EFFECTS OF SONICATION SOURCE ON DRYING KINETICS AND

PRODUCT QUALITY

A project Report submitted

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
By

D. LAVANYA RAMA KUMARI (BE-17-02)

J. DURGA SYAMALA (BE-17-11)

M. NATARAJ (BE-17-32)

M. SASI PAVAN (BE-17-44)

B. HARSHIKA (BED-17-76)

Under the Guidance of Er. N.VINODA

Assistant Professor

Department of Processing and Food Engineering

ACHARYA N. G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Dr. N.T.R COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING BAPATLA – 522101(A.P)

FEBRUARY-2021
 DECLARATION

We, D.LAVANYA RAMA KUMARI (BE-17-02), J.DURGA SYAMALA

(BE- 17-11), M.NATARAJ (BE-17-32), M.SASI PAVAN (BE-17-44), and
B.HARSHIKA (BED-17-76) hereby declare that the thesis entitled “EFFECTS OF
SONICATION SOURCE ON DRYING KINETICS AND PRODUCT QUALITY”
submitted to the Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University for the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING in
the major field of PROCESSING AND FOOD ENGINEERING is the result of
original research work done by us. We also declare that the project report of any part
has not been published earlier in any manner.

Date:

Place:

D.LAVANYA RAMA J. DURGA SYAMALA M.NATARAJ

KUMARI
(BE-17-02) (BE-17-11) (BE-17-32)

M.SASI PAVAN B.HARSHIKA

(BE-17-44) (BED-17-76)
 ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Dr. N.T.R. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURA ENGINEERING
BAPATLA-522101, Guntur Dist., A.P.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “EFFECTS OF SONICATION

SOURCE ON DRYING KINETICS AND PRODUCT QUALITY” is a bonafide work of
D.LAVANYA RAMA KUMARI (BE-17-02), J.DURGA SYAMALA (BE-17-11),
M.NATARAJ (BE-17-32), M.SASI PAVAN (BE-17-44) and B.HARSHIKA (BED-
17-76) submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

Er. N. VINODA Dr. M. MADHAVA Dr. S. JOSEPH REDDY

Chairperson &Assistant Professor & Department Head (PFEN) Associate Dean

Professor Dept. of Processing Dept. of Processing and Food
and Food Engineering Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis is the result of the blessings of our teachers and support of our parents.

We feel very obliged to offer our sincere thanks and a deep sense of gratitude to our
project guide Er. N. Vinoda, Assistant Professor, Department of Processing and Food
Engineering for her constant encouragement, valuable suggestions, constant support and timely
advice at every stage of this project and up to last step of preparing the project report.

We express our deep sense of gratitude and feel privileged to thank Dr. S. Joseph Reddy,
Associate Dean, Dr.N.T.R College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla for his encouragement
and providing required facilities in this pandemic situation to complete the project successfully.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. D. Bhaskara Rao, Professor& Head, Department of
Basic Engineering, Dr.N.T.R College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla for his suggestions
and support throughout the successful completion of work.

We extend our profound gratitude to Dr. A. Mani, Professor& Head, Department of Soil
and Water Conservation Engineering, Dr.N.T.R College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla
for her thoughtful suggestions and support during the period of our study.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. B. Hari Babu, Associate Professor& Head,
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Dr. G. Ganesh Babu, Assistant
Professor & Head, Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering for their valuable
suggestions during the course of project work.

We are greatly thankful to Dr. H.V. Hema Kumar, Professor, Department of Irrigation
and drainage engineering Dr.N.T.R College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla for his
valuable suggestions, co-operation, encouragement and support during the study.

We express profound gratitude to Dr. M. Madhava, Associate Professor& Head,

Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Dr.N.T.R. College of Agricultural
Engineering, Bapatla for his suggestions and support during the period of study.

We also immensely thank Er. K. Lavanya Assistant Professor, Department of Processing

and food engineering Dr.N.T.R College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla in times of
extended need.

We express profound gratitude to Dr. B. Sreenivasula Reddy Assistant Professor,

Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Dr. N.T.R. College of Agricultural
Engineering, Bapatla for their suggestions and support during the period of study.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. K. Krupavathi, Assistant Professor, Department of

Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Dr. N.T.R. College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla
for his suggestions and support throughout the successful completion of work
 We express our sincere thanks to Er. K.N. Raja Kumar Assistant Professor, Department
of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Dr. N.T.R. College of Agricultural Engineering,
Bapatla for his suggestions and support throughout the successful completion of work.

We express our sincere thanks to Er. B.Raj Kiran and Er. Veeraprasad, Assistant
Professors, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Dr.N.T.R. College of
Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla for their suggestions and support during the period of our
study.

We express our sincere thanks to Er. D. Vijay Kumar Assistant Professor, Department of
Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Dr. N.T.R. College of Agricultural Engineering,
Bapatla for his suggestions and support during the period of our study.

We are extremely thankful to Library Staff V. Vasu, K. Karunakar Babu, and N. Srinivasa
Gopal, Computer Lab Attendant, Dr. N.T.R. College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla for
their necessary help as and when required.

We are extremely thankful to lab assistant Sri Hafeez Meera Khan, Sri Sreenivas and
other non-teaching staff members for their necessary help during the course of preparation of
this project report.

Finally, the blessings of our family and our near and dear ones have given us the strength
to take up this work and complete it to the best of our ability. This endeavor would not have a
success without the enduring support and encouragement of our university and beloved
classmates. We would like to thank all our friends who are, directly or indirectly, associated
with the successful completion of this work.

Place: BAPATLA
Date:

D.LAVANYA RAMA KUMARI J.DURGA SYAMALA M.NATARAJ

(BE-17-02) (BE-17-11) (BE-17-32)

M.SASI PAVAN B.HARSHIKA

(BE-17-44) (BED-17-76)
 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No.

List of Plates

List of Figures

List of Tables

List of Appendices

Nomenclature 1

Abstract 2

I. Introduction 3

II. Review of Literature 7

III. Materials and Methods 12

IV. Results and Discussion 20

V. Summary and Conclusion 24

VI. Suggestions for Future Work 25

References 26

Appendices 28
 List of Plates

Plate Particulars Page No.

