
a force is applied. Wind is an example of motion energy.
5- Sound Energy :
is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an
object or substance to vibrate. The energy is transferred through the
substance in a wave.

45
Conversion of energy

Your parents may tell you to conserve energy. “Turn out the lights,” they say.
But to scientists, conservation of energy means something quite different. The law of
conservation of energy says energy is neither created nor destroyed.

When we use energy, we do not use it up—we just change its form. That’s
really what we mean when we say we are using energy. We change one form of
energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in
the gasoline into mechanical energy that makes the car move. Old-fashioned
windmills changed the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy to grind
grain. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy.
Energy can change form, but the total quantity of energy in the universe
remains the same. The only exception to this law is when a small amount of matter is
converted into energy during nuclear fusion and fission.

Efficiency; Source energy

Efficiency:
Efficiency is how much useful energy you can get out of a system. In theory, a
100 percent energy efficient machine would change all of the energy put in it into
useful work. Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss
of usable energy, usually in the form of heat.

46
 In fact, most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is
no exception. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your “machine” is food.
Food gives us the energy to move, breathe, and
think. But your body isn’t very efficient at converting food into useful work. Your
body’s overall efficiency is about 15 percent. The rest of the energy is used as heat.
An incandescent light bulb isn’t efficient either. A light bulb converts ten
percent of the electrical energy into light and the rest (90 percent) is converted into
thermal energy (heat). That’s why a light bulb is so hot to the touch. Most electric
power plants are about 35 percent efficient. It takes three units of fuel to make one
unit of electricity.
Most of the other energy is lost as waste heat. The heat dissipates into the
environment where we can no longer use it as a practical source of energy.

Sources of Energy:
People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of years ago,
early humans burned wood to provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their
food. Later, people used the wind to move their boats from place to place. A hundred
years ago, people began using falling water to make electricity.
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a
multitude of tasks and our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are
comfortable and full of useful and entertaining electrical devices. We communicate
instantaneously in many ways. We live longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or
at least see it on television and the internet. The ten major energy sources we use
today are classified into two broad groups—nonrenewable and renewable:

1- Nonrenewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas,

propane, and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat our
homes, to move our cars, and to manufacture products from candy bars to
MP3 players. These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they
cannot be replenished in a short period of time. Petroleum, for example,
was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea life, so we
can’t make more quickly. We could run out of economically recoverable
nonrenewable resources some day.

47
 2- Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar,
and wind. They are called renewable energy sources because their supplies
are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind
blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to
make electricity. Is electricity a renewable or nonrenewable source of
energy? The answer is neither. Electricity is different from the other energy
sources because it is a secondary source of energy. That means we have to
use another energy source to make it. In the United States, coal is the
number one fuel for generating electricity.

**********************************************************************

48
Unit .14: Physical states of materials

Matter refers to the substances that make up our universe. When we observe a
sample of matter, it can be in any of three different physical states: Solid, Liquid, Gas.
For example, depending on the surrounding temperature and pressure, water can
exist as: Solid ice, Liquid water, Gaseous steam.

Solid:

A solid’s particles are packed closely together. The forces between the particles
are strong enough that the particles cannot move freely; they can only vibrate. As a
result, a solid has a stable, definite shape and a definite volume. Solids can only
change shape under force, as when broken or cut.

A solid can transform into a liquid through melting, and a liquid can transform
into a solid through freezing. A solid can also change directly into a gas through a
process called sublimation.

Liquid:
A liquid is a fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but that retains a
nearly constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite (does not
change) if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above
its melting point, it becomes liquid because the pressure is higher than the triple
point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still
important, but the molecules have enough energy to move around, which makes the
49
structure mobile. This means that a liquid is not definite in shape but rather conforms
to the shape of its container.

A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the

substance’s boiling point or through reduction of pressure at constant temperature.
This process of a liquid changing to a gas is called evaporation.

Gases:

Gas molecules have either very weak bonds or no bonds at all, so they can
move freely and quickly. Because of this, not only will a gas conform to the shape of
its container, it will also expand to completely fill the container. Gas molecules have
enough kinetic energy that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero, for an
ideal gas), and they are spaced very far apart from each other; the typical distance
between neighboring molecules is much greater than the size of the molecules
themselves.

Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

The term Intermolecular Force (IMF) literally means the forces between
molecules, and as such, is often a misnomer, as simply speaking, not all matter is
composed of molecules. Yet this term is used pervasively, and so we will use it, but first
lets compare it to the so called "intramolecular forces", the forces within the proverbial
"molecule." We typically consider two types of bonds, ionic (which are not molecular)
and covalent (which are molecular). So if I have liquid water, where the discrete entity
of matter is the H2o molecule, there are two type of bonds, those between H and O of
a water molecule (covalent intramolecular) and those between the H of one molecule
and the O of another (intermolecular).

50
Solid-elastic behavior:

Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or stress and to

return to its original size and shape when the stress is removed. Solid objects will
deform when forces are applied on them. If the material is elastic, the object will
return to its initial shape and size when these forces are removed. To a greater or
lesser extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic behaviour, but there is a limit to the
magnitude of the force and the accompanying deformation within which elastic
recovery is possible for any given material. This limit, called the elastic limit, is the
maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise before
the onset of permanent deformation. Stresses beyond the elastic limit cause a
material to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic limit marks the end of elastic
behaviour and the beginning of plastic behavior. For most brittle materials, stresses
beyond the elastic limit result in fracture with almost no plastic deformation.

Stress-strain relationship
To measure the mechanical properties of any material, we find the relationship
between the stress and strain by conducting a test. We use a specimen (sample) of
the material and pull or push it until it fails (crushes or splits into two pieces). During
this test we measure the applied force and the corresponding change in the length of
the specimen. Knowing the length and cross-sectional area, we can then find the
stress and strain at each step of the test. Plotting the values of stress versus the
corresponding values of strain results in the “stress-strain diagram”. The figure below
shows the typical stress-strain diagram for carbon steel in tension:
𝑃 Δ𝑙
𝜎= 𝜀=
𝐴 𝑙

P = Applied load
A =Cross-sectional area
Δ𝑙 =Change in the length
𝑙 =Original length
𝜎 =Stress
ε =Strain

51
Pressure force on a fluid element:
Assume the pressure vary arbitrarily in a fluid, p=p(x,y,z,t). Consider a fluid
element of size Δx, Δy, Δz as shown in Fig below The net force in the x‐direction is
given by:

In a similar manner, net forces acting in y‐ and z‐directions can be calculated. The
total net force vector, due to pressure, is:

Notice that the term in the parentheses is the negative vector gradient of pressure
and the term dx dy dz =dV, is the volume of the element. Therefore, one can write:

where f press is the net force per volume. Notice that the pressure gradient (not
pressure) causing a net force that must be balanced by gravity or acceleration and/or
other effects in the fluid.

In addition to gravity, a fluid in motion will have surface forces due to viscous
stresses. Viscous forces,
however, for a fluid at rest are zero.
The gravity force is a body force, acting on the entire mass of the element:

52
Surface energy and surface tension; Viscosity:

Fluid viscosity, 𝜂, can be measured with high precision, and the resulting data
and its temperature dependence are used as essential properties for the accurate
determination of molecular information such as the pair interaction potential
function. Low-temperature viscosity correlations usually assume that ln 𝜂 is a linear
function of reciprocal absolute temperature. In the region from about
Tr = T / Tc = 0.7 K
(where Tc is the temperature at the critical point) to near the critical point, there are
many complex equations available that permit one to express the temperature
dependence of viscosity.
Surface tension, 𝜎, is also related to the intermolecular interaction potential
energy and the liquid interfacial microstructure. It can also be measured with high
accuracy at low and moderate temperatures and pressures. Nevertheless, at high
temperatures and high pressures, computer simulations are usually required.

Stokes law; Steam line flow; Turbulent flow

The transport efficiency of a substance depends on how fast bodies fall through the
medium. Things fall very fast through air, slower through water and extremely slowly
through ice. The free fall velocity is given by Stokes’ Law, which describes how fast
spherical bodies fall through viscous liquids, assuming laminar flow. For spherical
Stokes’ law can be written as:

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Where
v = settling velocity
g = gravitational acceleration g = 9.80 m/s2
𝜌s = density of dropped object
d = diameter of dropped object
𝜌F = density of fluid
𝜇 = viscosity of fluid

Remember that this relationship only holds for laminar flow, that means the fluid
moves around the object in an orderly, non-turbulent way. The Reynolds Number Re
describes whether flow conditions around a sphere are laminar or turbulent. Re can
be calculated from:

Flow conditions are

• laminar for Re < 500
• turbulent for Re > 500

The exact values depend on the flow conditions and the geometry of the setup. The
point top
remember is that low Reynolds numbers are more likely to translate into laminar flow
conditions.
Stokes’ Law is only valid for “low Reynolds numbers.

