11th Geography EM WWW - Tntextbooks.in

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
GEOGRAPHY
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 1 2/3/2020 4:13:38 PM

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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019, 2020
(Published Under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

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CONTENTS
GEOGRAPHY
Page MONTH
UNIT TITLE
No
1 Fundamentals of Geography 1 June
2 The Solar system and the Earth 21 June
3 Lithosphere – Endogenic Processes 51 July
4 Lithosphere – Exogenic Processes 78 August
5 Hydrosphere 105 September
6 Atmosphere 137 October
7 The Biosphere 177 October
8 Natural Disasters - Public Awareness For
218 November
Disaster Risk Reduction
PRACTICAL
9 Map and Scale 231 July
10 Representation of Relief Features and August
244
Climatic Data
11 Interpretation of Topographical Map 254 August
12 Weather Maps 263 November
13 Field Work and Report Writing 278 December
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CAREER GUIDANCE FOR GEOGRAPHY ASPIRANTS
11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 5
NRSC
IMD
Organisations Supplying Special Publications / Databases

Geographers in State and Central
and Impart Trainings to Geographers
Government Agencies
Remote Sensing:Publications and Public Relations Unit, ISRO HQ, AntarikshBhavan, New BEL Road, Bangalure-560
094; NRSC Data Centre, National Remote Sensing Centre, Balanagar, Hyderabad-500 037; Remote Sensing
Census of India Offices in different States.
Applications Group, Space Application Centre, SAC Post, Ahmedabad- 380 053;Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC),
4-Kalidas Road, Dehradun- 248 001.
Hyderabad.
Cyclone, Rainfall and Weather Information: Indian Meteorological Department, Nungambakam, Chennai – 600 006.
V
Survey of India (SoI), Dehra Dun and in different
Survey of India - Topographic Sheets: Map Sales Office, Electronic Complex - Block II Ground Floor, Thiru. Vi. Ka.
States.
Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai – 600032.
National Atlas and Thematic Mapping
Geology and Minerals:Department of Geology and Mining, Thiru. Vi. Ka. Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai - 600
Organizaiton (NATMO), Kolkata.
032;Geological Survey of India, No A 2 -B Rajaji Bhavan, Besant Nagar, Chennai – 600090.
www.tntextbooks.in
Regional Planning/Town and Country Planning

Surface and Groundwater and Climate Data: Office of the Chief Engineer, State Ground and Surface Water Resources
Organisations.
Data Centre,Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113; Central Ground Water Board. http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in
Naval Hydrographic Office, Dehra Dun.
Soil Data and Maps:Regional Head, ICAR-NBSS&LUP, P.B.No. 2487, Hebbal, Agricultural Farm, Post, Bengaluru - 560
National Centre for Earth Science Studies,
024.
Thiruvananthapuram.
Rainfall, Landuse, Irrigation and Crop Data:Village / Block/Taluk level Data available at Department of Economics and
Centre for Water Resources Development and
Statistics, All District Headquarters; Department of Economics and Statistics, 259, Block II, DMS Compound,Teynampet,
Management, Kozhikode.
Chennai-600006.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Soil, Rainfall and Weather Data: Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore –
IndianCouncil of Agricultural Research, Jodhpur.
641003.http://tawn.tnau.ac.in/General/HomePublicUI.aspx
Central Research Institute for Dry Land
Population Data:Census of India - Tamil Nadu, 'E' Wing, 3rd Floor, Rajaji Bhawan, Besant Nagar,Chennai – 600090.
Agriculture (ICAR), Hyderabad.
http://censusindia.gov.in/
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Economic Appraisals & Annual Statistical Abstracts of Tamil Nadu:Stationery and Printing Department, 110, Anna Salai,
Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur.
Chennai-600002.http://www.stationeryprinting.tn.gov.in
French Institute of Pondicherry, Puducherry.
Soil and Watershed Atlas: Remote Sensing Centre, Agriculture Engineering Department, Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035.
National Institute of Malaria Research, (ICMR), http://www.aedatlas.tn.nic.in
New Delhi.
GIS Data Layers of Tamil Nadu:Tamil Nadu Geographical Information System (TNGIS), Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.
http://www.tngis.tn.gov.in
2/3/2020 4:13:42 PM
11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 6
UPSC
UM
Universities and Colleges Offering B.Sc., M.Sc., in Geography and

Competitive examinations comprising Geography
M.Tech Programme in Geoinformatics in Tamil Nadu
subject matter are listed below
Department of Geography, University of Madras, Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Department of Geography, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai - 625 021.
Department of Geography,BharathidasanUniversity,Tiruchirappalli - 620 024.
Department of Geography, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur –610 005.
Department of Environmental Remote Sensing and Cartography, Madurai KamarajUniversity, Madurai - 625 021.
UPSC civil service examinations conducted by Department of Geography, Presidency College (Autonomous),Chennai – 600 005.
Govt. of india.
VI
Department of Geography,Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous), Chennai - 600 004.
Tamilnadu Public Service Commission Group Department of Geography,Bharathi Women’s College (Autonomous), 85, PrakasamSalai, Chennai-600 108.
services Examinations conducted by Govt.of
Department of Geography, Tourism and Travel Management, Madras Christian College
Tamilnadu.
(Autonomous), Tambaram, Chennai - 600 059.
Teachers Recruitment Board,School education
www.tntextbooks.in
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous),Salem – 636 007.

and Collegiate education,Govt.of Tamilnadu.
Department of Geography,Sri Vijay Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science, Nallampalli, Dharmapuri – 636807.
Department of Geography,Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Namakkal – 637002.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Coimbatore - 641 018.
Department of Geography, Nirmala College for Women (Autonomous), Coimbatore – 641 018.
Department of Geography, Bharathiar University Arts & Science College, Amaikulam,
PuliamParai (P.O.), Gudalur - 643 212.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Karur – 639 005.
Department of Geography, Periyar E.V.R. College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli – 620 023.
Department of Geography,Government Arts College,Thiruverumbur, Tiruchirappalli – 620 022.
Department of Geography,KundavaiNachiar Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Thanjavur - 613 007.
Department of Geography, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous),Poondi - 613 503, Thanjavur District.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam- 612 002.
TNPSC TRB Department of Geography, Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Kumbakonam - 612 002.
Department of Geography,SriMeenakshi Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous),Madurai – 624 002
Department of Geography, MVM Government Arts College for Women, Dindigul - 624 008..
Department of Geography, Government Arts College for Women, Nilakottai - 624 208, Dindigul District.
2/3/2020 4:13:42 PM
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Unit 1
Fundamentals of Geography
Chapter Outline Learning Objectives:

1.1 Introduction
• Define the concept of geography
1.2 Defining Geography
1.3 Evolution of • Appreciate the developments of
Geography geography
1.4 Themes of Geography • Understand the traditions and
1.5 Geography’s Relation with Physical themes of geography
and Social Science Disciplines • Associate the relationship of
1.6 Approaches to the study of geography with other disciplines
Geography • Identify the approaches to study
1.7 Branches of Geography geography
1.8 Geographical Tools and Skills • Examine various branches of
1.9 Geography in Tamil Nadu geography
1.10 Databases for Geography • Appreciate the tools, skills and
Teaching and Learning scopes of geography
1.1 Introduction The subject ‘Geography’ is considered as

“The study of Geography is about more ‘The Mother of all Sciences’ as most streams
than just memorising places on a map. of sciences took root from geography. It is a
It is about understanding the complexity subject much needed in everyday life. Just
of our world, appreciating the diversity as an intellectual understands the value of
of cultures that exists across continents. a library, a financier understands the value
And in the end it is about using all that of money, a parent understands the value
knowledge to help bridge divides and bring of their child a geographer understands the
people together” - Barak Obama, Former value of our planet earth and the wealth of
President of USA. resources it offers to us.
TN_Govt_Geography_XI_Std Unit_01.indd 1 2/3/2020 4:15:30 PM

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1.2 Defining Geography British and the American geographers

Geography is one of the oldest earth sciences have contributed to the development and
and its roots date back to the works of the early enrichment of the subject.
Greek scholars. The term ‘Geography’ was The Greek philosophers and scientist
coined by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes focused on the spatial nature of human
who combined two Greek words ‘Geo’ and physical features of the Earth. The
(The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe). first Greek geographer was Herodotus
Therefore, in the literary sense, geography is (484 - 425 BCE) who wrote a number
the description of the Earth. Over the ages, of volumes on the human and physical
geography has become the art and science geography of the Persian Empire.
of studying the physical characteristics of The other early Greek contributors to
the earth and man’s role in adapting to and geography are, Thales, Aristotle and
modifying the environment. Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BCE).
Geography was born through Geographers study the location of the
explorations and discoveries. Earlier, activities, carefully identify patterns using
the aim of geography was to discover maps and find out the reasons for these
new lands, sea routes, prepare maps and patterns. The areas are then described
describe them. Later, its emphasis had based on the distribution of land forms,
shifted to scientific investigation of earth’s population, housing and agriculture.
landforms, oceans and atmosphere, as well The development of geography can
as the interactions with human beings and be summarised in three phases namely
the environment. (1) The age of discovery (1400-1800),
In essence, geography can be defined as (2) The period between 1800 and 1950
• A multifaceted discipline and (3) The period after 1950.
• Studying intra and inter relationships 1.3.1 T
he age of discovery between
of various spheres of the earth 1400-1800
• Collects and analyses relevant data, The period between 1400 and 1800
applies the latest tools and methods to was when the subject matter and the
prepare maps and visuals methodology of geography were not fully
• Provides sustainable solutions to developed. This period was characterised
human and environmental issues of by exploration, discovery and conquest
the earth. through the voyages of Vasco da Gama
and Christopher Columbus. Numerous
1.3 Evolution of Geography journeys of geographical exploration were
Ancient Greek scholars who laid the commissioned by a number of Nations in
foundations and gave a solid form to Europe (Figure. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4). Most of
geographic studies and on these foundations, these voyages were financed because of the
the pillars of modern geography were potential commercial returns from resource
erected by others in the subsequent ages. exploitation. The voyages also provided an
The Romans, the Arabs, the Indians, the opportunity for scientific investigation and
Chinese, the Germans, the French, the discovery. Making of maps (cartography) was
2

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Figure 1.2 Magellen’s Voyage around the World

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Figure 1.3 Vasco da Gama
HOTS
How might the ship that Columbus traveled have sailed at the time when no engine and
power fuel available?
Hudson N
Bay W E
S
St Lawrence
River
EUROPE
NORTH Mississippi
AMERICA River
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Gulf of
Mexico
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1498-1500
PACIFIC
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Not to Scale
AMERICA
Figure 1.4 Christopher Columbus’s Voyages to America

4

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important in the discipline of geography due on human activities such as nomadic

to the emphasis on location of phenomena pastoralism. Nomadic pastoralism is
on the earth surface, e.g. location of trade so much dependent on the natural
routes, relief features and settlements. environment. Pastoralists do very little to
modify their environment.
1.3.2 The period between 1800–1950
The period between 1800 and 1950 was
characterised by the work of various
individual philosophers who helped
to expand the scope of geography. The
discipline of geography became more
distinct as a subject matter. Geographic
knowledge saw strong growth in Europe
and the United States in the 1800s. This Ratzel La Blache
period also saw the emergence of a number
The proponents of possibilistic school
of societies interested in geographic issues.
of thought, such as Vidal de la Blache saw
In Germany, Alexander Von Humboldt,
the environment as a limiting factor rather
Carl Ritter and Friedrich Ratzel made
than as a deterministic force. According
substantial contributions to human and
to the possibilism school of thought,
physical geography. Humboldt’s publication
human beings have several alternatives in
‘Kosmos’ in 1844, examines the geology and
their environment and their actions are
physical geography of the earth. This work
influenced by the decisions they make in
is still considered by many academics as a
the environment. For instance, humans
milestone contribution to geography.
can survive in hot or extremely cold
There are two schools of thought that conditions due to their ability to modify the
emerged during this period as an attempt environment to suit them. A good example
to explain the relationship between human is that in many arid countries such as Israel,
beings and their environment. These humans have overcome the constraints set
were environmental determinism and by the natural environment such as low
possibilism. Proponents of environmental rainfall, high temperatures and poor soils.
deterministic school of thought such as
Mackinder, Ellen Semple and Huntington 1.3.3 The period after 1950
believed that human actions and activities Until 1950s, geography was more of an
were moulded by the physical (natural) art subject where facts were established
conditions. In several developing by casual observation in the field rather
countries, human beings are susceptible than by careful measurement and
to natural disasters such as drought, hypothesis testing. In the 1950s there was
famine, floods and earthquakes. Human a new development in the discipline and
beings under such natural conditions several laws were established to explain
usually surrender to nature. A good geographical phenomena. Using the
example of environmental determinism is laws, it is possible to predict what will
the influence of the natural environment happen in the future. If we can predict
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successfully, we can plan and limit the (relationship between man and his physical
extreme possibilities. environment) and Earth science tradition
One of the important developments (processes of the earth).
in this period was the use of quantitative
techniques in physical and human Five Themes in
geography. These techniques refer to various Geography
statistical tools that are used to synthesise Themes of Geogra-
the data from maps, field, laboratories and phy are the educational
questionnaires. Quantification came about tools for understanding the geography
as a result of the expanding scope of the subject in detail. It was adopted in the
discipline as well the need to understand year 1984 by the Association of American
the processes that were becoming more Geographers and these five themes were
diversified and complicated. published in the National Council for Geo-
The quantitative revolution involves graphic Education/Association of Ameri-
the use of statistics, mathematical can Geographers’ publication Guidelines
equations and the use of deterministic for Geographic Education.
models. Many geographers believed that
numbers are more precise, and therefore Like the major traditions identified in
perceived as more scientific compared to geography, the significant themes of the
words. The map, both as graphic language subject are also identified. The Association of
and visual representation, continues to be American Geographers put forward the ‘Five
used as a geographical tool and at present themes of Geography’ and it has been widely
with the valuable assistance of remote accepted by geographers worldwide (Figure
sensing and Geographical Information 1.5). The themes are location, place, human
Systems, map making has become digital – environment interaction, movement and
and easier especially due to advances in regions.
computer and software technologies.
1.4 Themes of Geography
In any subject there will be certain themes, Location
around which the scholars work and
contribute. In this way, geography subject
also has certain traditional themes. Let us
look at them carefully. In 1963, William Region Place
D. Pattison identified the core themes of Themes of

Geography
geographic studies as ‘The Four Traditions
of Geography’. These distinct, but related,
traditions, of the discipline are: Spatial Human–
tradition (areal distributions and spatial Movement Environment
patterns. Examples: Population movement) Interaction
Area studies tradition, (hierarchy of
areas, small to large) Man-land tradition Figure 1.5 Themes of Geography
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1.4.1 Location • Toponym: A place name, especially one

Every point on the earth has a location. The derived from topographical feature.
location can be described in two different ways: • Site: An area of ground on which a town,
• Absolute location is a location building, or monument is constructed.
as described by its latitude and • Situation: The location and surround-
longitude on the earth. For example, ings of a place.
the coordinates of (Chennai Central
Railway station) puratchi thalaivar Dr. 1.4.3 Human-Environment Interaction
M.G. Ramachandran Centeral raiway The theme describes how people interact
station Railway station are 13°04'56" with the environment and how the
N latitude and 80°16'32" E longitude. environment responds. This is studied
• Relative location is the position of a with reference to the following three key
place in relation to another well-known concepts:
landmark. For example, Kallanai Dam • Dependency: How humans depend on
or Grand Anicut is located roughly 350 the environment (Example: For water,
km south –southwest of Chennai City. fresh air, sunlight etc.)
The absolute and relative location • Adaptation: How humans adapt to the
related surveys and studies fall under environment (Example: Life in polar
this category. and desert regions)
1.4.2 Place • Modification: How humans modify the
A place is an area that is defined by environment (Example: Construction
everything in it. All places have features of Underground Metro rail, Agriculture
that give them personality to distinguish in Israel).
them from other places. A number of place
names in Tamil Nadu, like St. Thomas 1.4.4 Movement
Mount, Fort St. George, Mint, and George Movement is the network of travel of
Town are examples to this theme. people, goods and ideas from one location
to another. Examples: Rural-urban
migration and metro train commuting
Student Activity
in Chennai. Air transport which carries
1. Find the absolute location of your
people and goods and the internet that
district.
allows access to ideas and knowledge
2. Find the important towns within
across the world are also examples of this
a radius of 100 km from your
kind.
residence or school along with
their direction. 1.4.5 Region
3. Find how the name of your village Regions are areas with distinct homogenous
or town came into existence. characteristics such as climate (Monsoon
4. Find the total population of your town regions), natural vegetation (Tropical rain
or village as per 2011 census. forests), crops (Corn Belt of USA), major
5. Find the altitude of your village or landforms (Himalayan region), industries
town from Mean Sea Level. (Bangalore and Hosur) etc.

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1.5 Geography’s Relation with Physical Relations with Physical Sciences

and Social Science Disciplines 1.5.1 A stronomy, Mathematics,
While defining geography, we have seen that Computer Science and Geography:
some branches of geography have strongest Astronomy basically deals with the
affiliations with subjects like mathematics celestial bodies including stars, planets,
and environmental sciences, while others satellites, their motions, constellations,
have very close connection with history and as well as different kinds of phenomena
sociology. Some subjects deal with distinctive occurring in the outer space. The precise
type of phenomena while geography location, nature of movements, form and
examines several kinds of phenomena size of celestial bodies, including those
together. The diagram (Figure 1.6) gives clear of the solar system, have been accurately
idea about the relationship of geography with measured with the help of mathematics.
other disciplines. The interaction of astronomy, mathematics
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Anthr
opo
ology log
oci An y
S ial
Soc phy Ge throp
og
gra rap o
G e o hy
ics
His
om
His graph
rap ic
Ge
tory
hy
Ge nom
Econ
tor
o
Eco
ica
og
PEOPLE
l
y
GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENT
IS y
Bio
d G ph
B ota n
ie n ce
an gra
geo
Co t h e m m y
u te i c s
rto
gra
o
y, Z
at
r Sc
Ca
M a t ro n
C
Oc limat
p
o
hy
olo
an eano ology
As
gy
mp
o
gy
d h gra o l
yd
rol phy o rph
og m
Me y eo
te o G
l o gy
P ro l o Ge o
C h hy s i c s g y
em
istr y
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Figure 1.6 Relationship of Geography with Physical and Social Science Disciplines
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and computer science with geography has Relationship with Social Sciences
paved way for the development of modern 1.5.5. Economics and Geography
cartography and GIS. Economics is concerned with how human
needs and wants are satisfied with the
1.5.2 Geology and Geography:
available resources. Economic geography
Geology is the study of rocks, their types,
is concerned with the study of resources
distribution, mineral content, petroleum,
endowment and patterns of utilisation. The
etc. The subject investigates all these
economic activities of the human beings
phenomena, classify them and put them
including agriculture, fishing, forestry,
in a sequence. Geography interacts with
industries, trade and transport are studied
the subject in studying the distribution of
in this branch. The economic activities
exposed rocks, interaction with climate
are highly influenced by the relief and
and human activities, economic prospects
climatic factors of the region or the country.
of the minerals and so on. Interaction
Therefore, economics and geography have
between geology and geography leads to
close links with each other, especially for
formation of the new branch of study called
integrated resources development.
geomorphology, the study of landforms.
1.5.6 Sociology and Geography
1.5.3 Physics, Chemistry and Geography:
Sociology is mainly concerned with the
As geography is the study of variable
institutional aspects of the society. A
phenomena on the earth’s surface, the
number of investigations including social
dynamic mechanism of the phenomena
behaviour, movement of people between
requires to be studied within the framework
rural-urban areas, spatial interactions
of physics. The physics of atmosphere is
between social groups, the relations
studied under climatology and the physics
between innovation and tradition in
of hydrosphere through oceanography, and
rural and urban areas etc., have been
both the subjects investigate, interpret and
jointly undertaken by sociologists and
explain the atmospheric and hydrological
geographers in different countries of the
processes. The chemical contents of rocks,
world. Social geography is the logical
soil, surface and groundwater, atmosphere
expression of the interaction between
are the interests of the geographers.
sociology and geography as it studies
1.5.4 Botany, Zoology and Geography: social phenomena in spatial context.
The systematic branches of botany and
zoology have traditionally been confined to 1.5.7 Anthropology and Geography
the classification and description of various Anthropology attempts to study human races
kinds of species on the earth’s surface. and their classification. Both anthropology
Geography, being the study of the spatial and geography seek to identify and classify the
section of earth’s surface, attempts to study human races on the basis of their habitat and
the distributional aspects of flora and fauna cultural traits and attempt to study the variable
especially with reference to climate and racial phenomena on the spatial context of
relief. The integration among these subjects the earth’s surface. The relationship between
has given birth to biogeography. anthropology and geography has resulted in

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the development of ‘anthropogeography’ or

geography of humans.
1.5.8 History and Geography

History is a framework of events as per time
and place. Geography attempts to study
these events with reference to the physical
earth and depict the places of historical
events using thematic maps. Anyone who
attempts to study any historical events of
India should always integrate the temporal
and the spatial phenomena of that period
together to arrive at a conclusion.
1.6 Approaches to the Study of Born on 14 September 1769 Alexander

Von Humboldt was a Prussian polymath,
Geography
geographer, naturalist, explorer.
Geography has undergone several changes Humboldt’s quantitative work on
in its approach. The earlier geographers were botanical geography laid the foundation
descriptive geographers. Later, geography for the field of biogeography. Humboldt
came to be developed as an analytical science. resurrected the use of the word cosmos
Today the discipline is not only concerned with from the ancient Greek and assigned it
descriptions but also with analysis as well as to his multi-volume treatise, Kosmos.
prediction. There are two distinct approaches He was the first person to describe the
phenomenon and cause of human-
or methods to study geography. They are:
induced climate change, in 1800. He
1. Systematic approach and 2. Regional described the Guanoco asphalt lake as
approach “The spring of the good priest”. Humboldt
and Bonpland discovered dangerous
1.6.1 Systematic Approach electric eels, whose shock could kill a man.
Systematic or nomothetic approach was His stay in Ecuador was marked by the
introduced by Alexander Von Humbolt, ascent of Pichincha and their climb of
a German geographer (1769-1859). In Chimborazo, where Humboldt and
this approach a particular phenomenon his party reached an altitude of 19,286
is considered for detailed understanding. feet (5,878 m). This was a world record
at the time. U.S President, Jefferson
The study of specific natural or human
later referred to Humboldt as the most
phenomenon that gives rise to certain spatial
scientific man of the age.
patterns and structures on the earth surface is
called systematic study. Generally, systematic
geography is divided into four main branches. ii. Biogeography, including environmental
i. Physical Geography: Study of various geography: It focuses on various kinds of
elements of earth systems like forests, grasslands, distribution of flora
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and fauna, h uman-nature relationships,
lithosphere (rock) and biosphere (life) quality of the living environment and its
and their distributions. implications for human welfare.
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iii. Human Geography: It describes the that regional synthesis could be derived with
human culture, population, dynamic the help of a series of geographic matrices in
socio economic and political aspects. correct temporal sequence. Each time period
iv. Geographical methods and techniques: has been taken to be equivalent to a ‘slice’ of the
It is concerned with methods and three-dimensional cake. The diagram of ‘Third
techniques for field studies, qualitative, Dimension’ makes it possible to examine rows
quantitative and cartographic analysis. and columns, cutting across time.
1.6.2 Regional Approach 1.7 Branches of Geography

It is otherwise called as ideographical Based on content and the available
approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter techniques, the discipline can be divided
(1779 – 1859), a contemporary of Humbolt. into three major domains. Each one has
The regions could be classified based on a many sub divisions which deal with
single factor like relief, rainfall, vegetation, specific objectives (Figure 1.7).
percapita income or there could also be multi- a. Physical Geography b. Human
factor regions formed by the association of Geography and c. Geographic Techniques.
two or more factors. Administrative units
1.7.1 Physical Geography
like states, districts and taluks can also be
It is the study of natural features of the
treated as regions. The main sub branches
earth such as land, water, air and living
of regional geography are : i) Regional
organisms. The changes taking place
studies ii) Regional analysis iii) Regional
within and among these natural features
development and iv) Regional planning.
and their resultant features are studied
under its various branches. The branches
of physical geography are:
i. Geomorphology deals with the
distribution of land forms, their origin
and the forces causing changes over
these landforms. Geology provides
basic information to the study of
geomorphology.
1.6.3 Geographical Data Matrix ii. Soil Geography is a study related to soil
The matrixis a simple method of arranging formation, soil profile, soil types, their
information in rows and columns for better fertility level and distribution. Soil erosion
understanding of complex spatial problems. and conservation measures are also dealt
Brian J.L. Berry adopted this method from in this branch.
anthropology for studying geography more iii. Climatology deals with the study of
effectively.Geographic data can be arranged in global and regional weather and climatic
a rectangular array or matrix. Row-wise group conditions by analysing relevant statistical
of variables represent the systematic or topical data. Meteorology provides basic
branches of geography while, regions are information on the composition, structure
represented by columns. Berry has explained and the changes in the atmosphere.
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GEOMORPHOLOGY
SOIL GEOGRAPHY
PHYSICAL CLIMATOLOGY
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
HYDROLOGY
GEOGRAPHY OCEANOGRAPHY
BIO-GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
ANTHROPO GEOGRAPHY
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
HUMAN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHIC STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY

CARTOGRAPHY
TECHNIQUES REMOTE SENSING
G.I.S
G.N.S.S
Figure 1.7 Branches of Geography
iv. Hydrology encompasses the study of animal geography and Ecology are the
earth’s realm of water such as oceans and branches of biogeography.
surface water bodies like rivers, reservoirs vii. Environmental Geography is the
and ponds. It also makes a study of study of environmental issues arising
underground water and its recharge and out of misuse of various spheres of
also pollution of water bodies. the earth and their implications. The
v. Oceanography is the study of seas and ozone layer depletion, global warming,
oceans. The shape, size, depth and bottom melting of polar ice caps, rising sea
relief of ocean, distribution of oceans, level and other related aspects are also
ocean currents and various life forms given due importance. It also tries
existing in ocean are also studied to give sustainable solutions to these
under oceanography. problems.
vi. Biogeography is a study of 1.7.2 Human Geography
ecosystems over geographical space. Human Geography is concerned with
It also analyses the changes in the the changes made by the humans over
ecosystems. Phytogeography or the natural or physical landscape. The
plant Geography, Zoo Geography or ethnic and political aspects are taken into
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consideration. The issues like climatic vii. Political Geography tries to understand
change, natural and anthropogenic disasters the countries and their neighbours,
are also the major concerns. problems of resources sharing, boundaries
i. Population Geography is the study of and territorial limits. This branch is
distribution and density of population, also concerned with understanding the
the changing patterns in age and political behaviour of the population,
sex composition, birth and death relations between independent states,
rates, life expectancy, literacy level and patterns of voting and delimitation
and dependency ratio, migrations at of electoral constituencies.
national and international level and the viii. Economic Geography deals with the
causes and consequences of migration. distribution of economic activities such
ii. Settlement Geography deals with the as, primary, secondary and tertiary. The
characteristics of rural and urban primary activities include food gathering,
settlements and transportation hunting, animal rearing, agriculture, and
network. It seeks better understanding mining. The secondary activities include
of the present landscape and plans for manufacturing and the tertiary activities
the future. The study is more important include the service sectors such as trade,
for town and country planning. transport, communication tourism and
iii. Historical Geography tries to picturise other related areas.
the geography of an area or region xi. Medical Geography mainly deals
as it was in the past and studies how with study of geographical aspects of
it has evolved over time. The forces origin, diffusion and distribution of
involved in transforming region such various communicable diseases and
as colonisation by the Europeans or a health care planning.
natural disaster are also included in the 1.7.3 Geographic Techniques
study. Geography has developed a number
iv. Anthropo Geography deals with the of methods and tools to investigate
distribution of human communities and identify the spatial structures and
on the earth in relation to their patterns. Besides, it also lends or borrows
geographical environment. some methods and tools to measure and
v. Cultural Geography gives emphasis on investigate precise understanding of the
the location and diffusion of customs spatial locations and patterns.
and cultural traits such as food habits, i. Mathematical Geography deals with
skills, clothing and beliefs and social the study of earth’s size and shape,
organisations and their developments motions of the earth, concept of time
in different parts of the earth. and the time zones.
vi. Social Geography is closely related to ii. Statistical Geography is concerned
cultural geography. It examines the with the practice of collecting,
relationships among the social groups analysing and presenting data that
and their social relationships in the has a geographic or areal dimension,
places of their living. such as census data.
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iii. Cartography is the study of making

maps of various scales using authentic Students’ activity
information. Collect the cadastral map of
iv. Remote Sensing is the art, science your Village from the Village
and technique of capturing the earth Administrative Office and identify
surface features using sensors or the location of your school or home.
cameras in airplanes or satellites,
processing and presenting the spatial 1.8 Geographical Tools and Skills
information to users. Every day the news media report several
v. Geographic Information System geographically significant events of near
(GIS) is a computer-based tool of by or faraway places. Such reports include
the recent decades for geographical the occurrence of earthquakes, floods,
studies. It is used for storing, retrieving, forest fire, landslides etc., which trigger
transforming, analysing, and displaying the interests of everyone to recollect their
data to prepare useful thematic maps. geographic knowledge they had acquired
vi. Global Navigation Satellite System earlier.
(GNSS) is used to pinpoint the The essential tools of geography are
geographic location of a user anywhere maps and globes and now the digital
in the world. Airlines, shipping, travel versions of aerial photographs, satellite
agencies and automobile drivers use the images, Geographical Information
system to track the vehicles and follow Systems (GIS) and Global Navigation
the best routes to reach the destination Satellite System (GNSS).These tools have
in the shortest possible time. become an integral part of geography and
these products help us to visualise the
spatial patterns over the surface of the
Global Navigation
earth.
Satellites System
The GIS technique has enhanced the
GNSS is the standard
skills and capabilities to compare and
generic term for
overlay the digital layers to create maps
satellite navigation systems that provide
geo-spatial positioning with global or quickly and efficiently. It helps us to study
regional coverage. This term includes the areas affected by floods or cyclones or
the GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), forest fire and the damages can be assessed
Galileo (Europe), Beidou (China), accurately and losses be estimated within
IRNSS (India) and other systems. a very short span of time. The navigation
The GPS was the first GNSS system of satellites provide accurate location of
the United States and originally used these occurrences.
for military applications. Today it is In recent years, geography aims to develop
commonly used in mobiles, vehicles, a set of marketable skills to the students
agriculture and other areas that allow us rather than preparing the students only for
to use it in all fields of mapping.
the teaching in educational institutions.
The job market is changing frequently.
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Therefore, the teaching methodology of data from Landsat, SPOT, IRS and other
the subject is to be adapted to the changing satellites made it possible to repeatedly view
trends of the society and provides a couple each part of the earth surface at frequent
of specialisations to the students so that they intervals and thereby geographers’ ‘data
could be acquainted with the global market thirst’ is considerably quenched.
and get suitable employment. The maps
still remains an important visual medium 1.8.3 Geospatial Analysis
for geographers although the microchip A geospatial analyst designs databases,
revolution is expanding exponentially to analysis geographical data, uses appropriate
address a number of societal issues. GIS software to a wide range of applications
including defence, real estate, pollution
1.8.1 Cartography and government administrations. The skill
Geographers who specialise in this branch helps to identify optimum size and ideal
make traditional maps, digital maps, atlases, location, establish new or relocate existing
charts, globes and models. Quantification facilities like hospitals, police station,
and cartography are considered as two banks, shopping centres etc.
sides of the ‘geography coin’. Owing to
quantitative and computer revolutions, 1.8.4 Environmental Impact Assessment
handling of spatial data become easier, not This investigation requires voluminous data
only for the preparation of ‘instant maps’ related to physical, social, economic and
but also for statistical graphs, graphic images other aspects of the area under study. The
and models. Preparation of the computer- data are collected from maps, satellites and
aided-maps and updating the existing ones field and synthesised to provide meaningful
become easier and faster. Creation of three visual results. Such complex thematic visual
dimensional models, changing the viewing results allow the decision makers to take
angle of these models and plotting the images appropriate steps to tackle the day to day and
are made possible due to the introduction of long term environmental issues.
computer expertise in cartography.
1.8.5 Regional Planning
1.8.2 Land use Studies A planner who is responsible for planning
For studies of quickly changing phenomena an urban or a regional unit needs to have
on the earth surface, such as floods, drought, an overall view of the area. They should be
forest fires, etc, remote sensing data provide able to synthesise the issues from multiple
accurate information in different scales. perspectives. The problems are increasingly
The remote sensing organisations employ concerned with balancing different, sometimes
geographers who have the knowledge contradictory, interests into functional and
to process the frequently changing sustainable suggestions and proposals. This
earth’s surface features. Even before the specialisation is concerned with planning,
introduction of satellites in remote sensing, housing, and smart city development projects.
aerial photographs were widely used by The regional land use maps are to be prepared
geographers for natural resources surveys to locate facilities and optimise the existing
0urban and regional planning. The satellite land for various uses.
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1.8.6 Weather Forecasting / Nowcasting: specialisation. Depending upon their area

