PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 48, Issue 3, June 2021

http://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/petroleum-exploration-and-development

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2021, 48(3): 527–540. RESEARCH PAPER

An analysis of major scientific problems and research

paths of Gulong shale oil in Daqing Oilfield, NE China
SUN Longde1, LIU He2, HE Wenyuan1, LI Guoxin3, ZHANG Shuichang2, ZHU Rukai2, JIN Xu2,*,
MENG Siwei2, JIANG Hang1, 2
1. PetroChina Daqing Oilfield Co. Ltd., Daqing 163002, China;
2. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China;
3. PetroChina Exploration & Production Company, Beijing 100724, China

Abstract: After the preliminary basic research on the problems encountered during the production period of Gulong shale oil
in the Songliao Basin, NE China, and the scientific exploration, the special characteristics of Gulong shale oil in terms of
reservoir space, phase distribution, flow pattern, and mineral evolution are proposed. The main results are as follows : (1) The
source of organic matter, mechanism of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion, and key factors affecting shale oil abundance;
(2) The types and structural characteristics of the reservoir and their contribution to porosity and permeability; (3) The mineral
origin and evolution of minerals and their influence on reservoir availability, sensitivity, and compressibility; (4) The rock
mechanical characteristics and fracture propagation law of Gulong shale; (5) The shale oil products, phase change law and
main control factors of adsorption and desorption conversion of Gulong shale oil; (6) The mechanism of shale oil-liquid,
solid-liquid gas interaction and enhanced oil recovery. Three key research suggestions are proposed to realize the large-scale
economic utilization of the Gulong shale oil as follows: (1) Deepen research on the mechanism of oil and gas generation and
discharge, storage and transportation, to guide the selection of geological sweet spots of shale oil; (2) Deepen research on the
compressibility and fracture initiation mechanism to support the selection of engineering sweet spots and optimization of
engineering design; (3) Deepen research on the fluid interaction mechanism under reservoir conditions, os us to guide the
optimization of development schemes and the selection of EOR technologies. A successful development of Gulong shale oil
requires global experts and scholars to contribute multidisciplinary innovative ideas and technical ideas to solve production
problems.

Keywords: Songliao Basin; Gulong Sag; continental shale oil; resource endowment; reservoir characteristics; scientific prob-
lem; research direction

Introduction Gulong has a big difference in rock fabric, physical prop-

Gulong shale oil in the Daqing Oilfield is a typical con-
tinental shale oil with oil flowing from the edge to the
center of the Gulong sag of Songliao Basin. high yield was
obtained from interlayer-type, sandwich-type to pure
shale type reservoirs. The whole section from the lower
part of the second member of Lower Cretaceous Qing-
shankou Formation to the first member of Qingshankou
Formation contained oil, so the Gulong shale oil resource
has great potential[13].
Compared with domestic and international marine or
saline lacustrine basin sedimentary shale, the shale in
erty, oil-bearing property, and shale oil mobility. The
north American mature geological theory and engineer-
ing technology are difficult to be directly applied , due to
a series of challenges such as high investment cost per
well, low initial production, and estimated ultimate re-
covery (EUR) being lower than the economic utilization
threshold[410], so it has become the most urgent task to
realize the development theory and technological inno-
vation of Gulong shale oil. For this reason, this article
preliminary analyzes six scientific problems of the Gu-
long shale, including the source of organic matter , the
mechanism of hydrocarbon generation, structure and

Received date: 15 Mar. 2021; Revised date: 26 Apr. 2021.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: jinxu@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (72088101).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(21)60043-5
Copyright © 2021, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
type of reservoir space, mineralogical evolution charac-
teristics, mechanical properties, production stimulation
mechanism, shale oil production and phase, and evalua-
tion of shale oil properties and recovery enhancement. At
the same time, three key technologies are put forward in
the future research direction for the Gulong shale oil,
including geological sweet spot selection, engineering
optimization design, development technology policy op-
timization, and recovery enhancement.
1. The strategic significance, exploration and
development history of Gulong shale oil
The Songliao Basin is one of the continental sandstone
petroliferous basins with the most abundant riches oil
and gas resources discovered in the world, which has
made great contributions to the development of China's
petroleum industry and still plays an important role[3, 1112].
After more than half a century of exploration and devel-
opment, the accumulated proved reserves of Daqing Oil-
field have been 63.7×108 t, with a proven rate of 62.3%. In
recent years, the grade of newly proved reserves has de-
creased. From 1990 to 2019, the newly proved reserves
have been 31×108 t, among which the low and ultra-low
permeability reserves have been 26×108 t, accounting for
83.8%. At the same time, it is more difficult to stabilize
the production of the main oil fields. For example, the
average water content of the Sazhong development zone
has reached 96%, and its production and operation costs
are increasing year by year, and the comprehensive de-
cline rate is constantly rising. Strengthening oil and gas
Fig. 1. Shale oil exploration result of Qingshankou Formation in northern Songliao Basin.
 528 
exploration and delaying production decline in the
Songliao Basin are of great strategic significance to the
stability of crude oil production and energy security in
China[11, 1315].
Qingshankou Formation of the Lower Cretaceous in
the northern Songliao Basin is the largest lake pan period
deposit, where it's organic-rich dark shale is widely dis-
tributed, and has relatively high maturity, reaching
1.20%–1.67% in Qijia-Gulong sag (Fig. 1). Controlled by
sedimentary conditions, three different types of shale oil
developed in interlayer-type, sandwich-type, and pure
shale type (Fig. 2), in which the pure shale oil can be di-
vided into lamellation-type and lamination-type (Fig.
3)[3, 6, 12, 1619]. The interlayer-type shale oil is the crude oil
occurring in interbedded shale and sandstone, the shale
accounts for 60%–80%, the single-layer thickness of
sandstone is 2–4 m, and the resource amount is 1.56×108 t.
The sandwich-type shale oil is the crude oil occurring in
thick shale interbedded with thin siltstone, the shale ac-
counts for 80%–95%, the single layer of sandstone inter-
layer is 0.2–1.5 m, and the resource amount is 8.71×108 t;
the pure shale type oil is the crude oil occurring in thick
shale, in which the shale accounting for more than 95%,
with siliceous, dolomitic (shelly limestone) laminae,
which are mostly less than 0.01 m thick. The source and
reservoir are integrated and can be further subdivided
into lamellation-type shale oil in the lower part of the
first member of Qingshankou Formation, and lamina-
tion-type shale oil in the upper part of the first member
of Qingshankou Formation and the second member of
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540

Fig. 2. The distribution pattern of shale reservoir types of Qingshankou Formation in Ao 34 well–Jin 281 well in the north-
ern Songliao Basin. GR—natural gamma ray; RLLD—deep lateral resistivity.