3.1 Ultra sound probe sonicator 13

3.2 Tray dryer 14

3.3 Before tray drying 14

3.4 After tray drying 15

3.5 Microwave oven drying 16

3.6 Determining of moisture content 17

3.7 Water bath 18

3.8 Rehydration ratio of dried beet root 18

slices
 List of Figures

Figure Particulars Page No.

3.1 Fresh raw beet roots 12

3.2 Flow chart of drying of beetroot 15

slices
4.1 Variation of Drying rate w.r.t 20
Drying time
4.2 Variation of Avg. Moisture content w.r.t 21
Drying time
4.3 Variation of Avg. Moisture content w.r.t 21
Drying rate
4.4 Variation of Rehydration ratio w.r.t 22
Voltage
4.5 Variation of Bulk density w.r.t 23
Voltage
4.6 Variation of Particle density w.r.t 23
Voltage
 List of Tables

Table Particulars Page No.

1.1 Nutritional Values of Beet root 4

 List of Appendices

Table Particulars Page No.

Table A Calculation of Moisture content 28

Table B Calculation of Bulk density 32

Table C Calculation of Particle density 33

Table D Calculation of Rehydration ratio 34

 NOMENCLATURE

% Percentage

ºC Degree Celsius

b.d Bone dry

cal. Calorie

c.c Cubic centimeter

d.b. Dry basis

d.m Dry matter

Fig. Figure

g Gram

IU International Unit

k Kilo

kg Kilo gram

m Milli

ml milli liter

m/s Meter per second

R Drying rate

V Volume

W Weight

1
 ABSTRACT
Beetroot (Beta Vulgaris) is attributed with many medicinal values. Beetroot contains
about 88% of moisture content, 10% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat so it is
perishable in nature. The seasonality and regional abundances along with perish ability are the
compelling reasons for its preservation. There are various methods to dry the agricultural
produce mostly by conventional open sun drying was carried out which is uncontrolled process
leads to product contamination, quality loss by virtue of direct exposure to sun light and
spoilage due to insects and birds. The introduction of tray dryer with ultrasound probe sonicator
for agricultural produce improves the quality of product and decrease the drying time
considerably. Hence the present study has taken to study the drying characteristics of beetroot
pretreated with ultrasonic probe in tray dryer.

The method of pretreatment of ultrasound probe on drying behavior of Beetroot

slices was evaluated. Fresh Beetroot slices and water are taken in 1:4 ratio (i.e. 100 g beetroot
slices and 400 ml water ) taken in a beaker and treated with ultrasonic probe at 230 V, 180 V
and 130 V for 3, 5 and 7 min before air drying. After sonication, Water gain % is determined by
using weighing balance of pretreated samples .Later the pretreated samples are placed on the
trays in thin layers for drying in tray dryer at 60°c until the constant weight is attained and the
dried samples are tested for moisture content, rehydration ratios, Bulk density and particle
density were determined. Drying behavior of the pretreated samples was evaluated and the
drying data were fitted to thin layer drying models. Constant drying rate period was not
observed for the beetroot slices; however two definite falling-rate periods having different
slopes were obtained. Drying time was significantly reduced (up to 20%) by the pretreatment.
Also rehydration ratios of control samples were found lower than the ultrasound pretreated
samples.

It was concluded that pretreatment with ultrasound probe sonicator reduces the
drying time .The whole process took about 6h to reduce the moisture content of beetroot slices
from 93% to 8.6% (w.b ) at 60°c air temperature in tray dryer pretreated at different voltages
with different time interval .The maximum rehydration ratio observed in the sample treated with
180 V at 5 min and maximum bulk density in sample 6 treated with 130 V at 7 min and highest
particle density recorded for sample 5 with 180 V at 5 min .

Key words: Beetroot, Ultrasound, Rehydration ratio, Bulk density, Particle density, Drying
rate, Drying and Moisture content.

2
 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Beetroot (beta vulgaris) is the taproot portion of the beet plant and one of the most
consumed vegetable for the nutritional value with its rich vitamin and mineral content.
According to USDA national nutrient database for standard reference, 100 grams of fresh
beetroot (nearly 2 small beetroot) includes 20 µg of Vitamin A RAE (retinol activity
equivalent) which is almost equal to the daily recommended amount. However, due to its highly
perishable nature and being a seasonal vegetable, beetroot is dried, canned or pickled in order to
extend the shelf life. Besides being used as a food, beets are being used as a food colorant and
also have medicinal values.

Beets were domesticated in the ancient Middle East, primarily for their greens, and
were grown by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. By the roman era, it is thought that
they were cultivated for their roots as well. From the middle Ages; beetroot was used as a
treatment for a variety of conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood.

Into the production details of beetroot, Russia is the leading producer of about
45,057,000 tons followed by France and United States, Germany, Ukraine, Turkey, Poland,
China, Egypt, United Kingdom. In India beetroot is mainly cultivated in Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, and Maharashtra. It is mostly grown in cool climates
and suitable temperature is between 18 to 25°c for best growth. It is susceptible to hot
temperature and with 27°c potentially causing bolting, poor color and root shape. In particular
high temperature can cause light and dark rings to form in the root (zoning) which is
undesirable for processing. The taste of beetroot is earthy and a little bitter

Beetroots have a large amount of vitamins and mineral content like vitamin A,
vitamin B, Vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorous and iron.
Raw beetroot contains 88% water, 10%carbohydrates, 2 % fat. In preliminary research, beetroot
juice reduced blood pressure in hypertensive people. Tentative evidence has found that dietary
nitrate supplementation, such as from beets results in a small improvement in endurance
exercise performance and reduces anemia disorders. other uses such as betanin, obtained from
the roots is used industrially as red food colorant, to improve the color and flavor of tomato
paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, candy, and breakfast cereals and other
applications (Myojin et al., 2008)

3
Table 1.1 Nutritional values of beetroot
PRINCIPLE NUTRIENT VALUE
Energy 180KJ
Carbohydrates 9.56g
Protein 1.61g
Total fat 0.17g
Cholesterol 0g
Dietary fiber 2.8g
VITAMINS

Folates 109µg
Niacin 0.334mg
Pantothenic acid 0.155mg
Beta carotene 20µg
Riboflavin 0.04mg
Thiamin 0.031mg
Vitamin A 2µg
Vitamin C 4.9µg
ELECTROLYTES

