Physics 1230: Light and Color

•  Photography

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys1230

Photography
–  F/number
–  Shutter speeds
–  Exposure
–  Film
–  Taking good photographs
–  Lenses
–  Digital cameras
http://www.photonhead.com/beginners/
http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/shutteraperture.php
http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/filmspeed.php
http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/camerashake.php
 PHOTOGRAPHY

Simplest camera - pinhole camera

 TYPES OF CAMERA

•  35 mm rangefinder: This is a compact camera that uses a

rangefinder to tell you when the image is in focus.
•  35 mm SLR: SLR stands for single lens reflex. Here you look into a
viewfinder which sees the image that is on the film. This is done with a
movable mirror.
•  View camera: This is the old-fashioned type of camera that requires
a tripod. These are still used by professionals.
•  Large format SLR: This is similar to the 35 mm SLR, but it uses
larger film (often 70 mm).
•  Digital camera: These cameras do not use film, but instead record
the image with a “CCD” or charge coupled device, which is an array of
sensors. The image is divided into little squares called pixels, and the
amount of light in each pixel is stored in a file that can be read by a
computer.
 Parts of a camera

•  Lens: Makes the image.

•  Diaphragm or iris or stop: Controls the intensity of the light.
•  Shutter: Controls the duration of the light.
•  Film or CCD: Records the image
 Other parts of a camera

•  Focusing knob: As the object gets closer, the lens must be moved farther
from the film.
•  Bellows: On older cameras, bellows allow the lens to move without letting in
light.
•  Ground glass: Scatters light from all parts of the image into the eye so you
can focus camera.
Imaging with
lenses
 Parts of a camera - diaphragm or iris or stop
i.e., a variable aperture

f-Stops control how much light is passed

through the lens.

Like the pupil in a human eye, the aperture on

a camera controls light. It does so by closing
down to restrict light, and opening up to let it
through. Lower f-Stop numbers indicate
MORE LIGHT.

f/number is related to the size of the opening

in the iris by -

DEFINITION: f/number = focal length of lens

diameter of hole in iris
Every step in this table represents a ONE
STOP change in light.
f/number dial on a camera
 Example of diaphragm or iris or stop

DEFINITION:
f/number = focal length of lens
diameter of hole in iris

So f/2 is an opening with diameter equal to

1/2 the focal length of the lens, or (focal
length)/2

Every step in this table represents a

ONE STOP change in light.
 Concept question

How much more light is f/2 than

f/4?

A: 2

B: 4

C: 8

DEFINITION: f/number = focal length of lens

diameter of hole in iris
 Concept question

QUESTION: If f = 50mm and iris size d

= 12.5mm, what is the f/number?

A: 2

B: 4

C: 8

DEFINITION: f/number = focal length of lens

diameter of hole in iris
 Why are there funny numbers like 2.8 and 5.6
and 11 on the f/number dial?

A.  The diameters change by a

factor of square root of 2, so
that the amount of light let in
changes by 2 from one stop to
the next.

B.  The area changes by 2 from ine

stop to the next.

C.  The numbers are picked

randomly.

DEFINITION: f/number = focal length of lens

diameter of hole in iris
Aberrations - Spherical

• Spherical aberration happens

because a sphere does not
have a perfect focus for light
rays
• Rays at the edge focus closer
than rays from the center
• Want to restrict the rays at
the edge to get a good image
 Effect of f-number on your picture quality

•  All lenses have residual aberrations, which can be reduced by stopping down
•  However, there is another important reason to use a variable stop - it can
improve the DEPTH OF FIELD
•  The more the lens is stopped down, the greater the depth of field
•  The depth of field also depends on the focal length of the lens
Review: finding images using
the Thin Lens formula
Say that I know F and the distance
of the object from the lens

Can I find out where the image will

be?

Yes from - 1/xo + 1/xi = 1/F

=> 1/xi = 1/F - 1/xo

where xi = distance to image, xo =

distance to object, and F = focal
length
 Depth of Field

•  All lenses have residual aberrations, which can be reduced by stopping down
•  However, there is another important reason to use a variable stop - it can
improve the DEPTH OF FIELD, which is a measure of how much things can be
separated and still be in focus.
•  The more the lens is stopped down, the greater the depth of field
•  The depth of field also depends on the focal length of the lens
The more the lens is stopped down, the greater
the depth of field

in this example, neither object a

or b is in focus at the film plane:
both are slightly out of focus

closing down the aperture reduces

the angular divergence of the
beams behind the focal point
Sometimes a shallow depth of field is good
Sometimes a shallow depth of field is good
But sometimes a large depth of field is desirable
Sometimes a little blurring of the background is
enough to achieve a nice efect
 Concept question

Which image has a better depth of field?