Fig. 4. Core and thin section photos of lamellation-type

and lamination-type shale oil reservoirs in Guye 1 well.

upper part of the first member of Qingshankou Forma-

Fig. 3. Pure shale profile in Guye 3HC.
Qingshankou Formation (Fig. 4). The lamellation-type
shale oil refers to the crude oil in the shale developed in
the lower part of the first member of Qingshankou For-
mation with lamellation, and the lamination-type shale
oil refers to the crude oil in the shale developed in the
 529 
tion and the second member of Qingshankou Formation
with silty calcareous (dolomitic) laminae, and the re-
source amount is 89.31×108 t[20]. Currrently, interlayer-
type shale oil in the Songliao Basin has been partially
developed for commercial use, and sandwich-type, lami-
nation-type, and lamellation-type shale oil has huge re-
source potential. Once a breakthrough is made, it will
become an important resource for the large-scale increase
of oil and gas reserves and production in the Songliao
Basin in the future, which will effectively guarantee the
sustainable development of the petroleum industry in the
Daqing Oilfield and support the construction of oil fields
for hundreds of years.
Shale oil exploration in the Daqing Oilfield has lasted
for a long time with a history of nearly 40 years, experi-
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
encing three stages of discovery, exploration, research
and understanding, and experimental breakthrough[14, 21].
In 1981, the first discovery well (Ying 12 well) was drilled
with the conventional oil exploration concept and devel-
opment technology, aiming at the fractured mudstone
reservoir in Gulong sag. The industrial oil-gas flow of 3.8
t/d and 441 m3/d was obtained in the first and second
members of the Qingshankou Formation. From 1983 to
1991, the experimental mudstone reservoir area of Ying 12
well was further established, and five wells were drilled
successively, among which Ying 18 and Ha 16 wells ob-
tained industrial oil flow. A preliminary exploration of
horizontal shale oil well development was carried out in
1998, and the screen completion of Guping 1 well
achieved a low oil production rate of 1.5 t/d.
In 2011, tight oil exploration concept and development
technology to develop shale oil in interlayer-type and
sandwich-type shale oil fields was adapted and applied,
and the development objects were thin sandstone layers
in shale layers. The interlayer-type shale oil in Qiping 2
well had a production of 31.9 t per day, and the four de-
velopment experimental areas had an accumulated oil
production of 92.95× 104 t, which has realized large-scale
development. Sandwich-type shale oil in Qiping 1 well had
a production of 10.2 t per day and 14.3 t of oil flow per day
in Qiping 1-1 well.
In 2018, Daqing Oilfield entered the experimental
breakthrough stage, and continued to strengthen the
exploration of shale oil, exploring the exploration concept
and development technology of shale oil. It optimized the
deployment of 18 vertical wells, such as Guye 1, Ying X57,
and Chao 21, with a daily oil production of 1.36–6.72 t,
which confirmed the overall oil bearing formation from
the lower part of the second member to the first member
of the Qingshankou Formation, with the thickness of
100–140 m. The lower part of the first member of Qing-
shankou in Gulong sag is a light oil belt with a thickness
of 50–60 m and stable lateral distribution, covering an
area of 2326 km2. Four horizontal wells, namely Songye
You 1HF, Songye You 2HF, Guye Youping 1, and Yingye 1H,
were deployed and implemented in the sweet-spot layers
of the first member of Qingshankou Formation shale (Fig
1). Guye Youping 1 well is located in the deep part of Gu-
long sag in the central sag of Songliao Basin. After taking
the shale in the lower part lamellation-type shale of the
first member of Qingshankou as the sweet-spot target, it
obtained a high-yielding industrial oil-gas flow of 30.5 t/d
and 13 032 m3/d. The high yield of Guye Youping 1 well
marks an important breakthrough of pure shale oil, which
shows a broad prospect of continental shale oil resources,
and has a significant strategic turning meaning.
2. The particularity of Gulong shale oil in
Daqing Oilfield
The Gulong shale oil is mainly pure shale type oil,
 530 
which is different from other type shale oil abroad, and
there havent been any successful large-scale commercial
development. Its has got peculiar resource endowment
conditions and reservoir characteristics, which overturns
the traditional concept and understanding of shale oil
exploration and development, including the four aspects.
2.1. Special geochemical characteristics and oil
properties of Gulong shale oil
The Gulong shale has a good organic matter type, the
planktonic algae erupted during the first and second
members of the Qingshankou Formation sedimentary
period, organic matter was given priority to lamellar al-
gae, the sedimentary environment was mainly anaero-
bic–anoxic, organic matter type was mainly type I, with
high hydrogen index of 600–800 mg/g and high hydro-
carbon generation potential. The TOC of the first member
of the Qingshankou Formation is 1.8%–4.5% in the
semi-deep to deep lacustrine facies area, and the TOC of
the second member of Qingshankou Formation is
1.4%–2.2%. The free hydrocarbon content of the lower
part of the first member of Qingshankou Formation is the
highest, generally more than 8 mg/g, followed by the up-
per part of the first member of Qingshankou Formation
and the second member of Qingshankou Formation,
generally more than 6 mg/g.
According to the traditional understanding, compared
with the marine shale oil in North America, the thermal
evolution degree of continental shale oil in China is gen-
erally lower, with high crude oil density, high viscosity,
low gas-oil ratio, and poor mobility[22–24]. The formation
pressure coefficient in the Qijia-Gulong area is generally
1.20, with the highest pressure coefficient of 1.58. The
high pressure area in the first member of Qingshankou
Formation with the pressure coefficient greater than 1.20
is 4550 km2, and the high pressure area in the second
member of the Qingshankou Formation with the pressure
coefficient greater than 1.20 is 2617 km2. The oil test data
of Guye 1 well, Guye Youping 1 well and Yingye 1H well
show that the surface oil density is generally less than
0.84 g/cm3, and the viscosity of formation oil is generally
less than 0.8 mPas, with colloid content of 8.0%–18.6%,
the asphaltene content is 0–0.4%, the average saturated
hydrocarbon content is 84.2%, and the aromatic hydro-
carbon content is 9.7%. The gas-oil ratio gradually in-
creases with the increase of maturity, and the gas-oil ratio
of Youping 1 well located in the deep sag reaches more
than 400 m3/m3. The movable oil index (OSI, the ratio of
free hydrocarbon content to total organic carbon content)
from the lower part of the second member of Qingshan-
kou Formation to the first member of Qingshankou For-
mation is of 100–400 mg/g (Fig. 5), and it is higher than
that of the Eagle Ford shale oil (OSI of 100–200 mg/g),
which has been successfully developed on a large scale in
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540