Sodium 78mg

Potassium 325mg

MINERALS

Calcium 16mg
Phosphorous 40mg
Iron 0.8mg
Magnesium 28mg
Manganese 0.329mg
Zinc 0.35mg

(Source: USDA National nutrient data base)

4
 In food industry, beetroot must be processed prior to its consumption and drying is the
fundamental method for preservation especially for instant food industry .Drying process is
effective against microbial proliferation in foods by decreasing water content of the material to
below 10% by drying and therefore retards the physical and chemical changes that may occur
during storage .There is an increasing effort to reduce the post-harvest losses of vegetables and
fruits, which is around 30-40% of total production in developing countries and thus drying
process has an important role in agricultural and food industry. Despite being one of the most
common methods for food preservation, conventional air-drying is an energy-intense process.
To reduce the energy costs some pretreatments can be applied for decreasing the initial water
content or modifying the plant tissue structure in a way that helps to shorten the drying time.
Blanching, pulsed electric field, high or low pressure applications and osmotic drying methods
might be employed for this purpose. However their use is limited since each treatment has some
disadvantages on final food quality.

Ultrasound is a sound wave which has a frequency higher than the upper limit of
human hearing (20 kHz). The frequency range between 20 kHz and 100 kHz is called as
conventional power ultrasound. Ultrasonic waves are series of compression and rarefactions,
which is then, causes cavitation by the effect of rarefaction cycles and bubble collapse within
the molecules of the applied medium. When the bubble collapses in a liquid system, energy is
accumulated and this generates local hot spots that have a temperature around 4000K and a
pressure above 1000 atm. The cavitation after bubble collapse creates new microscopic
channels in addition to the natural channel that is already within the vegetable tissue which can
accelerate the moisture transfer. Also ultrasonic cavitation helps to release the moisture which is
strongly attached and improves the rehydration capacity of the dried food. For this reason,
power ultrasound application as a pretreatment for conventional air drying may reduce the
drying time therefore energy costs.

The aim of this study was to evaluate differences in drying kinetics of beetroot slices
pretreated with ultrasonic probe before air drying. The effect of ultrasound pretreatment on the
physical properties of dried beetroot slices including rehydration ability; Bulk density and also
particle density were also studies. The applications of ultrasound with ultrasonic probe are
discussed.

Application of ultrasound in food processing

This study presents a state-of -the -art overview on the application of ultrasound
technology in the drying of food products including the ultrasound pretreatment and ultrasound
assisted drying. The effect of main parameters and ultrasound technology on the drying kinetics
was discussed. Results showed that for ultrasound pretreatment , the food products may loss or
gain water and increase of ultrasonic parameters (sonication time and ultrasound power)
promoted the water loss or water gain .when ultrasound technology was applied prior to drying ,
an increase in drying kinetics was always observed , though some different results were also
presented . For ultrasound assisted drying, the ultrasound power always gave a positive effect

5
on the drying process. The application of ultrasound technology will somehow affect the food
quality, including the physical and chemical ones. generally, the ultrasound application can
decrease the water activity, improve the product color and reduce the nutrient loss

However, the limited knowledge and capacity of ultrasonic equipment still prevent this
technology from being used in practical industrial applications.

With keeping the above views in consideration, the investigation was conducted to study the
drying characteristics of beet root with following objectives

1. To study the effect of different Ultrasound pretreatment with probe type sonicator with
different voltages on drying of beet root slices.
2. To study the effect of air temperature on drying of beet root slices in tray dryer.
3. To determine the drying characteristics of beet root slices.
4. To determine the physical characteristics of beet root slices.

6
 Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter an attempt has been made to review the literature of the post research
works relevant to the present study. The available literature on the objective has been reviewed.

Dominik mierzwa et al., (2019) studied the drying technique using a combination of
high-power airborne ultrasound, microwaves and hot air was applied to investigate the effect of
intermittent drying on the process kinetics and several quality indicators of red beetroot. An
innovative hybrid dryer was used in drying experiments. Six sets of drying programs were
carried out. Ultrasound and microwaves were applied in convective drying continuously (hybrid
processes) or periodically (hybrid intermittent processes). The drying processes were assessed
in terms of drying time, drying rate, and energy consumption. Moreover, the total color change,
retention of natural dye (betanin), water activity, texture, and microstructure of dry product
were examined. The drying kinetics was well-fitted with the use of the Midilli-Kucuk model. It
was found that hybrid intermittent drying reduces the total drying time and energy consumption,
enhances both the drying rate and product quality. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the
hybrid intermittent drying can serve as an alternative to traditional hot air drying that could
produce a more porous, nice color, and crispy vegetable product.

Maria Esperanza Dalmau et al., (2019) justified that Drying may alter the microstructure
of vegetables and influence the release of bioactive compounds during digestion. The effects of
convective drying (at 60 °C and 2 m s −1; CD) and freeze-drying (at −50 °C and 30 Pa; FD) on
the microstructure (evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and image analyses
with ImageJ software) of beetroot and the kinetics of biocompound release (total polyphenol
content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA)) during 180 min of in vitro gastric digestion have
been studied. Raw beetroot was used as the control. Drying promoted the collapse of cell walls
causing volume shrinkage that resulted in a greater cell number per area unit; meanwhile in
vitro digestion caused cell structure disruption, which resulted in a lower cell number per area
unit. Drying promoted decreases of TPC (42% in CD and 29% in FD) and AA (66% in CD and
63% in FD) of beetroot. However, release of TPC and AA from dried samples during digestion
was 82% (CD) and 76 (FD) % higher than from the raw sample. The Weibull model allowed
the satisfactory modelling of the TPC and AA release kinetics (mean relative error of simulation
lower than 8.5%).