At present the meteorologists are using of specialization; geographers are employed
ground data and satellite data to forecast as scientists in national and state planning
the wind direction, rainfall possibilities
commissions, water resources organizations,
and cyclone movement. However, with the
and land use planning units, agricultural or
advancement of satellite sensors, navigation
satellites and GIS technology it is possible to economic institutes or as demographers in
nowcast the weather conditions and provide government and research organizations.
live cyclone movement tracts, otherwise The geographers are also employed
known as weather nowcasting.Geographers as climatologists, geomorphologists, GIS
are utilising spatial and non–spatial data specialists and hydrologists. Geography
to analyse weather and climate parameters
background is an asset for careers in travel and
and conduct research concerning climate
tourism, particularly for ‘Travel Journalism’.
and climate changes and forecast the earth’s
future climate and weather conditions and Besides these, the geography graduates apply
their implications. for civil services examinations conducted by
various States of India and also the UPSC.
1.8.7 Surveying, Utilising Large Scale
Recent developments in geography are
Maps/Sketches:
Surveying with technological in nature and mostly computer
instruments, starting oriented. The average geography graduate is
from chain survey therefore well versed in the use of computers,
to differential GPS and as they are trained in understanding
(DGPS), are an integral patterns and relationships over space.
part of geography
curriculum. The students survey and prepare 1.9 Geography in Tamil Nadu
sketches of various features in an area. They A number of institutions of higher
also survey the campuses with advanced learning in Tamil Nadu have been offering
survey instruments and prepare large scale graduate and post graduate programmes
maps. The geographical knowledge and in geography for several decades. Some
training enable the students to interpret of the Departments are recognized as
large scale maps of India and other countries research centers and these are engaged in
of the world. Ground Penetrating Radar undertaking national and international
(GPR), one of the emerging field survey research projects besides conducting
instruments, is gaining importance not research programmes in geography.
only in earth sciences discipline but also in The departments are also engaged in
archaeology, civil engineering, city planning organizing short term and long term
and other related fields. training programmes and workshops
to disseminate the latest geographic
The students of geography undergo
knowledge and technology for the benefit
special trainings in their college level studies
of students, researchers and teachers of
and seek employment in the areas of their geography.
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1.10 D
atabases for Geography
Annual Geography
Teaching and Learning
Talent Tests for
Geographers are concerned about certain
College / University
global and local issues like disasters,
Students and
environmental problems, natural
School Students of Tamil Nadu resources and other related aspects.
The Indian Geographical Society is Often these issues are discussed in the
conducting talent test examination classrooms. Data relating to the issues are
to final year UG and PG geography necessary for better understanding of the
students across the State and present same and for seeking real world solutions.
awards and cash prizes to a tune of Rs. A number of organizations in India are
15,000 (top three M.Sc. students) and engaged in disseminating such valuable
Rs. 10,000 (top three B.Sc students) information through special publications,
in the names of the IGS Founder especially to the student community. The
Prof N.Subrahmanyam and the schools, colleges, universities and research
former Head of the Department of institutions can write to the following
Geography of University of Madras organizations and enroll themselves
Prof. A.Ramesh, respectively. to receive the published materials like
The Association of Geography booklets, pamphlets, satellite images,
Teachers of India conducts Annual manuals etc. They can also enroll for short
Geography Talent Tests to the school term trainings / field visits / workshops
students. The talent test is conducted arranged by these organizations.
at two levels: Students of classes 7 The students can make use of the free
and 8 take Junior Level test while the software available from these organizations
students of classes 9 and 10 take it at to visualize the earth’s surfaces from
the Senior Level. Prizes and certificates space and map the existing and changing
are awarded to top ranking candidates. land cover details, traffic density,
pollution levels etc., A number of spatial
information, including satellite images
Two geographical Associations are
can be downloaded freely for educational
functioning in Tamil Nadu to disseminate
purposes such as classroom teaching,
geographic knowledge to the students
preparation of maps, for project work, field
and teachers of schools, colleges and
work and other activities.
universities through publishing journals,
organizing workshops and conduct talent
tests to the geography students.
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when diatomic oxygen (O2) is exposed

to ultraviolet radiation.
10. Prime Meridian: An imaginary line
1. Absolute Location: The exact position passing through the Royal Observatory
of an object or place stated in spatial at Greenwich, England, serving by
coordinates of a grid system designed agreement as the zero degree line of
for the location purposes. longitude.
2. Cartography: The art, science and Evaluation
technology of making maps. Choose the correct answers
3. Global Positioning System (GPS): A 1. The word
method of using satellite observations ‘geography’ is
for the determination of extremely coined from
accurate location information. _______ language.
4. Greenhouse Effect: The heating of a. Latin
the earth’s surface as shortwave solar b. Spanish
energy passes through the atmosphere, c. Greek d. Chinese
which is transparent to it but opaque 2. Four traditions of geography were
to reradiated long wave terrestrial introduced by___________.
energy. It also refers to increasing the a. Hartshorne b.Gerard Mercator
opacity of the atmosphere through c. William D Pattison d.Humboldt
the addition of increased amounts of 3. Which one of the following is not a
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane theme of geography?
and chlorofluorocarbons. a. Location b. Place
5. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): c. Movement d. Technology
Local time at the prime meridian 4. Systematic approach to study geography
(Zero degree longitude), which passes was developed by___________.
through the observatory at Greenwich, a. Carl Ritter b. Humboldt
England. c. Pattison d. Hartshorne
6. Map Projection: A method by which 5. Anthropology deals with human
the curved surface of the Earth is ___________.
shown on a flat surface map. a. Migration b. Settlements
7. Nation: A culturally distinctive group c. Races d. Kingdoms
of people occupying a particular region 6. Which one is wrongly matched?
and bond together by a sense of unity a. Economic Geography- Industries
arising from shared ethnicity, beliefs b. Political Geography - Boundary of
and customs. States
8. Natural Resource: A physically c. Cultural Geography - Life
occurring item that a population Expectancy
perceives to the necessary and useful d. Populion Geography - Dependency
to its maintenance and well-being. ratio
9. Ozone Layer: A gas molecule consisting 7. Meteorology is a study of __________.
of three atoms of oxygen (O3) formed a. Atmosphere b. Meteors
c. Metals d. Asteriod
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8. Astronomy is a science which deals 2. Getis, A., Getis, J., Fellmann, J. D. (2006),
with____________. Introduction to Geography, Tenth Edition,
a. Plants b. Animals McGraw-Hill International Edition, New
c. Climate d. Celestial bodies York.
9. What is the GNSS system of India called
3. Haggett, P. (2001), Geography: A Global
as?
Synthesis, Prentice Hall, New York.
a. IRNSS b. GPS
c. GLONASS d. Beidou 4. Holt-Jensen, A. (2009), Geography-History
10. Which one of the following countries and Concepts: A Student’s Guide, Sage
first used the GPS for its military Publications, London.
applications? 5. Morrill, R. L. (1983), The Nature, Utility
a. Canada b. Germany and Value of Geography, Professional
c. India d. USA Geographer, 35 (1), pp. 1-9.
Very short answers 6. Robinson, J.L. (1976), A New Look at the
11. Define Geography. Four Traditions of Geography, Journal of
12. List the five themes of geography. Geography, 75, pp. 520-530.
13. What are the three domains of 7. Rogers, A. and Viles, H. A. (2003), The
geography? Student’s Companion to Geography,
14. Define cartography. Second Edition, Blackwell Publications,
15. What is mathematical geography? Kundli.
Short answers 8. Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002),
16. Distinguish between systematic Physical Geography - Science and Systems
approach and regional approach to of Human Environment, Second Edition,
study geography. Wiley India, New Delhi.
17. What is Geographical data matrix? 9. Waugh, D. (1995), Geography: An
18. Write a note on remote sensing. Integrated Approach, Nelson Canada,
19. Discuss Medical Geography. Ontario.
20. Define Oceanography.
Detailed answers Internet Resources

21. Describe how the five themes are
Open GIS Software
interrelated. http://www.saga-gis.org/en/index.html; https://
22. Describe how geography is related to qgis.org/en/site/; https://grass.osgeo.org/
natural sciences. Free Satellite Data and Images
23. Explain any four geographic https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/; https://
techniques. bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in
Online Mapping
https://www.openstreetmap.org; https://
References maps.google.com/; https://www.google.
1. Adhikari, S. (2015), Fundamentals of com/intl/en_in/earth
Geographical Thought, Orient Blackswan, Online Learning Resource
New Delhi. www.mhhe.com/getis10e/
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ICT CORNER
Modern Tools of Geography
Explore and survey geography

using modern tools.
Steps
• Use the URL or QR code to download and install ‘Mapit GIS’
app in your smartphone. Open the app and go to settings tab on
the top right corner of the page and set units of measurement
of your choice.
• Select scale icon from the bottom and place the targets by pressing ‘Balloon’ icon from
the bottom. Scale icon will provide you instant survey of distance using GPS.
• Long press the scale icon and it will transform into ‘Area mode’. Follow the same step to
drop the balloon and survey the area between any numbers of points.
• Touch the menu navigation button from the top left corner and change the map styles
you want to survey.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.osedok.gisdatacollector&hl=en
*Pictures are indicative only.
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Unit 2
The Solar system and the Earth

Learning Objectives:
2.1 Introduction • To know more about the universe,
2.2 Theories of the Earth’s origin stars, planets and others.
2.3 Modern theories of the origin of • Understand theories of the origin of
the Universe the Universe.
2.4 Star and Constellations • Explain the position of the planets
2.5 The Solar system in the solar system.
2.6 The Sun • Describe the cause and effect of the
2.7 The Planets motions of the earth.
2.8 Dwarf Planets These glittering stars, which we see, are a
2.9 Satellites part of the universe. Let us now discuss
2.10 Asteroids in detail about the Universe, stars, planets
2.11 Comets and other objects. The Universe is a vast
2.12 Meteors endless space which includes galaxies,
stars, planets and other forms of matter
2.13 Shape and size of the Earth
and energy in it.
2.14 Motions of the earth
2.15 Seasons 2.2 Theories of the Earth’s origin
2.16 Time Zones of the World There are many theories supporting the
origin of the earth. One of the earlier and
2.1 Introduction popular arguments of the earth’s origin
Have you ever relaxed lying on the terrace was by a German professor Immanuel
of a building or in the front yard at a Kant. Mathematician Laplace revised
cloudless night? If yes, could you watch it in 1796. It was known as Nebular
the night sky filled with glittering stars Hypothesis. It considered that planets
which appear to be growing in numbers? were formed out of a cloud of material
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associated with a youthful sun, which was 2.3 Modern theories of the origin of
slowly rotating. Lyttleton propounded the the Universe
accretion theory of the earth’s formation.
The most popular argument regarding
According to this theory, approximately
the origin of the universe is the Big
4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was
Bang Theory. It is also called expanding
a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar
universe hypothesis. In 1927, Abbe
nebula. As the solar nebula began to
Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian astronomer
spin, the gravity collapsed the materials
was the first to propose, a theory on
on itself and it formed the sun in the
the origin of the universe. It was Edwin
centre of the solar system. When the sun
Hubble who provided the evidence that
formed, the remaining materials began to
the universe is expanding. It was called,
clump up. Small particles drew together,
‘the Big Bang Theory’. According to it,
bound by the force of gravity, into larger
the universe was formed during a period
particles. The solar wind swept away
of inflation that began about 13.75 billion
lighter elements, such as hydrogen and
years ago.
helium, from the closer regions. It left
Like a rapidly expanding balloon, it
only heavy rocky materials to create
swelled from a size smaller than an electron
planets like the Earth. But farther away,
to nearly its current size within a fraction
the solar winds had less impact on lighter
of a second. Matter from the universe was
elements, allowing them to coalesce into
thrown out with great force in all directions
gas giants. In this way, planets, moons,
and started expanding outwards. From this
asteroids, comets, etc., were created.
matter, many groups of stars were formed
which we call ‘galaxies’. A galaxy is a
Voyager 2 travelling
system of billions of stars, stellar remnants,
at the speed of more
interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The
than 62,764.416 km/h
word galaxy is derived from the Greek word
will still take more
Galaxias, literally “milky”, a reference to the
than 296,000 years to pass Sirius, the
Milky Way (Figure 2.1). The Milky Way is
brightest star in our night sky.
the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
Earth's rocky core formed first Galaxies are in three major forms:
when heavy elements collided and 1. Spiral Galaxies: It consists of a flat and
bound together. Dense materials sank rotating disk of stars, gases and dust.
to the center, while the lighter material It has a central concentration of stars
created the crust. The planet's magnetic known as the ‘bulge’. The Milky Way and
field probably formed around this the Andromeda are spiral galaxies.
time. Gravity captured some of the 2. Elliptical Galaxies: It contains older
gases that made up the planet's early stars with fewer gases. Messier89
atmosphere. galaxy is an elliptical galaxy.
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Figure 2.1 Milky Way Galaxy
3. Irregular Galaxies: They are youthful The new measurement technique

galaxies with more dust and gases. called gravitational lensing confirmed
This can make them very bright. Large the age of the universe and the strength
Magellanic Cloud is an example of of dark energy. Dark energy is responsible
irregular galaxy. for the accelerating expansion of the
Initially, the universe was saturated only universe. Scientists used gravitational
by energy. Some of this energy set into lensing to measure the distances light
particles, which assembled into light atoms traveled from a bright, active galaxy to the
like hydrogen and helium. These atoms earth and some details of its expansion.
grouped first into galaxies, then stars and
all the other elements. This is generally
agreed-upon concept of our universe's
Three scientists, Saul
origin as estimated by scientists.
Perlmutter, Brian
In fact, the stars, planets and galaxies Schmidt and Adam
that can be detected make up only Riess won the Nobel
4 percent of the universe, according to Prize in Physics (2011) for their
astronomers. The other 96 percent of the discovery that the universe is just
substances in the universe cannot be seen expanding and picking up speed.
or easily understandable.
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2.4 Star and Constellations during its lifetime such as-red giant, white
dwarf, neutron star and black hole.
A star is type of astronomical object which
has its own light and heat. The nearest star to Constellation (Figure 2.2) is a group
earth is the Sun. Sirius is brighter star than of stars that forms a particular shape
the sun. ‘Proxima Centauri’ is the closest in the sky. In 1929, the International
star to the sun. Star is formed when enough Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted
dust and gas clump together because of the official constellation boundaries that
gravitational forces. Star changes its forms defined 88 official constellations that
SERPENS
AQUILA OPHIUCHUS
SCUTUM
LIBRA
CAPRICORN
SR 1806
SRB 1806-20
18
8806
006 200
SCORPIO
SAGITTARIUS LUPUS
Figure 2.2 Constellation-Sagittarius, like a teapot
Sagittarius
Capricorn Scorpio
se
lip
Ec
Aquarius
Libra
ber
Ma
tem
y
Sep
Pisces
SUN Virgo
Aries January Leo
Taurus Cancer
Gemini
Figure 2.3 Constellation
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around the sun in fixed elliptical paths

known as ‘orbits’. Most stars host their
own planets. So there are billions of other
solar systems in the Milky Way galaxy
alone.
Solar systems can also have more than
one star. These are called binary star
systems. If there are two stars or multi-
star systems, if there are three or more
stars. Our solar system is located in an
Figure 2.4 Stars outer spiral arm of the vast Milky Way
galaxy. Our solar system orbits the centre
exist today. Earlier Ptolemy, in his book of the Milky Way Galaxy at about 828,000
Almagest, listed 48 constellations. km/hr. Our solar system takes about 230
Ursa Major (Figure 2.3) is a constellation million years to complete one orbit around
that can be seen in the northern hemisphere the galactic centre.
and part of the southern hemisphere. Ursa The solar system is believed to have
Major means Great Bear in Latin. been formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
The solar system also includes the Kuiper
2.5 The Solar system Belt that lies past Neptune's orbit. This is a
A solar system consists of a star (Figure 2.4) sparsely occupied ring of icy bodies. This
at the centre and the eight planets, moons, is almost all smaller than the dwarf planet
asteroids, comets and meteoroids that Pluto. Beyond the fringes of the Kuiper
revolve it. The eight planets, namely the belt (Figure 2.5) is the Oort cloud. This
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, giant spherical shell surrounds our solar
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, revolve system. It has never been directly observed,
Figure 2.5 Solar system

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but its existence is predicted based on have the highest number of satellites in
mathematical models and observations of our solar system.
comets that likely originate there.
The Oort cloud is made up of icy 2.6 The Sun
pieces of space debris. It is orbiting our The Sun is at the centre
Sun as far as 1.6 light years away. This of our solar system.
shell of material is thick, extending from It is a yellow dwarf
5,000 astronomical units to 100,000 star, with a hot ball
astronomical units. One Astronomical of glowing gases. Its
Unit (AU) is the distance from the Sun to gravity holds the solar
Earth, or about 150 million kilometre. The system together and it keeps everything
Oort cloud is the boundary of the Sun's from the biggest planets to the smallest
gravitational influence, where orbiting particles of debris in its orbit. Electric
objects can turn around and return closer currents in the Sun generate a magnetic
to our Sun. field that is carried out through the solar
There are more than 163 known system by the solar wind.
natural satellites in our solar system and
several more awaiting confirmation of Structure of the Sun
discovery. Of the eight planets, Mercury By mass, the Sun is made up of about
and Venus are the only planets with no 70.6% hydrogen, 27.4% helium and 2%
satellites while the Jupiter and Saturn other gases. The Sun's enormous mass is
Internal structure:
Inner core
radiative zone Subsurface flows
convection zone Photosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
Figure 2.6 Structure of the sun
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held together by gravitational attraction, the corona. The temperature of the sun’s
producing immense pressure and surface is about 5,500ºc to 6,000 ºc
temperature at its core. There are three At the core, the temperature is about
main layers in the Sun's interior: the core, 15 million°C, which is sufficient to
the radiative zone, and the convective sustain thermonuclear fusion. This is a
zone (Figure 2.6). The core is at the centre. process in which atoms combine to form
It is the hottest region, where the nuclear larger atoms and in this process, released
fusion reaction to give the sun power. staggering amounts of energy. Specifically,
Moving outward next come the radiative in the Sun’s core, hydrogen atoms fuse to
(or radiation) zone. Its name is derived make helium.
from the way energy is carried outward Size and Distance
through this layer, carried by photons as
The sun has a radius of 695,508 kilometres.
thermal radiation. The third and final
It is far more massive than earth and
region of the solar interior is named the
3,32,946 Earths equal to the mass of the
convective (or convection) zone. It is also
Sun. The Sun’s volume would need 1.3
named after the dominant mode of energy
million Earths to fill it.
flow in this layer. The boundary between
the Sun's interior and the solar atmosphere Venus is hotter than
is called the Photosphere. It is what we see Mercury because
as the visible ‘surface’ of the Sun. Venus has an
Did you know that the Sun has an atmosphere which is
atmosphere? The lower region of the solar thicker and made almost entirely of
atmosphere is called the Chromosphere. Its carbon dioxide.
name is derived from the Greek word chroma
(meaning colour), for it appears bright red Orbit and Rotation
when viewed during a solar eclipse. A thin The Milky Way has four main spiral arms:
transition region, where temperature rises the Norma and Cygnus arm, Sagittarius,
sharply, separates the chromospheres from Scutum-Crux, and Perseus. The Sun is
the vast corona above. The uppermost located in a minor arm, the Sagittarius arm.
portion of the Sun's atmosphere is called From there, the Sun orbits the centre of the
the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter Milky Way Galaxy, bringing the planets,
than the Sun's surface (photosphere). The asteroids, comets and other objects along
upper corona gradually turns into the solar with it. Our solar system is moving with
an average velocity of 828,000 kilometres
wind. Solar wind is a flow of plasma that
per hour. It takes about 230 million years
moves outward through our solar system
to make one complete orbit around the
into interstellar space.
Milky Way. The Sun’s spin has an axial tilt
Therefore, the Sun has six regions: of 7.25 degrees with respect to the plane of
the core, the radioactive zone, and the the planets’ orbits. Since the Sun is not a
convective zone in the interior; the solid body, different parts of the Sun rotate
photosphere; the chromospheres; and at different rates. At the equator, the Sun
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spins around once about every 25 days, but makes one ‘planet day’. The planets moving
at its poles the Sun rotates once on its axis around the sun is called revolution or a
every 36 Earth days. Most of the materials ‘planet-year’.
are pulled toward the centre to form our
Planets in the Solar System
Sun. The Sun alone accounts for 99.8% of
the mass of the entire solar system. The Mercury
Like all stars, the Sun will someday Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun and
run out of energy. When the Sun starts to it is the smallest planet in the solar system.
die, it will swell so big that it will engulf It does not have any satellite. It rotates on its
Mercury and Venus and maybe even Earth. own axis in 58.65 earth days while it takes
Scientists predict that the Sun is a little 88 Earth days to complete one revolution
less than halfway through its lifetime and around the sun. Mercury is 0.4 astronomical
will last another 6.5 billion years before it units away from the Sun. The sunlight
shrinks down to be a white dwarf. takes 3.2 minutes to travel from the Sun
to Mercury. Mercury is the second hottest
2.7 The Planets planet though it is nearest to the sun.
The word planet in Greek means ‘wanderer’.
The Venus
Planet is the celestial body which does
not have light or heat of its own. A planet ‘Venus’ is the second nearest planet to
should possess the following qualities: the sun. It is also called as ‘Earth’s Sister’
planet due to its similar size and mass as
a. It should orbit around the sun.
that of our Earth. It is the hottest planet
b. It should not be a satellite of any in the solar system and experiences a
planet mean surface temperature of 462°C. It is
c. Due to its own mass and self-gravity, popularly known as “Morning star and
it should get a spherical shape and Evening star” It is seen in the east sky
d. Any other celestial body should not before sunrise (dawn) in the morning and
cross in its orbit. in the west sky after the sunset (twilight).
The planets are classified in order of their It rotates clockwise i.e. east to west
distance from the sun and based on their direction on its own axis. The rotation and
characteristics. They are: orbit of the Venus are unusual in several
1. The inner planets or terrestrial planets ways. Venus is one of just two planets that
or rocky planets. Mercury, Venus, rotate from east to west. Only Venus and
Earth and Mars are called inner or Uranus have this ‘backwards’ rotation. It
terrestrial planets. completes one rotation in 243 Earth days
which is the longest day of any planet in
2. The outer planets or gaseous planets
our solar system. The Venus takes 224.7
or giant planets. Jupiter, Saturn,
Earth days to complete one revolution
Uranus and Neptune are called outer
around the sun, and it has no natural
or gaseous planets.
satellites. Venus is 0.7 astronomical units
Each planet spins on its own axis. This away from the sun. The sunlight takes 6
movement is called rotation. One rotation minutes to travel from the sun to Venus.
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Table 2.1 Distance of the planets from the sun

Name Of The Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Diameter (km) 4,879 12,104 12,756 6,794 1,42,984 1,20,536 51,118 49,528
Density (kg/m3) 5,427 5,243 5,514 3,933 1,326 687 1,271 1,638
Rotation Period (hours) 1,407.6 5,832.5 23.9 24.6 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
Length of Day (hours) 4,222.6 2,802 24 24.7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
The Average distance
57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.6 1,433.5 2,872.5 4,495.1
from the sun(106 km)
Orbital Period (days) 88 224.7 365.3 687 4331 10,747 30,589 59,800
Number of Satellites 0 0 1 2 67 53 27 13
The Earth are very similar. It takes 24 hours and 37

Earth is the third nearest planet to the sun. It minutes to complete one rotation on its
is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. axis and its takes 687 days to complete one
The Earth’s orbit lies between the orbits of revolution around the Sun. The surface
Venus and Mars. It takes 23 hours 56 minutes temperature of the Mars is ranging from
and 4 seconds for the earth to complete one -153°C to 20°C. With the exception of
rotation on its own axis. The Earth takes the Earth, Mars probably is the most
365.25 days (Table 2.1) to complete one hospitable to life. This planet has seasons,
revolution around the Sun. Earth’s surface polar ice caps, volcanoes, canyons and
temperature varies from – 88°C to 58°C and weather. Mars has two satellites namely
it is the densest planet in the solar system. Phobos and Deimos.
The Earth is a unique planet because The Jupiter
of its distance from the sun, its motions, Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar
atmosphere with oxygen, presence of system. It is fifth planet from the sun. It is
water and moderate temperature. The made primarily of gases and is therefore
earth is neither too close nor too far from known as ‘Giant Gas planet’. It takes 9 hours
the sun. It is the only known planet to 55 minutes to complete one rotation on its
support life. It is also known as the ‘Blue axis and it takes 11.86 years to complete one
Planet’ because of the presence of water. revolution. Jupiter has the shortest day in the
Earth has only one natural satellite called solar system. Jupiter has a faint ring system
the Moon. The sun light takes about 8.2 around it. They are mostly comprised of dust
minutes to reach the earth. particles. Jupiter has 67 confirmed satellites
The Mars orbiting the planet. Ganymede, the satellite
Mars is the fourth nearest planet to the of Jupiter, is the largest natural satellite in
sun and it is the second smallest planet the solar system (even bigger than the planet
in the Solar system. It is also described as Mercury).
the “Red planet”. It is reddish in colour The Saturn
due to the presence of iron oxide on its Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun
surface. The landmass of Mars and Earth and the second largest planet in the solar
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system. Saturn is called as the Ringed HOTS

Planet. It is because of large, beautiful
and extensive ring systems that encircles
the planet. These rings are mostly made Which planet may float on water
from the chunks of ice and carbonaceous and why?
dust. Saturn is the only planet in our solar
system whose average density is less than
water. 2.8 Dwarf Planets
The Saturn has 30 rings and 53confirmed Dwarf planets are tiny planets in our
natural satellites. The Saturn takes 10 hours solar system. Any celestial body orbiting
34 minutes to complete one rotation on its around the sun, weighing for the self
axis and it takes 29.4 years to complete one gravity and nearly be round in shape
revolution around the sun. is called ‘Dwarf Planet’. It should not
The Uranus be a satellite of any planet. They are
five in number Ceres, Pluto, Heumea,
Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun
Makemake and Eris. As Pluto has not
and it is not visible to the naked eye. Like
cleared the neighbourhood around its
Venus, Uranus also rotates on its axis from
orbit, it is officially demoted in 2006
east to west. Uranus is inclined on its axis
from its ninth position as a planet.
at an angle of 98 degrees. The planet is
almost lying on its side as it goes around
2.9 Satellites
the sun. The sunlight, thus, is received
mostly in the polar areas. Hydrogen, The word ‘Satellite’ means companion. The
helium and methane are the major gases moon was the only known satellite in the
of its atmosphere. It is very cold due to Solar System until 1610. Today, there are
its great distance from the sun. Uranus is 163 known satellites in the Solar System.
named after the ancient Greek god of the The satellites move around a planet from
sky. It has a dense atmosphere primarily West to East. They do not have own light,
consisting of methane, which lends it a but reflect the light of the Sun. They have
bluish-green appearance. Uranus also has no atmosphere and water.
rings and twenty-seven satellites.
The Neptune
Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun.
It takes 16 hours to complete one rotation
on its own axis and it takes nearly 165 years
to revolve around the sun. It has 13 natural
satellites and 5 rings. It is the coldest planet
in the Solar System because it is the farthest
planet from the Sun. Neptune was the
first planet located through mathematical
calculations. Neptune is our solar system’s
windiest planet. Figure 2.7 Surface of the Moon
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Moon: the Earth’s Satellite are found in between the planets Mars and
The moon is located at a distance of 8, Jupiter. This belt is known as ‘Asteroid belt’.
84,401 km from the earth (Figure 2.7). The diameter of the asteroids varies from
The moon revolves around the earth. 100 km to a size of a pebble. The asteroids
The moon takes 27 days and 7 hours may be the fragments of a planet exploded
and 43 minutes for both its rotation and in the past or some parts of comets. The new
revolution around the earth. asteroids are being discovered continuously.
Hence, the observers on the earth 2.11 Comets
could see only one side of the moon. Comets are the most exciting heavenly
The moon is the fifth largest natural bodies and have ever been the objects of
satellite in the solar system. The moon man’s curiosity as well as fear. The word
was likely to be formed after a Mars- Comet (Figure 2.8) is derived from the
sized body collided with Earth. There are Greek word Aster Kometes meaning ‘Long
many craters, high and steep mountains Haired Star’. They are made up of small
of different sizes which cast shadows on ice particles and meteoric fragments. They
the Moon’s surface. The light which is revolve around the Sun. But their orbits are
reflected by the Moon will reach the Earth irregular. Sometimes they get very close
in just one and a quarter seconds. (Perihelion) to the sun and in other times
they go far away (Aphelion) from the sun.
Apollo 11 was the
first manned mission
to land on the Moon
sent by NASA. Two
American Astronauts Neil Armstrong
and Edwin Aldrin set foot on the
moon’s surface on the waterless Sea of
Tranquility on 20th July, 1969. They
stayed there for 21 hours 38 minutes
and 21 seconds on the moon. Michael
Collins piloted Apollo 11.
Since the moon is smaller than the

earth, it has 1/6 of the gravitational pull of
the earth. So, man weighs 6 times less on Figure 2.8 Comets
the moon than the earth.
The best known
2.10 Asteroids
Comet, Halley’s Comet,
Asteroids are small rocky celestial bodies appears once in every
that revolve around the Sun, like other 76 years. The Halley’s
planets. They are also called ‘Minor Planets’. Comet was seen last in 1986 and it will
There are lots of asteroids in the solar system. be seen again on 28th July 2061.
Larger asteroids are called Planetoids. These
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2.12 Meteors
There is a bright streak of light flashing
seen often in the sky during night for a few
Titan – only moon with clouds and seconds. They are called as ‘shooting stars’.
atmosphere. They are the removed pieces of rocks mainly
Titan is Saturn’s largest moon and from the Asteroid belt. They are called
the second largest (after Ganymede Meteoroids before they enter into our
of Jupiter) in the solar system. It is atmosphere. They enter into the atmosphere
the only moon in the solar system with great speed. But most of them are burnt
with clouds and a dense, planet-like when they enter into the atmosphere.
atmosphere. After entering into our atmosphere
Scientists believe that conditions on they are called as Meteors. Some pieces
Titan are similar to Earth’s early years do not burn fully and they fall on the earth
(the main difference is that, because it and make craters. The large unburned
is closer to the sun, Earth has always pieces of rocks that fall on the earth are
been warmer). According to NASA, called Meteorites.
“In many respects, Titan, is one of the Examples for Meteorite Fall: Meteor
most Earth-like worlds we have found crater in Northern Arizona and Lake
to date.” Lonar in Buldhana District of Maharastra
Titan was discovered by Dutch in India were created by meteor impacts.
astronomer Christiaan Huygens in
1655. The Huygens lander probe 2.13 S
hape and size of the Earth
sent to the moon aboard NASA’s It once was believed that the Earth was
Cassini spacecraft by the European flat and that ships could sail over the edge.
Space Agency is named in his honor. This view persisted even in the middle
Huygens was the first human-built ages and was an issue in recruitment of
object to land on Titan’s surface. Columbus.
Diameter:5,150 kilometres, about half
Early Greek view was that the world
the size of Earth and almost as large
was surrounded by the ocean (Oceanus),
as Mars. Surface temperature: - 179
origin of all rivers. Anaximander (600
degree Celsius, which makes water as
B.C) proposed that cylindrical earth was
hard as rocks and allows methane to
surrounded by celestial sphere. Pythagoras
be found in its liquid form. Surface
(582-507 B.C.) believed that the Earth was
pressure: Slightly higher than Earth’s
a sphere, which was considered the most
pressure. Earth’s pressure at sea level is
harmonious geometric shape. Aristotle
1 millibar while Titan’s is 1.6 millibars.
(384-322 B.C.) described observations that
Orbital period: 15,945 days. Titan’s
supported the theory that the Earth was
mass is composed mainly of water in
a sphere. These included the fact that the
the form of ice and rocky material.
shadow of the moon is circular in lunar
Titan has no magnetic field.
eclipses and constellations were higher in
the sky as one travelled south. Eratosthenes
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Figure 2.9 Geoid : Shape of the earth
(275-195 BCE) estimated size of earth from The Sun’s gravitational pull differs in
observations that the elevation of the sun force at the poles. The North Pole points
varied with position on the Earth’s surface in the same direction to the North Star
in Egypt.The Following Observations when it revolves about the Sun. If the
Show that the earth is sphere in shape Earth would not have been tilted on its
1. Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after axis, the days and nights would have been
sunset. of same duration always.
2. Ships disappear below the horizon as
2.14 Motions of the earth
they sail across ocean.
3. The moon looks like a disc. The earth has two basic movements:
1) Rotation and 2) Revolution.
4. The Earth casts a circular shadow
during lunar eclipses.
Galactic movement:
The Earth is an oblate spheroid, bulged at
This is the movement
the equator and flattened at the poles. It is
of the earth with the
called ‘Geoid’ (Figure 2.9) meaning the earth
sun and the rest of
is earth-shaped. The bulge at the equator is
the solar system in an orbit around
caused by the centrifugal force of the Earth’s
the centre of the MilkyWay Galaxy.
rotation. The gravitational pull of the earth
This, however, has little effect upon the
is the strongest at the flattened poles and it
changing environment of the earth.
is weaker towards the equator.
1. Rotation: The spinning of the earth
HOTS around its axis is called the rotation of
the earth. The axis is the imaginary line
Chimborazo in Ecuador is higher than passing through the centre of the earth.
Mount Everest, if measured from the The earth completes one rotation in 23
centre of the Earth. Why? hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. It
rotates in an eastward direction opposite
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The Vertical line gives a difference of 4 minutes for

from the earth’s
orbital plane every degree of longitude that passes
North Pole
the sun. The hour (60 minutes) is thus
23½o 1/24 of a day.
3. When you observe through a moving
Equ Tro
pi
train, trees, houses and fields on the other
ato c of
r
66½o
Can
cer side of the track appear to move in the
The plane direction opposite to that of the speeding
of the earth’s
orbit train. The apparent movement of the sun
Tro and the other heavenly bodies in relation
pic of
Cap
rico
to the rotating earth is similar. As the
rn
earth rotates from west to east, the sun,
moon, planets and stars appear to rise in
South Pole
the east and set in the west.
Figure 2.10 Tilt of the Earth’s axis 4. Rotation causes the working of the
Coriolis force which results in the
to the apparent movement of the sun. The
deflection of the winds and the ocean
earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of 66½°
currents from their normal path.
to the orbital plane as it moves around the
sun. We can say, the earth’s axis is tilted 5. Tide is caused by the rotation of the
at an angle of 23½° (Figure 2.10) from a earth apart from the gravitational pull
perpendicular to the elliptic plane. The of the sun and the moon.
velocity of earth’s rotation varies depending Rotation causes a flattening of Earth at
on the distance of a given place from the the two poles and bulging at the Equator.
equator.The rotational velocity at the poles Hence, there is a difference in diameter at
is nearly zero. The greatest velocity of the poles and equator.
the rotation is found at the equator. The Circle of Illumination: The line around
velocity of rotation at the equator is 1,670 the earth separating the light and dark
km per hour and in the poles it is about is known as the circle of illumination
zero. (Figure 2.11).
Effects of earth’s rotation: The rotation It passes through the poles and allows
of the earth causes the following effects: the entire earth to have an equal amount
of time during the daylight and night
1. The apparent rising and setting of time hours. This line can be seen from
the sun is actually caused by the space, and the exact location of the line is
earth’s rotation which results in the dependent on the various seasons.
alternate occurrence of day and night
everywhere on the earth’s surface. Revolution of the Earth
2. Rotation of the earth is also responsible The movement of the earth in its orbit
for the difference in time between around the sun in an anti-clockwise
different places on the earth. A 24 direction, that is, from west to east is called
hour period divided by 360 degrees revolution of the earth. The earth revolves
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Figure 2.11 Circle of Illumination

in an orbit at an average distance of 150 (Ap means away and Helios means sun).
million km. The distance of the earth At Aphelion the distance of the earth is
from sun varies time to time due to the 152 million km away from the sun.
elliptical shape of the orbit. About January
The period taken by the earth to
3rd the earth is closest to the sun and it is
said to be at Perihelion (‘peri’ means close complete one revolution around the sun is
to and Helios means sun). At Perihelion, 365 days and 6 hours (5 hours, 48 minutes
the distance is 147 million km. and 45 seconds) or 365¼ days. The speed
Around July 4th the earth is farthest of the revolution is 1,07,000 km per hour.
from the sun and it is said to be at Aphelion The speed is 30 km per second. The bullet
Difference between Rotation and Revolution

