Portfolio on Floral Biology, Seed Development and Maturation

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)

Okra or Okro, Abelmoschus esculentus, known in many English-speaking countries as

ladies' fingers or ochro, is a flowering plant in the mallow family. It is valued for its edible green
seed pods. It is a good source of minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, and fiber
Scientific name: Abelmoschus esculentus
Higher classification: Okras
Order: Malvales
Rank: Species

Growth and Development

Okra is mainly propagated by seeds and has duration of 90-100 days. It is generally an
annual plant. Its stem is robust, erect, variable in branching and varying from 0.5 to 4.0 meters in
height. Leaves are alternate and usually palmately five lobed, whereas the flower is axillary and
solitary. The botanical features of various plant parts are detailed in Okra plants are characterized
by indeterminate growth. Flowering is continuous but highly dependent upon biotic and abiotic
stress. The plant usually bears its first flower one to two months after sowing.
The fruit is a capsule and grows quickly after flowering. The greatest increase in fruit
length, height and diameter occurs during 4th to 6th day after pollination. It is at this stage that fruit
is most often plucked for consumption. The okra pods are harvested when immature and high in
mucilage, but before becoming highly fibrous. Generally, the fibre production in the fruit starts
from 6th day onwards of fruit formation and a sudden increase in fibre content from 9th day is
observed. Okra plants continue to flower and to fruit for an indefinite time, depending upon the
variety, the season and soil moisture and fertility. Infact the regular harvesting stimulates
continued fruiting, so much that it may be necessary to harvest every day in climates where
growth is especially vigorous.

Floral Biology

The okra flowers are 4-8 cm in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a
red or purple spot at the base of each petal and the flower withers within one day. The flower
structure combines hermaphroditism and self-compatibility. Flower bud appears in the axil of
each leaf, above 6th to 8th leaf depending upon the cultivar. The crown of the stem at this time
bears 3-4 underdeveloped flowers but later on during the period of profuse flowering of the plant
there may be as many as 10 undeveloped flowers on a single crown.

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 As the stem elongates, the lower most flower buds open into flowers. There may be a
period of 2, 3 or more days between the time of development of each flower but never does more
than one flower appear on a single stem. A flower bud takes about 22-26 days from initiation to
full bloom. The style is surrounded by a staminal column which may bear more than 100 anthers.
The pollen may come in contact with the stigmas through a lengthening of the staminal column
or through insect foraging (Thakur and Arora, 1986). Thus, the flowers of okra are self-fertile.
The pollen grain is large with many pores, and every pore is a potential
tube source; therefore, many tubes can develop from one pollen grain

Pollination and Fertilization

Flower bud initiation, flowering, anthesis and stigma receptivity are influenced by
genotype and climatic factors like temperature and humidity. From studies made on six okra
varieties concluded that flower buds are initiated at 22-26 days and the first flower opened 41-48
days after sowing. Once initiated, flowering continues for 40-60 days. Anthesis was observed
between 6 a.m. and 10 a.m. Anthers dehisce before flower opening and hence self-pollination
may occur at anthesis. The dehiscence of anthers is transverse and complete dehiscence occurs in
5-10 minutes (Purewal and Randhawa, 1947). Pollen fertility is maximum in the period between
an hour before and an hour after opening of the flower (Srivastava, 1964). Pollen stored for 24
hours at room temperature (27° C) and 88% relative humidity was not viable. The stigma was
most receptive on the day of flowering (90-100%). Stigma receptivity was also observed the day
before flowering (50-70%) and the day after (1-15%). Flowers open only once in the morning
and close after pollination on the same day. The following morning the corolla withers.
Okra has perfect flowers (male and female reproductive parts in the same flower) and is
self-pollinating. If okra flowers are bagged to exclude pollinators, 100% of the flowers will set
seed. It has been found experimentally that there is no significant difference in fruit set under
open-pollinated, self-pollinated (by bagging alone) and self-pollinated (hand pollination of
bagged flowers), indicating that it is potentially a self-pollinated crop. The inbreeding depression
well pronounced in cross-pollinated crops has not been reported in this crop
Although insects are unnecessary for pollination and fertilization in case of okra, the
flowers are very attractive to bees and the plants are cross-pollinated. The cross pollination up to
the extent of 4-19% with maximum of 42.2% has been reported. The extent of cross-pollination
in a particular place will depend upon the cultivar, competitive flora, insect population and
season, etc.