Fig. 5. Data of transcendence effect of Gulong continental

shale oil.

North America[25], indicating that Gulong shale oil has

great mobility potential. The above characteristics indi-
cate that the Gulong shale oil is not only superior to other
shale oil resources found in China but also superior to
major shale oil resources reported in North America,
changing the traditional understanding that continental
shale oil is characterized by high density, high viscosity,
and low gas-oil ratio.
Fig. 6. Field emission scanning electron microscope im-
2.2. Special reservoir space of Gulong shale ages of Gulong shale.

Gulong shale in Songliao Basin is different from other judging shale reservoir compressibility by clay content.
shales in the world. The reservoir system has both or- The Gulong shale is mainly argillaceous felsic shale with
ganic and inorganic origins and is mainly composed of an average clay mineral content of 35.6%. According to
matrix pores and bedding fractures. Different from con- the traditional reservoir reconstruction theory, high clay
ventional reservoirs, the pore types of Qingshankou mineral content is the key factor affecting the fracturing
Formation shale are dominated by organic pores and effect. However, the study found that Gulong shale is in
fractures, dissolved pores, and clay mineral intercrystal- the late stage of middle diagenesis phase, with a high
line pores (Fig. 6), accounting for more than 80% of the degree of clay mineral evolution. A large amount of
total surface porosity. A detailed description of the core montmorillonite disappeared and transformed to illite,
shows that organic and inorganic horizontal bedding and siliceous precipitates in the transformation process,
fractures are extremely developed (1000–3000 per meter) which increases the rigid component and brittleness of
(Fig. 6), with a total surface porosity of 22%–79%. The the shale (Fig. 7)[27]. The illite in the shale is oriented by
nano-scale pore-fracture system controlled by horizontal diagenetic compaction, which makes the rock easy to
beddings has improved the reservoir physical property. denude and fracture along the bedding surface. During
Under overpressure conditions, the horizontal perme- the fracturing process, vertical fractures along the prin-
ability is (0.011–1.620)×10−3 μm2, the average permeability
is 0.580×10−3 μm2, whereas for the vertical permeability
being less than 1×10−7 μm2. Therefore, the high porosity
and permeability zone in the horizontal direction is
formed. Due to the development of pre-existing horizon-
tal bedding, the tip effect of the organic matter and other
clastic minerals arranged along the bedding promotes the
lateral expansion of fractures, forming a large number of
bedding fractures, which can expand the volume of shale
reservoir space by 1.0–1.2 times, equivalent to an increase
in porosity of about 2%–3%[26].

2.3. Special evaluation criteria for the compressibility

of Gulong shale
Fig. 7. Diagenetic evolution of clay minerals resulted in
The Gulong shale oil has changed the standard of quartz precipitation.

 531 
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540

Chang 71+2 members in Ordos basin, which have been

Fig. 8. Gulong shale fracture morphology with the Chi-
nese character shape of "Feng".
cipal stress direction and multiple horizontal fractures
along the bedding surface are opened at the same time,
forming a complex network of fractures in the shape of
the Chinese character of "Feng" (Fig. 8), which signifi-
cantly improves the reservoir compressibility.
2.4. Special engineering sweet spots of Gulong shale oil
The breakthrough in Gulong oil has changed the tradi-
tional practice of choosing tight interlayers in shale for-
mations as engineering sweet spots. The development of
North American marine tight oil/shale oil is usually car-
ried out by selecting a tight interlayer as the target layer
in the shale system and using the long-horizontal well vo-
lume fracturing model for commercial development[8, 28–31].
The shale oil of Lucaogou Formation in Jimsar sag and
developed on a large scale in China, also learns from the
experience of North America[32–33]. However, the thickness
of lamellation-type and lamination-type shales in the
Qijia-Gulong area accounts for more than 95%. Although
there are dolomite, shell limestone, and siltstone lami-
nated, the thickness is very thin with a single layer ranges
between 0.05 to 0.15 m. At the same time, due to the sig-
nificant improvement of shale physical properties by
bedding fractures, the average total porosity is 9.8%, and
the average effective porosity is 6.2%. The good reservoir
property and connectivity make it used as high-quality
engineering sweet-spot layers.
Thanks to the engineering concept and technological
innovation of unconventional oil and gas, the establish-
ment of the key technology system of shale oil explora-
tion and development will contribute to the large-scale
industrial breakthrough of Gulong shale oil[24, 34–36]. How-
ever, the exploration and development of Gulong shale oil
is still in its initial stage, and its uniqueness makes it
impossible to directly apply the exploration and devel-
opment technology route of shale oil in North America
(Table 1). The unique resource endowment characteristics
and key parameters of reservoir evaluation need to be
further implemented, while the main development pa-
rameters are not clear yet. The technical system of drill-
ing and completing wells and stimulation is still to be
perfected. The law of development decline is not clear;
well pattern, well spacing, and production system needs
to be optimized; EOR technology has not been researched;
early production wells generally have the problems of
high investment cost per well and low initial production,
and EUR below the economic production threshold.
Therefore, it is still necessary to innovate theories and
develop technologies in practice to support rapid and
efficient development.
3. Scientific problems of Gulong shale oil
Gulong shale oil is a new resource type, and there are
no existing geological theories and development tech-