A.  f/2
B.  f/16
C.  Neither
 Concept question

How much bigger in area is the f/2 compared with the f/16?
A.  64
B.  8
C.  2
D.  16
f/16 Photographs with
different stop size
In which direction is the
camera being stopped down
(i.e., the aperture made
smaller)?
A.  Top to bottom
B.  Bottom to top

f/2
The f-stop characterizes how much light a lens collects

•  Long focal length lens with

aperture stopped to f/2

•  Same lens as above but at f/4.

Notice that light meter reads
lower.

•  Shorter focal length lens

stopped at f/2. Now the image
is smaller, but the illumination
(intensity) is the same as in top
figure.
 Parts of a camera - shutter
Shutter speed determines HOW LONG the shutter stays
open.

Examples

A half second exposure is ONE STOP darker than a one

second exposure.

A 1/125 exposure is TWO STOPS brighter than a 1/500

exposure.

A 1/1000 exposure is THREE STOPS darker than a 1/125

exposure.

The longer exposures ( like 1 second ) give much MORE

light to the film than a 1/1000 of a second exposure. So
even though the number may look bigger, don't be
deceived!
 You Be the
Photographer!

•  What settings would

you use to take the
photo at right?
Here’s an photograph taken with no blurring and large depth of field:

http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/shutteraperture.php
http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/filmspeed.php
http://www.photonhead.com/simcam/camerashake.php
Exposure is about different combinations of shutter and f-stop settings.
These combinations can drastically affect the finished picture. For
example, the following three pictures have been given an equal amount of
light, but the f-stop and shutter combinations make each one unique.

http://www.88.com/exposure/exposure.htm
Why is the background all blurred in the right picture, and sharpest in the
left ?
Because if the exposure is made with a wide aperture ( like f/2.8 ), then
objects farther away from the subject are thrown farther out of focus.
So... if the aperture is small (like f/22) then objects in the background (and
foreground) will appear sharper. However, since a longer shutter time was
required to make the exposure on the left ( 1/4 Second ) in this example the
subjects became blurred from MOTION.
•  Larger f/numbers (smaller apertures) give larger depth of field but need
longer exposure times and thus may blur.
•  Small f/numbers need short exposure times because of large apertures.
They also have limited depth of focus.
•  What do you notice about the light levels (exposure) in all these images?
•  It is the same in all these images because the combination of f/number and
shutter speed are equivalent combinations from an exposure point of view.
http://www.88.com/exposure/simcam.htm
 Taking a photograph

If the camera is all set up to take

a photo of the tree, and then
your friend wants a head
portrait, do you need to -
A.  Move lens away from film
B.  Move lens towards film
C.  Leave lens in same place
D.  Other
 Taking a photograph

If the camera is all set up to take

a photo of the tree, and then your
friend wants a head portrait, do
you need to -
A.  Move lens away from film
B.  Move lens towards film
C.  Leave lens in same place
D.  Other
 Lenses
•  Popular lens focal lengths -
-  28 mm wide angle (covers 65 degrees)
-  50 mm normal angle (covers 40 degrees) – ”standard” lens
-  150 mm telephoto (covers 15 degrees)
-  Zoom lenses have variable focal length
• The focusing knob moves the lens back and forth so that you can
get the object focused.
• Often there is a scale marked in feet (or meters!) All distant
objects are in focus when the distance from the film to the lens is
the focal length.
 Telephoto camera lenses
Telephoto lenses are useful for viewing and enlarging far away objects
What is the magnification for a single lens?
A single lens would have to stick out much farther in front of the camera
than the telephoto combination
 Concept Question
Why does the telephoto lens enlarge the image of far away objects?
A.  Magnification = Image distance/Object Distance and telephoto
lens is like a longer focal length lens with longer image distance
B.  The diverging lens makes the image bigger
C.  The object distance is shorter
 Zoom lenses
Zoom lenses are lenses of variable focal length, where the focal plane is fixed on
the film plane
Such a lens can zoom between normal and wide-angle pictures, and easily enlarge
the image.
Compound lenses