Rotation Revolution
Spinning of the earth from west to east on its axis. Movement of the earth around the sun in its
elliptical orbit.
It takes 24 hours to complete a rotation (or a day) It takes 365¼ days to complete one revolution
(or a year)
It is known as the daily or diurnal movement. It is known as the annual movement of the earth.
Rotation causes days and nights to alternate, tides, Revolution results in the varying lengths of day
deflection of winds and ocean currents and also and night, changes in the altitude of the midday
gives the earth its shape. sun and change of seasons.
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from a gun travels with a speed of 9 km

per second. Let us know!
How to calculate leap year? Take any
Period of Revolution and Leap year
year and divide by 4. If it is divisible
The period of time the earth takes to make (whole number with no reminder), it
one revolution around the sun determines is a leap year.
the length of one year. The earth takes Students’ activity: calculate and
365 days and 6 hours to complete one identify the leap years from the
revolution. Earth takes 365.25 days to following years
complete one trip around the Sun .That
1992, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2008, 2010,
extra quarter of a day presents a challenge
2012, 2014, 2017, 2020, 2024, 2030,
to our calendar system, which has one year
2035, 2040 and 2044.
as 365 days. To keep our yearly calendars
consistent with our orbit around the Sun the year. In general, spring, summer, autumn
once in, every four years we add one day. and winter are the four seasons (Figure 2.12).
The extra day added to is called a leap day, The latitude at which the sun appears directly
and the year the extra day is added to is overhead changes as the earth orbits the sun.
called a leap year. The extra day is added The sun appears to follow a yearly pattern
to the month of February which has 29 of northward and southward motion in the
days in a leap year. sky, known as the ‘apparent movement of
the sun’. It gives an impression that the sun is
Brain storming continuously swinging north and south of the
How many birth days a person, whose equator. Actually it is the earth that is moving
life span supposed to be 60 years, around the sun on its tilted axis. It varies
would have seen in his/ her life time, when observed on a daily and monthly basis,
if born on 29th February? at different times of the year. On 21 March
and 23 September the sun rises precisely in
Effects of revolution of the earth the east and sets exactly in the west.
The revolution of the earth around the Equinoxes and solstices

sun results in the following You already knew that the sunrays are
• Cycle of seasons, vertical at noon. The vertical rays fall on a
• Variation in length of days and nights, small area, giving more heat.
• Variation in distribution of solar energy Equinoxes

over the earth and the temperature Position of the earth on 21 March
zones.
Equinoxes occur when the earth reaches
2.15 Seasons the points in its orbits where the equatorial
The seasons are caused due to the combined and the orbital planes intersect, causing
effect of the earth’s revolution and the tilt of its the sun to appear directly overhead at the
axis to 23½° in the same direction throughout equator. During the equinoxes the periods
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Figure 2.12 Earth’s revolution and the seasons
of day light and darkness are equal all over SolsticesPosition of the earth on 21 June
the world. On 21 March the sun is directly The North Pole is inclined or tilted towards
overhead at the equator. Throughout the the sun. It, therefore, experiences complete
world, on this day all the places experience light for 24 hours. The South Pole is tilted
almost equal hours of day and night. away from the sun so it is in complete
This position of the sun is called spring darkness for 24 hours. The rays of the
equinox. sun fall vertically at the tropic of cancer
Position of the earth on 23 September (23½º N). In the Northern hemisphere, the
Neither pole of the earth is inclined days are longer than the nights (Table 2.2).
towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall It is summer in the northern hemisphere
vertically on the equator. All the places and winter in the southern hemisphere.
have equal days and nights. It is autumn The day 21 June is known as summer
in the northern hemisphere and spring solstice.
in the southern hemisphere. Again on 23
September the sun is directly overhead Position of the earth on 22 December
on the equator and it is called autumn The South Pole is inclined towards the sun
equinox. This day (23 September) when and the North Pole is away from it. The
sun’s rays for fall verticaly on the equator, rays of the sun fall vertically at the tropic
is known as autumnal equinox (Figure of Capricorn (23½° S). The greater part of
2.13). the southern hemisphere gets the direct
rays of the sun so the days are long and
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March equinox June Solstice Septemper equinox December Solstice

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
900 N
800 N 24 hours (Constant day)
70 N
0
1 23 hours 1
600 N 6 18 hours 6
8 8
500 N 16 hours
400 N
10 10
300 N 14 hours
200 N
100 N
Latitude
12 12
00 12 hours
100 S
200 S
14 10 hours 14
300 S
400 S
16 8 hours 16
500 S
18 6 hours 18
600 S 23 1 hours 23
700 S
800 S 0 hours (Constant night)
900 S
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Figure 2.13 Variations in the Length of Day and Night
Table 2.2 Variation in the length of day time

Latitude Summer Solstice Winter Solstice Equinoxes
0º 12 hrs 12 hrs 12hrs
10º 12hrs 35 min 11hrs 25 min 12hrs
20º 13hrs 12min 10hrs 48min 12hrs
30º 13hrs 56min 10hrs 4 min 12hrs
40º 14hrs 52 min 9 hrs 8 min 12hrs
50º 16hrs 18min 7 hrs 42 min 12hrs
60º 18hrs 27min 5 hrs 33min 12hrs
70º 24 hrs (for 2 months) 0 hrs 00 min 12hrs
the nights are short here. In the northern days and the nights. The duration of the
hemisphere the nights are longer than the daylight varies with latitude and seasons.
days at this time. The southern hemisphere An eclipse is a complete or partial
has summer. The northern hemisphere obscuration of light from a celestial body and it
has winter. This day (22 December), when passes through the shadow of another celestial
the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic body. The eclipses are of two types. They are:
of Capricorn, is known as winter solstice.
A) Solar Eclipse
Eclipses It occurs on New Moon days, when
Let us understand the effect of the the moon is between the Sun and the
revolution of the earth on the length of the Earth. Thus it obscures a part of the Sun
viewed from the Earth, but only from a
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small area of the world. It lasts only for It occurs on a Full Moon position when
a few minutes. A partial solar eclipse the earth is between the sun and the
(Figure 2.14) happens when the moon moon. The earth’s shadow obscures the
partially covers the disc of the sun. An moon as viewed from the earth. A partial
annular solar eclipse occurs when the lunar eclipse can be
moon passes centrally across the solar observed when only
disc. During a total solar eclipse, the a part of the moon’s
moon’s shadow is short enough to cover surface is obscured by
the whole sun. The outer regions still earth’s umbra (Figure
glow and look bright as a ring. Such a 2.15). A penumbral
phenomenon is called Diamond Ring. lunar eclipse happens when the moon
travels through the faint penumbral
(b) Lunar Eclipse portion of the earth’s shadow. A total
lunar eclipse occurs when the earth
Figure 2.14 Solar eclipse
Figure 2.15 Lunar eclipse

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Fact File
Geo connects History
Secret to Great Pyramid’s Near Perfect
Alignment Possibly Found!
The Great Pyramid of Giza, 4,500 years
ago, is an ancient feat of engineering.
Now an archaeologist has figured out
how the Egyptians may have aligned
the pyramid almost perfectly along the
cardinal points, north-south-east-west.
Egyptians may have used the autumn
equinox. Methods used by the ancient
Egyptians to align the pyramids along the
cardinal points are accurate.
W On the day of the fall equinox, a surveyor
placed a rod into the ground and tracked its
shadow throughout the day. The result was
N
e
a line running almost perfectly east-west.

Shadow lin
E
The Egyptians could have determined the
day of the fall equinox by counting forward
91 days after the summer solstice.
umbra obscures the entire the moon’s it becomes a ‘Full Moon’. These stages are
surface. Lunar eclipse can be seen from the waxing moon. After the full moon, the
anywhere on the night side of the Earth. moon starts waning or receding through the
It lasts for a few hours due to the smaller stages of Gibbous, last quarter, crescent, and
size of the moon. finally becomes invisible as dark New Moon.
Phases of the Moon The varying lengths of daylight in

The changing angles between the earth, different latitudes
the sun and the moon determine the It is evident from the table that the duration
phases of the moon. Phases of the moon of daylight is 12 hours throughout the year
(Figure 2.16) start from the ‘New Moon’ at the equator only. As one moves away
every month. Then, only a part of the from the equator, the seasonal variations
Moon is seen bright called ‘Crescent’, in the duration of daylight increase. The
which develops into the ‘first quarter’. seasonal variations in the duration of
With the increasing brightness it turns into daylight are maximum at the polar region.
three quarters known as ‘Gibbous’ and then
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Half Moon
First Quarter
Waxing Gibbous Waxing Cresent
10 7
Full Moon New Moon

14 Midnight Noon (0 & 29)
18 26
22
Waning Gibbous Waning Cresent

Last Quarter
Half Moon
Figure 2.16 Phases of the Moon
Effects of the spherical shape of the earth same intensity as the direct rays. As
1)
Variation in the amount of solar we go pole wards, the rays spread over
radiation received: the regions beyond the Arctic and the
If the earth were a flat surface, Antarctic circles in an extremely slanting
oriented at right angle to the sun, all the manner. This is how we get the various
places on the earth would have received temperature zones.
the same amount of radiation. But the Lower the degree of latitude; higher the
earth is spherical/ geoid. Hence the temperature. Not only that, the rays striking
sunrays do not heat the higher latitudes at a low angle must travel through a greater
of the earth as much as the tropics. On thickness of the atmosphere than the rays
any given day only the places located at
striking at a higher angle. The rays striking
particular latitude receive vertical rays
at a lower angle are subject to greater
from the sun. As we move north or south
depletion by reflection and absorption by
of this location, the sun’s rays strike at
the atmosphere.
decreasing angles. The yearly fluctuations
in the angle of the sun’s rays and the length Heat zones
of the days change with the continual The spherical shape of the earth along
change of the earth’s position in its orbit with its movement around the sun causes
around the sun at an inclination of 66½ differences in the angles at which the sun’s
to the orbital plane.
rays fall on the earth’s surface. This causes
2) Difference in the angle of the sun’s rays a difference in the distribution of heat on
striking different parts of the earth. the earth’s surface.
Away from the equator, the sun’s rays As a result, the world has been
strike the earth’s surface at particular divided into three distinct heat zones or
angle. The slanting rays are spread over temperature zones. They are the Torrid
a large area and do not heat with the zone, Temperate zone and Frigid zone.
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You will learn more about it under the

unit atmosphere. Daylight Saving Time
In the mid latitude countries of
2.16 Time Zones of the World Europe, North America, Australia
People during the medieval period were and South America, the day time are
using sundials and water clocks to observe longer in summer than the night. In
the Sun’s meridian passing at noon. In 17th spite of employing daylight duration,
century, the people started using pendulum the clocks are adjusted 1 hour forward
clock which did not show accurate time while in spring and 1 hour backward in
travelling in the sea. Later chronometer was autumn. This time is generally known
invented in 1764. Chronometer measures as ‘the Daylight Saving Time’ (DST).
time accurately and the mariners widely
used this during the 19th century. But in Time Zones
many towns and cities clocks were set based On its axis, the earth rotates 360 degrees
on sunset and sunrise. The use of local every 24 hours. You can look at it as it
solar time hindered the development of takes one day to complete a full circle.
railways and telecommunications. A time Divided up into an hourly rate, the earth
zone is a region on the earth where uniform rotates 15 degrees every hour (360/24).
standard time should be maintained for This number plays an important role in
transport, commercial and social purposes. determining time zones. You have already
For example, if different time zones were learned about the latitudes and longitudes
followed, the trains coming from different and their importance in the lower classes.
regions, sharing single track may meet with An important factor in determining
accidents. time zones is the lines of latitude and
The world time zone (Figure 2.17) was longitude, imaginary lines known as
formed, relating longitude and the rotation latitudes and longitudes dividing the
of the earth. The Prime Meridian is the earth. Latitude lines are drawn east - west
centre of time zone extending from 7½ºW and they measure the location in northern
and 7½ º E longitudes. The 24 hours time and southern hemisphere. The line starts
zone system had been developed so that at the equator and measure distance from
all the time zones should be referred with 0 degrees to 90 degrees north and also 0
respect to Greenwich Mean Time. Earth degrees to 90 degrees south. They also
was divided into 24 time zones, each one become shorter farther away from the
zone for one hour of the day. It is because equator. On the other hand, longitude
earth rotates 15º of longitude in one hour lines are drawn north - south and they
(360º divided by 24 hours). The time when measure eastern and western hemisphere.
solar noon occurs at the Prime Meridian is They start at the Prime Meridian (or 0
fixed as noon for all places between 7½º E degree) and measure from 0 degrees to 180
and 7½º W. degrees east and 180 degrees west. Unlike
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Figure 2.17 Time zones of the world
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lines of latitude, these lines are fairly equal 3. Third, we need to divide the difference
in length. The origin of this spherical (measured in degrees) by 15 since
coordinate system is at 0 degree latitude there are 15 degrees in every hour.
and 0 degree longitude. This spot can be This will give us the difference in
found in the Atlantic Ocean just south time between the two locations. So
west of Africa. Also, the two lines connect if you know what time it is in one
at 180 degrees or at the International location, and the longitude of another
Date Line (Figure 2.18). This too helps to location, then just simple addition or
determining different time zones of the subtraction problem will give us the
world. time in a different time zone. Let's
Together all of the above information can look at another way we may have to
be used to calculate the difference of time calculate the difference between times
between two locations. of two locations.
1. First, we need to know what longitudes Another calculation you may have to make
the two places are located. is over the International Date Line. This
2. Next, you would need to find the line is strategically placed in the Pacific
differences in longitude (in degrees) Ocean so that no two neighbouring cities
between the two places. If both places are one day apart in time. It can be difficult
are located on the same side of the to calculate though the International
Prime Meridian, then the numbers Date Line when trying to determine
are just simply subtracted to find the the amount of time difference between
difference. If they are on the opposite locations on either side. This calculation
side of the Prime Meridian then the is very similar to the situation with the
two numbers should be added together Prime Meridian. We must start by finding
to findInternational
the difference. date line the difference in longitude (or degrees)
of the two places. We do this by adding
the two numbers. Then, divide by the 15
N
degrees that occurs in one hour and this
will give you the time difference between
West to East
two locations through the International
ay
Date Line. And again, just add or subtract
Gains a D
that difference from the time that we
International date line
already know to come up with the new

Loses a D time in the new time zone.
ay
East to West Example of Time Calculations
- +
Add a Day
To review, to find the difference between
Subtract a Day
the two longitudes and divide by 15, this
gives you the difference in hours between
the two locations. Second, add or subtract
S the number of hours from the time of day
Figure 2.18 International date line that was already known, we will need to
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add the numbers if we are going east, and gain or loss of 1° longitude stands for 4
subtract if we are going west. Here are minutes.
some examples of how we may need to 360° = 24 hours = 1440 min (24 × 60)
calculate the difference of time zones. Difference of time for 15° longitude = one
If you are in London at 12:00, and want hour.
to know what time it is in Japan, you would Difference of time for 1° longitude = 4
need to first figure out that London is 0 minutes.
degrees (right on the prime meridian), and
Japan is 135 degrees East. So the difference Longitude Calculations Procedures
is 135 degrees (135–0), divided by 15 which a. First locate the two places involved
equals 9. It means there is a 9-hour difference b. Find the longitude difference
between London and Japan. Since Japan is c. Convert the longitude difference to
further east than London is, you would add time and,
9 hours to 12:00. The answer is at 12:00 noon
d. Adjust the time according to the
London time, it is 9:00pm in Japan.
direction of movement, (west or east).
Now we suppose imagine that we are
going through the International Date Example 1
Line. Pretend you are in Japan, which Ponni starts her journey at longitude 0° at
is 135 degrees east and you wanted to 12 noon and she’s moving towards eastward
know what time it is in Hawaii, which of longitude 10°. Calculate the time that
is 150 West. Well, there is 45 (180–135) Ponni will arrive at her destination.
degrees difference between Japan and the Solution
IDL. Also there is 30 (180–150) degrees
Initial time = 12 noon
difference between the IDL and Hawaii.
Destination = 10°E
Therefore the difference in time is (45 +
30/15 = 5) 5 hours. Now the tricky part Conversion of degree to time
is that Japan and Hawaii are on different 1 hour = 15°
days. It is one day ahead on the left side of and 4 minutes = 1°
the IDL compared to the right side. If it is Hence 10° = (4 × 10) minutes
3:00pm in Japan on Thursday that means
= 40 minutes
it is 3:00 + 5 hours = 8:00pm in Hawaii.
However notice that when crossing the Destination time = Initial time + calculated
IDL we subtract a day going east. So, in time
Hawaii it is 8:00pm on Wednesday. = 12 noon + 40minutes
Now note that Latitudinal lines are = 12:40pm
imaginary horizontal lines over the Earth's Example 2
globe. 0° longitudinal line is Equator.
If the time at village A (long 75°W) is 5:00
Earth completes one rotation on its axis
pm on Friday. Calculate the time and day
in 24 hours and in the process turns a
at village B (long 120°E)
complete circle of 360°. This means Earth
rotates 360°/24 = 15° in one hour. Every
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Solution
360° = 24hrs
15° = 1 hour
1° = 4 minutes 1. Dark energy: A theoretical form of
energy postulated to act in opposition to
Village A = 75°W
gravity and to occupy the entire universe,
Village B = 120°E
accounting for most of the energy in it
We will add (west and east) and causing its expansion to accelerate.
(75 + 120)° = 195° 2. Magnetic field: A force field that is
195 divided by 15° created by moving electric charges and
= 13hrs magnetic dipoles, and exerts a force
Destination time = initial + calculated on other nearby moving charges and
time magnetic dipoles.
= 5:00 + 13 hrs 3. Penumbra: The partially shaded outer
region of the shadow cast by an opaque
= 18:00
object.
18:00 = 6:00
4. Asteroids: Small rocky celestial bodies
Answer = 6:00am on Saturday that revolve around the Sun, like other
planets.
Example 3
5. Standard time: A uniform time for
Calculate the local time in New York
places in approximately the same
(USA) longitude 75°W, when it is 10am in
longitude, established in a country or
Nigeria of longitude 15°E
region by law or custom.
Solution
6. Galactic movement: This is the movement
Initial time = 10:00am
of the earth with the sun and the rest of
New York = 75°W the solar system in an orbit around the
Nigeria = 15° E centre of the MilkyWay Galaxy.
We will add (west and east) 7. Equinox: Time, when the apparent
(75 + 15)° = 90° movement of the sun is overhead the
90° divided by 15° = 6 hrs equator, equal day and night occurs.
Destination time = initial + calculated 8. Gibbous: Third quarter of moon’s
time phase is known as Gibbous.
= 10:00am + 6hrs 9. Solar flare: A magnetic storm on the
= 16:00 hrs sun and releases huge amounts of
16:00 hrs = 4:00pm gases. It can cause ‘Sun quakes’.
Answer = 4:00pm 10. Super Nova: The explosive death
of a star. It obtains brightness of 100
million suns for a short time.
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Evaluation c. 24 hrs (for 4 months)

I.
C hoose the best d. 24 hrs (for 6 months)
answer from the 8. The apparent movement of the Sun is
options given overhead the Equator twice a year on
1. The scientist who a. Dec 22 and Mar21
proposed Big Bang b. Mar21 and Sep23
Theory was c. Jun 21 and Dec 22
a. Abbe Georges Lemaitre d. Sep 23 and Dec22
b. Edwin Hubble 9. On June 21 the Sun’s rays fall vertically
c. Nicholas Copernicus on the
d. Aryabhatta a. The Tropic of Cancer
2. is called the Morning b. The Tropic of Capricorn
and Evening Star in the Solar c. The Equator
system. d. The Arctic Circle
a. The Mercury b. The Venus 10. The Prime Meridian is the centre of
c. The Uranus d. The Saturn time zone extending between
3. The Planet with 30 rings in the solar a. 7 ½° W and 7 ½° E longitudes
system is b. 7 ½° N and 7 ½° S
a. The Jupiter b. The Mars c. 17 ½° W and 17 ½° E Longitudes
c. The Earth d. The Saturn d. 17 ½° N and 17 ½° S
4. The earth takes to II. Very short answer
complete one rotation. 11. Define a star.
a. 23 hrs 56 min 4 sec 12. Why is the Venus hottest?
b. 27 hrs 17 min 2 sec 13. Mention any two differences between
c. 24 hrs 56 min 4 sec the Mercury and Neptune.
d. 10 hrs 7 min 4 sec 14. What are the inner planets?
5. The windiest planet is 15. Define the circle of illumination.
a. The Saturn b. The Neptune III. Short answer
c. The Jupiter d. The Mars 16. What are dwarf planets?
6. The sun appears to be the closest to the 17. Why could we see only one side of the
earth on Moon always?
a. January 3 b. July 4 18. Mention the characteristics of the
c. September 5 d. December 4 Saturn.
7. The length of day time at 80⁰ N during 19. Distinguish between the solar eclipse
summer solstice is and lunar eclipse.
20. Calculate the local time of Chennai
a. 18hrs 27min
(80⁰ 27’ E) when it is 8 pm in Shangai
b. 24 hrs (for 2 months) (121⁰ 47’ E).
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IV. Detailed answer zero (prime) Meridian before heading

21. Explain the Big bang Theory. back toward the Prime Meridian?
22. Describe the structure of the Sun. a. 60 degree.
23. Draw the four positions of the Sun b. 90 degree.
during equinoxes and Solstices and c. 360 degree.
briefly explain them.
d. 180 degree.
V. Additional questions e. none of the above.
1. Lines of latitude 5. 0 degree longitude and 0 degree.
a. begin with the prime meridian latitude is located:
b. are designated by being East or a. over central Australia;
West from an origin; b. in Brazil
c. are of equal length; c. in the Atlantic south and west of
d. become shorter away from the Africa
equator; d. at the South Pole
e. none of the above. e. none of the above.
2. All of the following are true statements 6. To find longitude, a sailor needs to
about longitude, except know
a. has its origin at the prime meridian;
a. the elevation of the sun above the
b. extend east and west to 180 degrees horizon
longitude;
b. the latitude at the prime meridian;
c. are relatively equal in length
c. local time and the time at another
d. could be determined by sailors line of longitude
using a device called the sextant
d. the relative space
e. could not be determined by sailors
e. none of the above.
until the introduction of the
chronometer. 7. Latitude and longitude is a spherical
coordinate system with its origin at
3. You are told that the earth rotates on its axis
0 degree latitude and 0 degree longitude.
at a speed of about 1042 miles per hour.
This point is in the Atlantic Ocean
Given that the rotation occurs in 24 hours,
just below the African country of the
what is the circumference of the earth?
Ivory Coast. Locations are measured
a. 40,000 miles in degrees away from this origin in
b. 25,000 miles north, south, east and west directions.
c. 2400 miles 23.34 degree S and 46.38 degree W is
probably located in:
d. 76,000 miles
a. Russia
e. none of the above.
b. Canada
4. How many degrees of a full circle can you
c. South Africa
travel eastward or westward from the
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d. South America c. 1 AM, Monday

e. None of the above. d. 11 PM, Tuesday
8. The circumference of the earth at the e. 6 AM, Monday
equator or along any line of longitude
is approximately: VI. Practice
a. 25,000 km 1. Prepare a working model of the
b. 40,000 km Solar system as a group work and
c. 36,000 km demonstrate in the class.
d. 46,000 km. 2. Collect and prepare in a chart, the
9. It is 1:00 PM on Friday at 90 degree W. facts about the sun, planets, satellites,
what time is it at 90 degree E? asteroids, comets and meteors and make
a news reading of each heavenly body in
a. 7:00 PM Friday
the school assembly each one day.
b. 7:00 AM Friday
3. Collect latest information on the
c. 7:00 AM Saturday “Planet 9” and present it in the
d. 1:00 AM Saturday classroom.
e. 1:00 PM Saturday
10. It is 12 Noon, Monday at 90 degree. W.
what time and day should it be at 75 Reference
degrees east longitude? 1. Geography by Surender Singh.
a. 11PM, Monday 2. Geography by Vee Kumar publications.
b. 11 AM, Tuesday 3. Solar system. Nasa.gov.com
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ICT CORNER
Time zone and Eclipses Conflicting Clocks
Through this activity you will

identify time zones and Eclipses.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach the ‘Time Zone Map’ page or scan the QR code.
• Use the mouse and surf over the interactive map to observe the time variations and
current time in a particular place.
• Select ‘Eclipses’ under ‘Sun and Moon’ menu to observe eclipses and transits of
planets.
• Click ‘See list of all eclipses & planet transits worldwide (1900 to 2199)’ option form
the list and use the interactive map to identify date and paths of eclipse and transits.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/
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Unit 3
Lithosphere:
Endogenic Processes

3.1 Introduction • Understand the structure and
3.2 Interior of the Earth
composition of the Earth.
3.3 Continental Drift Theory
3.4 Plate Tectonics • Develop an insight into the
3.5 Plate boundaries Continental Drift Theory.
3.6 Convection Cell • Describe the concept of Plate
3.7 Fold Tectonic movement.
3.8 Fault • List and compare the characteristics
3.9 Earthquake and distribution of the earth’s
3.10 Volcano
internal forces
3.11 Rocks
3.12 Rock Cycle • Explain rock types and rock cycle
3.1 Introduction
Do you know that the Russians tried to dig
through the centre of the Earth? It indeed
is a daring attempt.
While the famous Voyager 1 satellite
took 26 years to exit our Solar System
(16.5 billion km away), almost the same
amount of time (24 years) was taken for
man to dig out a mere 12.3 km into the
earth’s surface.
Russia drilled Kola Super Deep bore Figure 3.1 Kola Super Deep
hole between 1970 and 1994. The deepest Borehole, Russia
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8.9 KM HIGH
MOUNT EVEREST
are collectively known as geomorphic
processes. (Figure.3.3)
The process by which the earth’s surface
is reshaped through rock movements and
SEA LEVEL
DEEPEST ACTIVE MINE

displacement is termed as diastrophism.
Diastrophism includes both orogenic and
3.9 KM DEEP
KIMBERLITE
12.3 KM DEEP MARIANA TRENCH

epeirogenic processes.
KOLA SUPERDEEP BOREHOLE 10.9 KM DEEP
Our knowledge of the earth is mostly

Figure 3.2 Extreme points of the earth limited to its surface. But the earth has
a complicated interior. The earth is
part of it, named 'SG-3 (Star Gate), extends composed of lithosphere, atmosphere,
12.3 km into the Earth. Look at figure 3.2 hydrosphere, and biosphere.
and amaze the highest and deepest points The lithosphere is the outermost rigid
of the earth. rocky shell of the earth. It comprises the
The earth’s surface is being continuously crust and the upper portion of the mantle.
reshaped by both the internal (Endogenic The word lithosphere is derived from
forces) and external forces (Exogenic the Greek words lithos meaning rocky
forces). The changes that the endogenic and sphaira meaning sphere. The term
and exogenic forces bring about in the lithosphere was introduced by Joseph
appearance of the surface of the earth Barrel, an American Geologist.
Earth
movements
Endogenetic Exogenetic
Slow Movements Sudden

Movements
Weathering Erosion
(Diastrophism)
(Catastrophism)
Orogenic or Mountain building Earthquakes Physical Glacier

Epeirogenic or Continent
forming
Tension Volcanoes Chemical River Water

Upward
movement
Compression Biological Waves
Downward
movement
Wind
Underground
water (Karst)
Figure 3.3 Earth's Forces

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Figure 3.4 Layers of the Earth

3.2 Interior of the Earth 70 km thick in the Himalayan region. The
The interior of the earth is composed density of the crust is less than 2.7 g/cm3.
of many minerals both in the solid and 3.2.2 The mantle
liquid state. The temperature in general The mantle is composed of silica, magnesium
increases at the rate of 1° C for every 32 and iron. It lies between the lower crust
metres towards the earth’s interior. and the outer core. It extends for about
Look at the figure.3.4 the layers of the 2,900 km. It is divided into upper mantle
earth. Earth’s interior can be divided into and lower mantle. The mantle generally is
the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, in a solid state. The upper part of the mantle
outer core, and inner core. is called asthenosphere. The word Asthen
in Greek means weak. It extends up to
3.2.1 The Crust 400 km and it is the main source of magma.
The crust is further divided into upper The Mohorovicic is the boundary which
crust (continental crust), composed of divides the lower crust and the upper mantle.
silica and aluminum (sial) and the lower The density of the mantle is 3.9 g/cm3.
crust (oceanic crust) made up of silica and
magnesium (sima). The boundary between 3.2.3 The core
the upper crust and the lower crust is termed The core forms the centre of the earth. Its
as ‘Conorod boundary’. The thickness density is 13.0 g/cm3. Its temperature is
of the crust varies from oceanic areas to about 5500° C to 6000° C. The core has
continental areas. Oceanic crust is thinner two parts namely the outer core and the
when compared to the continental crust. inner core. The boundary between the
The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km lower mantle and the outer core is called
while the continental crust is around 30 km. Guttenberg margin.
The continental crust is thicker in the areas The outer core and inner core are
of major mountain systems. It is as much as separated by Lehmann boundary. The
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outer core is in the liquid state while the 3.3 Continental Drift Theory
inner core is in the solid state. Generally, In 1912 Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
the core is composed of Nickel and Ferrous postulated that all the continents once
(Iron) which is called NiFe (Barysphere). were together forming a single continent.
The core is extended from 2,900 km to 6,370 According to him, about 250 million years
km from the surface of the earth.
L A U R A S IA
Equator TETHYS SEA Equator

TETHYS SEA
GO
ND
WA
NA
LA
ND
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
250 million years ago 200 million years ago
Equator Equator TETHYS SEA

TETHYS SEA
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
145 million years ago 65 million years ago
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA
INDIA
AFRICA
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
ANTARCTICA
PRESENT DAY
Figure 3.5 Continental Drift

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ago, the earth was made up of a single the western side of Africa and the
landmass called Pangaea (meaning "all eastern side of South America fit
lands"), and a single ocean surrounding it together.
called as Panthalassa. Over a long period
of time, probably 220 million years ago, 'Enchanted rock is a
they drifted apart and gradually moved to pink' coloured ancient
form their present position. First, Pangaea Granite rock located
broke into two landmasses namely in Texas Which
Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in attractes tourists
the south.
Laurasia further split into Eurasia and
North America. Gondwana land split
Africa
into Africa, South America, Antarctica, South America
Australia, and India.
Wegener put forward certain evidences
to support the continental drift theory. Let
us deal with it in detail.
South
3.3.1 Evidences to support continental pole
drift theory India
The continental drift theory is supported
by the following evidences.
1. Certain identical rare fossils have been Antarctica
found in different continents.
The fossils of Mesosaurus (a small
Permian reptile), for example, have
been found only in Africa and South
Australia
America.
2. The fossil of a Fern tree, about 360
million year old, has been found only Figure 3.6 Evidence of continents split
in India and Antarctica. from the same land mass
3. Rocks of similar type, formation, and age
have been found in Africa and Brazil. 3.4 Plate Tectonics
Have you heard about diving between
4. Geological structure in Newfoundland
two continents? It is possible in the Silfra
matches with that of Ireland, Scotland
rift of Iceland. Look at Figure.3.7. It is
and Scandinavia. Geological Structure
located in the Tingvellir National Park.
of Appalachian Mountains matches with
It is in the boundary between the North
Morocco and Algeria in North Africa.
American plate and the Eurasian plate. It
5. The corresponding edges of the is the visible boundary between these two
continents fit together. For example, plates.
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Gnss (Global Navigation Satellite System)

measures the speed of
plate movement. Rate of
seafloor spreading ranges
from 1 to 2 centimetres
per year along the oceanic
ridge in the northern Atlantic Ocean to
more than 15 cm per year along the East
Figure 3.7 Silfra rift, Tingvellir, Iceland Pacific Rise.
Web link for Silfra drift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Lithospheric plates are sometimes
v=U3eT0qmPJbw
called as crustal plates or tectonic plates.
Earth's lithosphere is divided into a
3.5 Plate boundaries series of major and minor mobile plates.
Plate boundaries are the zones where Eurasian plate, Indo-Australian plate,
two or more plates move about. Plate North American plate, South American
tectonics describes the distribution and plate, Pacific plate, African plate and
motion of the plates. The earth's surface Antarctic plate are the major plates.
is composed of rigid lithospheric slabs Arabian plate, Caribbean plate, Cocas
technically called “plates”. The word plate and Scotia plate are the examples of
tectonic is derived from the Greek word minor plates. Plates move at the rate of 2
tekton meaning builders. to 3 centimeters per year.
W E
NORTH AMERICAN EURASIAN PLATE

PLATE
PHILIPPINE
JUAN DE FUCA COCOS CARIBBEAN PLATE
PLATE PACIFIC
PLATE PLATE PLATE
ARABIAN
PLATE INDIAN
PACIFIC PLATE
PLATE
AFRICAN
SOUTH
NAZCA PLATE
EASTER PLATE AMERICAN
PLATE AUSTRALIAN PLATE
PLATE
JUAN FERNANDEZ
PLATE
ANTARCTICA PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE
Not to scale
Figure 3.8 Distribution of tectonic plates