Bernoulli’s theorem

Bernoulli's principle is a seemingly counterintuitive statement about how the

speed of a fluid relates to the pressure of the fluid. Many people feel like Bernoulli's
principle shouldn't be correct, but this might be due to a misunderstanding about
what Bernoulli's principle actually says. Bernoulli's principle states the following,
Bernoulli's principle:

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 Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less
pressure than points of slower fluid speed.
Bernoulli's equation is essentially a more general and mathematical form of
Bernoulli's principle that also takes into account changes in gravitational potential
energy. We'll derive this equation in the next section, but before we do, let's take a
look at Bernoulli's equation and get a feel for what it says and how one would go
about using it.

Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, speed, and height of any two points
(1 and 2) in a steady streamline flowing fluid of density 𝜌. Bernoulli's equation is
usually written as follows,

The variables P1, v1, h1, refer to the pressure, speed, and height of the fluid at point 1,
whereas the variables P1, v1 and h1 refer to the pressure, speed, and height of the
fluid at point 2 as seen in the diagram below. The diagram below shows one particular
choice of two points (1 and 2) in the fluid, but Bernoulli's equation will hold for any
two points in the fluid.

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Unit. 15: Magnetism and Electro magnetic force

Magnetism is one aspect of the combined electromagnetic force. It refers to

physical phenomena arising from the force caused by magnets, objects that produce
fields that attract or repel other objects. The force acting on an electrically charged
particle in a magnetic field depends on the magnitude of the charge, the velocity of
the particle, and the strength of the magnetic field.

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Earth magnetic field and magnetic element
A magnetic field is the area around a magnet, magnetic object, or an electric
charge in which magnetic force is exerted.
The invisible area around a magnetic object that can pull another magnetic
object toward it or push another magnetic object away from it is called a magnetic
field. It’s kind of like those invisible “force fields” that surround an object with
invisible power in sci-fi movies and books.
Magnetic fields are created by moving electric charge. When electrons, which have a
negative charge, move around in certain ways, a magnetic field can be created. These
fields can be created inside the atoms of magnetic objects or within wires
(electromagnetism)

(1) A magnet has two poles, North (N) and South (S)
(2) Magnetic field lines leave from N, end at S

Torque on magnetic dipole

A magnetic dipole is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair
of poles as the dimensions of the source are reduced to zero while keeping the
magnetic moment constant. Now we shall show that a steady current I passing
through a rectangular loop placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. It
does not experience a net force. This behavior is similar to the of an electric dipole in
a uniform electric field.

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Tangent law; magnetic potential of materials
Tangent law:
When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually
perpendicular uniform magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the
resultant of the two fields
Magnetic Potential Energy:
is a form of energy that a magnetic dipole moment in a magnetic field will
possess potential energy which related not only to the distance between magnetic
materials, but also to the orientation, or alignment, of those materials within the
field.

Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic substance

Diamagnetism:
Diamagnetic substances are those which have a tendency to move from
stronger part to the weaker part of the external magnetic field. We can also say that
the diamagnetic substances get repelled by a magnet. Consider the figure shown
above. We have a diamagnetic substance placed in an external magnetic field. We see
that the field lined get repelled by the material and the field inside the material is
reduced. If we place this substance in a non-uniform magnetic field, it tends to move
from the point of high electric field to that of low electric field.

Para-magnetism:
Paramagnetic substances are those substances that gets weakly magnetized in
the presence of an external magnetic field. In the presence of an external magnetic
field, these substances tend to move from a region of a weak to a strong magnetic
field. In other terms we can say that these substances tend to get weakly attracted to
a permanent magnet. In a paramagnetic material, the individual atoms possess a
dipole moment, which when placed in a magnetic field, interact with one another,
and get spontaneously aligned in a common direction, which results in its
magnetization. As per the Curie’s law, the magnetism of a paramagnetic substance is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, until it reaches a state of
saturation.