Compound lenses allow one to design a

lens combination that eliminates
aberrations
 View Cameras
Not too many photographers start with a 4x5" view camera, but that is
rather a shame. View cameras are the most flexible cameras, usually made
from a basic design that has not changed for over 100 years. You know the
guy in the old time photo studio who photographs with his head under a
cloth? He's using a view camera. Ansel Adams? He took most of his best
photos with a huge 8x10" view camera. All those luscious ads for food in
magazines? Taken with view cameras.
A view camera is fundamentally a light-tight box with a slot at one end for a
lens and a slot at the other for the film. You compose and focus your image
on a ground glass, then displace the glass with a sheet of film four by five
inches in size. The negative from a view camera is about the same size as a
proof print that you get back from a 1-hour lab.

http://photo.net/photo/
what-camera-should-I-
buy.html
 View Cameras and Perspective

Another advantage of using a view camera is that

it gives you an understanding of perspective.
With a view camera, the lens and film aren't
fixed parallel to each other. This opens up a huge
range of creative opportunities that are
unavailable to most users of 35mm and medium
format gear. For example, if you want to take a
photo of a building with a Nikon, you have to
point the camera up towards the sky. You will
then be projecting the vertical exterior of the
building onto the angled film surface. The lines of
the building will converge towards the top of the
frame. With a view camera, you shift the lens up
and/or the film down. The film is now "looking up"
at the building through the lens, but the film is
still parallel to the building exterior so lines
don't converge.
http://photo.net/photo/what-
camera-should-I-buy.html
 Problem of converging lines

A PC (perspective control) lens allows one to slide the film frame

independently of the other parts of the camera
 35mm SLR camera

The 35mm single lens reflex (SLR) is most

folks' idea of a serious camera. SLR means
that the same lens is used for viewing and
taking pictures. A mirror in the body directs
the light from the lens up into a prism for
viewing, then flips up out of the way just
before an exposure is made. These are
extremely versatile instruments in the right
hands and can take beautiful pictures if
used with care.

http://photo.net/
photo/what-camera-
should-I-buy.html
 Fast and Slow Film
This isn't about how fast you can take pictures. It's about how much light you
need to get clear images. Film speed indicates sensitivity to light. It's
expressed as the ISO number you see on your film boxes.

A high-speed (fast) film captures light faster than a slow speed film so you
don't need as much light to get a properly exposed image. So be sure to select
a higher-speed film (ISO 400 or above) when you're shooting indoors or on a
cloudy day. Likewise, a low-speed, slower film (like ISO 100) requires more
light and should be used in bright, sunny situations.

If you have an older camera, the ASA

(American Standards Association) number is
the same as today's ISO numbers. So if the
speed of your film is ISO 200, you should set
200 on the ASA dial of your camera or meter.

A 400 speed film is twice as fast as a 200

speed film and needs half of the light.

Why should I not take ASA 25 film to a

football game?
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/consumer/film/how_color.shtml
 Equivalent Exposures with Film Speed

f/2 and a 1/200 of a second shutter speed with ASA 200 film is the
same as -

f/2 and a 1/400 of a second shutter speed with ASA 400 film
and
f/2 and a 1/25 of a second shutter speed with ASA 25 film

Example
Canon EOS 350D
1/200 second
F/9.0
ISO 400
125 mm
 You Be the Photographer!

•  What settings would

you use to take the
photo at right?
 How does black & white film work?
•  In modern film, small silver halide crystals are embedded in a gelatin emulsion. This
side faces the lens.

•  Exposure to light breaks the bonds of chemicals containing silver (like silver iodide or
silver bromide) and generates silver nuclei.

•  Tiny grains of silver scatter light and look dark. This is the “latent” image.

•  Once the bonds are broken, other chemicals (developers) can separate the silver, and
the places where light hit become even darker. This makes a negative image. The
reducing agent works faster where there already are silver nuclei i.e. where film is
exposed.

•  To stop the development before the unexposed crystals are reduced to silver, a stop
bath is used. (usually an acid, which makes the developer inactive)

•  Fixing then removes the unexposed crystals to prevent them from darkening later.
“Hypo” is used for this step (short for sodium hypochlorite)

•  For fine detailed pictures, film with smaller silver halide crystals is used. This film
typically requires longer exposure time i.e. it is slower.
Film developing process
 Digital cameras

•  Digital cameras are the same as a regular camera except that they use
an array of sensors instead of film. Often there is an array of 3
sensors, each with a different filter, to capture color images.