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Student activity
Look at the map given below. Label the plates or number them. Identify and colour
the oceanic plates.
1. Pacific plate 9. North American plate
2. African plate 10. South American plate
3. Eurasian plate 11. Juan de Fuca plate
4. Arabian plate 12. Indian plate
5. Australian plate 13. Antarctic plate
6. Caribbean plate 14. Philippine plate
7. Cocas plate 15. Nasca plate
8. Scotia plate
1. Name the plates bordering the Indo-Australian plate.
2. Which sea lies between African plate and Arabian plate?
3. Which two continents, you think, may fit together?
W E
Not to scale
Figure 3.9 Tectonic plates
Plates are composed of the continental Plate margins mark the occurrence of
or oceanic landmass. The subduction the most significant landforms, including
of the oceanic plates results in the volcanoes, fold mountains, island arcs
occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes and deep-sea trenches. There are three
adjacent to trenches. principal types of plate boundaries. They
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are divergent, convergent, and transform
Volcanic
arc
boundaries.
ch
en
Tr
3.5.1 Divergent plate boundaries Oceanic Crust
Continental
crust
Divergent plate boundary is the margin Lithosphere Lithosphere
where two plates move apart. For
instance, the African plate and South Asthenosphere
American plate move apart and form a

divergent plate boundary. Narrow oceans Figure 3.10 Divergent margin
High
represent young divergent boundaries
Ra ntain
islands such as the Azores, Ascension, St.
Plateau
e
ng
and wide oceans are indications of
u
Helena and Tristan da Cunha.
Mo
old ocean basins. Ocean ridges are Continental crust
Continental crust
the boundaries between plates of the Web link: Mid Atlantic Ridge
Lithosphere Lithosphere
lithosphere. www.britanica.com/place/
atlanticocean
Atlantic Ocean Astheno sphere
is widening at an
Secondly, rift valley is formed when
estimated rate of 1 to
two plates move apart. If a divergent
10 cm a year
boundary runs through the continent,
A fissure is created when oceanic the continent splits apart and rift valley
lithosphere separates along the oceanic is formed. The African Rift Valley of East
plate boundary. The gap is filled by magma Africa is an example.
that rises from the asthenosphere. The
3.5.2 Convergent plate boundary
magma cools and solidifies to create a new
Convergent plate boundary is the margin
oceanic crust. Hence, the divergent plate
where two plates collide with one another.
boundary is termed as the constructive
For instance, the South American plate
plate boundary. It is also called as accreting
and Nazca plate collide with each other.
plate margin.
There are two kinds of surface features
Let us see what happens in the divergent
associated with the convergent margin.
plate boundary. Firstly, submarine
The first is the ocean trench that forms a
mountain ridge is formed through the
line between the two colliding plates.
fissures in the oceanic crust when the
plates move apart.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an ideal Wadati-Benioff
example of a submarine mountain ridge zones are nothing but
in the Atlantic Ocean. It is the longest Subduction zone
mountain ridge in the world.
It extends for about 16,000 km, in a 'S'
shaped path, between Iceland in the north
and Bouvet Island in the south. It is about A trench is a narrow and deep depression of
80 to 120 km wide. It reaches above the the ocean floor. It is formed when the oceanic
sea level in some places thus forming the plate slides down underneath continental
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plate as the oceanic plate is denser than the 3.5.3 Transform plate boundaries
continental plate. For instance, Mariana Transform plate boundary is the margin
Trench in the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest where two plates move side by side. The
trench in the world. It is formed when the lithosphere is neither destroyed nor created
Pacific plate sinks down the Eurasian plate. It is by the transform plate boundary. Hence
about 10,994 metres (10.99 km) deep. Mariana it is called as the Conservative or passive
Trench stretches for more than 2,540 km with plate boundary. The San Andreas Fault,
a width of 69 km. California, is a transform boundary that
You could take Mount Everest and separates the North American plate and
sink it in the Mariana Trench, the deepest Pacific Plates.
point in the ocean, and still you have a km Subduction zone
of depth to reach the surface of the ocean. oceanic

Cascade
ridge
When a continental plate and an oceanic Juan
Range
plate collide with each other, denser oceanic De Fuca North

plate sinks below the lighter continental Plate American
plate, subduction zone is formed. Transform Plate
boundary San Francisco
San
A subduction zone is a boundary where Plate motion direction Andreas
one plate sinks under the other plate. It was Los Angeles fault
first identified by Kiyoo Wadati and Benioff. Pacific

Plate Gulf of
Secondly fold mountain is formed when California
two plates collide each other. For instance, Figure 3.12 Transform plate boundary
the Himalayas were formed when the Indian
plate collided with the Eurasian plate. The 3.6 Convection Cell
zone marking the boundary of the two Now you may think why plates keep
colliding plates is known as suture line. moving. The plate movements are caused
Volcanic
arc
by the convection cells. Convection cell

h
As the crust is less dense than the

nc
e
is the circulation of the molten materials

Tr
mantle,
Oceanicthe
Crustnewly formed magma will
Continental
caused by the heat derived from the core.

crust
tendLithosphe
to rise re to the Earth’s surface, where
Lithosphe re
it may form volcanoes. The area in the When looking at the figure.3.13 you will
Asthenosphere
subduction zone where most earthquakes understand how and why plates move in
occur is known as the Benioff zone. different directions.
High When the molten materials( magma)
Ra ntain
circulate in different directions, they push

Plateau
e
ng
u
Mo
Continental crust
or pull the plates in different directions.
Continental crust
Thus, the plates move towards each other,
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
move away from one another and move
side by side. The plate movements cause
Asthenosphere
the formation of fold, fault, earthquake, and
volcano to occur. Let us see the cause, effects,
Figure 3.11 Convergent plate boundaries and distribution of the internal forces.
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Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Ocean
Trench
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
Lithosphere Lithosphere
Cold
Convection
Cell
Hot
Outer
core
Inner
core
Figure 3.13 Convection Cell
Axial Planes
3.7.1 Parts of a Fold
Hinge Lines
(fold axes) Axis Up thrown part of a fold is called anticline.
Down thrown part of a fold is syncline.
Hinge
line
b
Lim
The side of the fold is a limb. The top

b
Li
m
b
Lim of the fold is the crest. The plane which
Li m
Li m b
bisects the angle between two limbs is
b
Anticline Syncline Anticline

called the axis of fold or axial plane. The
Figure 3.14 Parts of the Fold fold is formed by the plate movements.
3.6.1 Internal forces 3.7.2 Types of Folds

The internal forces are also called as the The type of fold depends on the nature of
tectonic forces. They generally occur in the rock, the intensity of compression forces,
the plate boundaries. They are caused by etc. The types of the fold can be many but
convection cell and plate movement. They we will deal with five of the following.
form fold, fault, earthquake and volcano. 1. When compressional force is equal
from both sides, the angle of the limb
3.7 Fold
is same on both sides. Such a fold is
Horizontal movements are produced
called symmetrical fold.
by forces of compression and tension.
Folding is the bending of rock strata due 2. When compressional force is more
to compression. Folding on a large scale from one end, one limb is steeper
results in mountain building generally than the other. Such a fold is called
referred to as orogeny. asymmetrical fold.
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A. Open (Symmetrical) B. Asymmetrical C. Overturned
D. Recumbent E. Isoclinal
Figure 3.15 Types of Fold

3. Isoclinal folds are similar to symmet- So isoclinal folds are symmetrical and
rical folds, but these folds both have aligned in a parallel fashion.
the same angle and are parallel to each 4. When one limb of the fold is pushed
other. 'iso' means 'the same' (symmet- over the other limb of the fold, it is
rical), and 'cline' means 'angle,' so this called as over turned fold. Limbs are
name literally means 'the same angle.' seldom horizontal.
Figure 3.16 The Fold mountains of the world

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Student activity
From the map given above, name the plates causing the formation of fold mountains
given below.
S. No Fold Mountain Two Converging Plates
1. The Andes
2. The Rockies
3. The Atlas
4. The Himalayas
5. The Alps
5. When one side of the fold is pushed so The fault plane is the flat surface
much that it lies positioned over the along which broken blocks of rock slide
other, such a fold is called recumbent past one another. A fault dip is an angle
fold. between the fault plane and horizontal
plane. Up thrown side represents the
When plates converge, the weak
uppermost block of a fault. Down thrown
rocks and sediments lying between two
side represents the lowermost block of a
plates get squeezed and folded. Parallel
fault. Sometimes it becomes difficult to
folds form long chains of fold mountain
find out, which block has really moved
ranges with high peaks. The fold
along the fault plane. Hanging wall is the
mountains are characterised by peaks and
upper wall of a fault. Foot wall represents
valleys. The tops of anticlines become
the lower wall of a fault.
the peaks and synclines become the
valleys. Intermontane plateaus (plateau A fault scarp is the steep wall like slope
surrounded by the mountain ranges all caused by faulting of the crustal rocks.
sides) may be found between the high Sometimes the fault scrap is so steep that
ranges. Example, Tibet. it resembles a cliff.
3.8 Fault 3.8.1 Types of Faults

A fault is a break in earth’s crust where Based on how plates move about, the fault
blocks of rock crust slide past each other. can be divided into as follow:
Usually it occurs along plate 3.8.1.1 Normal Fault
boundaries, where the forces of plate Vertical displacement of the crust is called a
motion compress, pull or shear the crust normal fault. The normal fault is caused by
that breaks the crust. Energy release tensional forces where plates diverge. One
associated with rapid movement on active block lies above the other (hanging wall). The
faults is the cause of most earthquakes. other block lies below the fault (footwall).
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Hanging Wall Block
Footwall Block
Footwall Block Hanging Wall Block
Reverse Fault
Normal Fault
Figure 3.18 Narmada Rift Valley, India
word meaning ‘trough’. A Rift Valley may
subsequently get filled by water and a
river may flow through it. Normally, a rift
Hanging Wall Block valley is long, narrow and very deep. For
Footwall Block example,
all Block i. Rhine rift Valley is flanked by two
Reverse Fault Block Mountains namely the Vosges
and the Black Forest.
Figure 3.17 Normal fault and Reverse fault
When movement occurs along a normal ii. The rift of River Narmada in India lies
fault, the hanging wall slips downward. between the Vindhyas and Satpura
block mountains.
Landforms made by Normal fault are: iii. The great rift valley of Africa.
1. Rift Valley or Graben The Great Rift Valley of Africa is
When a narrow block of land drops or the longest rift valley in the world. It
subsides between two parallel normal stretches for 6,400 km from Mozambique
faults, rift valley (Graben) is formed. in the south to Syria in the north. The
Graben originates from the German depressions have become lakes. The lakes
Volcano (e.g. Mt.Kilimanjaro) Fault Scarps
Parallel Faults (F = Faults)
Plate pulled apart Central

block Plate pulled apart
(horst)
Multiple fracturing F F Rift Valley F F FF
Magma
F Rift Valley Multiple fracturing
Lakes on valley floors (e.g. Lake Tanganyika)

Figure 3.19 Rift valley and Block Mountain
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Horst
Graben
Tectonic Stress
Figure 3.20 Horst (Left) and Vindhya Block Mountain (Right)

of Africa, Dead Sea of Israel and the Red convergent plate boundaries. One side of
Sea form the parts of the Great Rift Valley. the fault lies at an angle above the other.
2. Horst 3.8.1.3 Shear Fault / Transform Fault/

When a block of land between two faults Strike – Slip Fault
is pushed up, block mountain or horst is It is created by shearing along transform
formed. In this case, the central block is boundaries. Rocks on either side of fault
not only up thrown but the side blocks slip past each other sideways with little up
are also relatively downthrown so that the or down motion. It mostly occurs in the
whole central mass appears like a dome. ocean basin and connects offsets in the
In India, specifically the mountain mid ocean ridge.
ranges of Vindhya and Satpura found in
the central western part of the India are 3.9 Earthquake
block mountains. Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the
earth’s surface. Focus is the location
3.8.1.2 Reverse Fault inside the earth where the earthquake
A reverse fault is a horizontal displacement originates. Epicenter is the point on the
of the crust. It is formed where two earth's surface vertically above the focus
fractured blocks move towards each other. of an earthquake. Earthquake results from
It is caused by compressional forces along the sudden release of pressure which
Left lateral strike - slip Fault
has slowly built up within the earth’s
crust. Energy is released in the form of
shockwaves known as seismic waves. The
seismic waves can broadly be classified
into two types namely Body waves and
surface waves.
I. Body Waves are the waves that travel
through the interior of the earth. They
are further divided into the following.
Figure 3.21 Transform fault

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Fault Scarp
Fault trace
Epicenter
Seismic
Waves Focus
Fault Plane
Figure 3.22 Parts of an Earthquake
a. P or Primary or Compressional waves Love waves shake the ground side to

are the fastest seismic waves (6 km/ side like S wave.
sec. in the upper crust). They cause Rayleigh waves displace the ground
the matter to oscillate forward and like rolling ocean waves. The ground
backward, parallel to the motion of rolls forward and up and then down and
the seismic wave front. P waves push backwards. This is similar to a p wave but
(compress) and pull (dilate) the rock with the extra up-down motion.
that they pass through. They pass
through all medium. 3.9.1 Measuring the earthquake
b. S or Secondary or Shear waves are It is estimated that about 100,000
slower than the primary waves (3.5 earthquakes occur but all cannot be felt. A
km/sec. in the upper crust). They few earthquakes may be severe causing huge
cause matter to oscillate side to side, damage to property. Earthquake magnitude
perpendicular to the motion of the is measured on the Richter scale (named
wave front. S waves shear the rock that after the seismologist who devised it), which
they pass through. They pass through rates them on a scale of 1 to 10. Earthquake
only solid medium. intensity is measured on the modified Mercalli
II. Surface Waves are the waves that scale, which ranges from 1 to 12, depending
travel along the earth's surface. They upon the intensity. The seismograph is an
are slower than body waves. They instrument used to detect and record seismic
cause damage during earthquakes. waves created by the earthquakes.
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3.9.2 Description of effects of earthquake in Richter scale
MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE RICHTER SCALE

I. Felt by almost no one. 2.5. Generally not felt, but
II. Felt by very few people. recorded on seismometers.
III. Tremor noticed by many, but they often 3.5. Felt by many people
do not realize it is an earthquake.
IV. Felt indoors by many, Feels like a truck
has struck the building.
V. Felt by nearly everyone: many people
awakened. Swaying trees and poles
may be observed.
VI. Felt by all; many people run outdoors. 4.5. Some local damage
Furniture moved, slight damage occurs. may occur.
VII. Everyone runs outdoors. Poorly built
Structures considerable damaged; Slight
damage elsewhere.
VIII. Specially designed structures damaged 6.0. A destructive earthquake.
Slightly, others collapse.
IX. All buildings considerably damaged, many
shift off foundations, Noticeable cracks in
ground.
X. Many structures destroyed. Ground is 7.0. A major earthquake.
badly cracked.
XI. Almost all structures fall. Very wide cracks 8.0. Great Earthquakes.
in ground. and
XII. Total destruction. Waves seen on ground up
surfaces, objects are tumbled and tossed.
Table 3.1 The Mercalli and Richter scales

3.9.3 Causes of Earthquakes 3. Fires in the forest and urban areas.
There are many factors controlling the 4. Flash floods.
occurrence of the earthquake. Some of the
5. Tsunami - The high amplitude oceanic
major factors include:
waves caused by submarine earthquake
1. Plate Tectonic Movements
(measuring more than 7 on Richter
2. Volcanic Eruptions.
scale). The seismic waves travel through
3. Construction of large dams results
seawater generates high sea waves. They
in earthquake. Example. Koyna dam,
cause severe loss of life and property.
Maharashtra.
For instance, on 26th December 2004, a
4. Other Reasons: The nuclear
tsunami originating from a magnitude
explosions also release massive energy
8.9 earthquake in northern Sumatra
to cause tremors in the earth crust.
killed over 1,50,000 people in countries
When underground cave collapses,
surrounding the Indian Ocean.
earthquake may occur.
3.9.5 Distribution of earthquakes
3.9.4 Effects of the Earthquakes
1. Damage to buildings, roads, rails, 1. Circum-Pacific region: This region
factories, dams, bridges etc. includes all the coastal areas around
2. Landslides caused by earthquakes the Pacific Ocean. It extends through
damage infrastructure. the coasts of Alaska, Aleutian Islands,
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W E
Not to scale
Figure 3.23 World Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Japan, Philippines, New Zealand, west
coast of North and South America.
This zone accounts for 68% of all
earthquakes on the surface of the earth. EARTHQUAKE MIDDLE EAST
2. Mediterranean-Himalayan region: NEAR THE IRAN/IRAQ BORDER/NOV.12.2017-9:18P.M.LOCAL TIME
This region extends from Alps

mountain to the Himalayan Mountains Tehran
and Tibet to China. About 31% of
❂
MAGNITUDE:7.2
world's earthquakes occur in this
region.
3. Other Areas: These include Northern ❂
Baghdad
Africa and Rift Valley areas of the Red
Sea and the Dead Sea. ✵ ✵
IRAQ IRAN
3.10 Volcano
A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust
through which magma, gases and ash are
released to the earth's surface. The molten Figure 3.24 Earthquake,Iran-Iraq
rock material found in the interior of the border, 2017
earth is called magma. It can be noted that On 12th November 2017, an earthquake
when magma reaches the earth’s surface, it with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter
scale occurred on the Iran–Iraq border.
is known as lava (Figure. 3.25). Vent is an Areas affected: Iran and Iraq.
opening or mouth of a volcano. Fumaroles Max. intensity: 8 (Severe)
are the gushing fumes through the gap Fault: Arabian and Eurasian plates.
in the volcano. Crater is a saucer shaped Casualties: 630 dead; above 8,100
depression in the mouth of a volcano. injured; above 70,000 homeless. Depth:
When the crater is widened, it is called as 19.0 km.
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Crater (if filled with water,

a crater lake is formed). Fact File
Mt. Krakatau
Cone
Vent Lava
The greatest volcanic explosion
Ash Side
Vent
known to humans is perhaps
Fumarole Mt. Krakatau in August 1883.
Crust Krakatau is a small volcanic island

in the Sunda Straits, between Java
and Sumatra.
Figure 3.25 Volcano The explosion could be heard in
Caldera. Volcanic ash consists of fragments Australia, almost 4,000 km away.
of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic The vibration set up enormous waves
glass, created during volcanic eruptions. over 30 m high which drowned
Volcano generally erupts either through the 36,000 people in the coastal districts
vent (E.g. Mt. Fujiyama, Japan) or fissure of Indonesia.
(The Deccan Plateau, India).
Pumice is a volcanic rock produced when
lava with a very high content of water and Cotopaxi in Ecuador
gases is discharged from a volcano. is the world’s highest
active volcano.
3.10.1 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions
The following are the causes of volcanic
eruptions: 1. Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes which
Weak Zones in the Earth Crust: The erupt frequently are called active
parts of the earth where two tectonic volcanoes. Generally, their vent remains
plates collide against or drift apart from open. Mount Etna of Italy, Cotopaxi in
each other are considered very weak. Ecuador are some examples.
Volcanoes may erupt in such zones, for 2. Dormant Volcanoes: These volcanoes
example, African and Eurasian plates. may not have erupted in the recent past
Magma Saturated with Gases: The but there is a possibility of eruption
magma, in the interior of the earth, is often at any time. In other words, they may
found saturated with gases like carbon lie dormant awaiting active eruption
dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. These anytime. Sometimes gases and steam
gases together with water vapour make the come out of them. They cause great
magma highly explosive. Magma is forced destruction to life and property once
out as lava on the surface of the earth due they become active again. Mt. Vesuvius
to the pressure exerted by these gases. of Italy and Mt. Fujiyama of Japan are
examples.
3.10.2 Types of Volcanoes 3. Extinct Volcanoes: These volcanoes
Based on the frequency of eruption, there have exhausted their energy and have
are three types of volcanoes:
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not erupted during the known geological 3.10.3 Effects of Volcanic Activities
period. The vent of these volcanoes Destructive effects of volcano
remains closed with solidified lava. Showers of cinders and bombs can cause
The formations such as craters may be damage to life and properties. Sometimes
filled with water and crater lakes may be ash can precipitate under the influence of
formed. The slopes of these landforms rain and completely cover large areas.
may be covered with vegetation. Popa in The volcanic gases pose potential
Myanmar and Mt. Kenya in eastern Africa hazard to people, animals; agriculture,
are the examples of extinct volcano. while sulphur dioxide gas can lead to acid
On the basis of nature of eruption rain and air pollution.
and form developed on the surface, they
are classified into following types: Positive Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanism creates new landforms.
a) Shield Volcanoes: These are made up
Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon
of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid
weathering and decomposition.
when erupted. They become explosive
when water gets into the vent. They The Kimberlite rock of South Africa,
develop into a cinder cone. Hawaiian the source of diamonds, is the pipe of an
volcano is an example of this category. ancient volcano.
b) Composite cone volcanoes: They are In the vicinity of active volcanoes,

also called 'strato volcanoes'. They waters in the depth are heated from contact
are cone-shaped volcanoes composed with hot magma giving rise to springs and
of layers of lava, ash and rock debris. geysers. The Puga valley in Ladakh region
Mount Vesuvius and Mount St. Helens and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are
are examples of composite volcanoes. promising spots in India for the generation
of geothermal electricity.
c) Cinder Cone Volcano : It forms when
magma is thrown out to the surface, 3.10.4 Distribution of Volcanoes across
cooled in to ash and cinders and settled the World
around the mouth of volcano. It is less Most known volcanic activity and the
dangerous than other volcanoes. earthquakes occur along converging plate
d) Lava Dome: Unlike composite and margins and mid-oceanic ridges. The
shield volcanoes, lava domes are of major regions of volcanic distributions are
significantly smaller structure. They as follows.
are formed when the lava is too viscous
1. Pacific Ring of Fire
to flow to a great distance. As the lava
Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed
dome slowly grows, the outer surface
the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, has the greatest
cools and hardens as the lava continues
concentration of active volcanoes.
to pile within. Eventually, the internal
Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely
pressure can shatter the outer surface,
overlap along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. It
causing loose fragments to spill down
is estimated to include two-thirds of the
its sides.
world’s volcanoes.
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2. Mid Atlantic Region 3.11.1 Rock Types

The Mid Atlantic Region coasts has Based on their origin, the rocks are
comparatively fewer active volcanoes classified as follows:
but many dormant or extinct volcanoes, There are three types of rocks
example. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands 1. Igneous Rocks
and the Canary Islands. But the volcanoes 2. Sedimentary Rocks
of Iceland and the Azores are active. 3. Metamorphic Rocks
3. The Great Rift valley of Africa
I. Igneous Rocks
In Africa some volcanoes are found along
Igneous rocks are formed out of magma and
the East African Rift Valley. Kilimanjaro
lava and they are known as primary rocks. If the
and Mt. Kenya are extinct volcanoes. The
magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral
only active volcano in West Africa is Mt.
grains increase in their size. Sudden cooling (at
Cameroon.
the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
4. Mediterranean Region The igneous rocks are the oldest of all the rocks.
Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region Granite, pegmatite, basalt, etc are some of the
are mainly associated with the Alpine examples of igneous rocks. There are two types
folds. Example, Mt. Vesuvius and of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks (Granite) and
Mt. Stromboli (known as the Light House extrusive rocks (Basalt-Deccan Traps).
of the Mediterranean Sea).
Granite is less dense and is lighter in
5. Other Regions colour than basalt rocks.
Elsewhere in the interiors of continents
of Asia, North America and Europe active 3.11.2 Intrusive Igneous rocks
volcanoes are rare. There are no volcanoes Intrusive Igneous rocks are formed when
in Australia. magma rises and cools within the crust.
The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives
Volcanoes in India rise to various forms. We see them one by
There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan one as follow.
region of India. However, Barren Island,
1. Batholiths
lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair
Batholiths are large rock masses formed due
became active in 1991 and 1995.
to cooling and solidification of hot magma
However, the other volcanic island in inside the earth. It is granitic in origin.
Indian Territory is Narcondam (Andaman
2. Laccoliths
and Nicobar Islands) It is probably extinct.
Laccoliths are large dome-shaped intrusive
Its crater wall has been completely destroyed.
rock connected by a pipe-like conduit
3.11 Rocks from below. These are basically intrusive
Rock is the solid mineral material forming counterparts of an exposed domelike
the surface of the earth. Petrology is batholiths. The Karnataka plateau is
the science of rocks. The age of the rock is spotted with dome hills of granite rocks.
determined based on Carbon-14 dating. Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples
of laccoliths.
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3. Lapoliths II. Sedimentary Rocks

When the magma moves upwards, a Sedimentary rocks are also called as
saucer shape, concave shaped body called detrital rocks. They are formed as a result
Lapolith is formed. of denudation. These deposits through
4. Sill compaction turn into sedimentary rocks.
Sill is a solidified sheet-like horizontal They occupy only 5 percent of the earth.
lava layer inside the earth. The near They are layered or stratified of varying
horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc. Ice
rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on deposited sedimentary rocks is called Till.
the thickness of the material. The thinner Wind-deposited sediments are called Loess.
ones are called sheets while the thick Depending upon the mode of formation,
horizontal deposits are called sills. sedimentary rocks are classified into
1. Mechanically formed sedimentary
5. Dyke rocks: sandstone, conglomerate,
When the magma makes its way through limestone, shale, loess, etc.
cracks and the fissures developed in the 2. Organically formed sedimentary rocks:
land, it solidifies almost perpendicular geyserites, chalk, limestone, coal etc.
to the ground. It gets cooled in the same
3. Chemically formed: halite, potash, etc.
position to develop a wall-like structure.
Such structures are called dikes. III. Metamorphic Rocks
These are the most commonly found The word metamorphic means ‘change
intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra of form’. The metamorphic rocks form
area. These are considered the feeders for under the action of pressure, volume and
the eruptions that led to the development temperature (PVT) change.
of the Deccan traps.
Volcano Lava flows &

Pyroclastic deposits
Volcanic neck
Dyke Sill Laccolith
Sill
Lapolith
Stock
Dyke
Dyke
Batholith
Figure 3.26 Intrusive Volcanic structure

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Students’ activity
Place the appropriate number given in the diagram in the bracket
Lacolith ( )
Batholith ( )
5
Dyke ( ) 1 6
Sill ( )
4
Chamber ( ) 3
Lapolith ( )
2
Figure 3.27 Intrusive Volcanic Structures
Table 3.2 Metamorphosis processes

Igneous/ Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock
Granite Pressure Gneiss
Clay, Shale Pressure Schist
Sandstone Heat Quartzite
Clay, Shale Heat Slate or Phyllite
Coal Heat Anthracite or Graphite
Coal Heat and Pressure Diamond
Limestone Heat Marble
Metamorphism is a process by which or metamorphic rocks. The fragments derived

the already consolidated rocks undergo out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form
recrystallisation and reorganization of into sedimentary rocks.
materials within original rocks. Gneiss, Igneous and sedimentary rocks can
slate, schist, diamond, marble, quartzite change into metamorphic rocks. The
etc. are some examples of metamorphic crustal rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
rocks. The igneous and metamorphic rocks metamorphic) may be carried down into
together account for 95 percent of the earth. the mantle (interior of the earth) through
subduction process and the same melt and
3.12 Rock Cycle turn into magma, the original source for
Rock cycle is a continuous process through igneous rocks. In this way the rock cycle
which old rocks are transformed into new ones. is a continuous process.
Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary
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Magma
melting
crystallization
melting Metamorphic Rock

Igneous Rock
heat & pressure
heat & pressure

weathering, erosion &
weathering, erosion &
deposition
deposition
Sedimentary Rock
Sediment
compaction & cementation
Figure 3.28 The Rock Cycle
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Evaluation
I. Multiple choice
1. Orogeny: structural deformation of questions
lithosphere due to interaction between
tectonic plates. 1. The term “Lithosphere”
2. Conorod boundary: Margin between was introduced by
the upper crust and the lower crust. a. Alfred Wegener
3. Shearing fault: the fault is created by b. Joseph Barrel
shearing along the plate boundary.
c. Alexander Von Humbolt
4. Laccoliths: are large dome-shaped
intrusive rock connected by a pipe. d. Kiyoo Wadati
5. Lapolith: When the magma moves 2. The boundary between the upper crust
upwards, a saucer shape, concave and lower crust is termed as
shaped body called lapolith. a. Guttenberg margin
6. Syncline: down slope of a fold
b. Lehmann Boundary
7. Crest: the top of the fold.
c. Conorod boundary
8. Catasrophism: sudden movements of
the earth caused by plate movements. d. Mohorovicic boundary
9. Metamorphism: the process by which 3. Who postulated the continental drift
both igneous and sedimentary rocks theory?
get changed into metamorphic rocks.
a. Kober b. Holmes
10. Rock cycle: a continuous process
through which old rocks are c. Taylor d. Wegener
transformed into new ones.
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4. Odd one out 10. Solidified sheet-like horizontal lava

a. The Eurasian plate layer inside the earth is called as
b. The North American plate a. Dyke
c. The Pacific plate b. Batholith
d. The African plate c. Sill
5. One among the given is the deepest d. Lacolith
trench in the world.
a. The Mariana Trench II. Brief answer
b. The Sandwich Trench 11. Define Diastrophism.
c. The Puerto Rico Trench 12. Why is the inner core solid?
d. The Sunda Trench
13. Distinguish between Mohorovicic
6. It is a type of fold where one limb is boundary and Lehman boundary.
steeper than the other. 14. Write the significance of the Ring of
a. Symmetrical fold Fire.
b. Asymmetrical fold 15. List the types of volcano based on their
c. Over turned fold frequency of eruption .
d. Recumbent fold
7. The longest rift valley in the world is III. Short answer
a. The Narmada rift valley 16. Write a short note on the Convection
b. The African rift valley cell.
c. The Baikal rift valley 17. Name the types of plate boundary.
d. The Rhine rift valley 18. Why do plates keep moving?
8. One of the following zones accounts 19. Name the types of fold.
for 68% of the earthquakes on the 20. Draw a volcano and label its parts.
surface of the earth.
a. The Mediterranean – Himalayan zone IV. Detailed answer
b. The Circum Pacific zone
21. Describe the Interior of the Earth with
c. The Mid Atlantic zone a diagram.
d. The African rift valley zone 22. Explain continental drift theory.
9. One among the given is the world’s 23. Explain the types of plate boundaries.
highest active volcano.
24. Draw a diagram and describe the stages
a. Mt. Vesuvius of the rock cycle.
b. Mt. Stromboli 25. On the outline map of the world, mark
c. Mt. Cotopaxi the distribution of volcanoes and
d. Mt. Krakatau describe briefly about them.
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V. Practice 3. Fundamentals of Geomorphology

1. Prepare in the cardboard sheet Richard John Huggett
jigsaw puzzle of fitting plates in their
respective boundaries.
Web Reference
2. Prepare a working model of the active 1. h t t p s : / / 3 . b p . b l o g s p o t . c o m /

volcano and demonstrate in the class. O 1 f RT h Z c WC g / V 7 n m Ump O i d I /
AAAAAAAAAmY/xyFJKGV04
3. Make a model of types of Fold and
ysOG275yupB5JhGnbDU0l_JwCLcB/
Fault using available resources, label
s1600/Dis.png
them, and present to the class.
2. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
watch?v=_5q8hzF9VVE
Reference
3. h t t p s : / / v o l c a n o e s . u s g s . g o v / . . . /
1. Physical geography: fundamentals of This_D ynamic_Planet-Teaching_
the physical environment V. Ettwein Companion_Packet.pd
and M. Maslin
4. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
2. Introducing Physical Geography, John watch?v=PDrMH7RwupQ
Wiley & Sons.
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ICT CORNER
Lithosphere Morphing Boundaries

identify the land masses formed
by Endogenic processes.
Steps
• Use the URL to land on ‘Google Earth’ or scan the QR code from your smartphone.
• Open “Google Earth” app and type “Everest” in the search box to explore the
folded mountain structure created by tectonic collision.
• Type volcano name in search box and explore the landscape formed by its eruption.
• Roll over the globe using your mouse and zoom in and zoom out to explore the
land mass and its tectonic plate extensions.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Google Earth’s URL:

https://earth.google.com/web/
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Unit 4
Lithosphere:
Exogenic Processes
Chapter Outline At Mahabalipuram, Chennai, the 6

4.1 Introduction meter high and 5-metre wide rock
4.2 Exogenic estimated to weigh over 250 tons is
Processes known locally as Krishna's Butter Ball.
Its original Tamil name is "Vaanirai
4.3 Weathering
Kal" which literally translates to
4.4 Mass wasting "Stone of The Sky God”
4.5 Gradational Processes Look at the figure above Krishna's
4.6 The River Butter ball inserted on the top and
4.7 Glacier let's discuss:
4.8 Ground water • What, do you think, made this
(Karst Topography) rock stone to get this shape.
4.9 Wind • Guess how many years it might
4.10 Waves (Coast) have taken to get such a shape.
• Think about how it is standing
Learning Objectives: balanced.
• Understand how external forces
reshape the surface of the earth.
• Distinguish between physical weathering
4.1 Introduction
and chemical weathering. Let’s recall that you have learned in the
• Identify the different types of mass previous chapter about geomorphic
wasting and its characteristics. processes - Endogenic processes in detail.
Now we deal with the exogenic processes.
• Distinguish between the actions of
The forces which act on the earth’s exterior
various gradational agents.
are called as exogenic forces or external
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forces. The action of exogenic forces results 4.3.1 Physical weathering

in wearing down the rock and hence, they Physical Weathering is the disintegration of
are considered as land wearing forces. rock mainly induced by elements of weather.
It produces smaller, angular fragments of
4.2 Exogenic Processes
the same rock. It is caused by the change
The processes which occur on earth’s in temperature, pressure, water and wind.
surface due to the influence of external Physical weathering is further divided
forces are called as exogenic processes. into different categories. They are thermal
Weathering, mass wasting and denudation weathering, frost wedging and exfoliation.
are the major exogenic processes. The
elements of nature capable of doing 4.3.1.1 Thermal weathering
these exogenic processes are termed as In arid and semi-arid areas, the temperature
gradational agents. For instance, the wind, increases, heat up and expand the rocks
river, glacier, waves and ground water. during the day and contract the rock
materials when cooling at night. Under
4.3 Weathering extreme temperature conditions, due to
Weathering is the process of disintegration alternate expansion and contraction, the
and decomposition of rocks. It is due to rocks crack and eventually split. The thermal
the action of climate, plants, animals and weatherings are of two types. They are;
other living organisms which cause the (a) Granular disintegration and
rocks to break down physically, chemically (b) Block disintegration
and biologically.
Granular disintegration
There are three types of weathering.
They are physical weathering, chemical Alternate expansion and contraction of
weathering and biological weathering. minerals of varying properties in the
Figure 4.1 Exogenic processes
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Figure 4.2 Exfoliated Rock( left) and Granular (right)
rocks due to temperature changes, makes rocks and freezes, the pressure exerted on
the rocks break down into small pieces the rock is enough to wedge the walls of
(Figure 4.2). Due to this, the breakup the crack farther apart, thus expanding
of rocks occurs, grain by grain. This is and deepening the crack. Thus, frost
known as granular disintegration. wedging results in weathering of rock.
Block disintegration occurs in rocks 4.3.1.3 Exfoliation
such as granite rock. So in the areas of jointed
Rocks generally heat or cool more on the
igneous or layered sedimentary rocks due
surface layers. The alternate changes in
to the great diurnal range of temperature,
temperature could cause their outer layers
the rocks may break up along the joints and
to peel off from the main mass of the rock in
cracks into a large rectangular shaped blocks.
concentric layers just as the skin of an onion.
4.3.1.2 Frost Wedging The process by which curved layers of rock
Almost all liquids contract when frozen, breakaway from the rock beneath them
but when water freezes it becomes larger leaving behind dome shaped monoliths
in size or takes up more space. As water is called exfoliation (Figure 4.2). It is also
expands it puts great pressure on rocks. called as ‘onion weathering’. Exfoliation
When water enters into the cracks of occurs commonly in the arid areas.
Frost Wedging
Top freezes first
W te
Wa
Water
ter IC
CE
ICE
Water under pressure

exerts stress
Figure 4.3 Frost Wedging
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4.3.2. Chemical Weathering in exposing the rock surfaces to chemical