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Ferromagnetic:
Ferromagnetic substances are those substances that when it’s placed in an
external magnetic field, gets strongly magnetized. Also, they tend to move from a
region of weak to the region of strong magnetic field and gets strongly attracted
towards a magnet. In a ferromagnetic material, the individual atoms possess a dipole
moment, similar to a paramagnetic material. When placed in a magnetic field, the
atoms interact with one another, and gets spontaneously aligned in a common
direction. The direction is common over a macroscopic volume which we term as a
domain. The domain has a net magnetization and each domain directs itself in the
direction of B0, which results in its strong magnetization

Concept of electromagnetic force; electromagnetic flux

The direction of magnetic flux produced by a permanent magnet is always from
N-pole to S-pole. When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field and current flows in
the conductor, the magnetic field and the current interact each other to produce
force. The force is called "Electromagnetic force".

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The Fleming’s left-hand rule determines the direction of the current, the magnetic
force and the flux. Stretch the thumb, the index finger and the middle finger of your
left hand as shown in Fig below.

When the middle finger is the current and the index finger the magnetic flux, the
direction of the force is given by the thumb.

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Unit. 16: Radio activity and its particles

Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space and may be
able to penetrate various materials. Light, radio, and microwaves are types of
radiation that are called nonionizing. The kind of radiation discussed in this document
is called ionizing radiation because it can produce charged particles (ions) in matter.

Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable
atoms because unstable atoms have an excess of energy or mass or both. Radiation
can also be produced by high-voltage devices (e.g., x-ray machines).

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Unstable atoms are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these atoms give
off, or emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation. The
kinds of radiation are electromagnetic (like light) and particulate (i.e., mass given off
with the energy of motion). Gamma radiation and x rays are examples of
electromagnetic radiation. Gamma radiation originates in the nucleus while x rays
come from the electronic part of the atom. Beta and alpha radiation are examples of
particulate radiation.

Fundamental particles; Units; Half-life

Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. These classical
subatomic particles consist of fundamental or elementary particles of matter. Since
they are also particles of matter, they have size and mass.
Fundamental particles are grouped as leptons and quarks. Electrons are leptons,
while protons and neutrons consist of combination of quarks.

Units of radioactivity:
Conversion unit: - Curie, where 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration per second
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SI unit: - Becquerel, where 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second.
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 37 GBq.
1 mCi = 3.7 × 107 dps = 37 MBq.
1 μCi = 3.7 × 104 dps = 37 kBq.

Half-life:
It is the amount of time taken for the given quantity so as to be decreased to
half of its initial value. As shown in Figure 10 , the term is most commonly used in
relation to atoms undergoing radioactive decay, but it can be used to describe other
types of decay, whether exponential or not. One of the most well-known applications
of half-life is:

The atoms; Atomic energy level

The electrons of individual atoms can be excited from a lower energy state to a
higher energy state as shown in the image below. This happens, for example, when a
high voltage is applied through a collection of atoms in the gas phase. However,
electrons tend to avoid excited states, so after a short time they transition to a lower
energy state called relaxation. Because energy was absorbed to excite the electron,
energy has to be emitted after the electron transitions to its initial state. The energy is
then released in the form of light (electromagnetic waves). The energy difference
between the two energy levels involved in the transition defines the color of the light
emitted from the atoms. Each color of light has a particular energy and frequency.

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Nuclear energy levels
Nuclear energy, also called Atomic Energy, energy that is released in significant
amounts in processes that affect atomic nuclei, the dense cores of atoms. It is distinct
from the energy of other atomic phenomena such as ordinary chemical reactions,
which involve only the orbital electrons of atoms. One method of releasing nuclear
energy is by controlled nuclear fission in devices called reactors, which now operate
in many parts of the world.

Radioactive processes – Electron capture

Electron capture is one form of radioactivity. A parent nucleus may capture one
of its orbital electrons and emit a neutrino. This is a process which competes with
positron emission and has the same effect on the atomic number. Most commonly, it
is a K-shell electron which is captured, and this is referred to as K-capture.
This is a schematic that grossly distorts the picture relative to a scale model of the
atom. The electron orbit radii are tens of thousands of times the diameter of the
nucleus.

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Electron emission, Positron emission, Parents and daughters
Electron emission is the process when an electron escapes from a metal
surface. Every atom has a positively charged nuclear part and negatively charged
electrons around it. Sometimes these electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus.
Hence, a little push or tap sets these electrons flying out of their orbits.

Positrons (β+) are positively charged electrons. They are emitted from the
nucleus of some radioisotopes that are unstable because they have an excessive
number of protons and a positive charge. Positron emission stabilizes the nucleus by
removing a positive charge through the conversion of a proton into a neutron. In
doing this, one element is converted into another, the latter having an atomic number
one less than the former. For radioisotopes used in PET, the element formed from
positron decay is stable (i.e., not radioactive). All radioisotopes used with PET decay
by positron emission. A positron (β+) emitted from a decaying nucleus travels a short
distance before colliding with an electron of a nearby atom.