Table 1. Comparison table of main characteristic parameters of shale oil in China and abroad.
Effective Perme- Gas-oil Crude oil Brittle
Reservoir Porosity/ Pressure
Shale oil Reservoir type thickness/ ability/ ratio/ viscosity/ mineral
depth/m % factor
m 10−3 μm2 (m3m−3) (mPas) content/%
Black calcareous 1200– 0.001–
Eagle Ford 15–100 5.0–14.0 240 1.4–1.7 >80
shale (brittle) 4300 0.002
Dongying sag of 3300– 0.000 85–
Argillaceous shale 10.0–19.4 1.2–1.8
Shengli Oilfield 3600 177
Dagang Cangdong Laminated shale (with
3900 10–40 6.0–9.0 0.11–4.00 82–103 0.96–1.27 19 >80
(Guan 1702H) beddings and fractures)
Dolomitic siltstone, 2300–
Jimusar 4–33 6.0–14.0 0.01 17 1.2–1.6 >50 28–45
limestone, and dolomite 4300
Gulong sandwich- 1978–
Thin sand-mud interbeds 0.2–1.5 2.5–6.5 0.01–0.02 30.13 1.13 3.65 >35
type shale oil 2000
Gulong pure shale Mudstone, argillaceous 2000–
4.4–22.8 4.0–15.0 <0.01 70–800 1.30–1.57 2.70–10.74 >30
type shale oil shale (with beddings) 2500

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 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
nologies that can be directly copied and applied domes-
tically and abroad. Although the exploration and devel-
opment practice has made an important breakthrough, it
still faces a series of problems, such as the lag of basic
research, the unmatched engineering technology, the
high construction cost, and the benefits without a
breakthrough. According to the resource characteristics
and exploration and development status of Gulong
shale oil, the following six key scientific issues are sorted
out.
3.1. Organic matter source, hydrocarbon generation
and expulsion mechanism, and key factors affecting
shale oil abundance of Qingshankou Formation shale
Current studies have shown that: (1) Body and mo-
lecular fossil evidence of lacustrine algae, marine algae,
prokaryotes, and advanced plants have been found in the
Qingshankou Formation shale[37–40], indicating the com-
plexity of the mother source of sedimentary organic
matter in Gulong shale. (2) Due to the significant differ-
ences in paleoclimate and palaeowater environment in
which different types of organisms occurred, the hydro-
carbon generation capacity and product composition of
formed kerogen were also significantly different[41], which
affected the formation and enrichment of Gulong shale
oil. (3) Based on the study of Songke 1 well, it is revealed
that transgression events may occur during the sedi-
mentary period of the first member of the Qingshankou
Formation[39, 42], and the astronomical orbital force of the
earth profoundly affects the climate change and sedi-
mentary process of the palaeolake[43], which may be the
main controlling factor for the cyclicity of organic matter
enrichment in Gulong Shale. (4) In this area, the over-
pressure gas-oil ratio has a good correspondence with Ro,
and the generated oil and gas density is lighter than that
of kerogen, resulting in volume expansion and overpres-
sure in the source, which is the main driving force of oil
and gas expulsion. However, at present there are still
some problems: (1) The parent material source of Gulong
shale organic matter is still not to carry out the quantita-
tive evaluation, whether the transgression of the first
Fig. 9. Pore-fracture-matrix mineral micrometer CT 3D model of Gulong shale (Ao 34 well, the first member of Qingshankou
Formation, laminated shale, 2231.2 m).
 533 
member of Qingshankou Formation of depositional pe-
riod reached Gulong sag remains controversial, the main
control factors of multi-scale frequent alternation be-
tween organic laminae and felsic detritus or carbonate
are still unclear, and because of this it directly affects the
accurate understanding of high quality Gulong shale oil
formation mechanism and the resource potential. (2) The
formation of overpressure and the mechanism of hydro-
carbon generation and expulsion still need to be further
studied.
3.2. Types and structural characteristics of effective
reservoir spaces in Gulong shale and their contribution
to porosity and permeability
At present, the differences of reservoir properties of
lamination-type, lamellation-type, and sandwich-type shales
have been preliminarily defined, and the development
characteristics of bedding fractures and their effects on
reservoir properties have been discussed. However, the
pore types of Gulong shale are different from conven-
tional reservoirs. The pores and fractures are related to
organic matter, clay minerals, and dissolution. The pore
types are mainly organic pores and fractures, dissolved
pores, and intercrystalline pores of clay minerals, which
account for more than 80% of the total surface porosity.
Meanwhile, nano-scale pore and fracture systems con-
trolled by beddings further improve the reservoir's phys-
ical properties (Fig. 9).
Due to peculiar properties of pore types in Gulong
shale, there are some problems that still exist, such as: (1)
The study on the fusion characterization of pore struc-
tures at different scales has not been carried out yet; (2)
The effectiveness of bedding fractures, the contribution
ratio of effective fractures to pores under formation con-
ditions are not clear. (3) Due to the differences in reser-
voir properties of the three types of shale, there is a lack
of effective characterization methods for whether
shrinkage fractures, diagenetic fractures, organic pores,
and bedding surfaces are effective reservoir space. (4)
Reserves estimation and prediction are still lacking
basis.
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540