Chemical weathering is the decomposition changes with the penetration of moisture and
of rock. For example it creates altered air. Human beings by removing vegetation
rock substances, such as kaolinite (china for agriculture and other activities also
clay) from granite. The types of chemical help in mixing and creating new contacts
weathering are as follows: between air, water, and minerals in the rock
i. Solution: Some soluble minerals in materials. Plant roots make a great pressure
the rock get dissolved when come on the rock materials mechanically breaking
in contact with water. Over a long them apart.
period minerals get washed away from
rock and sometimes leading to the
formation of caves.
ii. Oxidation: When oxygen combines
with water and iron, it weakens the rock
and breaks it. Example, rusting of iron.
iii. Hydrolysis: It is the chemical
breakdown of a rock substance when
combined with water and forms
an insoluble precipitate like clay
Figure 4.4 biological weathering
mineral. The most common example
of hydrolysis is feldspar found in
4.4 Mass wasting
granite changing to clay.
iv. Carbonation: Carbonation is the Mass wasting is the movement of a large
mixing of water with carbon dioxide mass of rock, soil and debris downward by
to make carbonic acid. This acid the pull of gravity. It is also called a mass
reacts with minerals in the rocks. movement or slope movement. It may
This type of weathering is important happen suddenly or slowly. Generally, mass
in the formation of caves. wasting is classified by the type of material
involved (mud, soil, and rock) and type
v. Hydration: It is the absorption of
of motion (fall-free-falling pieces, slide-
water into the mineral structure of the
material moves along the rock slope and
rock. Hydration expands volume and
flow–material mixed with water).
also results in rock deformation. A
good example of hydration is the 4.4.1 Types of Mass Wasting
absorption of water by anhydrite, Following are the types of mass wasting:
resulting in the formation of gypsum. Rock falls
4.3.3 Biological Weathering Rock falls occur when pieces of rock
Biological weathering is the alteration of break from a cliff. Frost wedging may also
rock by the action of plants, animals, and eventually loosen large blocks causing them
man. Burrowing and wedging by organisms to fall. The accumulation of rock debris at
like earthworms, termites, rodents, etc., help the base of a steep slope is called talus.
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Figure 4.5 Mass movement
Slump
Great mass of bed rock moves downward
by rotational slip from a high cliff is
known as slump. Most common reason
for slumping is erosion at the base of
the slope which reduces the support for
overlying sediments.
Debris Slide
Debris slide is more extensive and occurs
Figure 4.6 Rock fall on a larger scale than slump but there is
a little amount of water. The materials
Rock slides involved in debris slide are a mixture of
Rockslides usually follow a zone of soils and rock fragments.
weakness. Presence of water increases
Debris flows
slippage. Collisions down the slope
generally break the rock mass into rubble Debris flow is defined as mass wasting event in
that eventually results in rockslides. which turbulence occurs throughout the mass.
Debris flow includes earth flows, mudflows,
Land slides and debris avalanches. Debris flow occurs
Landslides occur when a large piece of when the rock or soil mass loses coherency
rock breaks off and slides down hill. It is when lots of water is involved. Debris becomes
often initiated by earthquakes and very mixed up completely and flows as liquid mud.
heavy rain. It often carries large boulders which can be
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very destructive. When earth material moves A mudflow

down a hillside as a fluid-like mass, it is called Mudflow is a liquid mass of soil, rock debris
an earth flow. These flows typically occur in and water that moves quickly down a well
humid areas on steep slopes with thick, clay- defined channel. They occur most often in
rich soil that becomes saturated with water mountainous semiarid environments. A
during storms. mudflow originating on a volcanic slope is
called a lahar.
Debris avalanche
The deadliest type of debris flow is the
debris avalanche. It is a rapidly churning
mass of rock debris, soil, water, and air that
moves down steep slopes. The trapped air
may increase the speed of an avalanche
by acting as a cushion between the debris
and the underlying surface
Figure 4.7 Debris flow
Solifluction Earth Flow Mud Flow
Slump Soil Creep Rock Fall
Debris Slide Debris Flow
Figure 4.8 Mass Movement

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Creep ii. Corrasion ( abrasion): It refers to the

Creep is a slow and gradual movement of soil breaking of rock in the bed and on
downhill. Its velocity is typically less than a the bank by fragments carried by the
centimetre per year. Freezing and thawing stream.
contribute the soil creep by progressively iii. Corrosion( solution): It refers to the
moving soil particles down the hill. Creep is dissolving process of soluble minerals
manifested at the surface by things like tilted by the splashing of stream water.
utility poles, fences and trees Vegetation iv. Attrition: It refers to the eroded
helps reduce the rate of soil creep. materials carried by the stream strike
against each other.
4.5. Gradational Processes
2. Transportation: Stream carrying the
Gradation is the process by which the earth’s
fragmented materials broken by the
surface gets leveled. It can be further divided
stream is called transportation. After
into degradation, the process of eroding the
erosion, the eroded materials get
earth’s elevated surface and aggradations, the
transported along with the running
process of filling up the earth’s depressions.
water. This transportation of eroded
4.5.1 Gradational Agents materials is carried in four ways:
The forces which act on the surface of the i. Traction: The heavier and larger rock
earth are termed as Gradational agents. fragments like gravels, pebbles etc are
Water, wave, wind, ice are the important forced by the flow of the river to roll
gradational agents. Let us now discuss the along its bed. These fragments can be
gradiational agents one by one. seen rolling, slipping, bumping and
being dragged. This process is called
4.6. The River as traction and the load transported
The streams have a huge capacity to erode in this way are called traction load.
the rock over which they flow. In fact, the
ii. Saltation: Some of the fragments of
formation of the river channel is the result
the rocks move along the bed of a
of the erosional capacity of the stream. The
stream by bouncing continuously.
erosional capacity of the stream depends on
This process is called as saltation.
its volume of water and velocity of flow. The
river performs three types of work. They iii. Suspension: The holding up of small
are erosion, transportation and deposition. particles of sand, silt, and mud by the
water as the stream flows is called
1. Erosion: The breaking of rocks by
suspension.
the river in along its course is called
erosion. Erosional work of a river iv. Solution: Some parts of the rock
is performed mechanically and fragments dissolve in the river water and
chemically. River erosion is carried out transported. This type of transportation
in the following ways: is called solution transportation.
i. Hydraulic action: It refers to the 3. Deposition: When the velocity of the
physical force of the moving water stream decreases, the stream deposits
which breaks the rocks in its course. sand, silt and other fragments. It is
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called as the deposition. When a river where two rivers join is called as the
moves in a gentle slope, its speed confluence. The mountain which has two
reduces and river begins to deposit its river systems draining on either side of the
load. The river starts depositing larger slope is termed as the water divide.
materials first and smaller and finer 2. The Middle Stage
materials are carried further down to
Middle stage is the matured stage of a river.
the mouth of the river.
Vertical erosion or deepening of the valley
4.6.1 S
tages of the River is significantly reduced. Lateral erosion
The course of a river includes the upper is the dominant work. Due to the lateral
stage, the middle stage, and the final stage. erosion of this stage, the widening of the
Each stage of the river is dominated by a valley occurs. The volume of the river water
kind of work. Let’s discuss the stages of a increases and the slope of river is moderate.
river, the main work and the landforms The depth of the river is deep here.
made in each stage. 3. The Lower Stage
1. The Upper Stage This is the final stage of a river where the
The upper stage of a river is also called valleys are extremely broad and it has
the youthful stage or mountain stage. The generally gentle slope. The valley becomes
velocity and speed of the stream are very almost flat which is called a peneplain.
high because the slope here is steep. The Most of the peneplain forms low residual
vertical erosion is the most dominant work
here. The valley is formed here. The place Students activity
where a river starts is called a source. In
Look at the diagram, read the table
the mountain stage, the number of small
of content carefully and fill in the
streams originates from different locations.
columns with suitable words.
They are called Tributaries. The place
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hills with steep slopes which are called as Canyons are extended form of gorges.
Monadnocks. The main work of the river Canyons represent very deep, narrow but
in this stage is the deposition. The depth of long valleys. The steepness of the valley
the river is shallow here. When the main sides depends on the nature of the rocks.
river splits into many small rivers, they are The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in
called as the distributaries. The place where the state of Arizona, USA having a length
the river ends is called mouth of the river. of 482.8 kilometers and depth of 2088.3
(for example: Sea coast, Lake.) meter is the largest canyon in the world.
The Canyon of Gandikota is situated on the
4.6.2 Landforms by the Erosional Work
Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh is known
of River
as the Grand Canyon of India.
The significant landforms resulting from
erosion by rivers include gorge, canyon, V-Shaped Valley: The valleys made by
V-Shaped Valley, waterfall, pothole, the rivers are erosional landforms. The
structural bench, river terrace, river valley is formed in the youthful stage of
meander, ox-bow lake, peneplain, etc. the river erosion. Due to the steep slope
and large volume of water, the river
Gorges are formed due to active down cuts its bed vertically forming narrow
cutting of the valleys. So, a Gorge is a and deep river valley. This is called as
narrow and deep river valley which has V-shaped valley.
steep slopes.
Rapids and waterfalls
Rapids are stream sections with extremely
strong currents, numerous obstacles, and steps
in their streambeds. A waterfall is a vertical
drop in a streambed. Both water fall and rapids
are formed by vigorous erosion. Series of a
waterfall in a river is called as Cascade.
Plunge pool
A plunge pool is a deep depression in
a stream bed at the base of a waterfall.
It is created by the erosional forces of
falling water at the base of a waterfall.
Angel Falls, in
Venezuela, is Earth’s
highest waterfall
(979 m).
Figure 4.9 Gorge
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Figure 4.10 The Canyon of Gandikota, the Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh
Gandikota, Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh is known for its spectacular gorge
formed by river Pennar that cuts through the Erramala hills. This handsome piece of
Nature’s architecture is known as the Hidden Grand Canyon of India. Magnificent
Gandikota fort is located majestically on top of this gorge. Belum Cave found here is
the second largest cave system in India. In fact, geologists have also found surplus
deposits of Quartz in the stalactite and stalagmite formations of the cave. Adjacent
to Gandikota fort, lies a magnificent lake that is believed to have been established by
emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya using water from the Pennar river.
Grooves ridge that extends alternately from the

Long and narrow depression at the base of opposite sides of a V-shaped valley. A
a waterfall made by river runoff is called a river with a winding course flows down
groove. The grooves are created by water the interlocking spur.
eroding soil from a hill or mountain in a
short period of time.
Web link:
The swirling movement of the water
falling into the plunge pool is called eddying. More at https://www.
livehistoryindia.com/geological-
Interlocking spurs
wonders/2017/05/24/gandikota-the-
An interlocking spur, also known as grand-canyon-of-india-2)
an overlapping spur, is a projecting
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Figure 4.11 Hogenakal waterfalls, Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu
Pot Holes River Terraces

The kettle-like small depressions in the rocky The narrow step like flat surfaces on
beds of the river valleys are called potholes. either side of the valley floor are called
They are always cylindrical in shape. Potholes river terraces. They represent the level of
are generally formed in coarse-grained rocks former valley floors.
such as sandstones and granites.

Figure 4.12 Interlocking spurs
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4.6.3 Landforms by the deposition of off from the main river. This landform
river is so named because it resembles horse
1. Alluvial fan shoe
Alluvial fans are often found at the foot of 5. Levees: Raised bed and a bank of
arid or semiarid mountain ranges where the river due to frequent flooding and
intermittent streams flow. An alluvial fan deposition of the sediments is called
is a fan shaped deposit of gravel, sand and levees.
other smaller particles of sediment. 6. Flood Plain
Alluvial fans are found in Kosi river, A flood plain is a flat area of land adjacent
Himalayan region, Death Valley National to a river. It stretches from the bank of its
Park and along the sides of the Colorado channel to the base of the enclosing valley
River at Grand Canyon National Park, U.S. walls which experiences flooding during
the period of high discharge.
7. Estuary
The word “Estuary” is derived from the
Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal
inlet of the sea, which is derived from
the term aestus, meaning tide. An estuary
is a partially enclosed coastal body of
brackish water with one or more rivers
flowing into it, and with a free connection
to the open sea.
Figure 4.13 Alluvial Fan The inflow of both sea water and fresh
water provide high levels of nutrients both
2. Peneplains in the water column and in sediment.
Peneplains represent low featureless plain Hence, it makes estuaries among the
having undulating surface and remnants most productive natural habitats in the
of convex-concave residual hills. world. Narmada river estuary is located in
3. Meander Gujarat.
A meander is a winding curve or bend in 8.Delta
a river. Meanders are the result of both Delta is found in the old stage of a river.
erosional and depositional processes. It is the triangular shaped landform made
They are typical landform of the middle up of alluvial deposition in the mouth
and lower course of a river. This is formed of the river. It is named after the fourth
by vertical erosion, lateral erosion, and Greek alphabet called delta. Example, The
deposition within the floodplain. Ganges Bhramaputra delta is the largest
4. Oxbow lake delta in the world.
Oxbow lake is a free standing body of Types of Delta: Delta is classified into the
water formed when the meander is cut following based on the shape and kind of
the load deposited by the river.
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Look at the diagram and try the

following:
1. Which neck will break first?
2. Which neck will break last?
3. What is formed if the neck of the

meander breaks?
Areas of deposition
Areas of erosion
Figure 4.14 Meander
1. Arcuate Delta: A bowed or curved 4. Lacustrine Delta: It is formed when a

delta with the convex margin facing river flows into a lake. Example, Lough
the body of water. It is also known as Leanne river delta, Ireland.
fan-shaped delta. Example, River Nile 5. Truncated Delta: Sea waves and ocean
Delta in Egypt and Ganga Delta in currents modify and even destroy
India. deltas deposited by the river through
2. Estuarine Delta : it is formed at the their erosional work. Thus, eroded and
mouth of submerged rivers depositing dissected deltas are called truncated
down the sides of the estuary. Example, deltas.
Seine River of France. 6. Abandoned Delta: when the river
3. Birds foot Delta: They are formed shifts its mouth, the delta already made
due to deposition of finer materials is left abandoned. Such a delta is called
by river water. Deposited alluvial abandoned delta. Example, Yellow
material divides the river into smaller river delta, China and the Western part
distributaries. Such delta is also called of Ganga delta made by Hoogly river,
as finger delta. Example, Mississippi India.
river delta, the USA. 7. Cuspate delta is a tooth shaped delta
formed when a single distributary
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(a) Structure of a simple delta
(b) Cuspate delta
Sea or Lake
Turbidity
Current
Topset
beds
foreset beds Bottomset

beds
bedss
(c) Arcuate delta (d) Bird’s foot delta
Lagoon Lagoon
Figure 4.15 Types of Delta
Students activity
Label the following diagram of landforms made by the river.
Journey of a river
key words
Mouth
Tributary
Meander
Delta
Source
Floodplain
Ox bow lake
Confluence
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flows through and deposits its load on 1. Continental Glaciers

its either side. Example, Tiber River of The continental glaciers are found in
Italy polar regions. In these areas, all the
precipitation is in the form of snow.
4.7 Glacier The snow that falls from year to year
A glacier is a huge mass of ice that moves gradually gets accumulated. As a result,
slowly along the mountain slope. The term these regions are covered by an extensive
“glacier” comes from the French word ice mass. This is known as ice sheet or
glace which means ice. Glaciers are often continental glacier. It is estimated that
called “rivers of ice”. It forms where the the maximum thickness of the ice sheets
accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation of Greenland is 3,400 meter, while the
over many years. maximum thickness of the ice sheet of
The places where the snow lies for Antarctica is 4,776 meter. Sometimes, the
the whole year are called snowfields. ends of the ice sheet projects outwards
The imaginary line above which there is over the sea. The waves of the sea strike
a permanent snowfield is known as the against them and break the ice sheets into
snow line. The snowfields are always blocks of floating ice known as Icebergs.
situated above the snow line. The snow line
2. Ice Caps
differs according to latitude, amount of
snowfall, the direction of the wind and It is the covering of snow and ice on the
the physical features of the region. Snow oceans of poles. The ice caps can cover
starts melting below the snow line. Under vast areas with the extensive accumulation
the pressure of the upper layers, the of snow and ice. Example, Svartissen ice
lower layers of the snow field begin to cap in Northern Norway.
melt causing the mass of snow to move 3. Mountain and Valley Glaciers
down slope as glacier. Glacier moves These are also known as Alpine glaciers.
at an average speed of 1meter per day. They flow like tongues of ice down through
Over 96 percent of the glaciers occur in the mountain valleys from the ice caps.
Antarctica and Greenland. The piedmont glaciers form continuous
ice sheets at the base of mountains. The
The world’s largest valley glaciers or Alpine glaciers are found
glacier is the Lambert in higher regions of the Himalayas and
Glacier in Antarctica, on all such high mountain ranges of the
more than 96 km wide world.
and 435 km long and 2,500 metres deep..
4.7.2 Characteristics of Glaciers
4.7.1 Types of Glaciers A moving ice mass or glacier possesses
The Glaciers are of three types. They are; certain characteristics of movement,
speed, and surface structure. The rate of
1. Continental Glaciers
movement of the glacier is very slow.
2. Ice Caps
The rate of movement or the speed of a
3. Mountain and Valley Glaciers
glacier depends upon the size of the glacier
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and the slope of the valley. Sometimes, the The chief erosional landforms by the
surface of the glacier forms cracks known as glaciers are as follow:
Crevasses. Crevasses are the deep fissure of
variable width in the surface of a glacier. These
crevasses are dangerous to the Mountaineers.
Figure 4. 17: Erosional landforms of Glaciers

Figure 4.16 crevasses 1. U-Shaped Valley
4.7.3 Action of glaciers U-Shaped Valley is a typical glacial
The glacier performs three actions namely feature. Since glacial mass is heavy and
erosion, transportation and deposition. slow moving, erosional activity is uniform
in all directions. A steep-sided curved
A glacier erodes its bedrock by the
bottom valley has a U shaped profile.
action of (1) Plucking and (2)Abrasion
2. Hanging Valley
(1) Plucking
Hanging valley is formed when tributary
The glacier plucks big pieces of rocks from
glaciers are unable to cut as deeply as
the valley floor and creates large grooves
main ones and remain “hanging” at higher
or hollows. These pieces are dragged along
levels than the main valley as discordant
the valley floor as the glacier moves. The
tributaries. These tributary valleys appear
boulders and rocky floor are grounded by
hanging over the main valley and enter
mutual contact.
the main valley at some height.
(2) Abrasion
3. Cirque and Tarn
Pure ice is capable of wearing down
A Cirque or Corrie is an amphitheater-
massive rocks when equipped with angular
shaped hollow basin cut into a mountain
rock fragments. The glacier can groove,
ridge. It has a steep-sided slope on three
scratch, and chisel the rock surface. It has
sides, an open end on one side and a flat
a powerful abrasive effect.
bottom. When the ice melts, the Cirque
As a result, a glacier during its lifetime
may develop into a Tarn Lake and the
creates various landforms which may be
whole thing appears like a big armchair.
classified into erosional and depositional
landforms. 4. Aretes
It is a steep-sided, sharp-tipped saw
4.7.4 Erosional landforms of Glaciers
toothed ridges which have undergone
The landforms created by glaciers are
glacial erosion from two sides. These
mainly found in the mountainous regions.
comb like ridges are called as arete.
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are generally classified based on their

location.
a) Lateral Moraines
Lateral moraines are ridges of debris that
run parallel to the sides of a glacier. This
is often accompanied by scraping of the
valley sides which means the debris from
the moraine creates high ridges above the
glacier.
Figure 4.18 Glaciated features
b) Ground Moraines
5. Horn Ground moraines are glacial depositions

formed on the floor of glacial valley.
If the summit of the Arete is roughly
Ground moraines can be deposited in
inclined, it gives rise to pyramidal peaks
between lateral moraines in the case of
which are known as horns. Example,
many alpine glaciers.
Matterhorn of Alps-Switzerland.
c) Medial Moraines
6. Nunataks
Medial moraines are ridges of debris that
A rock mass surrounded by ice is called
are left down a valley floor at the middle
Nunatak. It stands out as an island in the ice.
of two glaciers. Both glaciers merge
7. Fjord together and their debris combine to form
The fjord is formed as a steep-sided a consistent moraine field along their
narrow entrance like feature at the coast of borders. They are actually the merging of
a glaciated region where the stream meets two lateral moraines which continue as
the coast. Fjords are common in Norway, medial moraines.
Greenland and Newzealand. d) Terminal or End Moraines
4.7.5 Depositional landforms of glaciers Terminal or end moraines are left by
When the glaciers melt or recede they the end of a glacier. The slower a glacier
deposit the rock material, brought by moves the bigger the moraine will be as
them, forming hillocks of various shapes the glacier has more time to accumulate
and sizes. The depositional landforms of outside debris.
the glaciers are; e) Recessional Moraines
1. Moraines This recessional moraine runs across the
Moraines are the piles of dirt and rock landscape behind a terminal moraine. They
that are deposited by a glacier as it moves are caused by times when the glacier slows or
across the landscape. These debris fields stops in its movement. It is formed because
exist in places where glaciers have moved the receding glacier pauses in certain
through in the past. There are many kinds places for a long time before continuing its
of glacial moraines that form. Moraines movement.
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Figure 4. 19 Types of Moraines
2. Outwash Plain What does Groundwater do?

When the glacier reaches its lowest point and Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region
melts, it leaves behind a layered deposition showing typical landforms produced by the
of rock debris, clay, sand, gravel, etc. This action of groundwater through the process
layered surface is called as an Outwash Plain. of solution and deposition is called as Karst
3. Esker Topography (Karst region in the Balkans).
It is a winding ridge of depositions of rock,
4.8.1 Erosional Landforms due to
gravel, clay, etc, running along a glacier in an
Groundwater
outwash plain. The Eskers resemble the feature
of an embankment and are often used for Following are the erosional landforms
laying roads. formed due to the action of groundwater.
4. Drumlins 1. Sinkholes
It is an inverted boat-shaped deposition in A sinkhole is an opening more or less
an outwash plain caused by deposition. circular at the top and funnel-shaped
towards the bottom. When as sinkhole
5. Kames
is formed solely through the process of
Kames are the number of ridges formed solution, it is called as a solution sink.
along the ice front.
2. Doline
4.8 Ground water (Karst Topography) A doline is a closed depression draining
The word “karst” literally means “rocky underground in karst areas. It can be cylindrical,
mountain” comes from a region in former conical, bowl or dish shaped. The diameter
Yugoslavia that includes Croatia and ranges from a few meter to many hundreds of
Slovenia. The word is derived from the meters. The name doline comes from dolina,
Slavic word Kras. the Slovenian word meaning valley.
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Figure 4.20 Karst features
3. Lappies 5. Polje
Lappies are the irregular grooves and Polje is an elongated basin having a flat
ridges formed when most of the surfaces floor and steep walls. It is formed by the
of limestone are removed by solution coalescence of several sinkholes. The basins
process. often cover 250 square km and may expose
4. Uvala “disappearing streams.” Most of these basins
have steep enclosing walls that range from
Series of smaller sinkholes coalesce into a
50 to 100 meter in height, giving rise to the
compound sinkhole is called uvala.
name “blind valley.”
6. Caves
Caves normally have an opening through
which cave streams are discharged. Caves
having an opening at both the ends are
called tunnels.
HOTS
How was the world’s biggest cave, son

doonge of vietnam formed.
Figure 4.21 Lappies
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1. Curtains
Rain water drips from long crack in a cave
roof forms a continuous strip of calcites. It
is called as curtains.
2. Stalactite
Drops of water containing dissolved
limestone seep down through cracks in
the cave roof. Drops of water lose carbon
dioxide and deposit calcite. Overtime
deposition of calcite forms pillars hanging
down from the roof of the cave. It is called
as stalactite and where the stalactite
stretches towards the sides are known as
Helactites.
3. Stalagmite
Deposition of calcite forming icicles
growing upward from the cave floor is
Figure 4.22 Curtains called as stalagmite.
Stalactites are calcium carbonate
4.8.2 Depositional Landforms due to deposits hanging as icicles while
Ground water Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits
The following depositional features are which rise up from the floor.
formed within caves.
Figure 4.23 Stalagmite, stalactite, and pillar
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4. Pillars
When both the stalagmite and stalactite
join together, it is known as pillar.
4.9 Wind
The wind is the main geomorphic agent
in the arid region. Wind in arid region has
greater speed which causes erosional and
depositional activities in the desert. The
landforms which are created by erosional
and depositional activities of wind are
called as Aeolian Landforms.
Action of the wind
The action of the wind is carried in the
following ways;
1. Deflation: Removal of sand and dust
particles by wind. It forms depression
in the desert. When depression is Figure 4.24 Oasis (Top)
filled with water, it is called as Oasis. Mushroom rock (Bottom)
2. Abrasion: Action of wind in which
sand particles carried by the wind erosion in the lower part of the rock than
strike against the rock. the top. These result in the formation of
3. Attrition: Sand particles carried by the rock pillars shaped like a mushroom with
wind striking each other is known as narrow pillars with broad top surfaces.
attrition. 3. Yardang
4.9.1 Erosional Landforms of Wind Yardangs are extensively grooved, fluted,
1. Deflation Hollows pitted and irregular rock ridges or reliefs
When deflation causes a shallow of about 1 to 10 meters high running
depression by persistent movements parallel to the prevailing winds. They are
of wind, they are called as deflation caused by differential erosion. When the
hollows.
sand-laden wind corrades zones of softer
2. Mushroom Rock or weaker rock between harder vertical
A mushroom rock, also called rock ridges from old lake sediment where soft,
pedestal, or a pedestal rock, is a naturally consolidated rock and bedrock surfaces
occurring rock whose shape, as its name
are eroded into alternating ridges and
implies, resembles a mushroom.
furrows. Large-scale yardangs are found
In deserts, a greater amount of sand
in Egypt (near Kom Ombo, north of Lake
and rock particles are transported close to
the ground by the winds which cause more Aswan).
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swept clear of sand by the winds. The ridges

HOTS
run for long distances, sometimes several
kilometres.
Why is mushroom rock eroded more
at the bottom than the top?
Zeugen
Zeugen is a landscape of alternate
horizontal ridges and furrows made by
the action of wind abrasion. It may be as
high as 30 m height.

Figure 4.26 Sand Dunes
2. Loess
In several large areas of the world, the
surface is covered by deposits of wind
transported silt that has settled out from
dust storms over many thousands of years.
Figure 4.25 Zeugen
These depositions are called as Loess.
3. Pediplains
4.9.2 D
epositional Landforms of Wind
When the high relief structures in deserts
1. Sand dunes are reduced to low featureless plains by
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand the activities of wind, they are called as
dune formation. According to the shape Pediplains.
of a sand dune, there are varieties of sand
dune forms like Barchans, Seif dune, etc. 4.10 Waves (Coast)
The barchan is one of the classic desert Horizontal movement of sea water caused
landforms. It is a crescent-shaped dune by the wind, rotation of the earth, etc., are
with the horns of the crescent stretching called waves.
out in the leeward direction.
4.10.1 How do Waves Erode?
Barchan dunes may reach more than 27
meter in height. Waves carry out the erosive work in the
Seif dunes are long ridges of sand. In following ways.
general they are aligned in the direction 1. Abrasion: The waves striking against
of the prevailing wind. The slip face of seif the coast with eroded materials is
dunes are probably formed by eddies. The called abrasion. Abrasion is also called
depressions between seif dune ridges are as the corrasion.
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2. Hydraulic action: The waves force water 1. Sea cliff is steep rocky coast rising
and air into the cracks in the rock. The almost vertically above seawater is
parcel of air can be compressed by the called sea cliff.
surging water and the waves retreat, air 2. Wave Cut Platform: Rock cut flat
expands explosively, weakening the joints surfaces in front of a cliff are called
and cracks and causing the rock to break. wave-cut platform. They are slightly
This is called the Hydraulic action. concave upward. It is also formed
3. Corrosion: The action of dissolving when blowhole is collapsed.
soluble rocks by waves is termed as the
corrosion or solution.
4. Attrition: Eroded materials like
boulders and rocks knock together to
wear out into smaller particles. This is
called attrition.
Terms related to coast

Figure 4.27 Sea cliff and wave cut platform
• Sea shore is the zone of land between
3. A sea cave is a hollow excavated by waves
high tide and low tide
in a zone of weakness on a cliff. The cave
• Shore line is boundary between depth is greater than the entrance width.
land and water. Sea caves usually form at points of
• Backshore is the beach zone starting geological weakness, such as bedding planes,
from the limit of frequent storm joints, and faults. A 90 meter long sea cave
waves to the cliff base. is found in the Loliem beach in Canacona in
• Foreshore is the portion of the Goa. The world’s most extensive cave is 1.5 km
beach subject to wave action during long Matainaka cave in New Zealand.
non-storm conditions.
• Offshore is the shallow zone of the
continental shelf
• Coastline is the boundary where the
land meets the sea
• Swash is the waves washing up the
beach.
4.10.2 Landforms by the Erosion of Waves Figure 4.28 Sea Cave

Erosional landforms dominate rocky 4. A blowhole may form in the roof of a
coasts but are also found in association with sea cave by the hydraulic and pneumatic
predominantly depositional landforms. action of waves, with fountains of spray
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emerging from the top. If blowholes 4.10.3 Transportation Work of Waves

become enlarged, they may collapse. The eroded materials are transported by
the waves in different ways. The materials
involved in the transportation by sea
waves include silt, sand, gravel, cobble,
pebble and boulder.
4.10.4 Landforms by the deposition of

waves
Depositional landforms developed by the
sea waves include the beach, bar, lagoon,
spit, tombolo, barrier island, etc. Let us
Figure 4.29 Blow hole
see one by one in detail.
5. Arch is formed when the sea cave is
1. Beach is an elongated stretch of sands,
cut right through by wave action. The
pebbles, gravels, etc deposited along the
arch is termed as sea tunnel if it is
coast. It can be a sandy beach or pebble
comparatively longer.
beach. Praia da Cassino beach in Brazil
6. The stack is a steep and often vertical is the world’s longest beach stretching for
column of rock in the sea near a coast, 200 km from the Rio Grande to the border
formed by wave erosion. with Uruguay. Marina beach, Chennai is
It is formed when the natural arch is the second longest beach in the world.
collapsed. It is also called chimney rock, 2. The Bar is a stretch of sand deposition
needles, columns, pillars, skerries, etc, off the shoreline. The larger form of a
7. Stump is the worn out stack. bar is called barrier.
Barrier dune system

Coastal lagoon
Beach Sand
dunes
Sand spit
Offshore sand bar
Tombolo
Figure 4.30 Depositional features of Waves
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3. The Lagoon is enclosed seawater between the bar and the coast. For example, Pulicat lake,
located in the Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh is a lagoon.
4. Spit is a long, narrow ridge of sand or pebble with one end connected to the coast and
the other end running into the sea. For example, Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu.
5. A Tombolo is a bar connecting an island with the coast.
1. Streambed: A chanel in which a stream flow or formerly flowed

2. Cataracts: water fall with volume of water.
3. The Ice Caps: It is the covering of Snow and Ice on the oceans of poles.
4. Offshore is the zone shallow bottom of the continental shelf.
5. Source of a river: place where river starts.
6. Water Divide: relief having two river systems.
7. Oasis: depression in the desert filled with rain water.
8. Desert: waste land unfit for human use at the moment.
9. Snow line: an imaginary line below which snow starts melting.
10. Delta: A triangular shaped fertile land built by river at the mouth.
Evaluation b. Erode
I. Multiple Choice c. Dharmapuri
Questions d. Coimbatore
1. Which of the following 4. The swirling movement of the
is the chemical falling water into the plunge pool
weathering process? is called
a. Exfoliation a. Plunge pool
b. Frost Wedging b. Groove
c. Carbonation c. Rapids
d. Thermal expansion d. Eddying
2. Feldspar found in Granite changing to 5. A winding curve or bend in a river
clay is the most common example of a. Ox-bow lake
a. Oxidation b. Flood plain
b. Carbonation c. Meander
c. Solution d. Levees
d. Hydrolysis 6. A bowed or curved delta with the
3. Which district in Tamil Nadu has the convex margin facing the body of
highest frequency of landslide? water, also called as fan delta.
a. Nilgiris a. Arcuate Delta
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b. Bird’s foot Delta 18. Explain how a meander changes into

c. Abandoned Delta an Oxbow lake.
d. Truncated Delta 19. Distinguish between Barchans and Seif
7. Coleroon (Kollidam) river is a dune.
distributary of 20. Explain Moraine and list out its types.
a. The Bhavani River IV. Detailed answer
b. The Palar River 21. List the landforms made by the river
c. The Pennar River and explain any two landforms with
diagrams.
d. The Cauvery River
22. Describe the erosional landforms of
8. An amphitheater-shaped hollow basin
wind with diagrams.
cut into a mountain ridge by glacier.
23. Elucidate the landforms made by the
a. Arete
wave erosion and draw the appropriate
b. Cirque
diagram.
c. Horn
V. Practice
d. Fjord
1. Make a diorama of landforms made by
9. The formation of irregular grooves and the wind as a group work and show to
ridges when most of the surfaces of the class explaining how each landform
limestone are removed by solution process. is made.
a. Lappies 2. Group Work: Make a working model
b. Polje of a river course with all the landforms
c. Cave using available materials and
d. Nunataks demonstrate it in the class.
10. One among the given is formed when
the arch is collapsed.
a. Stack Reference
b. Cave 1. Wikipedia
c. Blow hole 2. Physical geography: fundamentals of
the physical environment V. Ettwein
d. Wave cut platform
and M. Maslin
II. Very short answer
3. Introducing Physical Geography, John
11. Define exogenic processes.
Wiley & Sons.
12. What is an exfoliation?
4. Fundamentals of Geomorphology
13. How are rock flow, slide and fall
Richard John Huggett
different from one another?
14. List the types of Delta.
15. How is Spit different from Tombolo?
Web Reference
III. Short Answer
16. Compare physical weathering and 1. Web link: Read More at https://www.
chemical weathering. l iveh istor y i nd i a . c om / ge ol o g i c a l -
17. Explain how a cave changes into stack. wonders/2017/05/24/gandikota-the-
grand-canyon-of-india-2
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ICT CORNER
Lithosphere Change is Constant
Through this activity you

will to learn the land formed by
Exogenic processes.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Plate Tectonics’ simulation page.
• Download JAVA binary file from the page and install it .Click ‘Play’ button to run
the JAVA applet.
• ‘Plate tectonics’ crust page will open. Modify temperature, composition and
thickness of the crust and measure the density and depth using the scale provided.
• Select ‘Plate Motion’ page and drag the crust form to converge or diverge motion
and observe the exogenic process.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/plate-tectonics
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Unit 5
Hydrosphere