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Parent Nucleus – Daughter Nucleus

In nuclear physics and physics of nuclear decays, the disintegrating nucleus is

usually referred to as the parent nucleus and the nucleus remaining after the event as
the daughter nucleus.

Isometric transmission and met stable state:

Metastable state is an excited state of an atom or other system with a longer
lifetime than the other excited states. However, it has a shorter lifetime than the
stable ground state. Atoms in the metastable state remain excited for a considerable
time in the order of 10-6 to 10-3. During metastable state, all the parameters
associated with state hold stationary values. A large number of excited atoms are
accumulated in the metastable state.

Interaction of radioactive with matters:

X-ray photons are created by the interaction of energetic electrons with matter
at the atomic level. Photons (X-ray and gamma) end their lives by transferring their
energy to electrons contained in matter. X-ray interactions are important in
diagnostic examinations for many reasons. For example, the selective interaction of
X-ray photons with the structure of the human body produces the image; the
interaction of photons with the receptor converts an X-ray or gamma image into one
that can be viewed or recorded.

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Recall that photons are individual units of energy. As an x-ray beam or gamma
radiation passes through an object, three possible fates await each photon, as shown
in the figure below:
1. It can penetrate the section of matter without interacting.
2. It can interact with the matter and be completely absorbed by depositing its
energy.
3. It can interact and be scattered or deflected from its original direction and deposit
part of its energy.

Radiation dose
A dose of medical radiation is not like a dose of medicine. When it comes to radiation
dose, there are different types of and units of measurement. Radiation dose is a
complicated topic.
When you think of a dose of medication, you think of an absolute measurement of
the quantity you take.
But radiation isn't measured by the quantity you take.
Radiation from medical examinations is similar to sunlight. The effect of sunlight on
the skin depends on
the light's intensity and how long a person stays in it.
Sunlight Effect Factors:
1- Intensity
2- Length of exposure
3- Sensitivity of the skin

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The different doses can be:
1. Absorbed dose is used to assess the potential for biochemical changes in
specific tissues.
2. Equivalent dose is used to assess how much biological damage is expected from
the absorbed dose. (Different types of radiation have different damaging
properties.)
3. Effective dose is used to assess the potential for long-term effects that might
occur in the future.

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Unit.17: Force and its types:
Types of Forces
Forces can be divided into primarily into two types of forces:
-Contact Forces
-Non-contact Forces
Contact Forces
Any types of forces that require being in contact with another object come under
‘Contact Force’. All mechanical forces are contact forces. Contact forces further divide
into following types of forces:
Muscular Forces (fM):
Muscles functions to produce a resulting force which is known as ‘muscular force’.
Muscular force exists only when it is in contact with an object. Muscular force comes in
handy to simply our work.

Frictional Forces (Ff):

When an object changes its state motion, ‘frictional force‘ acts upon. It can be
defined as the resisting force that exists when an object is moved or tries to move a
surface. The frictional force acts as a point of contact between two surfaces that is it arises
due to contact between two surfaces.

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Normal Force (FN):
When a book is lying on the table, even though it seems that it’s stationary, it’s not. An
opposing force is still acting on the book wherein the force from gravity is pulling is
towards the earth. This force is the ‘normal force’.

Applied Force:
When you push a table across the room, you apply a force that acts when it comes
in contact with another object. This is ‘applied force’; i.e. a force that is applied to a person
or object.

Tension Force (FT):

Tension is the force applied by a fully stretched cable or wire anchored on to an
object. This causes a ‘tension force‘ that pulls equally in both directions and exerts equal
pressure.

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 Spring Force (Fsp):
Force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring is ‘spring force’. The force
created could be a push or pull depending on how the spring is attached.

Air Resisting Force

Air resisting forces are types of forces wherein objects experience a frictional force when
moving through the air. These forces are resistive in nature.

Field force
Field forces are those forces in which bodies interact without directly touching
each other. A field is a region in which an effect, such as gravity, exists. Field forces are
also called noncontact forces or at-a-distance forces. There are four types of field
forces: gravity, electromagnetic forces, and the strong force and the weak force found
in atoms. These four forces constitute the most fundamental forces in the universe.