Vipul Chaudhary and Vivek Kumar (2016) from department of agricultural engineering,
sardar Vallabhai Patel university of agriculture and technology. The fresh beetroots are exposed
to spoilage due to their high moisture content and needs preservation. One of the preservation
methods ensuring microbial safety of biological products is drying and dehydration. An
experimental study was performed to determine the drying characteristics of beetroot subjected
to drying in cabinet tray dryer at 60 oC with pre-treatment indicated that T0 (Control), T1 (Brine

7
solution 5%), T2 (Sugar solution 50%), T3 (Blanching in water at 100oC for 3 min) and
T4 (Steam Blanching for 3 min). The entire drying process took place in the falling rate period.
Drying curves were constructed using non-dimensional moisture ratio (MR) and time. Drying is
the most widely used and a primary method for preservation. The result indicated that the
Pretreatment T3 (Blanching) and T4 (Steam Blanching) was found better quality compare to
other pretreatments during drying and rehydration process. The result showed that the
T3 (Blanching) and T4 (Steam Blanching) has highest functional properties of beetroot powder
compared to others powder.

Oana-viorela nistor et al., (2017) have justified that there is an increased interest in
preserving fruits and vegetables by drying. The novelty of this study consists in the combination
of the following three drying methods: free convection (at 50, 60, and 70 °C), forced convection
at 40 °C and 315W microwave power. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the
drying conditions on red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) in terms of betalain variance, and
polyphenol, microstructure changes (SEM). A strong thermal shock, provided by convection at
60° followed by microwave wattage 315W/9 min, leads to a better preservation of bioactive
compounds content (0.631 ± 0.0042 mg/g of betacyanin and 0.795 ± 0.0019 mg/g betaxanthin)
when compared to convection at 50, 60 and 70 °C. The results showed that combined drying
methods led to a significant preservation of the phytochemical content as compared to the
traditional methods.

Bhupinder singh and Bahadhur singh hathan (2017) studied to optimize the spray drying
process for beetroot juice. Influence of feed flow rate (8, 10 and 11 mL/min), processing
temperature (140, 150 and 160 °C) and maltodextrin concentration (20, 25, and 30%) on packed
bulk density, moisture content and betalain content of beetroot powder were assessed using
response surface methodology. The following optimum process parameters were determined;
feed flow rate feed flow rate of 10 mL/min, processing temperature of 149 °C and maltodextrin
concentration of 20%. The predicted values for packed bulk density, moisture content and
betalain content were 0.62 g/mL, 6.12 and 33.84 mg/100 g of dry matter, respectively. Within
the optimum parameters, the experimental values for packed bulk density, moisture content and
betalain content were 0.62 ± 0.1 g/mL, 6.10 ± 0.1 and 33.14 ± 0.1 mg/100 gm of dry matter.
The similarity of the experimental results to the predicted values verified the models.

S.V.Gokhale and S.S. Lele (2014) have studied the betalin content and antioxidant
activity. Beet root (Beta vulgaris) powder is a good natural food colorant because it contains
significant amounts of red‐colored betalain pigments. There is increasing interest in the use of
natural food colors, which provide health benefits like antioxidant activity. This article reports a
study of the effects of convective hot air drying on retention of betalain pigments and
antioxidant activity. A wide range of drying temperatures (50–120C) was used for the study.
Drying at 50–65C gave best pigment retention (betacyanin: 5.1 and betaxanthin: 2.4 mg/g dry

8
beet powder), which was the same as that in freeze‐dried samples. Total phenolic content and
antioxidant activity were higher than freeze‐dried samples that increased with increase in drying
temperature (1.2–1.6 mg gallic acid equivalents/g and 3.9–6.4 μM trolox equivalents/g,
respectively). Storage studies showed up to 50% degradation of pigments and slight increase in
antioxidant activity in 5 months.

Govind J Kapadia et al., (2013) have studied that, although a wide variety of cytotoxic
plant extracts and phytochemicals are known to act synergistically with anticancer drug
doxorubicin (D), their clinical application is hindered by safety concerns of such combination
therapy. Our earlier studies showed that red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extract (B), approved by
Food and Drug Administration and European Union as red food color E162, reduced multi-
organ tumor formations in various animal models when administered in drinking water. This led
us to postulate that a long-term daily exposure to low doses of B through diet might be safe and
sufficient to produce cancer chemo preventive effect in humans. Further, our recent
comparative cytotoxic investigation with B and D in several human cancer cell lines indicated
their potential for synergistic activity. Since B is considered safe for human use with no known
toxicity, we conducted the present study to evaluate its synergistic antiproliferative activity with
D against pancreatic (PaCa), breast (MCF-7) and prostate (PC-3) tumor cells of human origin.
Different concentrations of B and D (0.29-290 μg/ml) and in various combinations (B:D ratio =
1:0, 1:1, 5:1, 1:5 and 0:1) were tested for cytotoxic effects against the three cancer cells. The
viability of cells was assessed after 72 h incubation with various combinations of B and D using
the trypan-blue staining method. The cytotoxic data were analyzed by the combination index
method of Chou and Talalay to establish synergy between B and D. The results indicated that
an overall positive reduction in drug concentration was achieved by D when combined with B
in its cytotoxicity profile in the three human cancer cells tested. The nergistic cytotoxicity was
best when the B:D ratio of 1:5 was used in PaCa cells at IC50, IC75 and IC90 dose levels and in
MCF-7 cells at IC90 dose level. These results warrant further studies on the potential of red
beetroot extract-doxorubicin combination in treating human cancers.

S.R.Shirsath et al., (2012) have studied the extraction of active chemical compounds
from natural products is one of the most important research areas for pharmaceutical and
chemical industries. Traditional techniques used for the solvent extraction of natural products
are associated with longer extraction times and lower yields, use of large amount of organic
solvents and poor extraction efficiency. Ultrasound can be effectively used to improve the
extraction rate by increasing the mass transfer rates and possible rupture of cell wall due to
formation of micro cavities leading to higher product yields with reduced processing time and
solvent consumption. The present work presents an exhaustive overview of different aspects of
ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) of various natural products. Mechanism of UAE has been
discussed and recommendations for optimum operating conditions have been reported for
maximizing the yield. An overview of different applications of UAE has been also presented.
Possible intensification of UAE by coupling with traditional solvent and supercritical extraction

9
processes has also been discussed. Over all it appears that ultrasonic irradiations can be
effectively used for intensification of the extraction of important constituents from natural
product

P.Manivannan et al., (2011) studied that Water and sugar transfer were quantitatively
investigated during osmotic dehydration of beetroot slices using response surface methodology
with the temperature (25–45C), processing time (30–150 min), sugar concentrations (20–60%
w/w) and solution‐to‐sample to ratio (5:1–25:1) being the independent process variables.
Quadratic regression equations describing the effects of independent process variables on the
water loss (WL), solid gain (SG) and water reduction were developed. It was found that
immersion time and concentration of sugar solution were the most significant factors affecting
the WL during osmotic dehydration of beet root followed by temperature. Effect of temperature
and time were more pronounced for SG than the concentration of sugar solution. The osmotic
dehydration process was optimized for water loss, solute gain, and weight reduction. The
optimum conditions were found to be: temperature 33.64C; immersion time 115.37 min;
sugar concentration 27.71%; and solution‐to‐sample ratio 17.5:1. At these optimum values,
water loss, solid gain and weight reduction were found to be 53.74 (g/100 g initial sample),
8.34 (g/100 g initial sample) and 45.41(g/100 g initial sample), respectively.