5.1 Introduction
• To understand the importance of
5.2 Distribution of Land and
hydrosphere
Water in the Earth
• Acquire knowledge on evolution of
5.3 Fresh water
ocean and ocean relief features
5.4 Cryosphere
• Appreciate the ocean movements and
5.5 Oceans and Seas their influence on the earth’s climate
5.6 Oceans of the
world half of the planet. Now we shall learn
about the hydrosphere in detail.
5.7 Maritime zones
5.8 Relief of ocean
70% of human brain
5.9 Ocean temperature
is water.
5.10 Salinity of the ocean
5.11 Ocean movements
5.1 Introduction Water is the most common substance

found on earth. It is an important
constituent of all life forms on the earth.
Hydrosphere is one among the four
“World cannot survive without water
spheres of the earth. The hydrosphere
and morality cannot exist without rain”
includes the water on the surface of
As thirukkural quotes, water is the most the earth, the water below the surface
important resource in the world. Over called ground water and the water in
90% of the world’s supply of fresh water the atmosphere above earth’s surface.
is in Antarctica. You must know that 85% Oceans, rivers, lakes and glaciers form
of the world population lives in the driest part of surface water. There is substantial
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amount of water under the surface of the Rivers: Rivers generally have a source
earth. The atmosphere has water in all the on a mountain either from a glacier, a
three forms. (Solid, liquid, and gas). The spring or a lake. River Ganga has its source
total amount of water on the earth does from Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas.
not change over time. Water is constantly River Cauvery has its source from a spring
in motion within the spheres of the earth in Talacauvery located in Kodagu district
which is being transformed and reused all of Karnataka. River Nile has its source near
over the earth. The earth’s hydrosphere, Lake Victoria in Uganda. The river flows
thus, acts as a closed system. through confined channel between two
banks and ends up at the mouth which is
5.2 Distribution of Land and Water in either on a sea or lake. When rivers drain
the Earth their water into a lake or an inland sea, it
Earth is covered by land and water. About is said to be an inland drainage.
70.8% of its area (361million sq km) is The Nile River in Africa is the longest river
covered by water and 29.2% (148 million in the world. The Nile River flows through
sq km) of its area by land. About 96.5% Egypt, Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania,
of water is salty found in seas and oceans. Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda,
Fresh water occupies only 2.5%. Saline Burundi, Sudan and Eritrea drains and into
ground water and saline lakes together the Mediterranean Sea forming a delta to the
form 1%. north of Cairo city.
The river Amazon in South America, is
5.3 Fresh water the second longest river, and has the largest
Fresh water is defined as water with a drainage basin of any river. The Amazon River
salinity of less than 1‰ compared to that flows through Peru, Colombia, and Brazil and
of the oceans (i.e. below 0.35‰). Water drains into the Atlantic Ocean forming an
with salinity between 0.35‰ and 1‰ is estuarine delta.
typically referred to as marginal water The Yangtze River, which flows in
because it is marginal for many uses by China, is the longest river in Asia, and the
humans and animals. third longest river in the world. The longest
Considering the distribution of fresh river system in the United States, the
water 68.6% of it is locked in Glaciers and Mississippi-Missouri system is considered
icecaps. About 30.1% is stored as ground the fourth longest river in the world.
water and the remaining 1.5% is available
as surface water.
263 rivers either
Surface water includes ice and snow cross or demarcate
on the land and sea, water in the lakes, international political
rivers, swamps and marshes, moisture in boundaries.
soil, atmosphere and biosphere. Rivers
and lakes are the major sources of fresh
water around the world, and are vital to The total volume of water in rivers in
the world is estimated at 2,120 km3. Asia
the communities they serve.
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excluding Middle East, has the largest run may have their origin through tectonic
off of 13,300 km3/year followed by North activity, volcanic activity, river, glacier and
America with 12,000 km3 per year. wave action or sometimes meteoric origin.
Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal and Wular Lake
A nationwide water have been formed by earth movements.
resources information Lake Baikal is the deepest freshwater lake
system, “Generation in the world. Caspian Sea is the largest salt
of Database and water lake in the world.
Implementation of Web Enabled
Water Resources Information System Fact File
(India-WRIS) in the country” Tmc ft, is the abbreviation for
contain all aspects of water resources one thousand million cubic
and related data provide data and feet (1,000,000,000 = 1 billion),
information in public domain through commonly used in India with
India-WRIS Web GIS portal. reference to volume of water in a
reservoir or river flow.
Lakes: Lakes are larger bodies of water
with outlet through a river or stream. Lakes
Activity: List the major rivers from the map, find their source and mouth.
Name of the river Source Countries through Sea or ocean it Type (Delta
which they flow drains into or estuary)
Amazon. R
Nile .R
Yangtzekiang. R
Ganga. R
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Lagoon lakes are formed by wave Marshes are shallow wetlands around
deposition. Chilika Lake is the largest lakes, streams, or the ocean where grasses
lagoon lake in India. Lonar Lake in and reeds are common, without trees.
Maharashtra is believed to be formed Rann of Kutch in India is a salt marsh.
by depression created by meteor impact A swamp is a wetland with lush trees and
which hit during Pleistocene Epoch. vines found in a low-lying area beside slow-
moving rivers. Pallikaranai wetland is a fresh
Lake Toba on the water swamp adjacent to the Bay of Bengal
island of Sumatra is situated in the southern part of Chennai.
the largest resurgent
Groundwater
caldera on Earth.
Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan is the Groundwater is the most valuable resource
largest salt water lake in India. for any country. The rain water that falls
on the earth either runs off as surface
Finland is known as land of
water or percolates into the ground to
thousand lakes.
recharge the groundwater. The permeable
rocks that can hold water and allow water
Wetlands: Wetlands are areas of marsh, to pass through them are called aquifers.
fen, peat land or water that is static or The upper part of the saturated zone of
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including the aquifer is called the water table. The
areas of marine water the depth of which level of water table fluctuates according to
at low tide does not exceed six metres. seasons (Figure 5.1).
Land
Surface
Unsaturated zone
Water Table Surface Water
saturated zone
Ground Water
Creviced rock Water (not ground Water) held by molecular attraction Gravel
Air Surrounds surfaces of rock particles Air
Approximate level of the water table
All openings below water table

full of ground water
Figure 5.1 Ground water

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in higher latitudes. Permafrost is the

Saltwater intrusion condition prevailing when water freezes
If excessive water is above and below the ground, (including
taken from the aquifers rock or soil) for more than two consecutive
along the coast, the years. Most permafrost regions are located
sea water enters the coastal aquifer. in high latitudes, but alpine permafrost
This process is termed as saltwater may exist at high mountains in much
intrusion. lower latitudes.
Fact File
5.4 Cryosphere
Mount Kilimanjaro (5895m) in
Cryosphere includes the water in frozen Tanzania, Africa, located closer to
state. Glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, lake the equator has permafrost.
and river ice, permafrost, seasonal snow
and ice crystals in the atmosphere together
form cryosphere. Earth’s climate is highly Seasonal snow and ice crystals are
influenced by the extent of cryosphere as confined to middle latitudes and high
it controls the energy budget of the earth mountains in lower latitude. Sea ice is
(Figure 5.2). frozen ocean water. Its formation, growth
Perennial ice cover is found in and melting are all confined to the ocean.
Greenland and Antarctica as ice sheets, An ice shelf is a thick, floating slab of ice
as mountain glaciers and as permafrost that forms where a glacier or ice flows
Ice cap
Snow Snow
Lake/River Iceberg
Ice
Glacier
Glacler Ice Sheet
Seaice IceSheif
Permafrost
Sea
Land
Figure 5.2 Cryosphere
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down a coastline. The world’s largest ice Sea is a body of saline water (generally
shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the a division of the world ocean) partly or
Filchner-Ronne ice shelf in Antarctica. An fully enclosed by land. Marginal sea
iceberg is ice floating in open water that is a sea partially enclosed by islands,
has broken off from glaciers or ice shelf. archipelagos, or peninsulas and extension
of oceans towards land. They are generally
shallow. Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay
Carbon is removed
of Bengal, Java Sea, Persian Gulf and Red
from the atmospheric
Sea are marginal seas of the Indian Ocean.
cycle by cryosphere
during the formation Bay is a water body surrounded on
of ice and is released when the ice melts. three sides by land and the fourth side
(mouth) wide open towards an ocean.
Gulf is a large body of water, with a
5.5 Oceans and Seas
narrow mouth, that is almost completely
The water in the oceans and seas is termed surrounded by land. The world’s largest
as marine water. Continuous water body gulf is the Gulf of Mexico. Sound, creek,
that surrounds the continents, created by bight and cove are bays which vary in size
earth’s internal force is known as Ocean. The and depth.
term ocean takes its origin from the Greek Strait is a narrow channel of water,
word ‘Oceaonus’ meaning enormous river connecting two larger bodies of water. Palk
encircling the earth. The area of the World Strait connects Gulf of Mannar and Bay of
Ocean is 361 million square kilometre. Bengal. Isthmus is a narrow strip of land
The earth has at present five major oceans: connecting two larger land masses. Isthmus
The Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, of Suez connects Africa and Asia.
the Indian Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, and
Enclosed seas are seas that reach very
the Southern ocean (Figure 5.3). All these
deep into the continent stay connected
oceans are interconnected to form one
with one or the other ocean of the world
Global Ocean or World Ocean. This
through straits. Mediterranean Sea is the
nature of water to level up quickly has
best example for enclosed sea. Partly
made it as a reference point to measure the
Enclosed Seas are those types of seas
height of the land features and the depth of
that are connected to the oceans by a
the sea features.
very wide opening and have similar
characters of the adjacent ocean. A
Fact File series of islands may also occur between
Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the average a partly enclosed sea and the ocean to
height of the surface of the sea for all which it is connected. Caribbean Sea is a
stages of the tide. MSL is reference perfect example.
point to measure the height of Landlocked Seas are completely
land features and depth of the sea surrounded by landmass on all sides
features. without any natural outlet. They are
actually hyper saline lakes. Dead Sea
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and Caspian Sea are good examples of Ocean Of The World

Southern
landlocked seas. Jordon River and Volga Ocean
Arctic
Ocean
River flow into Dead Sea and Caspian Sea 6% 4%
respectively.
Fjord is a long indented bay with Indian
Pacific
Ocean
steep slope that has been created by the 20%
Ocean
46%
submergence of U shaped glacial valley. Atlantic
Ocean
Example: sogne Fjord in Norway (203 km). 24%
Ria is an indented bay with gradual
Figure 5.3 Distribution of the Oceans
slope formed by the submergence of
V shaped river valley. George River in
Fact File
Sydney is the best example for Ria.
The Suez Canal, an artificial sea-
5.6 Oceans of the world level waterway in Egypt, connecting
the Mediterranean Sea to the Red
1. The Pacific Ocean Sea through the Isthmus of Suez was
Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the officially opened on November 17, 1869.
world. It is bigger than all continents
put together. Portuguese explorer
Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 named
the ocean Pacific Ocean meaning 3. The Indian Ocean
‘peaceful’ because he felt the ocean to The Indian Ocean is the third-largest
be calm after sailing from the Atlantic in the world. It is named after India.
Ocean through the stormy and Its calm open water has encouraged
dangerous Strait of Magellan. Average the sea trade earlier than the Atlantic
depth of this ocean is 4,280 meters. or the Pacific Ocean.
4. The Southern Ocean (Antarctic

There is life cycle for Ocean)
oceans too! It is known The Southern Ocean is the world’s
as Wilson cycle. fourth largest ocean. The Southern
Ocean is the youngest ocean and
was formed 30 million years ago
2. The Atlantic Ocean when South America moved away
Atlantic Ocean is the second largest from Antarctica, opening the Drake
ocean of the world. The Atlantic Passage (Figure 5.4). This ocean has
Ocean’s name refers to Atlas of Greek the boundary where cold, northward
mythology. The North Atlantic flowing water from the Antarctic
Ocean was formed by the break-up mixes with warmer sub Antarctic
of the supercontinent Pangaea and water. During summer in southern
the south Atlantic was formed when hemisphere over half of the Southern
the Gondwana land broke in the Ocean is covered with ice and
geological past. icebergs.
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1928
1937 Antarctic Convergence
1953 (British) Great Australian Bight
2002 (Draft)
Antarctic Convergence
Not to scale
Figure 5.4 Extension of Southern Ocean
5. The Arctic ocean is Litke Deep in the Eurasian Basin, at

The Arctic Ocean is shallower and 5,450 m.
smaller than the other four oceans. It
is completely surrounded by Eurasia 5.7 Maritime zones
and North America. It is covered by The low-tide line forms the base line for
ice completely in winter. The Arctic marking maritime zones. Water landward
Ocean’s surface temperature and of the baseline in defined as internal
salinity vary seasonally as the ice waters over which the state has complete
cover melts and freezes alternatively. sovereignty. A country’s territorial
Its salinity is the lowest on an average sea extends up to 12 nautical miles
of the five major oceans. Bering Strait (22.2 km) from its baseline (Figure 5.5).
connects the Arctic Ocean with the The contiguous zone is a zone of water
Pacific Ocean while the Greenland extending from the outer edge of the
Sea and the Labrador Sea connects it territorial sea up to 24 nautical miles
with the Atlantic. The deepest point (44.4 km) from the baseline.
An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
extends from the base line to a maximum
Fact File of 200 nautical miles (370.4 km). A
The International Hydrographic coastal nation has control of all economic
Organization (IHO) is the inter- resources within its exclusive economic
governmental organisation that zone, including fishing, mining and oil
surveys and produces charts for the exploration. Everything beyond EEZ is
world’s seas, oceans and navigable called International Waters or the High
waters. Seas. No nation has sovereign rights over
this area.
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Territorial Sea Exclusive Economic Zone High Sea

(12 nautical miles (up to 200 naut. miles from baseline)
from baseline)
Contiguous Zone
(up to 12 miles)
Land
Area
Continental Shelf (deep sea bed)
Figure 5.5 Maritime Zones
Fact File Fact File

Indian National Centre for Ocean
A nautical mile is based on the Information Services (INCOIS)
circumference of the earth, and is with its Marine Satellite Information
equal to one minute of a degree of Services uses the remotely sensed sea
latitude. A nautical mile is equivalent surface temperature (SST) to identify
to 1,852 metres. Nautical miles are the locations of fish aggregation. The
used in Navigational charts. details of the Potential Fishing Zones
(PFZ) are then disseminated to the
fishermen once in every three days
along the Indian Coast by displaying
5.8 Relief of ocean the details in the Lighthouse in
their respective regional language
The bottom of the ocean has a variety of
(Figure 5.6).
landforms just as it is seen on the earth’s
surface. There are large mountain ridges,
deep depressions, flat plains, basins and
volcanoes (Figure 5.7). The configuration Continental shelf
of an ocean floor is shown with the help of Continental shelf is the seaward extension of
a ‘Hypsometric curve’ or ‘Hypsographic land that lies under the sea water. It occupies
curve’. It is a graph denoting the proportion 7% of the sea floor. The continental shelf slopes
of a landmass standing above or below the gently away from the land and is covered with
sea level. shallow seas with an average depth of 200
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250
INDIA
INDIA
200
Bay of
Bengal
Arabian
150
Sea
SRI
100
LANKA
SRI
NE
LANKA
C ZO
50
N
MI
Not to scale Indian Ocean
NO
O
00
C
E
E
650E 700 750 800 850 900 950 V
SI
North Indian Ocean with Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal .The dashed Lines OU C LU
TER EX
LIMIT OF
demacrate India’s EEZ,Which covers about 2 million sq,km, Which is roughly
60% of India’s land area.India’s coastline including islands is about 7000 km long.
Figure 5.6 India’s Exclusive Economic Zone
fathoms. The width of the continental shelf landslides, turbid currents, large sediment
varies according to the nature of the rock slumps, under water canyons, gorges cut by
beneath the crust. If the crust is dynamic the currents and rivers occur. The deposit
then the shelf would be narrow and vice from the continental shelves immediately falls
versa. Continental shelves are formed due to down here. The origin of continental slope is
either any one or combination of the factors believed to be due to erosional, tectonic and
like fluvial deposits, marine erosion, tectonic aggradational processes.
forces, and the fluctuations in sea level in the
past. Continental shelves are well known for Continental rise
oil, natural gas, mineral deposits and coral The area between the continental
reefs. World famous fishing grounds like slope and the sea floor is known as the
Grand Bank are situated here. The world’s continental rise. This part is noted for
widest continental shelf (1210 km long) is the accumulation of sediments similar to
located along the coast of Siberia, in Russia. the alluvial fans near the foot hills in the
Continental shelf on the east coast of land. It represents the boundary between
India is formed by deltas of the Ganga, the continents and abyssal plain. It constitutes
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. about 5% of the oceanic area.
On the West coast of India the continental
shelves are formed due to faulting and Abyssal plain
consequent submergence. The Abyssal plain is the vast area of flat
terrain in the bottom of the oceans. It is
Continental Slope the largest part of ocean relief covering
The zone of steep slope extending from the more than 50% of the total area. There is
continental shelf to the deep sea plain or an accumulation of very fine sediments on
abyssal plain is called continental slope. The the floor. The sediments are combinations
slope angle varies from 5° to 60°. It occupies 9% of fine particles of clay and microorganisms.
of sea floor. This is the region in oceans where As in the case of sedimentary rocks of earth’s
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Figure 5.7 Major relief features of Ocean Floor
Coastal
Shoreline Plain
Submarine
Canyon
Continental
Shelf
Continental
Slope
Continental
Abyssal Rise
plain
Figure 5.8 Ocean relief
surface these sediments are in layers and are oceanic ridge system. They are formed by
used to trace geological events in the past. the tectonic forces acting from within the
earth. Mid oceanic ridges are located on the
Mid oceanic ridges divergent plate boundaries where magma
The mid-ocean ridges are submarine flows through the fissure to form new oceanic
mountains. They are continuous and are crust. They form the longest mountain
connected to form a single global mid- range in the world extending for more than
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56,000 km long and has a maximum width The Challenger Deep in the Mariana
of 800–1,500 km. Trench, (10,994 m) in the Pacific Ocean is
the deepest part of the earth. A trench forms
Ocean trench along the convergent boundary where one
The long, narrow, steep-sided depressions plate subducts below the other (Figure 5.9).
formed by tectonic forces beneath the
Island
abyssal plain are called Ocean trenches.
Oceanic trenches actually extend 3 to 4 An island is a landmass surrounded by
km below the level of the abyssal plain. water on all sides. Islands may be formed
There are 26 oceanic trenches in the world: on the continental shelf or as oceanic
22 in the Pacific Ocean, 3 in the Atlantic islands. Most of the oceanic islands are
Ocean and only one in the Indian Ocean. volcanic in origin. Group of islands
Major Ocean Trenches of the world

S. No Name of the Trench Location Depth ( in Metres)
1. Challenger in Mariana Trench North Pacific Ocean 10,994
2. Aldrich or Tonga Trench South Pacific Ocean 10,882
3. Kurile Trench North Pacific Ocean 10,554
4. Tizar Romanche Trench South Atlantic Ocean 7,761
5. Sunda Trench East of Indian Ocean 7,450
Source: Geology.com
T - TRENCH
R - RIDGE
Figure 5.9 Ridges and Trenches of the world

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formed by subduction of ocean plate are not reach to the water’s surface. It is an
known as archipelago. Islands of Japan isolated rise with an elevation of thousand
form an archipelago. metres or more from the surrounding sea
Marine organisms, the coral polyps floor and with a limited summit area. It
colonize the tropical warm water and occupies 4.39 percent of ocean region.
form islands known as coral islands. Seamounts and guyots are most abundant
Lakshadweep Island in Indian Territory is in the North Pacific Ocean.
made of corals. Andaman Nicobar islands Bottom relief of Pacific Ocean
are of volcanic origin.
Continental shelf of the Eastern Pacific
Guyots Ocean is very narrow due to the presence
Flat topped volcanic hills submerged of trenches while those on the western coast
under the sea water are called guyots. are wide. Continental shelf adjoining coasts
It is a part of an underwater chain of of Australia and Indonesia varies in width
volcanic mountains produced by slow from 160 to 1,600 km. In the Pacific Ocean,
plate movement. the abyssal plains are very vast. Absence of
mid oceanic ridges is the main reason for
Seamounts deep sea plains. Prominent submarine ridges
Seamounts are conical, volcanic hills of the Pacific Ocean are Albatross plateau,
submerged under ocean water. It does Cocas ridge and Aleutian ridge. Tasmania
N
W E
S
Aleuan Trench
Kuril Trench
Japan Trench
Izu Trench M
Ryukyu Trench idd
le
Am
Mariana Trench er
ica
nT
re
nch
Philippine Trench
Peru Chile Trench
Tonga Trench
Kermandec Trench
Diamanna Trench
Zialandia trench
Not to Scale
Figure 5.9a Bottom relief of Pacific Ocean

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basin (New Zealand ) and east pacific basin island, Georgia Island, Falkland and
are major basins of Pacific Ocean. Pacific Shetland islands are islands in the South
Ocean has about 25,000 islands. There are Atlantic Ocean.
number of archipelagos both in north and
south Pacific Ocean. The Hawaii islands Bottom Relief of the Indian Ocean
were formed by hotspot. The challenger
deep in Mariana trench is the deepest part The Indian Ocean has continental shelf of
of Pacific Ocean (10994m). varying width. Continental shelf along the
coast of Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal
Bottom relief of Atlantic Ocean and Andaman varies in width from 192km
In the North Atlantic Ocean, extensive to 280km. A variety of coral reefs thrive
continental shelves are found around the in the warm tropical water of the Indian
shores of Newfoundland (Grand bank) Ocean.
and British islands (Dogger Bank). In the Indian Ocean has a continuous central
South Atlantic Ocean, a very extensive ridge called the Arabic Indian ridge.
continental shelf is found between Bahia Other important ridges include the East
Blanca and Antarctica (Figure 5.10). Indian ridge, West Australian ridge, South
The most striking relief feature which Madagascar ridge. Basins of Indian Ocean
is the ‘S’ shaped Mid–Atlantic ridge which include Comoro basin, North Australian
extends for 16,000 km from Iceland in basin, South Indian basin and the Arab
the north to Bouvet Island in the south. basin (Figure 5.11).
The ridge separates the Eurasian Plate The average depth of the Indian Ocean is
and North American Plate in the North 3890m. Sunda deep near Java is the deepest
Atlantic, and the African Plate from part of this ocean (7450m). Madagascar
the South American Plate in the South and Sri Lanka are the most prominent
Atlantic. Iceland and Faroe are the few islands present in Indian Ocean. Andaman
peaks of the Mid-Atlantic ridge. and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal
The mid-Atlantic ridge divides the Atlantic are the raised part of mountains that are
Ocean into two major basins, i.e., East and the extension of Arakan Yoma which forms
West Atlantic basins. Other basins are Spanish a part of Himalayas. Reunion Island is
basin, north and south Canary basin, Guinea located on a Hot spot.
basin, Brazilian basin and Labrador basin.
Puerto Rico Deep (8,380 m) is the deepest of 5.9 Ocean Temperature
all deeps in the Atlantic Ocean. Other deeps
The measurement of degree of hotness
are Romanche Deep and South Sandwich
or coldness of ocean water is referred to
Trench.
as ocean temperature.
The West Indies is an island archipelago Temperature is normally
near the main land of North America. measured in the unit
British Isles and Newfoundland are famous of degree Celsius by
islands, formed on the continental shelf thermometers. The
in the North Atlantic Ocean. Sandwich major source of heat
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Not to scale
Figure 5.10 Bottom relief of Atlantic Ocean

energy for ocean water is the radiation Factors affecting horizontal
from sun. The heating and cooling distribution of ocean temperature
capacity of water differs significantly from
The factors affecting distribution
that of land.
of ocean temperature are latitude,
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Not to scale
Figure 5.11 Bottom relief of Indian Ocean

SST CLIMATOLOGY FOR JULY
32
800N 30
28
26
24
400N
22
20
Temperature in 0C
18
00 16
Latitude
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
0
Not to scale
-2
500E 1500E 1100W 100W

Longitude
Figure 5.12 Horizontal Sea surface temperature in July 1997

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prevailing winds, ocean currents and local moderate temperatures in aquatic green
weather. and warm temperatures in yellow to
red. Landmass is shown by black colour.
1. Latitude: The temperature of surface The diurnal range and annual range of
water decreases from equator towards temperature of ocean is much less than
the poles because of the slanting rays that of the land. The temperature of the
of the Sun pole ward. sea surface is highest (27°C to 30°C) not
2. Prevailing wind: Direction of the wind near Equator but few degrees north of the
affects the distribution of temperature Equator. The lowest temperature recorded
of ocean water. The off shore winds is -1.9°C near the poles. The maximum
blowing from the land towards ocean and minimum annual temperatures of
or sea raise the temperature of ocean ocean water are recorded in August and
water. Winds blowing from snow February in the Northern hemisphere
covered regions in winter lower the and reverse in case of the southern
surface temperature. In trade wind belt, hemisphere.
the off shore winds initiate upwelling of 5.9.2 Vertical distribution of
cooler water from beneath and on shore temperature in oceans
winds pile up warm water to increase The uppermost layer of ocean water is
the temperature to certain extent. warm and well mixed surface layer with
3. Ocean currents: Warm currents raise average temperature between 20°C and 25°C.
the temperature of the oceans where The depth of this layer varies according to
they flow whereas cold currents seasons. On an average this layer extends up
lower down the temperature. Gulf to 200 m in tropical region. Beneath this layer
Stream (warm current) increases the lies the thermocline layer. This layer varies
temperature of the eastern part of in depth between 200 metre to 1000 metre.
North America and the west coast of This layer is unique that the temperature
Europe. Labrador cold current reduces decreases rapidly with increasing depth.
the temperature near north eastern Below the thermocline temperature decrease
coast of North America. is gradual up to 4000m. Beneath this depth
the temperature of ocean water is constant
4. Other Factors: Apart from these, some at 4°C (Figure 5.14).
minor factors like submarine ridges,
local weather conditions like storms, Sea level
layer Mixed layer :(Sea level to 200m
Upper mixed
cyclones, hurricanes, fog, cloudiness, 200m depth) Temperature is uniform
evaporation and condensation also affect Deep Bottom Water

1,000m or changing slightly with depth
Thermocline layer:
the surface temperature of ocean water. (200 –1000m depth)
Temperature decreases
rapidly with depth.
These images show the sea surface 2,500m
Deep water layer
(below 1000m) :
temperature in Celsius. The Figure 5.12 Temperature decreases slowly.
shows the sea surface temperature in Up to 4000 meters the
5,000m temperature of ocean water in
July and the Figure 5.13 in January. abyssal plain
constant at 4°C.
Tropical Area TemperateArea Polar Area
Cold temperatures are shown in purple,
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SST CLIMATOLOGY FOR JANUARY

32
800N 30
28
26
24
400N
22
Temperature in ˚C
20
18
Latitude
00 16
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
Not to scale 0
-2
500E 1500E 1100W 100W

Longitude
Figure 5.13 Horizontal Sea surface temperature in January 1997
5.10. Salinity of the ocean Factors affecting the salinity of ocean

water
Salinity is defined as the ratio between
the weights of dissolved salts (in grams) The salinity of ocean water depends upon
per 1000 grams of water. It is expressed as a) The rate of evaporation
part per thousand (‰) and has no units.
b) Amount of precipitation,
Example: 30‰ means 30 grams in 1,000
grams of sea water. The average ocean c) Addition of fresh water flow from
salinity is 35‰. rivers
d) Ice in Polar Regions
Sources of salt in the ocean: Sea water
is a weak but complex solution made up e) Upwelling of deep water initiated by
of many things including mineral salts prevailing winds and
and decayed biological marine organisms. f) Mixing of water by ocean currents.
Most of the ocean salts are derived from
weathering and erosion of the earth’s crust by Distribution of salinity
the rivers. Some of the ocean salts have been On an average the salinity decreases from
dissolved from rocks and sediments below equator towards the poles. The highest
the sea floor, while others have escaped from salinity is observed between 20° and
the earth’s crust through volcanic vents as 40° north latitudes because this zone
solid and gaseous materials. is characterized by high temperature,
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Temperature (oC) In partially enclosed

5 10 15 20 25
seas, their bottom
_
_
Polar
relief and the
Tropical _ 2,000
submarine ridges
_ Temperate
1,000 _ 4,000 with shallow water do not allow
free mixing of open sea water. The
Depth(m)
Depth(m)
_ 6,000 temperature at the depth of 1800m

2,000 _ in the Red Sea is higher than the
_ 8,000
temperature recorded at the same
3,000 _ _ 10,000 depth in the Indian Ocean.
Raking refers to the use

_
40 50 60 70 of a rake, a traditional
Temperature (oF) wooden tool with the
long handle and long
Figure 5.14 Vertical distribution
of temprature in Oceans pointed wooden toothed spade at the
bottom for collecting salt.
Brain Storming
Which Ocean we can walk across and

why?
high evaporation but less rain than the

equatorial region.
The marginal areas of the oceans
bordering the continents have lower
Activity
salinity than their interior due to addition
of fresh water to the marginal areas
Identify regions of high salinity and
through the rivers (Figure 5.15).
low salinity.
Very high salinity is recorded in Lake
Compare the salinity of Arabian
Von, Turkey (330‰ ) Dead Sea (238‰)
Sea and Bay of Bengal and find the
and Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA (220‰).
reason for the same.
Find out the reason for low salinity
Fact File on east coast of Asia and West coast of
Depth of water is measured in the North America.(Figure 5.15)
unit ‘Fathom’. One fathom is equal Why does the salinity vary along
to 1.8 metre (six feet) the west coast of South America?
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Salinity (ppt)
more than 37
37
36
35
34
less than 34
Figure 5.15 Salinity of the Oceans

The movement of ocean water takes place
Fact File
in three different ways as
Isohaline is an imaginary line drawn
1. Waves
to join places having equal salinity.
2. Tides
Salinity of Dead Sea is 8.6 times
saltier than other oceans. The shore 3. Ocean currents.
of Dead Sea is 423m below sea level. Waves
It has the lowest elevation on land. The waves are oscillating movements in the
The sea is 377m deep. The high salt ocean water which transfer energy from
content will make people float on the place to place. They are caused by friction
sea. The high salt content has made of wind on the surface of water or any other
the Dead Sea devoid of life in it. disturbances’ on the sea bottom.
Parts of Waves
1. Crest: The upper or highest part of a
wave is called the crest. (Figure 5.16)
2. Trough: The lowest part of a wave is
called the trough.
3. Wave height: The vertical distance
between the crest and the trough is
5.11 Ocean movements known as wave height.
Water in the ocean is never in a state of 4. Wave length: The horizontal distance
rest. Ocean water is always in motion. It between two crests or two troughs is
moves horizontally as well as vertically. known as wave length.
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5. Wave amplitude: Wave amplitude is tide happens when the sun, earth and moon
one-half of the wave height. aligned in straight line. The lowest low tide
6. Fetch: The distance of open water is known as neap tide. It happens when the
across which the wind can blow sun, earth and moon are positioned at right
without interruption is called fetch. angles.
7. Frequency: The number of wavelengths
that pass a fixed point per unit of time is
frequency. Example, 100 waves per sec
per cm. Earth Solar tide
Full Moon New Moon

8. Period: The time taken by one
wavelength to pass a fixed point is Lunar tide
known as period. Spring tide
9. Velocity: Refers to speed and direction.