3.3. Genesis and evolution of Gulong shale minerals problems to be solved. (1) In the process of conventional
and their control on reservoir availability, sensitivity rock mechanics testing, the mechanical properties are
and compressibility distorted due to the stress release after the core is taken
out, and the understanding of the mechanical properties
According to the previous study: (1) The Gulong shale
of bedding laminae and the anisotropy of shale mechan-
is argillaceous felsic shale with an average content of clay
ics under the in-situ environment is not clear. (2) The
minerals of 35.6% and a low content of carbonate. (2) The
correlation of shale brittleness index calculated by min-
diagenetic evolution sequence of clay minerals is pre-
eral method (including two models of brittle minerals
liminarily identified, that is, the whole is in the late stage
containing carbonate and without carbonate), elastic
of middle diagenesis, and the clay minerals have a high
parameter method, and stress-strain curve method is
degree of evolution. When the burial depth is more than
very poor, and it is difficult for the existing evaluation
1650 m, a large amount of montmorillonite is trans-
methods to comprehensively consider various control
formed into illite, and the clay minerals tend to be stable,
quartz precipitates during the transformation process, factors (Fig. 10). (3) Fracturing physical modeling ex-
and the brittleness increases. (3) The relationship be- periments differ greatly from real fracturing conditions
tween clay minerals and the formation of bedding is put in stress environment, specimen size, and rock mechani-
forward, that is, the orienting arrangement of illite by cal properties. The existing numerical fracturing models
diagenetic compaction, which makes the rock have fissile are difficult to consider the effects of multi-scale hetero-
beddings, and it is easy to be eroded and fractured into geneity of shale itself, which greatly limits the application
thin beds along the bedding plane. However, there are range and prediction ability of the models. (4) Fracturing
still some shortcomings in the current research. (1) The monitoring results show that under the current fractur-
sources of clay minerals have not been distinguished, and ing process, the fractures extend towards the horizontal
the types, proportions, and occurrence of sedimentary component, the longitudinal extension of fractures is
and diagenetic clay minerals have not been understood. limited, the fracture height is generally less than 10 m,
(2) The understanding of the influence of different clay and the stimulation volume is limited. Therefore, multi-
minerals on the reservoir property, sensitivity and com- ple horizontal wells need to be arranged vertically to
pressibility of shale still needs to be deepened. (3) The achieve the overall control of the sweet-spot sections.
horizontal distribution of the vanishing line of mont- 3.5. Changes of oil products and phase states and
morillonite in the Gulong area is still unclear. main controlling factors of adsorption-desorption
3.4. Rock mechanics and fracture propagation law of transformation of Gulong shale oil
Gulong shale The existing test data show that the Gulong shale oil
The comparative study of rock mechanics in the direc- has the characteristics of low density (less than 0.84
tions vertical and parallel to the bedding has been carried g/cm3), low viscosity (less than 0.8 mPas), a high propor-
out. The results show that: (1) The fracture toughness and tion of light hydrocarbon (average content of saturated
tensile strength of samples taken with parallel bedding
are 38.6% and 71.7% lower than those taken with vertical
bedding, respectively, and the rock mechanics anisotropy
is significant. (2) In Gulong shale, clay minerals are
mainly illite with bedding laminae developed. Its com-
pressibility is jointly controlled by complex mineral fabric,
organic matter content, and distribution of bedding
laminae. (3) Based on the full-diameter core physical
simulation, the dynamic equilibrium process of hydraulic
fracturing fracture propagation (longitudinal propaga-
tion under the control of vertical stress, horizontal ex-
pansion under the control of bedding laminae) is defined,
and the artificial fracture presents the complex shape of
the Chinese character "Feng". (4) Low viscosity fluid is
conducive to the opening of bedding, and high viscosity
fluid is conducive to the longitudinal extension of frac-
tures, thus forming the main volume fracturing technol-
ogy of pre-CO2, alternating injection of gelatine, and
slickwater, which improves the volume of fracturing and Fig. 10. Analysis results of different compressibility
the complexity of fractures. However, there are still many evaluation methods.
 534 
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
Fig. 11. Electron microscope analysis of oil occurrence
state.
hydrocarbon is 84.2%), and the positive correlation be-
tween gas-oil ratio and maturity. The oil content of Gu-
long shale oil is generally good. The measured oil satura-
tion of the first member of the Qingshankou Formation is
26.1%–73.2%, with an average of 44.8%. Nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) analysis shows movable oil saturation
of 37.3%–50.6%, and the field 1D NMR oil saturation is
40.3%–80.2%, with an average of 58.0%. The microscopic
observation of the environmental scanning electron mi-
croscope shows that the crude oil presents two forms of
free state and adsorbed state, occurring in the two re-
gions of matrix pores and bedding fractures, with high oil
saturation and free state proportion (Fig. 11). However,
current phase state studies cannot determine the impact
of drastic temperature and pressure changes during
pre-CO2 injection and sampling, and the characteristics of
phase state in nano-scale porous media under reservoir
conditions and the lateral distribution of phase state in
shale oil production areas are not clear. At the same time,
the research on the occurrence form and state of shale oil
is still mainly based on static qualitative research, while
the quantitative evaluation of the ratio of free hydrocar-
bon and adsorbed hydrocarbon and the study on the dy-
namic conversion law needs to be strengthened urgently.
3.6. Liquid-solid and liquid-gas processes mechanism
and enhanced oil recovery mechanism of Gulong shale
oil
Recent work: (1) By revising the classical Kelvin equa-
tion, a new theory of nano-scale confined capillary con-
densation is preliminarily established, and the important
role of solid-liquid interface mechanics in nano-scale/
submicron scale capillary condensation is expounded,
and the latest experimental results and mechanical
mechanism of this limit scale are reasonably ex-
plained[44–45]. (2) The microscopic origin of capillary force
at the solid-liquid interface was studied, and the mecha-
nism of force equilibrium at the droplet contact line was
revealed. The reasonable explanation of Young's equation