Min zhang et al., (2011) studied the evolution of advanced pretreatment techniques
such as application of ultrasound prior to fruit drying have attracted significant research and
development efforts due to the rising demand for high-quality dried fruits at reduced operating
costs. Drying processes can be destructive to the quality of fruits due to long drying times and
high temperatures in some cases. The effects of ultrasound pretreatment on quality aspects of
dried fruits and on drying kinetics are reviewed. Ultrasound is known for its varying effects on
different fruits; however, it has been proved to greatly increase drying rates and hence reduce
the overall processing time. Ultrasound pretreatment in distilled water as the media is an
interesting concept when low-calorie dried fruits are required.

Venkata Subramanian Sivakumar et al., (2009) have studied the growing demand for
eco-friendly/non-toxic colorants, specifically for health sensitive applications such as coloration
of food and dyeing of child textile/leather garments. Recently, dyes derived from natural
sources for these applications have emerged as an important alternative to potentially harmful
synthetic dyes and pose need for suitable effective extraction methodologies. The present paper
focus on the influence of process parameters for ultrasound assisted leaching of coloring matter
from plant materials. In the present work, extraction of natural dye from beetroot using
ultrasound has been studied and compared with static/magnetic stirring as a control process at
45 °C. The influence of process parameters on the extraction efficiency such as ultrasonic
output power, time, pulse mode, effect of solvent system and amount of beetroot has been
studied. The use of ultrasound is found to have significant improvement in the extraction

10
efficiency of colorant obtained from beetroot. Based on the experiments it has been found that a
mixture of 1:1 ethanol–water with 80 W ultrasonic power for 3 h contact time provided better
yield and extraction efficiency. Pulse mode operation may be useful in reducing electrical
energy consumption in the extraction process. The effect of the amount of beetroot used in
relation to extraction efficiency has also been studied. Two-stage extraction has been studied
and found to be beneficial for improving the yield for higher amounts of beetroot. Significant
8% enhancement in % yield of colorant has been achieved with ultrasound, 80 W as compared
to MS process both using 1:1 ethanol–water. The coloring ability of extracted beet dye has been
tested on substrates such as leather and paper and found to be suitable for dyeing. Ultrasound is
also found to be beneficial in natural dyeing of leather with improved rate of exhaustion. Both
the dyed substrates have better color values for ultrasonic beet extract as inferred from
reflectance measurement. Therefore, the present study clearly offers efficient extraction
methodology from natural dye resources such as beetroot with ultrasound even dispensing with
external heating. Thereby, also making eco-friendly non-toxic dyeing of fibrous substances a
potential viable option.

Mv Shinkaruk et al., (2008) studied the effect of the pulsed electric field (PEF)
pretreatment on convective drying of red beetroot tissue was investigated at the drying
temperatures Td in the interval 30–100°C. The degree of material damage Z under the PEF and
thermal treatment was studied. Dependence of the electrical characteristic damage time τ E on
the electric field strength E and the thermal characteristic damage time τT on temperature Td is
discussed. The drying rate is shown to be maximal for highly disintegrated tissues; PEF
pretreatment allowed reduction of the drying temperature by 20–25°C. PEF pretreatment results
in greater degree of tissue shrinkage and hence increase in rehydration time; however, the
textural properties of rehydrated samples with and without PEF treatment are seen to be similar.
The benefit of PEF pretreatment for drying at moderate temperatures with preservation of
colorants is also demonstrated.

11
 Chapter III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter deals with the raw materials i.e. beetroot and experimental procedure
for pretreatment with ultrasonic probe at different voltages and drying of beetroot slices in a
tray dryer. And it also deals with the determination of drying characteristics of beetroot slices
by ultrasonic probe and physical characteristics of raw and dried beetroot slices.

3.1 Raw materials

Fresh beetroots were purchased from a local supermarket in Bapatla and stored in
a refrigerator at 4-8°C prior to use. The beetroots were washed with tap water to remove dirt
adhering then hand-peeled and sliced into 3 to 4mm thickness. The initial moisture content of
the beetroot slices was 93% w.b (1328.571 d.b) determined by using a vacuum oven dryer.

Fig. 3.1 Fresh Raw Beetroots

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES

3.2.1 Independent variables

 Ultrasonic probe

 Air drying temperature at 60° C

3.2.3 Dependent variables

 Moisture content

 Air velocity

12
  Particle density

 Dehydration ratio

3.3 Pretreatments

Beetroot slices were soaked in mineral water (el. conductivity: 9 µS/cm) instead
of tap water due to its stable composition and then subjected to ultrasonic waves for 3, 5 and 7
min with ultrasonic source. Control samples were only soaked in mineral water for same
periods given in ultrasonic pretreatments to compare the possible effects of sonication. The ratio
of water/sample mass was set to 4:1 (w/w) and the temperatures were kept constant by
circulating mineral water. 100 g of sample was placed into a glass flask containing 400 ml
mineral water and the flask were then placed into the ultrasonic probe at 230V,180V,130V with
3 min,5 min,7 min time interval working at a frequency of 20 kHz. Each pretreatment was
performed in triplicate. The samples were immediately taken out of water after the
pretreatments and excess water were removed with filter paper before drying. The water gain
and solid loss of the pretreated samples were determined.