10. Steepness: Steepness of the wave is equal
to the height divided by length.(H/L) Figure 5.17 Tides
D.How do coastal processes differ ?
Wave action The movement of ocean water as a

parts of a wave result of tidal action is known as a tidal
Direction of travel
current. In places of narrow coastal
A Wave length B inlet these tidal currents flow rapidly
Calm sea level
Wave height through the mouth with greater height
and velocity. For example in the Bay of
Trough Fundy, between Nova Scotia and New
Wave Frequency Wave Period Brunswick of Canada, the difference
The number of wave crests The time required for the wave
passing point A each second crest at point A to reach point B between high and low tides is as high
as 14m. Ports which utilize the tidal
Figure 5.16 Parts of a wave current for entry and exit of ships from
Tides the harbour are known as tidal ports. In
India, Kolkatta and Kandla are examples
The rhythmic rise and fall of the sea water of tidal harbours.
due to gravitational pull of the moon and the
sun is called a Tide. Isaac Newton (1642– HOTS
1727) was the first person to explain tides
scientifically. The rise of seawater towards Why does the highest Tide occur
the land is known as High tide or flow tide. when the sun, earth and moon are
The fall of seawater more towards sea is aligned in a straight line?
known as ‘Low tide water’ or ebb tide. On
any day there will be two high tides and The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of
two low tides. The highest high tide occurs Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast have
on full moon day and new moon day. It is the maximum tidal range of 11m and 8m
known as spring tide (Figure 5.17). Spring with average tidal range of 6.77m and
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5.23m respectively. Tides help to clear the and temperature between the surface
sediments deposited by rivers on their bed and the water deep below. Upwelling is
and thus prevent siltation of harbours. an oceanographic phenomenon that
The energy of the tides is used to generate involves movement of dense, cooler,
electricity. Tidal power stations have been and usually nutrient-rich water towards
set up in UK, Canada, France and Japan. the ocean surface, replacing the warmer,
In India Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kutch usually nutrient-depleted surface water.
and Sundarbans have scope for tidal Down welling is the process of accumulation
energy production. and sinking of cold high saline water
beneath warmer or fresher water.
Ocean currents
Major ocean currents of the world
Large mass of moving water from one
part of the ocean to another in a definite In every ocean, there is circulation of ocean
direction is called as ocean current. The water from Equator to pole and from pole
movement is produced due to earth’s to equator. The warm currents from the
rotation, temperature difference of ocean equator flows over the surface of ocean
water, salinity, density and some extent towards the pole and sink to the bottom
due to air pressure and winds. Ocean of the ocean floor in the higher latitudes
currents can be classified on the basis of due to high density and flow towards the
mode of origin, volume and velocity and equator to complete the circulation. This
boundaries. large scale circulation is known as gyre.
The gyre circulates is clockwise in the
In the order of velocity ocean currents
northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise
can be classified as drifts, currents and
in the southern hemisphere.
streams.
Drifts are movement of surface water a) Ocean currents of the Pacific Ocean
of low velocity influenced by prevailing
1. North Equatorial current.
winds.
North equatorial current originates
Currents are movement of oceanic
from Revilla Gigedo island west
water in definite direction and greater
of Mexico and flows towards the
velocity.
Philippines Island covering a
Streams are larger mass of water distance of about 12,000 km from
moving in a definite direction and much east west. It is a warm current. It
greater velocity than the drifts and derives from its water from the
currents. Ocean currents are distinguished Californian current and the South
by the temperature they possess. east Monsoon drift which flows
When ocean currents originate from north along the Mexican coast. The
equator it is termed as warm current. volume of water increases from east
Likewise when a current starts from polar to west as many small currents join
region it is termed as cold current. it from right. It gets divided into two
Vertical circulation of ocean water and the northern branch joins the
takes place due to difference in salinity Kuroshio Current and the southern
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World -Ocean currents
150 0
120 0
90 0
600
300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
800 800
N
La
br
ad
ian
C
C W E
nd
or
g
enla rve
C.
600 e No 600
Gr Berling S C.
St. Johns ic C
. London h io
N. Pacific C. lant as
400 New York NA
t Oy 400
ry C.
C tream C.
North alifo lf S
North
hio
Cana
Pacific Gyre rn Gu Atlantic ro
s
Gyre Ku
ia
200
200
C.
N Equa torial C.
C
li
N. Equatorial C.
ma
N. Equatorial C.
So
0 0
00
S Equatorial C.
S. Equatorial C. S. Equatorial C.
ustralian C.
u s t r a l i a n C.
Benguela
Walvis Bay
Peru C
200 South 200
sC
Pacific Gyre South Indian
a
Durban
.
ulh
il C
.
Atlantic Ocean Gyre
E. A
Ag
Braz
C.
400 Gyre 400
.A
W
West Wind Drift West Wind
60 0
East Wind Drift 600
East Wind Drift
800 800
1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
Not to Scale
Cold Current Warm Current
Figure 5.18 World-Ocean currents

branch abruptly turns and forms the 4. Oyashio Current( Parental Tide)
Pacific counter current. It originates from the Bering Strait
2. South equatorial current. and flows towards south carrying
South equatorial current is cold water. It is a cold current. It
originated due the action of the meets with Kuroshio warm current
trade winds from east to west. and Aleutian current.
It is a warm current. It extends 5. Californian Current.
for about 13,600km from east to Californian current is flowing
west. It is stronger than the North towards south along the west coast
equatorial current. It is further of U.S.A between 23o N and 48o N
divided into many branches due to latitudes. It is cold current which
the presence of many islands and exhibits great amount of up welled
uneven surface topography. water. When it enters the region of
3. Kuroshio current ( Black Tide) Trade winds, it is deflected to the
It is a warm ocean current flowing right and joins the equatorial current.
in north easterly direction up to 6. Peru Current.
30o N latitude and it carries warm Peru Current is perhaps the best
water off the Formosa coast. It flows studied ocean current of the Pacific
towards north and meets Oyashio Ocean. Alexander Von Humboldt
cold current off the Kuril Islands. It in 1802 noted the details of the Peru
is also called as Japan current. Current. Hence, it is also known
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as Humboldt Current. It is a cold coast of Africa and South America. It

current. It is flowing along the west is a warm current. It is a northern
coast of South America carrying cold continuation of Benguela current. It
water from northerly deflection of the is stronger than the North equatorial
Sub-Antarctica water moving in 40o S. ocean current. It is caused by the
7. El Nino or Counter current. action of Trade winds.
It is a warm counter ocean current
of the pacific equatorial waters
flowing south ward at 400 m depth
to a distance about 180 km. The Sargasso Sea – Sea with
8. West Wind Drift. landless border
It is an easterly moving drift in The Sargasso Sea occupies about two
the Pacific Ocean extending from thirds of the North Atlantic Ocean,
Tasmania to the South American stretching seven hundred miles wide
coast. It is a cold current. The and two thousand miles long. The
speed of the drift is greater under only “sea” with absolutely no land
the influence of Roaring Forties. around it, the Sargasso Sea got its
It splits into two branches and one name from common brown seaweed
moves south around the Cape Horn called Sargassum that floats in vast
into the Atlantic Ocean and the mats in its waters. The Sargasso Sea
Other one moves northward along is surrounded only by ocean currents.
the Peruvian coast due to deflection It lies within the Northern Atlantic
and joins the Peru Current. Subtropical Gyre. The Gulf Stream
establishes the Sargasso Sea’s western
b) Currents of the Atlantic Ocean boundary, while the Sea is further
defined to the north by the North
1. North equatorial current.
Atlantic Current, to the east by the
North equatorial current is flowing
Canary Current, and to the south by
from east to west. It is a warm current.
the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
It is situated between 5o N – 20o N
Since this area is defined by boundary
latitudes. After leaving the west coast of
currents, its borders are dynamic.
Africa, it attains its main characteristics.
When it reaches the east coast of South
America, it splits into two branches and
one branch called Antilles current is
moving along the coast of West Indies
and other branch is diverted into the
Caribbean sea.
2. South Equatorial current.
It is flowing south of equator within
0o S – 12o S latitude in between the
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3. Gulf Stream. direction as southwest monsoon drift

Gulf Stream starts from the Gulf of and in the anti-clockwise direction as
Mexico and carries warm waters northeast monsoon drift due to the
into the colder latitudes. It is a warm influence of monsoon winds.
current. It bends with the coastline The Antarctic circumpolar current flows
up to 40th parallel after which the between 40° S to 60° S latitude. It flows from
direction is almost to the east, due west to east influenced by the westerly and
to the force and the direction of the circles around entire Antarctica. There is
westerlies and the deflective force a counter west ward current within this
of the earth. It joins the labrador circum polar current.
cold current near New Found land,
Canada after passing through the d) Currents of the Southern ocean
strait of Florida. The Gulf Stream was
The southern ocean surrounds the
discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1513.
continent of Antarctica. The large
4. Canaries Current. oceans, the pacific, the Atlantic and the
The ocean current flowing along Indian Ocean merge into this circum-
the Western coast of North Africa global zone of water to their south. The
between Maderia and Cape verde is movement of water in the southern
known as the Canaries Current. It is ocean is in one sense a relatively
a cold current. It is flowing towards simple, generally west-east circum-
south and merging with the North polar drift caused under the influence
equatorial current. of northwesterly winds. This general
5. Labrador Current. flow sends offshoots to the three
In the north Atlantic, a cold current major oceans to its north. The Peru
flows from the Baffin Bay and Davis or Humboldt Current in the Pacific
Strait towards south. It brings cold Ocean, the Falkland Current and the
waters from polar zone and moves Benguela Current in the Atlantic Ocean
along the coast of green land. and the West Australian Current in the
6. Benguela current. Indian Ocean receive a part of their
It is a cold current flowing cold waters from the Southern Ocean.
northward along the western coast Besides the surface currents, there is
of Africa is known as the Benguela also a very complex system of sub-
current. It carries cold waters from surface currents between the southern
sub-Antarctica surface water and Ocean and the oceans to its north.
mixes with south equatorial current.
Generally the water
C) Currents of the Indian Ocean moves from this ocean
The south Indian gyre is formed by towards the equator
south equatorial current, Madagascar on the surface and at
current west wind drift and west great depths but at in
Australian current. To the north of remediate depth, there
equator the currents in the Arabian Sea is a movement of water from the equatorial
and Bay of Bengal flow in the clockwise areas towards the Southern Ocean.
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S. No. World’s Fishing banks Confluence of ocean currents

The Grand bank (Atlantic Ocean,
1. Gulf Stream and Labrador current
New foundland)
The Agulhas bank (Atlantic Ocean, Benguela cold current and Agulhas
2.
South west Africa) warm current
The Dogger bank (Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic drift and canary cold
3.
North east of N.A) current
The Reed bank (South China Sea, Kuroshio Warm current and Oyashio
4.
Pacific Ocean) Cold Current
South Equatorial warm current and
5. The Pedro bank (India Ocean)
W. Australian cold current
The significance of Ocean Currents 6. It distributes minerals and pollution

1. Ocean currents play an important role added to it becomes highly diluted and
in the earth’s climate. They distribute later negligible.
energy and nutrients within the ocean. 7. It helps in growth of juveniles of
2. Fog is formed where warm current and certain fish and its distribution to other
cold current meet. For example, when countries - from its place of origin.
the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current Some up welling and down welling are
meet near New Found land one of the due to currents which bring minerals
densest fogs is formed. to photic zone used by phytoplankton.
Major fishing grounds are located
3. The warm ocean current increases the
in the zones where cold current and
temperature of an area where it flows
warm current meet.
to and Cold Ocean current decreases
the temperature of the area. El Nino
4. The warm current brings heavy rainfall El Nino is a phenomenon that occurs in
when the wind blows over it becomes warm the equatorial Pacific Ocean characterized
while the cold current brings drought when by a positive sea surface temperature
the wind blows over it becomes cold and departure from normal (1971-2000 base
dry. For example, the wind blowing over period) in the region lying within the
the Peru Current is cold and dry causing latitude 5°N to 5°S and longitudes 120°
the formation of the Atacama Desert W to 170°W . This phenomenon occurs
located on the west coast of Peru. every two to seven years (Figure 5.19).
5. It regulates the global temperature. It El Nino happens when
gives free navigation. The Gulf Stream
• Sea surface temperature increases between
keeps ports & harbours of Russia and
the central and eastern equatorial Pacific
Scandinavia navigable throughout the
Ocean between the country Ecuador and
year. The Kuroshio Current makes
the International Date Line
ports on Japan navigable during winter.
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Normal Year W E
EI Nino
S
North
Europe Asia America
Pacific Ocean
Eqatorial moves wind warm water west
South Equatorial
Current South
Cold America
Water
Australia
South Pacific
Current
Not to Scale Not to Scale
N
N
W E
EI Nino Year W E
S
S
North
Europe Asia America
Warmer
Winter
Pacific Ocean
Weaker wind moves warm water east
South Equatorial
South Current South
America America
Australia
South Pacific
Current
Not to Scale
Figure 5.19 Wind circulation during Normal and El Nino Conditions
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• The increase in temperature is

sustained for a period of eighteen International Research
months to Two years. Institute Climate
Prediction Centre
• The temperature increase is up to 30 m
predicts and forecasts
beneath the ocean surface.
El Nino occurrences. Scientists are in
• When there is a modified vertical air the opinion that El Nino can cause
circulation above the Pacific Ocean Global Warming and it also increases
Global influence of El Nino the frequency of El Nino occurrence.
El Nino effect is experienced at Global
level. The change in air circulation affects
the economy of different countries also.
Global weather patterns are altered to East Asia experiences severe drought and
such an extent that they affect eco system, forest fire. Peru in South America receives
agriculture, tropical cyclone, drought, heavy rainfall during El Nino.
forest fire, floods and flood related health Increase of temperature in the east
hazards. El Nino influences the jet streams. Pacific Ocean is correlated with normal
Due to this phenomenon California monsoon conditions in India while the
experiences heavy rainfall, northern increase of temperature in the central
Europe experiences dry winter, Southern Pacific has high correlation with drought
Europe experiences mild wet winters, conditions in India. When temperature
there are less number of cyclones in Sea of increases further to the west it suppresses
Japan, and heavy rain in East Africa. South the Indian Monsoon.
Normal Situation El Nino Situation

¾¾ Near equator the water of the Pacific ¾¾ Near equator the warm water in the
Ocean is warmer in the western side Pacific Ocean extends from western
and cooler in the eastern side due to side to eastern side suppressing the
upwelling of the cold current. upwelling of the cold water.
¾¾ Air (Walker) circulation is dominant ¾¾ Air (Walker) circulation is dominant in
in the western Pacific Ocean. The the eastern part of Pacific Ocean. The
air ascends in the western side and air ascends in the warm eastern Pacific
descends over the cooler eastern side Ocean.
¾¾ Heavy rain is experienced in the ¾¾ Heavy rain is experienced in the
western warmer region and dry eastern warmer region and dry
conditions prevail in the cooler region. condition prevails in the western part.
¾¾ The Southeast Asia and Australia ¾¾ Southeast Asia and Australia
receive heavy rain on normal years. experience dry weather conditions.
¾¾ West coast of South America ¾¾ West coast of South America receives
experiences dry weather. heavy rainfall.
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Fact File
Peruvian fishermen named the weather phenomenon El Nino meaning ‘little boy’
or ‘New born Christ’ and La Nina meaning ‘Little girl’ as the phenomenon was first
noticed during Christmas time.
La Nina
La Nina is just the opposite to the condition of El Nino. When trade winds are strong,
colder water up wells on the East Pacific Ocean, walker air circulation is confined to
the west Pacific, wet condition in Southeast Asia and dry weather in South America is
observed.
The difference in the atmospheric pressure between the west and east tropical Southern
Pacific Ocean is referred to as Southern Oscillation. Meteorologists have established a close
inter link between Southern Oscillation and occurrences of El Nino and La Nina events. The
acronym ‘ENSO’(El Nino Southern Oscillation) is often used to study both the phenomena.
1. Abyssal plains: An extremely large, flat, under water plain on the deep ocean floor.
2. Continental rise: is area between the continental slope and the sea floor.
3. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): extends from the base line to a maximum of 200 nautical
miles (370.4 km).
4. Isthmus: A narrow steep of land that connects two large land masses and separates two
bodies of water.
5. Hot spot: An area is the mantle from where rocks melt and magma rises through
circular to form volcano.
6. Permafrost: is the condition prevailing when water freezes above and below the
ground, (including rock or soil) for more than two consecutive years
7 Trace elements: A chemical element present in minute amount in a particular sample
or environment.
8. Isohaline: is an imaginary line drawn to join places having equal salinity
9. Swell: is a type of wind-generated waves that is not affected by the local wind.
10. Reservoir: A large lake use as a source of water supply
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Evaluation c. Planetary winds

I. Choose the correct d. Revolution of earth
answer 9. ------------- is a warm current
1. River Ganga has its a. Labrador b. Gulf stream
source from -------- c. Oyashio d. Circum polar drift
a. Glacier b. Spring 10. The only sea surrounded by water all
c. a Lake d. Acquifer sides is --------------------------
2. The permeable rocks that can hold a. The Dead Sea
water and allow water to pass through b. The Sargasso Sea
them are called --------. c. The South China Sea
a. Groundwater b. Saturated zone d. The Aral Sea
c. Rock d. Aquifers
3. An -------- is ice floating in open water II. Very short answer
that has broken off from glaciers or 11. Define Permafrost.
ice shelf.
12. Differentiate High Tide from Low Tide.
a. Ice shelf b. Ice quake
13. Define Contiguous Zone.
c. Iceberg d. Sea ice
14. Why is the Dead Sea called so?
4. The -------- Ocean is the youngest ocean.
15. How is a tide different from an ocean
a. Indian b. Southern
current?
c. Arctic d. Atlantic
5. Mid oceanic ridges are located on the III. Short answer
-------- plate boundaries 16. Write a short note on Exclusive
a. Divergent b. Convergent Economic Zone.
c. Transform d. Subducted 17. Distinguish between sea mounts and
6. The temperature of the sea surface guyots.
is highest not near Equator but few 18. Write briefly about the Abyssal plain.
degrees -------- of the Equator
19. List the factors affecting salinity of a
a. South b. South east place.
c. Northeast d. North
20. Write about the significance of ocean
7. On the confluence of Gulf stream and currents.
Labrador current the fishing bank
found is ------------- IV. Detailed answer
a. Dogger bank b. Grand bank
1. Describe the relief of the ocean with
c. Reed bank d. Pedro bank diagram.
8. Tides are caused by -------------
21. Explain the factors affecting the
a. Rotation of the earth horizontal distribution of ocean
b. Gravitational pull of moon and sun temperature.
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22. Draw the ocean currents of North 3. Oceanography Savindra Singh

Atlantic Ocean and bring out their 4. Oceanography Tamil version Subbiah
influence on climate in North America
and Europe.
23. Describe El Nino and its influence on
climate. Internet Resources
http://esminfo.prenhall.com/science/
V. Practice
geoanimations/animations/26_NinoNina.
1. Prepare a diorama of the relief of ocean
html
using available materials and present it
in the class. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_
2. Prepare a working model of warm and Ocean
cold currents of the world and present https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/
it in the class. kits/currents/06conveyor2.html
3. Make a model of relief of the Indian https://www.youtube.com/
Ocean and explain to the class. watch?v=q65O3qA0-n4
https://www.youtube.com/
References watch?v=IVnkfvqwDcM
1. Oceanography S. Lal http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wris.html
2. Oceanography for Geographers, R.C. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_
Sharma and M.Vatal Ocean.
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ICT CORNER
Ocean Currents Streams and Storms
Observe global Ocean

currents and sea surface
temperature anomaly.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ocean current page.
• Click ‘earth’ option from the left bottom side of the page. Click ‘Play’ button to
start and stop the animation. Use ‘Control’ menu to change the date.
• Select ‘Ocean’ from ‘Mode’ menu and toggle between ‘Currents’ and ‘Wave’ menu
from ‘Animate’ option to observe the global ocean currents.
• Select ‘Currents’ and ‘SST’ or ‘SSTA’ options from ‘Overlay’ menu to observe
temperature anomaly. Roll the globe and zoom in and out to view the animation.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://earth.nullschool.net/
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Unit 6
Atmosphere

6.1 Introduction Students must be able to
6.2 Composition of the • Understand the composition and
Atmosphere
nature of atmospheric layers.
6.3 Temperature and
Heat Budget • Understand the vertical and
6.4 Atmospheric Pressure and horizontal distribution of
Winds temperature in the atmosphere.
6.5 Humidity, Condensation and • Explain the mechanism of formation
Clouds of various wind systems of the world.
6.6 Precipitation • Identify various forms and types of
6.7 Atmospheric Disturbances precipitation.
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone)
6.1 Introduction moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and
other elements. Weather is highly variable
You must have heard people, in the
from time to time, day to day and place to
countryside, saying
place. Weather is not constant. It is always
“When sheep collect and huddle, changing within hours or a day.
Tomorrow will puddle!” On the other hand, climate is the
“If ants march in a straight line, average weather conditions of an area
expect rain” for a long period of time. The World
Phrases like ‘a cold morning’, ‘sunny day’, Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
‘cloudy day’ and rainy day refer to the weather. has suggested data for a period of 30
Weather refers to the state of atmosphere at consecutive years to be referred for
a particular place at any given time denoting calculating the climatic averages of various
the short term variations of atmosphere weather elements. Climate is constant. It
in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, is a permanent condition of a place.
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The ancient Greeks called the tilt of

latitude as ‘klima’, literally meaning ‘slope’ 1% Other gases
or ‘inclination’. Then the earth was divided
21% Oxygen
into seven latitudinal regions, called
‘klimata’. The word came into modern 78% Nitrogen
European languages as clime or ‘climate’,
denoting the average weather condition.
Figure 6.1 Components of Atmosphere
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is essential for the
survival of all the organisms on the earth. surface. Water vapour, aerosols and tiny
The atmosphere is a blanket of gases solid particles occur in varying quantities as
and suspended particles that entirely suspended material. These are responsible
envelope the earth. It extends outward over for weather phenomena as they have ability
thousands of kilometres from the earth’s to absorb and release heat energy.
Figure 6.2 Structure of the Atmosphere

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The atmosphere is composed of mixture approximately to a height of 8 km from

of many gases, water vapour and other the poles and 18 km from the equator.
solid particles. The major components The height of the troposphere changes
are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and seasonally also. It increases during
other gases (1%). Argon, Carbon dioxide, summer and decreases during winter.
Neon and the other gases found in the
All weather phenomena occur in this
atmosphere (Figure 6.1).
layer as it has dust particles and water
6.2.1 Layers of the Atmosphere vapour. This layer has clouds which
The atmosphere is divided into five produce precipitation on the earth. The
distinct layers (Figure.6.2) based on the Sun’s rays directly fall on the earth and
temperature variations. They are, then they are reflected back into the
1. Troposphere atmosphere. The temperature decreases in
2. Stratosphere the troposphere with increase in altitude
at the rate of 1 °C for 165 metre or 6.5 °C
3. Mesosphere
for every 1000 metres of ascent. This is
4. Thermosphere
known as lapse rate of temperature. This
5. Exosphere is the densest layer as it contains 70 to
1. Troposphere 80 percent of gases. The outer boundary
The troposphere is the lower most of the troposphere is called tropopause,
layer of the atmosphere. It extends which is about 1.5 km thick.
km
60 Mesosphere
48
Upper limit for
military jet aircraft
22mi (35km)
40 Ozone layer
Weather Ballons
11-19mi (18–30Km))
Stratosphere
31
Passenger Airplane
Thunderstorm cloud 8mi (13km)
up to 8mi (13km)
19
Mount Everest
5.5mi (8.8 km)
10
Troposphere
Figure 6.3 Stratosphere
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2. Stratosphere to a height of 400 km. The temperature

It is the second layer of the atmosphere increases rapidly up to 1,0008C. It is due
found above the troposphere. It to the absorption of very short wave and
approximately extends up to a height high energy solar radiation by the atoms
of 50 km from the earth’s surface. of hydrogen and oxygen gases. When light
Temperature is constant up to a height of energy is transformed into heat energy,
20 km and increases gradually up to the some gas molecules lose or gain electrons
stratopause where temperature is nearly and become the charged particles called
-4°C. The lower part of this layer is highly ions. The charged particles forming the
concentrated with ozone gas which is lower part of the thermosphere as a zone,
called as ‘ozonosphere’. It prevents the is called Ionosphere (Figure 6.4). These
ultra-violet rays from the Sun to enter ionised particles create auroras at higher
into the lower part of the atmosphere latitudes. Ionosphere can reflect radio
as the rays are highly harmful it causes waves back to the earth. This facilitates long
skin cancer and other ill effects to living distance wireless satellite communication.
organisms. But the ozone layer safeguards The credit of discovering ionosphere goes
the life on the earth. to Hennelly and Heaviside.
3. Mesosphere 5. Exosphere
The mesosphere is the third layer of the The upper most layer of the atmosphere
atmosphere found approximately up to which extends into the outer space from
a height of 85 km above the surface of above 400 km up to 1600km. It has rarefied
the earth. It is the coldest layer of the contents. It contains mainly oxygen and
atmosphere. The temperature decreases hydrogen atoms. These atoms can travel
with increase of altitude due to the hundreds of kilometres without colliding
absence of ozone. Its upper boundary is with one another. Thus, the exosphere
called mesopause where temperature has no longer behaves like a gas. The
reaches 2908C. Luminous noctilucent temperature increases with increase of
clouds form here due to the presence altitude and it ranges as high as 165 °C. The
of cosmic dust. Meteors falling from gravitational pull is minimal in this layer.
the space get burned in this layer. It is This layer gradually merges with the space.
because when meteors hit the air, the air
gets compressed and heated up causing Ozone and Ozone Depletion
meteors to burn out. Ozone (O3) is form of oxygen that
HOTS combines three atoms into each molecule.
It absorbs and filters the harmful
ultraviolet B radiation coming from the
Why is Mesosphere the coldest layer? sun. This way the ozone layer protects all
life on earth. However, ozone is harmful
4. Thermosphere when it develops near the ground. It
The ionosphere is the fourth layer of the causes health problems like asthma and
atmosphere extending approximately up other respiratory illness.
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Above Hubble Space Telescope

level
kilometres 600 km (370 mi)
(km) Exosphere
E
480
Aurora
Thermosphere
Meteors
Low
Lo orbit
space shuttle
185km (115mi)
80
50 Mesosphere
10 Stratosphere
Troposphere
Ozone layer
Figure 6.4 Thermosphere
Ozone Depletion: A steady decline in Ozone depletion occurs when chloro

the concentration of ozone in the earth’s fluoro carbon (CFC) and halon gases,
stratosphere is called ozone depletion. formerly found in aerosol spray cans
and refrigerants are released into the
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atmosphere and they cause chemical to produce the ozone hole in Antarctic
reactions that break down ozone springtime.
molecules and reduce the concentration of Satellite images of the earth over last
them. Nitrogen oxide released by emitted decades observed that the atmospheric
by supersonic aircrafts can also destroy ozone layer is getting thinner. On October
the ozone molecules to break down. 2, 2015, the ozone hole was recorded to
Ozone-depleting substances are present its maximum size of 28.2 million sq.km
throughout the stratospheric ozone over Antarctica (Figure 6.5). The size of
layer because they are transported great the ozone hole is larger than the size of
distances by atmospheric air motions. continent of North America. The ozone
The severe depletion of the Antarctic holes over Antarctica allow the ultraviolet
ozone layer known as the “ozone hole” radiation to enter and cause of global
occurs because of the special atmospheric warming, skin cancer, eye cataract and
and chemical conditions that exist there even blindness.
and nowhere else on the globe. The very Depletion of the ozone layer has
low winter temperatures in the Antarctic consequences on human, animal, plants
stratosphere cause polar stratospheric and micro organisms. This typically
clouds (PSCs) to form. Special reactions results from higher UV levels reaching
that occur on PSCs, combined with the us on earth. Research confirms that high
relative isolation of polar stratospheric levels of UV rays cause non-melanoma
air, allow chlorine and bromine reactions skin cancer.
UV 1. UV causes a
F F chlorine atom
CFC molecule
C C to break way from
the CFC molecule.
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
Stratosphere
Cl
O O
Cl
O O
Cl O Cl
free chlorine O O O O
O free chlorine
O3-ozone ClO2- chlorine O2- oxygen free oxygen CIO-chlorine O2- oxygen
monoxide molecule from stratosphere monoxide molecule
2. The free chlorine 3. The chlorine atom 4. A free oxygen atom 5. The result is
atom hits an ozone plus one oxygen atom hits the chlorine another free chlorine
molecule. away. monoxide molecule. atom.
6. Free chlorine will continue to deplete ozone in the stratosphere.
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To protect the ozone layer for our a. Terrestrial radiation

future generation, avoid using products The solar radiation reflected by the earth’s
which are emitting pollutants such as surface is called ‘Terrestrial radiation’.
aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams Terrestrial radiation supplies more heat
and packing materials, as solvents and as energy to the atmosphere due to its long
refrigerants. wave length.
b. Conduction
The Dobson Unit The heat energy from the earth’s surface is
(DU) is the unit of transferred to the lower atmosphere which
measurement for total is directly in contact with the surface by
ozone. the process of conduction.
c. Convection and advection
The movement of air molecules in vertical
and horizontal direction is called as
‘convection and advection’ respectively. This
movement carries heat energy to the various
parts of the earth and at different altitudes.
Heat budget
The heat energy reflected, absorbed and
radiated back into the space equals the
energy received by the earth. Incoming
radiation and the outgoing radiation
pass through the atmosphere. The earth
maintains its optimum temperature.
When 100% solar radiation reaches
the earth’s atmosphere, 35% is reflected
Figure 6.5 Spread of Ozone hole back to space by clouds, water bodies and
ice covered areas. This heat does not heat
6.3 Temperature and Heat Budget either the earth or atmosphere.
Air temperature of a particular place Of the remaining 65% of heat, 14%
denotes the degree of hotness or are absorbed by the atmosphere and
coldness of air at a given place. It is 51% are absorbed by the earth’s surface
measured in Celsius. Let us understand (34% of direct solar radiation and 17% from
how the earth is heated. The surface of scattered radiation). 51% received by the
the earth is heated by the sun’s rays in earth are radiated back to the space directly
the form of short wave radiation. The as terrestrial radiation (Figure 6.6).
heat received by the earth is called ‘Solar In total, 17% are radiated to space
Radiation’ or ‘Insolation’. Heating of directly and 48% are absorbed by the
atmosphere is an indirect process. The atmosphere ( 14% from insolation and 34%
processes are: from terrestrial radiation) are radiated
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65 units radiated back to space 35 units lost even before reaching

(34+14 radiated by atmosphere the earth’s surface Albedo
+17 by land of earth
d 6 + 27 + 2
a b s orbe Reflected by
nits
34 u osphere ed
atmosphere
17 radiated to space
m rb
by at s o
ab ere
ts h
u ni osp
14 atm
by
Total 100 units of heat received from sun
51 units absorbed
by Earth’s surface
Heat Budget
Figure 6.6 Heat Budget
back to space gradually. Therefore, 65%

heat received from the sun is balanced The average time
by the 65% radiated by the earth. This taken by the solar
balance between the incoming and the radiation to reach
outgoing heat energy is called the global the earth’s surface is
heat energy balance. 8 minutes 20 seconds.
Distribution of Temperature
Distribution of temperature varies both 6.3.1 Factors Affecting the Horizontal
horizontally and vertically. Let us study it Distribution of Temperature
under The horizontal distribution of temperature
a. Horizontal Distribution of on the earth’s surface varies from place to
Temperature place. Following are the factors affecting
b. Vertical Distribution of Temperature the horizontal distribution of temperature
of the earth:
A) H
orizontal Distribution of a. Latitude: The angle formed by the
Temperature solar radiation to the ground is
Distribution of temperature across the called ‘angle of incidence’. The solar
latitudes over the surface of the earth radiation passes vertically along
is called horizontal distribution of the equator. The angle of incidence
temperature. On maps, the horizontal decreases from equator towards the
distribution of temperature is commonly poles. The area heated by the solar
shown by isotherms. Isotherms are line radiation increases towards the poles
connecting points that have an equal and therefore, temperature decreases
temperature at mean sea level. from the equator to the poles.
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b. D
istribution of land and water: Land f. Nature of the surface: The reflection
is heated and cooled at a faster rate from surface varies based on the nature
due the conduction process whereas of land cover. The more reflection
water is heated and cooled at slower from the snow surface leads to low
rate due to convection process. Water temperature accumulation. But the
takes 2.5 times of heat energy to heat dense forest, which reflects less heat
a unit area compared to land. Thus, energy and absorbs more heat energy,
the land will have higher temperature leads to higher temperature.
than the water in summer and vice g. Mountain barriers: If a wind or air
versa during the winter. So more mass blows towards the mountain,
land mass in northern hemisphere it influences the distribution of
(15.28C) leads to higher average temperature on either side of the
temperature than the southern mountain.
hemisphere (13.38C). For example, polar easterlies and
c. Ocean currents: Warm ocean blizzards are obstructed by Himalayas
currents carry warm water from the in Asia and Alps in Europe respectively.
tropical region towards the poles This leads to lower temperature in the
and increase the temperature while northern slopes and higher temperature
cold ocean currents carry cold water in the southern slopes of the respective
from Polar Regions and reduce the mountains.
temperature along the coasts.
6.3.2 F
actors Affecting the Vertical
d. Prevailing winds: Warm winds like
Distribution of Temperature
trade wind and westerly, that carry
higher heat energy, increase the We all know that the temperature
temperature while cold polar easterlies decreases with increasing altitude from
carry lower heat energy from polar the surface of the earth. The vertical
region reduces the temperature. decrease in temperature of troposphere is
e. Cloudiness: The cloudy sky obstructs called as ‘Normal Lapse Rate’ or ‘vertical
the solar radiation from the sun to temperature (Figure 6.7) gradient’ at
earth and reduces the temperature. which the temperature reduces at the rate
But the clear sky during the day of 6.5 8C per 1000 meter of ascent. This is
allows more solar radiation to reach influenced by the following factors:
the earth’s surface and increases a. Amount of terrestrial radiation
the temperature. Meanwhile clear reaching the altitude and
sky at night allows more terrestrial b. Density of air to absorb the heat
radiation to escape. For example, energy at higher altitude.
the tropical hot deserts experience As both the above said factors decrease with
higher temperature at day and lower altitude, the temperature also decreases
temperature at night. (Figure 6.5).
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higher altitude which leads to lower

Cold air temperature at low level due to clear
Warm air
sky.
c. Dry air near the surface: the dry air
Warm air Cold air Sm
og absorbs less terrestrial radiation and
allows them to escape into space.
Normal Condition Temperature Inversion
d. Snow covered ground: During
Typical Temperature profile Inversion Temperature profile night, due to terrestrial radiation and
00C 00C
higher albedo, most of the heat is lost
to the atmosphere and the surface is
Altitude
Altitude
cooled.
e. Formation of fronts: the movement
of warm air over the cold air during
Air Temperature Air Temperature
the formation of the various fronts
Figure 6.7 Vertical distribution of leads to inversion condition.
Temperature f. Mountain wind: The subsidence
of cold mountain wind at the early
Student Activity morning leads to the displacement
of warm air from the valley to higher
If the temperature of Chennai (7 m)
altitude. This type of inversion is
is 348C, calculate the temperature of
called as ‘valley inversion’.
Kodaikanal (2133m) using normal
lapse rate.
Albedo is the amount
6.3.3 Inversion of Temperature of solar radiation
reflected from the
The condition at which the temperature
surface. The variation
increases with altitude is called as
is based on the nature of the earth’s
‘inversion of temperature’. In this
surface. Snow has higher albedo
condition, warm air lies over cold air.
compared to forest.
The conditions for inversion of
temperature are:
a. Long winter nights: The bottom layer 6.3.4 Measurements of Temperature
of the atmosphere in contact with the Unit of
ground is cooled and the upper layer Scientist Year
Temperature
remains relatively warm. Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit 1714
b. Cloudless sky: The higher amount Celsius Andrew Celsius 1742
of terrestrial radiation reaches the Kelvin Lord Kelvin 1848
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Zone, the Temperate zone and the Frigid

Conversion of Units Zone.
Celsius to Fahrenheit
Torrid Zone ( 23 ½ 8N to 23 ½ 8S)
Ex. 208C
F 5 (C 3 1.8) 1 32 The zone lying between the Tropic of
F 5 (20 3 1.8) 1 32 cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called
F 5 36 1 32 ‘Torrid zone’ (Figure 6.8). The sun’s rays
F 5 68 are vertical throughout the year and it
∴208C = 688F receives maximum insolation. Thus, this
Celsius to Kevin is the hottest zone.
Ex.208C Temperate Zone (23 ½ 8N to 66 ½ 8N
K 5 C 1 273.15
and 23 ½ 8S to 66 ½ 8S)
K 5 20 + 273.15
K 5 293.15 The temperate zone lies between the Tropic of
∴208C = 293.15K Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn
and the Antarctic circle in the southern
6.3.5 Heat Zones of the World hemisphere. This region never experiences
The earth has been divided into three over head sun light but experiences longer
heat zones according to the amount of days and shorter nights during summer
insolation received. These are the Torrid and vice versa during winter. This region
North Pole
Polar Zone
Arctic
C ircle
Temperate Zo
ne
Tropic o
f cancer
SUN
Equato
Tropical Zone r
Tropic o
f Capric
orn
Temperate Zo
ne
Antarc
tic Ci rcle
Polar Zone
South Pole
Figure 6.8 Heat Zones

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experiences moderate temperature and is Global Warming

therefore called as ‘Temperate zone’. Global warming is observed in a
Polar Zone (Frigid Zone – 66 ½ 8N to centuryscale. The temperature increase
908N and 66 ½ 8S to 908S ) over the years has been due to the greenhouse
gas concentration such as carbon dioxide
The region between North pole and Arctic
(CO2), water vapour, methane and ozone.
Circle in the northern hemisphere and South
Greenhouse gases are those gases that
pole and Antarctic Circle in the southern
contribute to the greenhouse effect. The
hemisphere is called ‘Polar Zone’. This region
largest contributing source of greenhouse
always receives more oblique rays of the sun
gas is the burning of fossil fuels leading
and so the temperature is very low. It is the
to the emission of carbon dioxide from
coldest zone. This region experiences 24
industries, automobiles and domestic.
hours of day and night during peak summer
and winter respectively. 6.3.6 Urban Heat Island (UHI)
An urban heat island is an urban area
Annual Temperature : or metropolitan area that is significantly
The average annual warmer than its surrounding rural area
temperature of a region due to high concentration of high rise
for a year. concrete buildings, metal roads, sparse
Mean Annual Temperature: The vegetation cover and less exposure of
average of 30 years of annual soil. These factors cause urban regions
temperature of the region. to become warmer than their rural
Range of Temperature: Difference surroundings, forming an “island” of
between highest and lowest higher temperatures (Figure. 6.9).
temperature of a place. Ways to reduce the impact of urban
Annual Range of Temperature: The heat island:
difference between highest and lowest 1. Increase shade around your home:
temperature of a place in a year. Planting trees and other vegetation,
Diurnal range of Temperature: The provides shade and cooling effect
difference between highest temperature through evapotranspiration and it
and lowest temperature of a place in a day. lowers the surface and air temperature.
Green House Effect: URBAN HEAT ISLAND PROFILE
As seen in the heat budget, the longer 33.3