in the field of solid-liquid interface wetting was given
from the perspective of mechanics, which provided a new
understanding of interface wetting phenomena such as
rock-oil interface wettability, erosion and fracture of oil
 535 
droplets/oil film on the rock surface[46]. (3) Based on the
study of multiphase seepage, the spatial distribution of
gas and its changing relationship with time were ex-
plored, and the influence of degassing on the production
process was clarified, that is, when the degassing formed
a continuous gas path, the gas left the oil retained, and
the pressure supplement efficiency was low. When the gas
was expelled to form a bubble group, the gas retained and
the oil left, and the pressure supplement efficiency was
high. (4) The mechanism of EOR by pre-CO2 injection is
preliminarily defined, that is, the extraction of organic
matter by CO2 and the dissolution of minerals such as
K-feldspar, albite, calcite, generate new organic pore and
dissolved inorganic pore effectively improve reservoir
physical properties, but the accompanying migration of
kaolinite particles and siderite precipitation can also
cause damage to the seepage channels[47] (Fig. 12). The
pore permeability test results show that under the soak-
ing in 7 d, shale porosity increased from 5.37% to 7.81%,
but the horizontal permeability decreased from 0.019×
10−3 μm2 to 0.002 × 10−3 μm2. However, on the whole, (1)
There are relatively few studies on the basic theory of
Gulong shale oil flow, and the effects of phase transfor-
mation, occurrence transformation, solid-liquid interac-
tion, and other factors on the flow are not involved. (2)
The influence mechanism and technical adaptability of
pre-CO2 injection on enhancing energy and assisting
drainage, artificial fracture morphology, porosity and
permeability parameters in Gulong shale oil are not
clear, and there is no basis for CO2 usage amount opti-
mization.
4. Research direction
Based on the understanding of the uniqueness of Gu-
long continental facies shale oil and the analysis of sci-
entific problems, three research directions are sorted out,
which are shale oil geological sweet-spot selection, engi-
neering sweet-spot selection, and development plan se-
lection.
4.1. Optimal selection of shale oil geological sweet
spot
The genetic mechanism and distribution law of Gulong
Fig. 12. Changes of microscopic morphology before and
after CO2 injection in Gulong shale.
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
shale oil are complex, so it is necessary to further study
the mechanism of hydrocarbon generation, displacement,
storage, migration, and accumulation to guide the opti-
mization of shale oil geological sweet spot.
4.1.1. Isochronous geologic framework and high-
resolution chronograph
The technical advantages of the high-precision U-Pb
isotopic age and astronomical chronology of volcanic ash
zircons should be fully used. Based on the previous re-
search results of Songke 1 well, the data of volcanic ash
composition, horizon, and age of cores at different posi-
tions in the sag should be taken as isochronous geological
events "anchor point". Combined with the analysis of
cyclostratigraphy, the high-precision isochronous age
framework of Qingshankou Formation in the sag with a
resolution of 100 000 years is established, and the sedi-
mentary time, geological events and sedimentary char-
acteristics of each sequence and interval of Qingshankou
Formation in the sag are defined, which are the
"three-stage" and "nine-stage" types (Q1–Q9) of oil layers
of Qingshankou Formation in the sag. The division pro-
vides a high-precision chronological scale to guide res-
ervoir division and sweet-spot identification.
4.1.2. Transgression/lake flooding geological events
and organic matter enrichment mechanism
High-resolution sampling and multi-index comprehen-
sive analysis should be carried out for the possible hori-
zon of transgression/lake flooding, and the occurrence of
transgression should be determined by microfossils
(such as marine foraminifera), special minerals (such as
glauconite), and special biomarkers (such as 24-n-pro-
pylcholestane, 24-isopropylcholestane). Determine the
variable depth of ancient lakes and sulphate supply
source by pyrite sulfur isotope, determine the water sa-
linity by B isotopes, determine the hypoxia degree of the
water body and openness of the basin through Mo iso-
tope, determine the oxidation-reduction environment of
water body through the major and trace elements and
iron composition, combined with basic organic geo-
chemical characteristics, the time limit, stage, intensity
and influence range of transgression of Qingshankou
Formation in the sag were comprehensively determined,
and the model of organic matter enrichment, water en-
vironment change, and hydrocarbon source rock devel-
opment under transgression/lake flooding was estab-
lished.
4.1.3. Periodic parameters and main controlling fac-
tors of shale laminae
High-resolution in-situ imaging scanning of magnetic
susceptibility, grayscale, minerals, and elements of the
selected core segment should be carried out by using the
means of multi-dimensional and multi-scale quantitative
 536 
description of laminar characteristics. At the same time,
through the spectrum analysis and the deposition rate
constraint, we identified the cycle period and the climate
influencing factors and further defined the climate cycle
of different scales (such as the Earth's rotation axis slope
period of 17.3×104 years and 4×104 years, the Earth's or-
bital precession period of 2×104 years, the sunspot activity
period of 10–50 years, the El Nino cycle of atmospheric
circulation in 2–7 years, etc.) on the supply of debris, the
enrichment of organic matter and the formation of
laminae were further defined. The periodic parameters
and main controlling factors for the formation of or-
ganic-rich layers, effective reservoirs, shale oil sweet-spot
layers are put forward.
4.1.4. Evaluation and prediction of shale reservoir
space and reserves
The sealing and pressure-holding technology for coring
scheme should be implemented to effectively ensure that
the pressure is not lost, the bedding surface is not dam-
aged, and the natural gas is not escaping, and the tech-
nologies should be innovated to meet the requirements of
multi-scale characterization of organic pore–inorganic
pore, and the characteristics and effectiveness of the res-
ervoir space of lamination-type, bedding-type and sand-
wich-type shale should be defined. Three-dimensional
characterization of the occurrence, distribution, and
connectivity of pores and fractures under near-formation
conditions was carried out to identify the effectiveness
and main influencing factors of bedding fractures, and
quantitatively evaluate their contribution to reservoir
space. On this basis, geological models were established
for three types of shale respectively. Combined with the
technologies of "iron pillar" well comprehensive analysis,
well logging acquisition, experimental analysis, and so on,