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Mass
The mass of a body is its inertia or resistance to change of motion. More precisely, it
is a property of the body that determines the body's acceleration under the influence
of a given force. Mass can therefore be measured either by the amount of force
necessary to impart to the body a given motion in a given time or by the acceleration
produced by a given force.
The absolute metric unit of mass is the gram, which is the mass of a body whose
velocity increases by one centimeter per second each second if acted upon by a force
of one dyne. Other common units are the kilogram (1,000 grams) and the pound
(453.592 grams).

Inertia
Inertia is a word we use when we talk about matter and movement. Basically,
our idea of inertia goes back to Sir Issac Newton's first two laws of physics:
1. An object at rest tends to stay at rest.
2. An object in motion tends to stay in motion.
Inertia is the quality in matter (matter is anything you can touch) that lets it stay still if
it is still, or keeps it moving if it is moving.

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If you want to overcome inertia, you have to apply a force. A force will make
something that is still start to move, like flicking a wad of paper with a pencil will make
it move. Also force, due to resistance, will slow or stop something that is already
moving. The wad of paper will be slowed by resistance made by rubbing up against the
air it is passing through.

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Unit.18: Hook’s Law
Hooke's Law is a principle of physics that states that the force needed to extend
or compress a spring by some distance is proportional to that distance. The law is
named after 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke, who sought to demonstrate
the relationship between the forces applied to a spring and its elasticity. He first stated
the law in 1660 as a Latin anagram, and then published the solution in 1678 as ut
tension, sic vis – which translated, means "as the extension, so the force" or "the
extension is proportional to the force")
Hooke's Law equation
This can be expressed mathematically as
F= -k X
where F is the force applied to the spring (either in the form of strain or stress); X is the
displacement of the spring, with a negative value demonstrating that the displacement
of the spring once it is stretched; and k is the spring constant and details just how stiff
it is.

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 **********************************************************************

Unit .19: Weight and gravitational force:

The weight of an object is the gravitational force between the object and the Earth. The
weight of an object depends upon its mass and the gravitational field strength.

The universal law of gravitation

The gravitational force is a force that attracts any two objects with mass. We call the
gravitational force attractive because it always tries to pull masses together, it never
pushes them apart. In fact, every object, including you, is pulling on every other object
in the entire universe! This is called Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.

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Acceleration due to gravity

The formula for the acceleration due to gravity is based on Newton's Second Law
of Motion and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. These two laws lead to the most
useful form of the formula for calculating acceleration due to gravity: g = G*M/R^2,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, G is the universal gravitational constant, M is
mass, and R is distance. The remainder of this lesson develops this formula, provides
further explanation of its meaning, and shows practical examples of its use in calculating
acceleration due to gravity.

Gravitational field strength; gravitational potential; weightlessness; orbits and energy

The gravitational field is the gravitational force per unit mass that would be
exerted on a small (so it doesn't measurably affect the gravitational field) test mass at
that point. It is a vector field, and points in the direction of the force that a small test
mass would feel at that point. For a point particle of mass 𝑀, the magnitude of the
resultant gravitational field strength 𝑔, at distance 𝑟 from 𝑀, is

Weightlessness is the absence of the sensation of weight.

Weightlessness can be achieved in one of two ways:

1- Go to a place distant from any object so that the force of gravity is nearly zero --
This is true weightlessness. It is unachievable with current technology as you would
have to travel millions of light years to even approximate this condition.
2- Orbit a planet so that both you, the spacecraft, and everything else around you are
falling together at the same rate.

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 -If you are falling freely you feel no weight even though you technically do have
a weight since you are experiencing the pull of gravity.
-This apparent weightlessness is the type of weightlessness we associate with
space flight.
Kepler’s law of planetary motion; sun, nine planets, galaxies, milky way galaxy and
origin of universe
Kepler’s Law states that the planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits
with the sun at one focus. There are three different Kepler’s Laws. Law of Orbits, Areas,
and Periods. Let us know about them one by one. 1. The Law of Orbits: All planets
move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.
2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.
3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
Kepler's laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they apply to satellite orbits
as well.

In our solar system, nine planets circle around our Sun. The Sun sits in the middle while
the planets travel in circular paths (called orbits) around it. These nine planets travel in
the same direction (counter- clockwise looking down from the Sun’s north pole).

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The solar system is made up of two parts:
1- The inner solar system contains Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These four
planets are closest to the Sun.
2- The outer solar system contains Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
The inner planets are separated from the outer planets by the Asteroid Belt.

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THE END

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