Plate 3.1 Ultra Sound Probe Sonicator

3.4 Air drying

The beetroot samples were air-dried at 60°C and with an air velocity 1.2 ms- 1 in a
laboratory type tray dryer. Initially, dryer was preheated to 60°C and the beetroot slices were
placed as a single layer on a tray and three trays were placed into the racks of the dryer. The air
flow was parallel to trays and the drying was carried out approximately about 6h. The samples
were weighed with an electronic balance until the samples reached below 9% moisture on wet
basis. Each drying experiment was performed in triplicate.

13
3.5 Description of tray dryer

The tray dryer essentially having a cabinet into which the materials to be dried
is placed on trays. Mainly it consists of a thermostat, fan and temperature controller. The tray
dryer having 12 number of trays placed one above the other. The dryer conditions are simply
controlled and readily changed. The air velocity in the dryer is about 0.20m/s to 1.8m/s.

Plate 3.2 Tray Dryer

14
 Plate 3.3 Before Tray Drying

Plate 3.4 After Tray Drying

3.6 Experimental procedure

Fresh Beetroot were bought from local market Bapatla, washed thoroughly with
fresh water. The washed Beetroot were cut into slices (3 to 4mm thickness) with stainless steel
and knife and stalks were discarded. The 100g slices were placed in the beaker filled with 400
ml mineral water and placed in the ultrasound probe sonicator at different voltages (i.e.230v,
180v, 130v) and at different time intervals (i.e.3min, 5min, 7min). The pretreated beetroot slices
were spread over the trays in a single layer in a tray dryer dried at temperature of 60 ᴼC until
constant weight is attained, the weight of the samples were noted with 0,
5,15,30,50,80,120,180,270,390 time intervals till the constant weights were attained. After
drying the samples were taken out from the tray dryer and the drying characteristics and the
physical properties of dried beetroot slices were evaluated. The detailed process of experiment
was shown in flow chart given below;

15
 Fresh beetroot

Trimming and cutting into slices

Washing (Removal of dirt particles)

Pretreatment with ultrasound probe sonicator

Drying at 60°c in a tray dryer

Dried beetroot slices

Fig. 3.2 Flow chart for drying of beetroot slices

3.7 DRYING CHARACTERISTICS

3.7.1 Moisture content

The moisture content of the raw materials and dried beetroot samples determined
by hot air oven method by placing beetroot samples for 24 hours in a hot air oven at 105±1 ºC.
Initially cleaned and empty Petri dish for moisture measuring were weighed electronic top pan
balance with 0.01g accuracy and noted as W1 g. Beetroot slices were placed in those dishes and
noted weight as W2 g. Then dishes were placed in the hot air oven being maintained at 105±1ºC
for 24 hours. The dishes were taken out and placed in desiccator for 5 minutes to cool down.
The weight of the boxes along with the dry material were weighted and noted as W3 g. the
moisture content (M.C) on wet basis (w.b.) is calculated by using following equation.

( W 2−W 1 )−(W 3−W 1)

Moisture content (w. b) %=
(W 3−W 1)

Where

W1 =weight of the empty box (g)

W2=weight of the dish +weight (g)

W3= weight of the dish +weight of the bone dry material of the sample ( g)

16
 Plate 3.5 Microwave Oven Dryer

Plate 3.6 Determining of Moisture Content

3.7.2 Drying rate

Drying rate was determined by moisture content (% d.b) decreases of the sample
per unit time (min)

17
 Amount of moisture removed
Drying rate, R = Total bone dry weight
Time taken×
100

3.8 Determination of physical properties of beetroot

3.8.1 Rehydration Ratio

Rehydration ratio of dehydrated product was determined by rehydration test. The

dehydrated samples of 1.25g each were placed in a glass beaker containing 25ml of water
having temperature of 40-45 ºC for 60 minutes. After 60 minutes the rehydrated beetroot
samples were removed from the glass beaker and excess water was drained off through filter
paper. The drained samples weights were taken. Rehydration ratios (RR) in the dehydrated
samples were computed using following equation.

C
Rehydration Ratio =
D

Where

C=Drained weight of dehydrated sample

D= Weight of dehydrated samples taken for rehydration test (g)

Plate 3.7 Water Bath

18
 Plate 3.8 Rehydration of dried beetroot slices

3.8.2 Bulk Density

Bulk density of beetroot slices was measured by gently filling them in a container
and the weight using a sensitive balance. Weight of the filled samples was divided by the
volume of the container to give the bulk density of the samples.

mass of dried sample

Bulk density g/cc =
volume of container

3.8.3 Particle Density

Particle density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a sample to its solid volume.
Beetroot slices volume was determined by using the liquid displacement method. Toluene was
used in the place of water because it will be absorbed by carpophores to a lesser extent. Also its
surface tension is low, so that it fills even shallow dips in a carpophores and its dissolution
power is low.

mass of dried sample

Particle density g/cc=
volume of sample

19
 Chapter IV

RESULTS AND DESCUSSIONS

This chapter deals with the results of the experiment carried out to determine the effect
of sonication and drying characteristics of the beet root slices and physical characteristics such
as bulk density, particle density and rehydration ratio of the dried beet root slices.

4.1 EFFECT OF SONICATION POWER AND TIME ON DRYING RATE

AND DRYING TIME

DRYING RATE V/S DRYING TIME

25 Fig. 4.1

20

15
DRYING RATE

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
DRYING TIME

Variation of Drying rate w.r.t Drying time

DRYING RATE

Drying rates are controlled with rate it which heat is applied to the product, the rate at
which the products internal moisture is released from its surface and the rate at which moist air
is removed from the area surrounding the product. Drying rate is calculated at the time intervals
of 5, 15,30,50,80,120,180,270,390 min.