the reserves of Gulong shale were evaluated and pre-
dicted respectively based on volume method.
4.1.5. Formation overpressure law and shale oil
migration and accumulation mechanism
It is necessary to determine the time limit for the gen-
eration and displacement of large amounts of oil and gas,
and to clarify the time sequence relationship between the
formation of conventional oil and Gulong shale oil in
Daqing Changyuan. Also, it is necessary to establish a
reliable residual hydrocarbon testing and recovery tech-
nology, accurately determine the content and composi-
tion of hydrocarbon in rocks, determine the hydrocarbon
expulsion efficiency of source rocks, and further study the
secondary cracking mechanism of residual hydrocarbon,
and study its influence on the content and composition of
residual hydrocarbon and formation of overpressure.
Based on the analysis methods of tectonic stress field,
temperature and pressure field, fluid field and so on, the
integrated evaluation model of multi-type oil and gas
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
formation model should be established, and the spatial
distribution law of multi-type oil and gas should be de-
fined. Based on the evolution process of shale hydrocar-
bon generation and expulsion, shale oil composition
characteristics, pore characteristics and phase evolution
rule of the reservoir, and dynamic evolution process, the
sweet-spot evaluation index system was established to
predict the geological sweet-spot intervals and sweet-spot
area of Gulong shale oil.
4.2. Shale oil engineering sweet-spot selection
The controlling factors of clay mineral transformation
and lamination structure in the Qingshankou Formation
are complex, and there is no systematic understanding of
compressibility and fracture-forming mechanism. Therefore,
further research is needed to support the selection of engi-
neering sweet spot and optimization of engineering design.
4.2.1. Mineralogical evolution and characteristics
We should comprehensively use XRD (X-ray diffrac-
tion), QEMSCAN (Quantitative mineral evaluation with
scanning electron microscopy), in-situ Raman, and other
analytical methods to study the types and contents of clay
minerals, clarify the origin of clay minerals, and quanti-
tatively evaluate the content of authigenic and sedimen-
tary clay minerals. The types and contents of typical shale
clay minerals at different depths and locations were
studied to clarify the diagenetic evolution sequence of
clay minerals and determine the disappearance line of
montmorillonite and I/S mixed layers, to provide a ref-
erence for the evaluation of shale reservoir effectiveness,
sensitivity, and compressibility.
4.2.2. Mechanical characteristics and damage
mechanism of shale under in-situ environment
We should focus on the research and development of
in-situ formation environment restoration and recon-
struction experimental technology suitable for Gulong
shale. By analyzing the mechanical properties differences
of shale under in-situ environment, distinguish the ani-
sotropic deformation intensity characteristic parameters
and routine mechanical performance test parameters,
analyzing the effect of in-situ environment and beddings
on the mechanical characteristics of shale anisotropy
mechanism, building a Gulong shale anisotropic gradual
failure model considering the effects of mineral fabric
and bedding weak surface for the borehole stability
analysis, inversion of in-situ stress and construction of
numerical fracturing model to provide experimental and
theoretical support.
4.2.3. Fine evaluation of fracturing ability
The spatial distribution and microscopic mechanical
parameters of lamination, organic matter, and various
minerals should be obtained based on the multi-scale fine
 537 
characterization and nano-indentation experiment method.
Through multi-scale characterization from point (con-
sidering single point minerals, pores, and fractures) to
surface (considering mineral fabric and heterogeneity)
and then to volume (considering bedding and laminae), a
fine evaluation method suitable for the fracturing ability
of Gulong shale was established.
4.2.4. Fracture propagation mechanism and process
optimization
In micro-scale, we should strive to develop shale frac-
ture dynamic growth in-situ characterization method,
realize the micro-CT in-situ fracturing, synchronous
scanning, simulate the whole process of dynamic fracture
growth in laminated shale, make clear about the action of
micro-scale bedding laminae, mineral components, and
spatial distribution of organic matter on the control of
fracture growth and verify with the fracturing numerical
model based on the digital core; on a macroscopic scale,
we should explore the Gulong bedding-type, laminated
shale fracture simulation model, analyze the process and
fracture morphology of hydraulic fracturing under the
real formation stress environment and engineering con-
ditions, clarify the main controlling geological and engi-
neering factors, and explore the new fracturing technol-
ogy to effectively improve the longitudinal producing
degree of reconstruction, so as to provide theoretical
support for engineering design.
4.3. Optimization of shale oil development plan
Fluid phase characteristics and distribution, occur-
rence state, mobility, liquid-solid and liquid-gas interac-
tion mechanism under formation conditions are complex,
and needs to be further studied to guide the optimization
of the development scheme and the selection of enhanced
oil recovery technology.
4.3.1. Micromechanical effect and mobility evalua-
tion of shale oil
Nano-scale pore model should be constructed and na-
nomechanical analysis should be carried out, and the
applicability of classical theories such as Young's equa-
tion describing the wettability of solid-liquid interface
and Kelvin equation describing the capillary condensa-
tion phenomenon in the complex environment under
nano-scale of Gulong shale should be studied. The me-
chanical mechanism of the micro-interface is deeply
analyzed to provide theoretical support for the experi-
mental technology and characterization methods of the
phase state and occurrence state of oil and gas in
nano-scale pores; based on fine characterization testing
technique, molecular simulation, and nanomechanics,
quantitatively distinguish free oil from adsorbed oil, clear
the occurrence status of shale oil and the distribution law,
explore the interaction types and mechanisms between
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
minerals, solid organic matter and crude oil, and clarify
the influence of solid/liquid micro-interface interaction
on the adsorption-free transition of crude oil. On this
basis, to carry out study of the interface effect on shale
with different components migrating in nano-scale
channel, build a theory system of nano-scale limited do-
main mass transfer and correlation between molecular
scale and the micro-nano scale material transport, which