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 Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)

Cucumber is a widely-cultivated creeping vine plant in the Cucurbitaceae gourd family

that bears cucumiform fruits, which are used as vegetables. There are three main varieties of
cucumber—slicing, pickling, and burpless/seedless—within which several cultivars have been
created. 
Scientific name: Cucumis sativus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Higher classification: Cucumis
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Cucurbitales
Rank: Species

Growth and Development

Cucumis sativus is climber growing up to 2 m. The fruit is roughly cylindrical, elongated
with tapered ends, and may be as large as 60 cm long and 10 cm in diameter. At optimal
temperature conditions it needs 6–8 weeks from sowing to the production of the first flowers and
8–10 weeks for the development of the first fruits.
The changes in morphology during dark germination and subsequent growth of cucumber
(Cucumis sativus) seedlings in the light go through three different phases described as latent,
active, and steady-state. This pattern is consistently observed for several related developmental
processes. The latent period lasts about 2 days following water imbibition after which the
following capabilities appear in concert: (a) root and stem elongation, (b) pigment synthesis

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including protochlorophyll, chlorophyll, carotenoid, and phytochrome, (c) synthesis of ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, and (d) enhancement of greening by excision.
Following the active phase, which lasts for another 2 to 3 days, these processes slow to a steady-
state. Inhibition of chlorphyll accumulation by SO2 was only observed for seedlings in the
steady-state phase.
Cucumbers appear at the center of each fertilized female flower as tiny green finger-like
projections that enlarge almost daily as production progresses. It takes roughly 50 days
from pollination for cucumbers to be ready to pick. It is grown as an annual, which means that
the plant does not regenerate after the growing season. Once it has lived out its life span of
roughly 70 days, the plant dies and cannot be regrown.

Floral Biology
Cucumis  sativus is an annual plant species and is considered to be day-neutral. At
optimal temperature conditions it needs 6–8 weeks from sowing to the production of the first
flowers and 8–10 weeks for the development of the first fruits. For breeding purposes, in a
greenhouse under optimal temperature conditions and artificial illumination during winter, three
generations per year can be produced.
Thus, there are three different flower types in cucumber: pistillate, staminate and
hermaphroditic flowers. An embryonic flower bud has both staminate and pistillate initials. Due
to the effect of genetic factors and environmental conditions, development of staminate or
pistillate flower organs may be either selective, resulting in staminate or pistillate flower types,
or non-selective, resulting in hermaphroditic flowers.
The flowers are formed in the leaf axils on extremely short axillary shoots. In one axillary
position, multiple staminate flowers often occur, whereas pistillate flowers usually appear singly.
Occasionally, staminate and pistillate flowers both develop in one leaf axil. The recessive
gene controls the formation of multiple pistillate flowers.87

Pollination and Fertilization

The calyx and corolla of staminate, pistillate and hermaphroditic flowers are five-
lobed. The staminate flowers have three stamens: two have bilobular anthers and the third has
one another. The pistillate flowers contain up to five stigmas. The differences between the
staminate flowers of the different varieties are small. The ovaries of the pistillate flowers,
however, can noticeably differ from each other in shape, size, presence or absence of warts,
spines, etc., corresponding to the external characters of the ripened fruit. Pistillate flowers are
epigynous. Hermaphroditic flowers are usually perigynous, but may vary between almost
hypogynous and almost epigynous. The variation is especially large in hermaphroditic
flowers forming after silver nitrate treatment of female lines. Fruits of hermaphroditic flowers,
i.e., of perigynous flowers, are more round than the fruits of epigynous flowers.

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Staminate, pistillate and hermaphroditic flowers can easily be distinguished from each other
visually. The staminate flowers can be recognized by their thin pedicles. Since hermaphroditic
flowers must offer room for anthers as well as pistil, their column at the top of the ovary is
enlarged in comparison with the pistillate flowers and can therefore easily be distinguished from
them.

Cucumber is open-pollinated and self-compatible. All flower types produce nectar and
effuse a faint smell. Pollination is by insects, mainly bees. There is no wind dissemination of
pollen. In greenhouses proof against insects and other natural pollen vectors, crossings are
carried out by carefully dabbing anthers taken from a fully opened staminate or hermaphroditic
flower to the stigma of an opening pistillate flower, using tweezers. An anther can also be
carefully inserted into the opening in the middle of the stigma and left there. Tweezers need not
be used if the petals of a staminate flower of the male parent are removed, the flower held by the
pedicle with thumb and forefinger and carefully dabbed to the stigma of the pistillate flower.