• Digital cameras have many advantages -

-  Pictures can be transferred directly into computer file
-  There is no need for film development
-  One can see the image right away

•  Digital cameras have some disadvantages -

-  The images are not as detailed as images on film but getting
better quickly!
-  Cameras are more expensive but you save on film!
 Digital cameras

digital SLR

flash
memory
CCD array Canon PowerShot A95
Image taken with 1280 x 960 digital camera
Magnified image of sailboat shows individual pixels
Magnified image of sunset shows individual pixels
Digital Camera Picture
(2Mpixel, 6MB)
Camera Phone Picture, 640x480 pixels (0.3Mpixel or 0.9MB)
Camera Phone Picture, 640x480 pixels (0.3Mpixel or 0.9MB)
Camera Phone Picture, 640x480 pixels (0.3Mpixel or 0.9MB)
 War of the Pixels

Image size/Resolution

Many digital cameras allow you to change image resolution. Resolution

relates to the size your image appears on a computer monitor rather
then the physical dimensions an image will print. For example, common
sizes found on a consumer level two megapixel digital cameras are 1600
x 1200, 1280 x 960, 1024 x 768 and 640 x 480.

SIZE RESOLUTION Maximum

standard print size:
Minimum resolution
4 X 6" 800 x 600 pixels
5 x 7" 1024 x 768 pixels
8 x 10" 1220 x 960 pixels
11x14" 1600 x 1200 pixels

http://www.digicamhelp.com/taking-pictures/image_quality.htm
What can we see?
 Capturing Color in Digital Cameras

The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the camera sensor

(usually a charge-coupled device (CCD) chip or a CMOS transistor array) that
turns light into discrete signals, replacing the job of film in traditional
photography. The sensor is made up of millions of "buckets" that collect
charge in response to light. Generally, these buckets respond to only a narrow
range of light wavelengths, due to a color filter over each. Each one of these
buckets is called a pixel, and a de-mosaicing/interpolation algorithm is needed
to turn the image with only one wavelength range per pixel into an RGB image
where each pixel is assigned three numbers to represent a complete color.

CMOS image sensor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera#Digital_single_lens_reflex_cameras
 Image Resolution in Digital Cameras – the Pixel count

The one attribute most commonly compared on cameras is the pixel count. Due
to the ever increasing sizes of sensors, the pixel count is into the millions, and
using the SI prefix of mega- (which means 1 million) the pixel counts are given
in megapixels. For example, an 8.0 megapixel camera has 8.0 million pixels.
The pixel count alone is commonly presumed to indicate the resolution of a
camera, but this is a misconception. There are several other factors that
impact a sensor's resolution. Some of these factors include sensor size, lens
quality, and the organization of the pixels (for example, a monochrome camera
without a color filter mosaic has a higher resolution than a typical color
camera).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera#Digital_single_lens_reflex_cameras
 Capturing Color in Digital Cameras

The Bayer filter pattern is a repeating 2×2 mosaic pattern of light filters,
with green ones at opposite corners and red and blue in the other two
positions. The high proportion of green takes advantage of properties of the
human visual system, which determines brightness mostly from green and is
far more sensitive to brightness than to hue or saturation. Sometimes a 4-
color filter pattern is used, often involving two different hues of green. This
provides potentially more accurate color, but requires a slightly more
complicated interpolation process. The color intensity values not captured for
each pixel can be interpolated (or guessed) from the values of adjacent pixels
which represent the color being calculated

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Digital_camera#Digital_single_lens_reflex_cameras

www.shortcourses.com/bookstore/guide/guidev1.pdf
 Pixels per Dollar
As the technology has improved, costs have decreased dramatically.
Measuring the "pixels per dollar" as a basic measure of value for a
digital camera, there has been a continuous and steady increase in the
number of pixels each dollar buys in a new camera consistent with the
principles of Moore's Law. This predictability of camera prices was
was first presented in 1998 at the Australian PMA DIMA conference
by Barry Hendy and is since referred to as "Hendy's Law”.
 Image Resolution in Digital Cameras – can you have too many Pixels?

Many digital compact cameras are criticized for having too many pixels, in that
the sensors can be so small that the resolution of the sensor is greater than
the lens could possibly deliver. Excessive pixels can even lead to a decrease in
image quality. As each pixel sensor gets smaller it is catching fewer photons,
and so the signal-to-noise ratio will decrease. This decrease leads to noisy
pictures, poor shadow region quality and generally poorer-quality pictures.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera#Digital_single_lens_reflex_cameras
 Digital video cameras

 technology similar to digital still cameras

 How do I choose a Digital Camera?