4.2 EFFECT OF SONICATION POWER AND TIME ON AVERAGE

20
 MOSITURE CONTENT AND DRYING TIME

1600 AVG.MOISTURE CONTENT V/S DRYING TIME

1400
AVG.MOISTURE CONTENT

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
DRYING TIME

Fig. 4.2 Variation of Avg.Moisture content w.r.t Drying time

4.3
AVG.MOISTURE CONTENT V/S DRYING RATE
EFFECT
1600
OF
1400

1200
AVG.MOISTURE CONTENT

1000

800

600

400

200

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
DRYING RATE

SONICATION POWER AND TIME ON AVERAGE MOSITURE

CONTENT AND TIME

Fig. 4.3 Variation of Avg.Moisture content w.r.t Drying rate

4.4 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BEET ROOT
SLICES

21
4.4.1 Rehydration Ratio
Reconstitution qualities of dried beet root slices were determined by conducting
rehydration tests. The dried samples absorbed water during rehydration and became soft. The
RR of dried beet root slices varied in the range of 4.5 to 5.2. The maximum rehydration ratio of
5.2 was found for sample sonicated at a voltage of 180 V and time 5 min, while minimum
rehydration ratio of 4.5 was found for sample sonicated at a voltage of 130 V and 7 min. The
samples dried at higher voltage had higher rehydration ability than compared to those dried at
lower voltage.

REHYDRATION RATIO V/S VOLTAGE

5.4

5.18
5.2
5.03
5
REHYDRATION RATIO

4.8
4.8 4.72
4.68
4.62 4.64
4.6 4.52
4.47
4.4

4.2

4
220 V 180 V 130 V

VOLTAGE
3 MIN 5 MIN 7 MIN

Fig 4.4 Variation of Rehydration ratio w.r.t Voltage

4.4.2 Bulk Density

22
 Drying air temperature influenced the bulk density of beet root slices. Lowest density of
0.068 g/cc was observed for the samples sonicated at 220 V while the samples sonicated at
180 V and 5 min recorded the highest value of 0.115 g/cc.

BULK DENSITY V/S VOLTAGE

0.14

0.12 0.12
0.12
0.11 0.1 0.1
0.1
BULK DENSITY (g/cc)

0.08 0.08
0.08 0.08
0.07
0.06

0.04

0.02

0
220 V 180 V 130 V
VOLTAGE (V) 3 MIN 5 MIN 7 MIN

Fig. 4.5 Variation of Bulk density w.r.t Voltage

4.4.3 Particle Density

Drying air temperature influenced the particle density of beet root slices. It was
observed that the particle density of the slices increased as the drying air temperature increased.
Lowest density observed for the samples was 0.946, while the highest value is 1.52 g/cc.

PARTICLE DENSITY V/S VOLTAGE

1.6 1.51 1.52
1.4 1.29 1.27
1.25
PARTICLE DENSITY (g/cc)

1.2 1.16 1.16

1.05
1 0.95

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
220 V 180 V 130 V
VOLTAGE (V) 3 MIN 5 MIN 7 MIN

23
Fig. 4.6 Variation of Particle density w.r.t Voltage

24
 Chapter V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Beet root have a moisture content of 93% (w.b) at the time of harvest. The beet root is made
into slices and are sonicated at voltages 220V, 180V, 130V for 3min, 5min and 7min.The data
was analyzed and based on the results obtained the following conclusions were drawn.

1. Moisture content of fresh samples was found to be 93% (w.b) on sonicating and further drying.

2. It is observed that as sonicating voltage and time of sonication increased the drying time (or)

rate of drying reduced.

3. It was observed that when the beet root slices were placed directly in oven dryer, the drying

time was 24hr and moisture content was 92.12% (w.b).

4. It is observed that when the beet root slices were placed in the tray dryer the drying time was

more as compared to sonicating drying.

5. It can be concluded that the drying time drastically reduced when the slices are sonicated and

the dried.

6. It was observed that bulk density of slices decreased as the sonication voltage was dropped. The

lowest density of 0.026g/cc was observed for the sample sonicated at 220V for 7min and oven

dried.

7. Particle density of the slices increased by increasing the sonication voltage lowest particle

density was 0.946g/cc.

8. Rehydration ratio is less for the samples sonicated at the higher voltages.

Finally, it was concluded that less drying time and high drying rate was observed by sonicating
at 220V for 7min.

25
 Chapter VI

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORKS

1. Drying time drastically reduced with sonication process as compared to oven drying

method.

2. By sonication process the vegetables, fruits, and juices does not lose texture, structure and

nutritive value.

26
 Chapter VII

REFERENCES
1. Garcia-Vaquero et al.. 2017. Polysaccharides from macroalgae: Recent advances,

innovative technologies and challenges in extraction and purification. Food Research

International. 99  (Pt 3): 1011–1020. 

2. FIJALKOWSKA et al.. 2016. Ultrasound as a pre-treatment method to improve

drying kinetics and sensory properties of beet root. Food Process Eng 39: 256-265.

3.  Parvareh et al.. 2015. A statistical study on thermal side effects of ultrasonic mixing in

a gas-liquid system. In: The 15th Iranian National Congress of Chemical Engineering

(ICHEC 2015).

4.  Kaiser, Michael and Asefaw Berhe. 2014.  Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil

Science. 177 (4): 479–495. 

5. Golmohamadi and Amir 2013. Effect of ultrasound frequency on antioxidant activity,

total phenolic and anthocyanin content of red raspberry puree. Ultrasonics

Sonochemistry. 20 (5): 1316–23. 

6. Deora et al.. 2013. Ultrasound for improved crystallisation in food processing, Food

Engineering Reviews, 5(1):36-44.

7. Abano Ee, Sam-Amoah Lk and Bart-Plange A 2013. Variation in ultrasonic frequency

and time as pre- to air-drying of beet root. J Agric Eng 43(4): 149-158.

8. Feng H, Barbosa-Cánovas Gv and Weiss J. 2011. Ultrasound Technologies for Food and

Bioprocessing, New York, Springer.

9.  A.S. Peshkovsky, S.L. Peshkovsky Acoustic Cavitation Theory and Equipment Design

Principles for Industrial Applications of High-Intensity Ultrasound, Book Series: Physics

Research and Technology, Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers; 2010.

27
10. Fernandes Fa, Linhares Jr Fe And Rodrigues S. 2008. Ultrasound as pre-treatment for

drying of beet root. 15(6): 1049-1054.

11. DOYMAZ I. 2004. Convective air drying characteristics of thin layer beet root. Food

Engineering 61: 359-364.

12. NOWACKA M et al.. 2012. Drying of ultrasound pre-treated beet root and its selected

physical properties. J Food Eng 113(3): 427-433.