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 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

The tomato is the edible berry of the plant Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a
tomato plant. The species originated in western South America and Central America. The
Nahuatl word tomcat gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato
derived.
Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Higher classification: Nightshade
Rank: Species
Order: Solanales

Growth and Development

Tomato plants are generally much branched, spreading 60–180 cm (24–72 inches) and
somewhat trailing when fruiting, but a few forms are compact and upright. Leaves are more or
less hairy, strongly odorous, pinnately compound, and up to 45 cm (18 inches) long. The five
petaled flowers are yellow, 2 cm (0.8 inch) across, pendant, and clustered. Fruits are berries that
vary in diameter from 1.5 to 7.5 cm (0.6 to 3 inches) or more. They are usually red, scarlet, or
yellow, though green and purple varieties do exist, and they vary in shape from almost spherical

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to oval and elongate to pear-shaped. Each fruit contains at least two cells of
small seeds surrounded by jellylike pulp.
The plant requires relatively warm weather and much sunlight; it is grown chiefly in
hothouses in cooler climates. Tomatoes are usually staked, tied, or caged to keep the stems and
fruits off the ground, and consistent watering is necessary to avoid blossom-end rot and cracking
of the fruits. The plants are susceptible to a number of pests and diseases, including
bacterial wilt, early blight, mosaic virus, Fusarium wilt, nematodes, and tomato hornworms.
Many of these problems can be controlled with crop rotation, the use
of fungicides and pesticides, and the planting of resistant varieties. The tiny currant tomato is a
closely related species and has been used by breeders to hybridize several pests- and disease-
resistant tomato varieties. A Tomato plant can live for 6 Months. Starting from seed to flowering
and then dying, 6-8 months is the complete life cycle of a tomato plant. According to biology,
A tomato is a soft stem perennial fruiting plant. this definition makes it clear that tomato plants
can live for several years if kept safe.

Floral biology
Tomato flowers are perfect, regular and hypogynous and are
borne on inflorescences that may be either determinate (cymose) or indeterminate
(racemose), depending on the species. The flower is connected to the axis by a pedicel
that includes the abscission point. The first flower appears when the plant has three leaves
and, frequently, the first and the last bud of an inflorescence are aborted. The number of flowers
produced by an inflorescence is dependent upon environmental
factors. A plant growing at 16°C produces four times more flowers than a plant growing.
at 24°C. Temperatures below 10°C, or less than 12 hours of light, reduce yield by causing
premature flower abscission. As flowers form sequentially, buds, flowers and fruits can
co-exist in an inflorescence. The flowers are yellow and generally less
than 2.5 cm in diameter when in full bloom. They possess four helically arranged whorls
of organs; green sepals form the outer whorl or calyx, at least five yellow petals are
present in the corolla, stamens alternate with petal position and are fused to form an
anther cone and a whorl of two or more fused carpels form the pistil at the center of the
flower. The number of carpels found in the pistil varies between species and relates to the
number of locules present in the resulting fruit.

Fertilization and Pollination

For some varieties, flowers have the style shorter than the tip of the anther cone,
while for other varieties the style is longer than the anther cone. The stigma is receptive
from one to two days before to four to eight days after its own flower releases pollen, thus
cross-pollination is possible. The first meiosis during pollen production occurs when the

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anthers reach one-third of their final length. The optimal temperature range for pollen
production is 10-35°C and the number of pollen grains formed in an anther is genetically
determined. Anther dehiscence delivers thousands of pollen grains into the channel formed
by the hairs. However, as anthers release pollen inwardly towards the style, vibration assisted
self-pollination is usual, especially in short-style varieties. In long-style varieties,
the downward posture of the flower allows self-pollination by gravity. The anther cone
releases pollen around the stigma at the slightest vibration. Wind and insects provide the
vibrating action necessary for self-pollination under field conditions. Under greenhouse
conditions, mechanical vibrating devices or insects are used. Optimal conditions for
pollination are temperatures of 17-24°C and humidity above 70%. High humidity and low
temperatures favour outcrossing