Judging digital camera quality The quality of a digital camera depends on its resolution, color
depth, capacity, optics and convenience features. Here's what to look for:

･Resolution. The CCD on a digital camera stores the image in a grid of dots, or pixels, that translate into digital ones
and zeros that a computer can understand. The more pixels the camera can record, the larger the image and the finer
the detail. Generally, you'll pay more money for higher resolution. Most affordable digital cameras can record images in
a 640 by 480 pixel grid. That's enough to fill a good chunk of a Web page or produce a decent 4-by-3-inch printed
image. With some cameras, you can choose between two resolutions. At the lower resolution, you can store more
images, but they won't be as detailed.

･Color capability. This is the number of colors a digital camera can reproduce, and it's generally measured in
something called "bit depth." The bit depth determines how many digital ones and zeros the camera uses to record
color information for each pixel. Better cameras can handle 24-bit color, which means they can recognize up to 16
million hues. This approximates the range of the human eye.

･Capacity. The number of pictures a digital camera can take is determined by its resolution and memory. Low-end
digital cameras typically store between 16 and 40 pictures. The actual number may depend on the resolution and
compression ratio you choose. Most cameras come with snap-in memory modules. When you fill one, you can replace it
with another. But these memory cards aren't cheap -- expect to pay about $100 for a card that can store 15 to 30
full-resolution photos. More sophisticated cameras may have internal floppy disk drives or even tiny hard disks. The
best can store a hundred pictures or more and even record sound bytes to go with each shot.

･Optics. Inexpensive digital cameras come with fixed-focus lenses that produce the equivalent of a moderate wide-
angle view on a 35mm film camera. They're fine for small groups or landscapes, but tend to exaggerate noses and chins
on closeups. Better models have zoom lenses that range from wide-angle to short telephoto. They'll produce better
portraits. Most cameras come with a built-in automatic flash.

･Convenience features. The most important convenience feature is a liquid crystal display screen on the back of the
camera. On some models, the LCD takes the place of the viewfinder, so you can see exactly what you're shooting. On
other cameras, you'll find an optical viewfinder and an LCD that displays shots after you've taken them. Either way,
better cameras will allow you to flip through the photos you've taken and erase shots you don't want. This frees up
memory for more pictures. http://tms.ecol.net/computer/pcamera.htm
 Guide to decent photographs

1. Take 3 times as many photos as you want to keep

2. Soft lighting (sunrise, sunset, slightly overcast) makes better
pictures than direct lighting (sun). Direct sun creates shadows
which will be underexposed.
3. Film cannot record an extreme range of brightness. Proper
exposure of bright objects such as snow or light rock will leave
dim objects too black.
4. Fast shutter speeds (1/250, 1/500 etc.) will freeze motion
such as waterfalls, sports, traffic, etc., but will require bigger
lens opening (e.g. f/2) and give less depth of field.
5. Slow shutter speeds will cause moving objects such as cars to
leave streaks.
6. Purposefully blur the background to to call attention to the
main object. Small f/numbers (e.g. f/1.4) will blur the background.
7. Big f/numbers (e.g. f/22) will give large depth of field and keep
background in focus.
 Guide to decent photographs ctd.
8. Wide-angle lenses may give a distorted view. It is best not to have any object
too close to a wide angle lens, or noses come out too big!
9. Telephoto lenses should be held very still. The larger image formed moves
more if the camera is not kept still. A good rule of thumb is: a 200mm lens should
not be used with a shutter speed below 1/200 sec; a 400mm lens should not be
used with a shutter speed below 1/400 sec. If you must break this rule, use a
tripod or friend to steady yourself.
10. Walk around your subject to see what gives the best background.
11. Have your back to the source of light when at all possible. Otherwise shadows
will be a problem. Also avoid having the sun shine into the lens, or internal
reflections will be created.
12. Consider photographing a part of the subject instead of the whole thing (e.g.
leaf of a tree, hands of a person, etc.)
13. Consider editing your subject (move a weed from in front of a flower).
14. Avoid having distractions like power lines in your pictures.
15. For wildlife, a 200 mm or 400 mm telephoto lens is useful. These lenses are
usually f/4 to f/22, and do not let in a lot of light. So you will need fast film and
a tripod.
16. Keep your camera loaded!