13. RICCE C, ROJAS ML, MIANO AC, SICHE R AND AUGUSTO PED. 2016.

Ultrasound pre-treatment enhances the beet root drying and rehydration. Food Res Int

89: 701-708.

28
 APPENDIX

Table A. CALCULATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT (Dry basis)

SAMPLE 1 (220V, 3MIN)

S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 112

2 5 109.8 2.003642987

3 15 97 15.46391753

4 30 76.65 46.11872146

5 50 51.69 116.6763397

6 80 30.07 272.4642501

7 120 10.62 954.613936

8 180 9.82 1040.529532

9 270 9.64 1061.825726

10 390 9.61 1065.452653

SAMPLE 2 (220V, 5MIN)

S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 108

2 5 105.9 1.983002833

3 15 89.37 20.84592145

4 30 64.24 68.11955168

5 50 36.99 191.9708029

6 80 13.82 681.4761216

7 120 8.05 1241.614907

8 180 7.75 1293.548387

9 270 7.65 1311.764706

10 390 7.6 1321.052632

SAMPLE 3 (220V, 7MIN)

29
 S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 110

2 5 108 1.851851852

3 15 97.91 12.34807476

4 30 82.77 32.89839314

5 50 63.36 73.61111111

6 80 38.04 189.1692955

7 120 9.54 1053.039832

8 180 8.47 1198.701299

9 270 8.26 1231.719128

10 390 8.23 1236.573512

SAMPLE 4 (180V, 3MIN)

S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 107

2 5 104.83 2.070018125

3 15 91.86 16.48160244

4 30 70.55 51.66548547

5 50 46.89 128.1936447

6 80 23.09 363.404071

7 120 9.75 997.4358974

8 180 9.17 1066.848419

9 270 9.02 1086.252772

10 390 9 1088.888889

SAMPLE 5 (180V, 5MIN)

30
 S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 104.18

2 5 100.13 4.044741836

3 15 90.54 15.06516457

4 30 73.8 41.16531165

5 50 56.39 84.74906898

6 80 37.83 175.3899022

7 120 24.46 325.9198692

8 180 18.89 451.5087348

9 270 17.81 484.952274

10 390 17.65 490.2549575

SAMPLE 6 (180V, 7MIN)

S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 104.52

2 5 97.99 6.663945301

3 15 82.61 26.52221281

4 30 61.9 68.85298869

5 50 41.38 152.5857902

6 80 22.84 357.6182137

7 120 14.1 641.2765957

8 180 12.23 754.6197874

9 270 11.24 829.8932384

10 390 11.19 834.0482574

SAMPLE 7 (130V, 3MIN)

31
 S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 103.48

2 5 99.84 3.645833333

3 15 90.49 14.35517737

4 30 75.68 36.73361522

5 50 58.42 77.13111948

6 80 38.35 169.8305085

7 120 19.79 422.8903487

8 180 14.17 630.2752294

9 270 12.82 707.1762871

10 390 12.5 727.84

SAMPLE 8 (130V, 5MIN)

S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 104.67

2 5 98.35 6.426029487

3 15 83.65 25.12851166

4 30 62.46 67.57925072

5 50 39.58 164.4517433

6 80 17.01 515.3439153

7 120 7.92 1221.590909

8 180 6.51 1507.834101

9 270 6.34 1550.946372

10 390 6.3 1561.428571

SAMPLE 9 (130V, 7MIN)

32
 S.NO DRYING TIME SAMPLE WEIGHTS MOISTURE CONTENT

1 0 103.32

2 5 99.64 3.693295865

3 15 90.72 13.88888889

4 30 74.84 38.0545163

5 50 58.3 77.2212693

6 80 37.56 175.0798722

7 120 14.14 630.6930693

8 180 7.63 1254.12844

9 270 7.35 1305.714286

10 390 7.17 1341.004184

CALCULATIONS:

MOISTURE CONTENT (d.b), %= ( INITIALWEIGHT −FINAL WEIGHT

FI NAL WEIGHT )∗100
103.32−99.64
M.C = = 3.69329%
99.64

Table B. CALCULATION OF BULK DENSITY

WEIGHT OF VOLUME OF
SAMPLE NO SAMPLE SAMPLE BULK DENSITY

1 1.72 25 0.0688

2 2.08 25 0.0832

3 1.91 25 0.0764

4 2.01 25 0.0804

5 2.88 25 0.1152

6 2.99 25 0.1196

7 2.68 25 0.1072

8 2.58 25 0.1032

9 2.49 25 0.0996

33
CALCULATIONS:

WEIGHT OFSAMPLE
BULK DENSITY, g/cc=
VOLUME OF SAMPLE

1.72
B.D = = 0.0688 g/cc
25

Table C. CALCULATION OF PARTICLE DENSITY

SAMPL WEIGHT OF VOLUME OF VOLUME DIFFERENCE IN PARTICLE
E NO SAMPLE SAMPLE RAISED VOLUME DENSITY

1 1.25 20 21 1 1.25

2 1.16 20 21 1 1.16

3 1.48 20 21.5 1.5 0.986666667

4 2.1 20 22 2 1.05

5 3.23 20 22.5 2.5 1.292

6 2.54 20 22 2 1.27

7 2.27 20 21.5 1.5 1.513333333

8 1.52 20 21 1 1.52

9 1.74 20 21.5 1.5 1.16

WEIGHT OFSAMPLE
PARTICLE DENSITY , g/cc =
VOLUME OF SAMPLE RAISED

1.25
P.D = = 1.25 g/cc
1

Table D. CALCULATION OF REHYDRATION RATIO

34
 SAMPL WATER REHYDRATION
E NO VOL.OF WATER MASS OF SAMPLE ABSORBED RATIO

1 25 1.25 5.9 4.72

2 25 1.25 6.29 5.032

3 25 1.25 5.77 4.616

4 25 1.25 5.85 4.68

5 25 1.25 6.48 5.184

6 25 1.25 5.8 4.64

7 25 1.25 6 4.8

8 25 1.25 5.65 4.52

9 25 1.25 5.59 4.472

CALCULATIONS:

WEIGHT OF REHYDRATED SAMPLE

REHYDRATION RATIO =
WEIGHT OF DEHYDRATED SAMPLR
5.9
R.R = = 4.72
1.25

35