provides molecular simulation details and a new theo-
retical basis of micro-scale and nano-scale for the estab-
lishment of shale oil mobility evaluation method.
4.3.2. CO2 effect mechanism and adaptability evalu-
ation
The study of Gulong shale CO2 fracturing and soaking
experiments should be carried out. We should explore the
fracture formation mechanism of Gulong shale with CO2
composite fracturing, clarify the change characteristics of
minerals and physical properties before and after the
action, explore the influence of bedding laminae on en-
hanced oil recovery, and define the effective scope of CO2
in the matrix-fracture network through macroscopic
physical model and microscopic visual simulation. In the
process of shale oil development, it is necessary to ex-
plore the non-equilibrium gas-liquid phase variation law
and its influence on oil and gas flow under different pore
structures, fluid characteristics and dynamic pressure
conditions, clarify the influence of pressure change on the
system phase transition and oil flow, and guide the opti-
mization of CO2 consumption and production system.
Also, pay attention to the effect of CO2 pre-injection on
the phase state of Gulong shale oil.
4.3.3. Well pattern, well spacing optimization, and
production decline law
Gulong shale is characterized by development of bed-
ding fractures, poor vertical perforation ability of frac-
turing, and great difference in vertical and horizontal
flow ability. The flow law of oil, gas and water multi-
phase fluid in different scale pores and fractures is com-
plex, there is a lack of mature experience and practice for
reference in well pattern and well spacing design, and the
adaptability of traditional productivity evaluation and
EUR prediction methods is poor. Firstly, the geological
model of the test area should be established to quantita-
tively characterize the heterogeneity of the sweet spot
and the cross-scale flow model considering the complex
flow mechanism. Combined with the geological and en-
gineering integration method, the reasonable well pat-
tern and well spacing in the test area should be deter-
mined to optimize the reasonable production system.
Secondly, the production decline model of shale oil should
be improved according to the complex phase transition,
special occurrence law and multi-phase and multi-com-
ponent flow characteristics of Gulong shale oil, and the
 538 
effect of well pattern and well spacing should be com-
prehensively considered to further improve the decline
analysis method, to improve the reliability of EUR pre-
diction. Thirdly, the complex flow mechanism of Gulong
shale oil should be considered, and a characteristic well
test model and interpretation method should be estab-
lished to quantitatively evaluate formation pressure, ef-
fective fracture length, flow capacity and other parameters,
so as to predict future production performance and EUR.
5. Conclusions
For more than 50 years, Daqing oil field relied on two
theories which are “on contradiction” and “on practice”,
and formed an oilfield exploration and development
theory and technical system based on Daqing character-
istics. Engineering technology needs to find out the main
contradictions that restrict the efficient development of
oilfields, and solve key scientific problems. At the same
time, forming corresponding characteristic technologies
support the stable production of oilfields in different
development stages, which provides a strong technical
guarantee for oilfield development project.
Currently, Gulong shale oil has superior geological
conditions and a huge resource base and broad prospect
for exploration and development, which is an important
replacement field for Daqing Oilfield. Through recent
years' research and breakthrough, we have initially
achieved key understanding and important achievements.
However, it should be clearly understood that Gulong
shale oil is a new type of resource, with distinctive char-
acteristics in reservoir property, oil bearing property,
mobility, and compression, and there is no precedent for
large-scale commercial development in the world. Facing
the new field, we should adhere to the cognitive devel-
opment law of "practice, understanding, re-practice,
re-understanding" and the principle of "unity of oppo-
sites" to reveal the development of the movement. We
should start with discovering and finding solutions to
scientific problems and then solve engineering problems
through technological innovation. First of all, in the
complicated continental shale oil exploration and devel-
opment process, many contradictions have been gradu-
ally discovered, among which the main contradiction is
the scientific problem. Only by summarizing the rules
and finding a better way to explain the contradictions
and difficult problems, the solution and development of
technical and engineering problems can be significantly
affected. Secondly, technical problems are the continuous
iteration of the cognition of scientific problems and are
all kinds of process methods and skills developed ac-
cording to production practice or scientific principles.
Only by constantly developing new methods, means,
measures, or approaches, the project implementation can
be effectively supported. Finally, engineering problems
are complex problems encountered in the production
 SUN Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(3): 527–540
process, which need the form of "practice, understanding,
re-practice, re-understanding" to meet the needs of oil-
field development step by step. In continuous practice,
problems can be found, ideas can be adjusted, and prob-
lems can be finally solved. If we focus on solving major
engineering problems at the very beginning, even the
basic scientific problems cannot be solved well, it will not
be able to effectively support the large-scale and efficient
development of Gulong shale oil in the long term.
The success of the Gulong shale oil study must high-
light the guiding and promoting role of theory and tech-
nological innovation. Therefore, we sincerely invite global
talents to contribute wisdom and strength to the scale
development and benefits of Gulong shale oil and put
forward some forward-looking, strategic, and overall
suggestions for the development of the Daqing oilfield.
The core competitiveness, sustainable and high-quality
development ability should be constantly enhanced,
making new contributions to the sustainable develop-
ment of Daqing oilfield.
Acknowledgments
During the process of researching and writing this pa-
per, we have received guidance and help from experts and
researchers in “the Gulong Shale Oil Major Geological
Basis and Engineering Practice Collaborative Research”
project team of Daqing Oilfield Exploration and Devel-
opment Research Institute and PetroChina Research In-
stitute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, and
other relevant experts and researchers. We express
thanks to them.
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