32.8
wavelengths are absorbed by greenhouse 32.2
31.7
gases in the atmosphere, increases the 31.7
30.6
temperature of the atmosphere. These 30.0
greenhouse gases act like a green house 29.4

Temp
and retains some of the heat energy would 0
C
Urban Suburban
otherwise be lost to space. The retaining of Rural Commercial
Suburban Downtown
Residential
Park
Residential
Residential
heat energy by the atmosphere is called the
‘greenhouse effect’. Figure 6.9 Urban Heat Island
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2. Install green and cool roofs. 6.4.1 V

ertical Distribution of
3. Use energy-efficient appliances and Atmospheric Pressure
equipments. The relationship analysis between altitude
4. Shift all industries away from the and atmospheric pressure is very peculiar.
urban area. The upper atmosphere is thin and less dense.
5. Reduce emission from automobiles. The pressure at sea level is highest and keeps
decreasing rapidly with increasing altitude
6.4 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind because of the progressive reduction of the
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force mass above the point where it is measured
per unit area exerted against a surface by the (Figure 6.11).
weight of the air molecules above the earth
surface. In the Figure below (Figure 6.10), Isobar is an imaginary
the pressure at point ‘X’ increases as the line connecting the
weight of the air increases. The atmospheric places of uniform
pressure is not distributed uniformly over atmospheric pressure
the earth. The amount of pressure increases reduced to mean sea level
or decreases, according to the amount
of molecules, that exerts the force on the
surface.
When temperature of the air increases, Brain Storming
the air expands and reduces the number People feel discomfort to breathe
of molecules over the unit area. It leads when they go to the places of higher
to reduction in pressure. Similarly, when altitude (mountain sickness). Why?
the temperature falls, the air contracts
and the pressure increase. Therefore, the
temperature and atmospheric pressure are
inversely related.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by
an instrument called ‘Barometer’. look at how few
atmos are pressing lower
down on the guy at pressure
the top of the
mountain
Top of the Atmosphere
Weight of the air in the column

applles a pressure to point ‘X’
look at all the

Surface atoms pressing
down on the guy
at the bottom of
higher
the mountain
pressure
Unit Area
Figure 6.10 Atmospheric Pressure Figure 6.11 Relationship between

altitude and pressure
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Altitude in m Atmospheric pressure in m b 6.4.2 H

orizontal Distribution of the
Sea level 1013.25 Atmospheric Pressure
1,000 898.76 When the air gets heated it expands,
2,000 795.01
becomes light and rises vertically. As air
3,000 701.01
rises, the pressure it exerts on the earth
4,000 616.60
surface is reduced, causing a low pressure
5,000 540.48
area (Figure 6.12).
10,000 264.0
(B) July
L
H
H
H
H
H H
H
Figure 6.12 Horizontal distribution of temperature

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On the other hand, cool air is dense of the earth results in corilois effect and it
and heavy. As a consequence it sinks deflects the direction of the wind. Wind
vertically. It results in additional weight direction is identified by an instrument
and pressure which cause a high pressure called Wind Vane and wind speed is
area to occur on the ground. measured by Anemometer.
6.4.3 Pressure Belts of the Earth Types of Winds
The atmospheric pressure belts envelope Winds are classified based on the nature
on the surface of the earth. They are and area of influence as follows;
equatorial low pressure belt, sub tropical
high pressure belts, sub polar low pressure 6.4.5 General Atmospheric Circulation,
belts and polar high pressure belts. Pressure Belts and Primary Wind
System
6.4.4 Wind Systems
From the equator to the poles, each
Wind is the horizontal movement of air hemisphere has four pressure belts and
molecules from areas of high pressure totally there are seven belts on the globe. The
to areas of low pressure to maintain the pressure belts lead to formation of primary
atmospheric equilibrium. The wind wind system as follows:
always moves perpendicular to isobars. If
a. The equatorial low pressure belt
the earth did not rotate, the winds would
(between 5oN and 5oS): This is the
blow in a straight path. Then the rotation
region of calm, weak and changeable
Coriolis Effect winds. Due to the high temperature
over this region, the air gets heated
The rotation of the earth affects the expands and become lighter and
moving objects on the earth surface. rises upward and creates low pressure
Free moving objects, affected by the over the region. This region is a
rotation of the earth, do not follow belt of calm and referred to as the
a straight line. In the northern ‘Doldrums’. The winds blow from
hemisphere they drift towards right the sub tropical high pressure belt
and towards left in the southern towards the equatorial low pressure
hemisphere. A car travelling down belt. Due to Coriolis Effect these
a straight road at 95 km/hr in winds are deflected to the right in the
northern hemisphere would drift to northern hemisphere and to the left
the right of the path if the friction in the southern hemisphere. As winds
between surface and tyre is absent. are named after the direction from
The tendency is called as Coriolis which they originate they are called
Effect as it was discovered by as the North East and South east trade
G.G. Coriolis. This is the reason why winds. As the winds favoured trading
racket launching stations are located ships they are called as ‘Trade winds’.
on the east coastal areas. Example:
Sriharikota, French Guyana.
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Classification of Winds
Surface winds High Altitude winds
Jet streams
Primary winds (Global Secondary winds / Tertiary winds /

winds / Planetary winds / (Seasonal winds / Periodic Local Winds
Permanent winds) Winds / Regional winds)
Trade winds, Westerlies, Monsoons, Cyclones 1. S ea Breeze and Land

Polar Easterlies Breeze
2. M ountain and valley
wind
3. C old and warm wind
b. The sub tropical high pressure belt c. The sub polar low pressure belt (50o
(25o to 35o N and S): Air begins to to 60o N and S): The warm westerly
cool when it reaches higher altitude wind from sub tropical region moves
over equatorial region and flows towards the pole and collide with the
towards the poles. This wind collides cold polar easterly wind from polar
with the wind coming from the polar high pressure region and raises up to
region at higher altitude and subsides form sub polar low pressure belt.
down over sub tropical latitudes. This d. Polar high pressure belt (80o N
leads to formation of high pressure and 80o S pole): The constant low
belt along the sub tropical region. temperature at the poles due to
It is said that to avoid the slowing inclined solar radiation and reduced
down of ship due to high pressure the insolation leads to the formation of
horses were thrown into the sea. So polar high pressure belt on both poles
this belt is called as ‘Horse latitude’. (Figure 6.13).
The sinking air bifurcated in to two
The high pressure on the surface always
branches towards the equator and
coincide with the low pressure at higher
poles, they are called as trade winds
altitude while the low pressure on the
and westerly respectively. Westerlies
surface always coincide with higher
flow towards the pole from sub
pressure on the higher altitude. High
tropics and turn towards right and
pressure always has divergence of air
left in northern hemisphere and
masses from the centre but low pressure
southern hemisphere respectively.
has convergence of air.
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High
Low Low
Low Polar easterlies 600
Polar front
Prevailing
westerlies
High High High High 300 High
Horse latitudes
Ne Trade winds
Sun’s
Low Low Low Equatorial doldrums (ITCZ) Low 00 Low
Low Rays
SE Trade winds
High High Horse latitudes High 300

High Prevailing High
westerlies
Low Polar front Low 600
Polar easterlies
Low Low
High
Figure 6.13 Pressure Belts and Primary Winds
6.4.6 B
asis of Formation of Pressure b. Dynamism: The sub tropical high
Belts and sub polar low pressure belts
are formed due to movement and
There are two important bases on which collision of wind system. So they
the pressure belts are formed. They are; are called as ‘Dynamically formed
a. Temperature: The equatorial low pressure pressure belt system’.
and polar high pressure belts are formed
due to high and low temperature 6.4.7 Meridional Cell System
respectively. So they are called as The cell along with trade winds, equatorial
‘Thermally formed pressure belts’. low and sub tropical high pressure belts is
called as ‘Hadley cell’, meanwhile the cell
Ocean is dominant formed by westerly wind along with sub
in the southern tropical high and sub polar low pressure
hemisphere between belt is called ‘Ferrell’s cell’. The cell at polar
the latitudes 40ºS formed by polar easterlies with polar high
and 60ºS. Hence the westerlies are and sub polar low pressure belt is called as
so powerful and persistent that the ‘Polar cell’ (Figure 6.14).
sailors used such expressions as ITCZ – Inter Tropical Convergent Zone
“Roaring Forties”, “Furious Fifties” The region where both trade wind
and “Screaming or Shrieking Sixties” systems meet is known as ‘Inter Tropical
for these high velocity winds in the Convergent Zone’.
latitudes of 40º, 50º and 60º respectively.
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tropical tropopause
15
polar front
ause
tropop
titude
mid-la
Cumulonimbus
10
altitude (km)
clouds
popause
Polar tro (mirror image
in southern
Hadley cell hemisphere)
Ferrel cell
5
polar cell
0
North pole 600N 300N Equator Latitude
high low high low pressure
easterlies north-east trade winds global winds
Warm south-westerlies
Figure 6.14 Meridional circulation
Shifting of Pressure Belts and Primary to the formation of high pressure system
Wind System over ocean. So, the wind blows from
These pressure belts and primary wind sea to land during summer season.
systems are dynamic in character as Meanwhile the land reradiates more heat
they shift 58 north and 58 south from energy to space during winter leading
their position along with the apparent to the formation of high pressure above
movement of the sun. the continent. But the ocean will have
relatively higher temperature than the
6.4.8 Secondary Wind System continent leading to formation of low
Both monsoon and cyclones are considered pressure system over ocean. So, wind
as secondary or regional wind systems. blows from land to sea during the winter
season. This mechanism has an important
Monsoons
effect on rainfall received over the region.
The word ‘Monsoon’ is derived from
the Arabic word, ‘Mausim’ which means Nature of Monsoon System
‘Season’. Monsoons are seasonal winds There are three distinct characteristics related
which reverse their direction due to to monsoon wind system which differentiates
unequal heating and cooling of the land it from other wind systems. They are;
and the water. 1. Minimum 1608 reversal of wind
Mechanism of Monsoon direction between seasons.
The land absorbs more heat energy 2. They affect a large part of the continents
during summer, which leads to the and oceans.
formation of low pressure over continent. 3. The formation of low and high pressure
But the ocean will have relatively lower systems over land and water and their
temperature than the continent leading interchange between the seasons.
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Meanwhile, in winter the low temperature

If any wind system
and high pressure in the Lake Baikal region
has all the above
and high temperature and low pressure
mentioned characters
in the Aleutian Island region leading to
of monsoon in one
flow of wind from Central Asia to Pacific
season but absence of at least one
Ocean is known as ‘Winter Monsoon of
in the other season then is called as
Asia’. As the wind system flows off shore,
‘Pseudo monsoon’. The other names
the rainfall does not occur in the continent
are ‘Monsoon tendency’ or ‘false
of Asia except western coast of Japan.
monsoon’.
b. South Asian Monsoon
South Asian Monsoon includes the
Monsoon system is classified into two countries in the southern part of
groups based on the location. They are; Himalayas, that is India, Pakistan,
a. Asian Monsoon Bangladesh, Sri lanka, Maldives, Nepal
b. South Asian Monsoon and Bhutan. This monsoon system has
a. Asian Monsoon been classified into two groups based on
the direction of origin of wind namely
The Asian monsoon system is divided into
south west monsoon and north east
two components based on season it flows.
monsoon (Figure 6.15).
The presence of high temperature with
low pressure in the lake Baikal region and South West Monsoon
low temperature with high pressure in the During summer the Indian peninsula is
Aleutian islands region leading to flow of heated more than the sea around it. Intense
wind from Pacific Ocean to interior part low pressure is formed in the region of
of Asia during summer is called ‘Summer Peshawar of Pakistan. At the same time,
Monsoon of Asia’. This leads to rainfall in the Indian Ocean has higher pressure due
the east coast of Asia. to relatively low temperature. So the wind
Not to scale Not to scale
Figure 6.15 South Asia Monsoon

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blows from Indian Ocean towards South during south west monsoon in India during
Asia as Southeast Winds. The wind turns middle of May. The wind flows parallel to
towards right due to Coriolis Effect and the east coast of India and Eastern Ghats.
blows as south west winds which bring So Coromandel Coast of India doesn’t
heavy rains around four months of the get enough rainfall during south west
year. This is known as south west monsoon monsoon. The wind strikes Arakanyoma
in Indian Sub continent. This wind system Mountain in Myanmar and results in heavy
bifurcates into two branches as Arabian rainfall in western coast of Myanmar. The
Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch. wind funnels towards north eastern part
Arabian Sea Branch of India after deflected by the Arakanyoma
Mountain in Myanmar. This wind strikes
The Arabian Sea branch strikes the
Meghalaya plateau which leads to heavy
Western Ghats at perpendicular direction
rainfall in Bangladesh and North eastern
and rises over it. The orographic effect by
part of India. Mawsynram, the wettest place
the Western Ghats results in heavy rainfall
(highest annual rainfall) in the world, is
in the windward side and low rainfall in
located in the windward side of Meghalaya
the leeward side. So the west coast of India
plateau.
receives high rainfall when compared to the
eastern side of the Western Ghats. Kerala The wind further advances towards
is the first state to receive rainfall from the Himalayas where it creates heavy
the south west monsoon in India, which rainfall in the southern slopes. This leads
occurs during first week of June. Then, the to flood in River Brahmaputra. The wind
wind gradually moves towards the north gradually moves towards the west and
of the western coast and leads to gradual results in onset of monsoon in Bhutan,
development of the monsoon in parts of Sikkim, West Bengal, Nepal and Bihar. It
Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat joins with Arabian Sea branch in Bihar
and Rajasthan. The wind further advances and results in heavy rainfall and flood.
towards foot hill of the Himalayas and The south west monsoon gradually
creates orographic rainfall in the Himalayan withdraws from south Asian continent due
states, Punjab and Haryana. The other part to apparent movement of the Sun towards
of the Arabian Sea branch moves towards the southern hemisphere. This is called as
the east and results in onset of monsoon ‘Withdrawal of South West Monsoon’.
in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Here, it unites North East Monsoon
with the Bay of Bengal branch and leads to
During winter the Indian Subcontinent
heavy rainfall and flood.
becomes colder than the Indian Ocean.
Bay of Bengal Branch As a result the wind blows from Northeast
Bay of Bengal branch flows from south to South West direction. This is dry wind
west which results in orographic rainfall system and it does not produce rainfall in
in Sri Lanka and reaches Andaman and the coastal region of south Asia except the
Nicobar Islands and results in orographic Coromandel Coast of India and Sri Lanka.
rainfall. Indira point in the Great Nicobar This is known as North East Monsoon or
is the first place which receives rainfall Retreating Monsoon in South Asia.
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Mawsynram, world’s wettest place!

‘’It was the kind of rain you wouldn’t see anywhere else. We could barely see four feet
ahead of us. We could touch the clouds, smell the clouds, and taste the clouds’’ said a
local resident. Yes, it is about Mawsynram which is located in Meghalaya’s East Khasi
Hills, with the cluster of about 1,000 homes. It holds the Guinness Record for “the
wettest place on earth”. The average annual rainfall is 11,861mm, according to the
Guinness website.

However, the soil in the limestone plateau doesn’t absorb water. There is barely
any forest cover, so a lot of erosion of top soil happens. All of it flows down into
Bangladesh. The irony is that “the wettest place on earth” grapples with an acute water
shortage after monsoon ends around October. Hence, people call world’s rainiest
place Mawsynram, which is also world’s wettest desert.
Agriculture in India mostly depends scale because of differences in the heating

on the rainfall brought by the monsoons. and cooling of the earth’s surface.
During the El Nino year the temperature
of the ocean water increases. This weakens Sea and Land Breezes
the high pressure over Indian Ocean During daytime, land heats up much faster
thereby reduces the strength of south west than water. The air over the land warms
monsoon over south Asia. However during and expands leading to form low pressure.
winter, it induces the low pressure over the At the same time, the air over the ocean
ocean resulting in severe depressions and becomes cool because of water’s slower
cyclones. rate of heating and results in formation
6.4.9 Tertiary Winds of high pressure. Air begins to blow
The tertiary winds are formed due to pressure from high pressure over ocean to the low
gradients which may develop on a local pressure over the land. This is called as
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L H
H Warm L Cool
Cool Warm
Figure 6.16 Sea breeze and Land breeze
‘Sea breeze’. During night time, the wind

blows from land to sea and it is called as Sea breeze and land
‘Land breeze’ (Figure 6.16). breeze influence the
movement of boats
Mountain and Valley Breezes near the coastal
A valley breeze develops during the day region and fisher men use these
as the sun heats the land surface and air at winds for their daily fish catching.
the valley bottom and sides. As the air gets Fishermen go for fishing at early
heated it becomes less dense and begins morning along the land breeze and
to blow gently up the valley sides. This is return to the shore in the evening
called as ‘valley wind’. This process reverses with the sea breeze.
at night leading to blow of wind from
mountain top to valley bottom referred to Fohn: Warm dry southerly off the
as ‘mountain wind’ (Figure 6.17). northern side of the Alps and Switzerland.
Local Winds Harmattan: Dry northerly wind across
Local wind systems influence the weather central Africa
pattern where ever they blow (Figure 6.18). Karaburan: ‘Black storm’ a spring and
Some important local winds are; summer katabatic wind of central Asia
Bora: North easterly from eastern Khamsin: South easterly from North
Europe to north eastern Italy Africa to the eastern Mediterranean
Chinook: Warm dry westerly off the Loo: Hot and dry wind which blows
Rocky Mountains over plains of India and Pakistan.
Cold Cold
Cold
Cold

Figure 6.17 Mountain and Valley breeze
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Buran W E
Karaburan S
Chinook Helm
Nor’easter Bora
NORTH Blizzards
AMERICA Mistral EUROPE
Norther Levant Etesians ASIA
Fohn
Norte
Sirocco
Khamsin
Harmattan
Haboob
(non-Directional)
SOUTH
AFRICA
AMERICA
Berg AUSTRALIA
Pampero Brickfielder
Southerly
Not to scale
Figure 6.18 Local winds of the world
Mistral: Cold northerly from central Island, caused by the moist prevailing
France and the Alps to Mediterranean. winds being uplifted over the Southern
Nor’easter: Strong winds from the Alps, often accompanied by a distinctive
northeast in the eastern United States, arched cloud pattern.
especially New England Pampero: Argentina, very strong wind
Nor’wester: Wind that brings rain to which blows in the Pampa.
the West Coast, and warm dry winds to Simoom: Strong, dry, desert wind that
the East Coast of New Zealand’s South blows in the Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria,
and the desert of Arabia.
Mountain and valley Sirocco: Southerly from North Africa
wind systems influence to southern Europe.
the weather pattern of Zonda wind: On the eastern slope of
the mountain top and the Andes in Argentina.
valley bottom. Mountain top can be
seen clearly at early morning and valley 6.4.10 Jet Streams
bottom at evening. But mountain top Jet streams are high altitude westerly wind
will be covered with clouds at evening system blows at a height of 6 to 14 km, with
due to rising of valley wind system and very high speed up to 450 km/hr in wavy form
valley bottom would be covered by at both hemispheres. As they encircle the poles
clouds at early morning due to arrival they are called as ‘Circum polar wind system’
of mountain wind system. These clouds (Figure 6.19).
are sometimes called as ‘fog’ which is Although the jet streams flow at higher
used for cultivation in the dry regions altitude they also influences the surface
like Yemen. weather pattern of the Earth.
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Jet streams were

Polar Jet
discovered during the
Subtropical Jet Second World War
as the jet pilots felt
the strong obstruction in the higher
altitudes.
sudden burst of South west monsoon

Figure 6.19 Jet Stream into Indian Sub continent.
3. Late and early monsoon in South
The Major impacts of Jet streams Asia: Rate of with drawl of polar
1. Creation of Polar Vortex: Polar westerly jet stream decides the onset of
westerly jet stream will carry cold south west monsoon. Slower and faster
polar air masses towards temperate rate of with drawl leads to late and
region which creates severe cold waves early onset of south west monsoon.
in North America and Eurasia during 4. Intensity of monsoon rainfall: The
winter. arrival of tropical easterly jet stream
2. Sudden burst of South west monsoon: influences the intensity of south west
Sudden withdrawal of polar westerly monsoon. This leads to increasing
jet stream from Indian sub continent intensity of rainfall during south west
to northern part of Pamir, leads to monsoon.
Student Activity
Mark the direction of the primary winds in the given world map.
N
W E
Not to scale
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b. Relative Humidity (RH %): This is the

The wavy structure
ratio of Absolute humidity and humidity
of the Jet stream is
capacity in term of percentage. It reveals
represented as ‘Rossby
the condition of air to get saturated. This
waves’.
is controlled by both temperature and
moisture content of the air. The condition
5. Bringing rainfall to India by western is that when the temperature increases
disturbances: Polar westerly jet stream RH% decreases. But when absolute
carries rainy clouds from cyclones humidity increases RH% increases.
formed over Mediterranean Sea during
winter towards India. These clouds 6.5.1 Process of Condensation
piles up on the Himalayas and results in Condensation is the change of the physical
rainfall over the states of Punjab and state of water vapour (gas state) into
Haryana. This assists in the cultivation water (liquid state). The following process
of wheat in India. explains mechanism of condensation in the
6. Development of super cyclone: The atmosphere.
condition at which the speed of the If an air reaches 100% relative humidity,
jet stream is transferred to tropical it means that the air is completely filled
cyclone may leads to development of with moisture content. It indicates that both
super cyclone. the absolute humidity and the humidity
capacity of the air are in same level. This
6.5 H
umidity, Condensation and condition is called ‘saturation of air’ which
Clouds can be attained by reducing the temperature
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the of the air or increasing the moisture
atmosphere. Temperature of the air controls content. The temperature at which the air
the capacity of the air to hold moisture. The gets saturated is called as ‘dew point’. The
maximum amount of moisture that can be RH crosses the 100% when the temperature
hold by the air in the particular temperature of the air drops below its dew point. This
is called as Humidity Capacity. As the volume condition is called as ‘super saturation’ of
increases with the temperature of the air, it can the air. In this condition the air releases the
hold more moisture. So, humidity capacity excess moisture out of it in the form of tiny
increases with temperature. It is measured as water droplets which floats and form clouds
weight of humidity or volume of the air. in the atmosphere.
Humidity of the air can be expressed in If the same process occurs on the
the following ways. surface of the earth, it is called as ‘fog’ or
a. Absolute Humidity: This measures cloud on the ground.
the total amount of water vapour
present in the air at particular time. Hygrometer is used to
It is highly variable based on the measure the relative
surface on which the air moves. It humidity of a region.
is measured as weight of humidity/
volume of the air.
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6.5.2 Clouds and its Types

Student Activity
Clouds are tiny water droplets suspended
The cup filled with ice cubes has tiny in the air formed due to the condensation
water droplets on its outer surface (Figure 6.21).
(Figure 6.20). Identify why.
The clouds can be classified based on their
form, height and appearance as follows:
a. High clouds: Mainly cirrus (Ci)
which are feathery form at 6 km above
WARM the ground.
MOIST
AIR i. Cirrus (Ci) – This looks fibrous
COLD
WATER
and appears as wisps cotton in the
blue sky. It indicates fair weather
and gives brilliant sun set.
CONDENSATION
ii. Cirro Cumulus (Cc) – This appears
as white globular masses, forming
a mackerel sky.
iii. Cirro Stratus (Cs) – This resembles
a thin white sheet. The sky looks
Figure 6.20 Process of Condensation
milky and the sun and moon shines
through this clouds and form a ‘halo’.
The moisture in the atmosphere is b. Middle Clouds: Mainly Alto (Alt)
based on the following processes: clouds at 2 km to 6 km above the ground.
a. Evaporation – Water changes iv. Altocumulus (Alt-Cu): These are
from liquid state to gaseous woolly, bumpy clouds arranged in
(vapour) state. layers appearing like waves in the blue
b. Transpiration – Water state changes sky. They indicate fine weather.
from liquid in to (gas) vapour state
v. Altostratus (Alt-St): These are
due to the activity of plants.
denser and have watery look.
c. Evapotranspiration – This
denotes that the total amount c. Low Clouds: Mainly Stratus or sheet
of (liquid) water state changed clouds below 2 km height.
in to (gas) vapour state due to vi. Stratocumulus (St-Cu): This is
evaporation and the activity of rough and bumpy clouds with wavy
plants transpiration. structure.
vii. Stratus (St): This is very low cloud,
uniformly grey and thick, appears
Isonephs – The imaginary line like highland fog. It brings dull
connecting the places having equal weather and light drizzle. It reduces
amount of cloudiness. the visibility and is a hindrance to
air transportation.
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Common types of clouds in the troposphere
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus aabove
bove
b ove 5,486
5,486 metres
me
(mackeral sky)
above 5,486 metres
Al
A ltostratu
Altostratususs
11,828-6,09
,828
828-6
828 66,09
0996 m
1,828-6,096 e
metres
Altocumulus
1,828-6,096 metres
Stratocumulus Cumulus
Below 1,828 metres Stratus Below 1,828 metres
Below 1,828 metres
Figure 6.21 Types of Clouds
viii. Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is dark into smog (smoke 1 fog 5 smog)
dull cloud, clearly layered, as it which is more hazardous to the health
brings rain, snow and sleet and it is of the people.(Figure 6.22).
called as rainy cloud.
6.5.3 Fog, Mist and Smog

• ‘Fog’ is defined as almost microscopic
droplets of water condensed from
super saturated air and suspended
over or near the surface of the earth.
Fogs reduce the visibility to less than
1 km. Fog occurs during calm or light
wind conditions. It is more common
in the areas near to the ocean due to
the supply of more moisture by sea Figure 6.22 Smog at New Delhi
breeze. In the interior of the continents
fog is formed due to reduction of
temperature to extreme low during Student Activity
the winter nights. Collect the information regarding the
• If the fog has higher visibility due to smog in the cities of London (Great
lesser water drops near the surface it is London Smog), Bhopal, Beijing and
termed as ‘mist’. New Delhi.
Identify the precautionary steps to
• In large industrial areas the air is more
be followed in the regions of smog.
polluted. If the fog forms in that area
it mixes with the pollutants and turns
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6.5.4 Hydrological Cycle

The rain drop
Continuous movement of water among the that falls may get
three spheres is known as Hydrological evaporated before it
Cycle. Hydrological cycle involves reaches the ground in
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, an extremely arid region.
advection, interception, evapo-
transpiration, infiltration, percolation
and runoff to the ocean (Figure 6.23). 6.6 Precipitation
Evaporation is the process by Precipitation is the product of condensation
which water in liquid state changes into of atmospheric water vapour that falls under
vapour state using heat energy from gravity and reaches the surface of the earth.
Sun. Evaporation is maximum when the In order to fall as rain drop or snow, the tiny
temperature is high, on the large expanse drop lets in a cloud must grow larger. The
of water and when dry winds blow over droplets accumulate over the nuclei and
water surface. combine to grow large enough to fall and
Condensation is the process by which reach the surface of the earth due to gravity.
water vapour cools to form water droplet If the drop is smaller it falls slowly so that
by loosing temperature. The condensation it evaporates before it reaches the ground.
occurs when dew point is reached in the Ice crystals in cloud also cause precipitation.
atmosphere. Each ice crystal grows by cooling so that they
Precipitation is the process by which become large in size and fall to the ground.
all forms of water particles fall from the They melt on the way due to friction with
atmosphere and reach the ground. the atmosphere and fall as rain.
Condensation
precipitation
Su
rfac
er
un
Transpiration
off
Evaporation
Percolation Lake
Water Streamflow
table
Ocean
Groundwater flow
Figure 6.23 Hydrological cycle

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6.6.1 Forms of Precipitation 1. Convectional Rainfall: As a result

The precipitation has various forms of heating of the surface air, the warm
based on the condition of occurrence moist air expands and is forced to rise to
(Figure 6.24). The various forms are; a great height. As the air rises, it cools,
reaches dew point and condenses to
Rainfall: When water droplets of
form clouds. This process influences
more than 0.5 mm diameter falls from
the upper tropospheric circulation. By
the atmosphere to the ground it is called
further cooling, precipitation takes
as ‘Rainfall’. If the diameter is less than
place as rainfall. This rainfall occurs
0.5mm, it is called as ‘Drizzle’.
throughout the year near the equator in
the afternoon. It is called as 4 ‘O’ clock
COLD AIR rainfall region. In middle latitudes,
WARM AIR convectional rainfall occurs in early
(above freezing)
COLD AIR
summer in the continental interiors
(Figure 6.25).
SNOW SLEET FREEZING RAIN RAIN
Convectional
Figure 6.24 Form of precipitation precipitation
Hail: When precipitation occurs at

sub zero temperature, the water droplets Cooled Air
Condenses
crystallise and fall as ice pellets with the
size of 5 to 50 mm or some times more.
This is called as ‘Hail’.
Sleet : Precipitation occurs as falling of Moist Air Moist Air
raindrop along with ice pellets less than 5

mm diameter or snow, called as ‘Sleet’.
Figure 6.25 Convectional rainfall
Snow: Precipitation occurs at below
freezing point and falls as thin ice flakes 2. Orographic or Relief Rainfall
or powdery ice, called as ‘Snow’.
It occurs when large mass of air is forced
Dew: Condensation of water droplets to rise across land barriers, such as high
on the objects at the surface of the earth mountain ranges, plateaus, escarpments,
such as leaves and grasses are called or over high hills. On the windward
as ‘Dew’. side of the region the warm moist air
raises, temperature of the air falls below
6.6.2 Types of Precipitation (Rainfall):
its dew point, forming clouds which
Precipitation can be classified based on give subsequent rainfall. As the wind
the causes for the rising up of air, moves to the leeward side it has emptied
1. Convectional rainfall itself of moisture and thus descends
2. Orographic or Relief rainfall the slope as warm dry winds. The
3. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall leeward side of the mountain therefore
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is called as the rain shadow region

Fact File
(Figure 6.26).
Acid Rain
The air drops down

Acid rain is a rain that is unusually
over the high ground,
losing temprature and
acidic, it has elevated levels of
increasing the amount
of water it can hold.
hydrogen ions. It is caused by a
Warm air forced
to rise, cools,
This means there is
little or no rain. chemical reaction of compounds
condenses and rain
occurs. like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides that are released into the
Moist, warm air air from anthropogenic activities
from the sea.
and from volcanic eruptions. These
substances can rise very high into
the atmosphere, where they mix
as hygroscopic nuclei and react
Figure 6.26 Orographic Rainfall with water vapour, oxygen, and
other gases to form more acidic
When altitude water which falls to the ground as
increases, the rainfall acid rain. It is harmful for plants,
also increases in animals, human and environment.
orographic pattern. Normally the rainfall is slightly
But the rainfall decreases with acidic because of the presence of
altitude, once the amount of moisture dissolved carbonic acid. The pH of
reduces in the air after a point where normal rain has been given a value
it reaches maximum rainfall which of 5.6. Acid rain has the pH value of
is called as ‘Maximum Rainfall Line’. less than 5.6. A great way to reduce
This condition where the rainfall acid rain is by using renewable energy
decreases with altitude is called resources, such as solar and wind
‘Inversion of Rainfall’. power and reducing the use of fossil
fuels.
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
SO2 H2SO4
This type of precipitation is associated with NOX HNO3
Acid snow
a cyclonic activity (Tropical and Temperate) Acid rain
and also occurs along the frontal zone.

Cyclonic rainfall is associated with Cumulo
Nimbus (CuNi) clouds. The rainfall is very
heavy and accompanied with lightning and Lake
acidification
thunder and high speed winds which has the
potential to cause damage. No
Accid
A
Acidd Rain
‘Frontal rainfall’ is associated with fronts
Figure 6.27 Acid rain
which form due to collision of different
air masses. Warm front is formed due to
advent of warm air masses which leads to
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moderate rainfall. In the same way cold They are:

front is formed due to advent of cold air A. Tropical cyclone B. Temperate
mass which leads to heavy rainfall with cyclone.
lightning and thunder.
A. Tropical Cyclone
6.6.3 Cloud Burst Cyclone formed in the low latitudes is
A ‘cloud burst’ is a sudden aggressive called as Tropical cyclone. They form
rainstorm falling in a short period of over warm ocean waters in the tropical
time limited to a small geographical area. regions. The warm air rises, and causes
Meteorologists say that the rain from a cloud an area of low air pressure.
burst is usually of the heavier rain with a fall
rate equal to or greater than 100 mm (3.94 6.7.1 Stages of Development of Tropical
inches) per hour. Generally cloudbursts Cyclone
are associated with thunderstorms. The air
As per the criteria adopted by the World
currents rushing up words in a rain storm
Meteorological Organisation (W.M.O.),
hold up a large amount of water. For example
India Meteorological Department
cloud bursts in the region of Uttarkhand
classifies the low pressure systems in to
(2013) and Chennai (2015).
vary classes based on wind speed.
6.7 Atmospheric Disturbances 1. Tropical Disturbances
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone) 2. Tropical depressions Low winds with a
The atmospheric disturbances which speed between 31 and 61 km ph.
involve a closed circulation of air around 3. Tropical cyclone wind speed from
a low pressure at centre and high pressure 62 to 88 km ph and it is assigned a
at periphery, rotating anticlockwise in name.
northern hemisphere and clockwise in
4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) wind
southern hemisphere is called ‘Cyclones’
speed is between 89 to 118 km ph
(Figure 6.28). Cyclones may be classified
into two types based on latitude of its origin. 5. Very SCS wind speed between 119 to
221 km ph and
6. Super Cyclonic Storm when wind
exceeds 221 km ph.
6.7.2 Origin of Tropical Cyclone

Tropical cyclones have certain mechanism
for their formation. These are
A source of warm, moist air derived
from tropical oceans with sea surface
temperature normally near to or in excess
of 27 °C (Figure 6.29).
Figure 6.28 Cyclone

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Wind near the ocean surface is blowing a tropical depression. If it continues to

from different directions converging and develop it becomes a tropical storm, and
causing air to rise and storm clouds to form. later a cyclone/ super cyclone.
Winds which do not vary greatly with
Characteristics of the Tropical Cyclone
height are known as low wind shear. This
allows the storm clouds to rise vertically The centre of the cyclone where the wind
to high level; system converges and vertically rises is
called as Eye. The eye is a Calm region
with no rainfall and experiences highest
temperature and lowest pressure within
the cyclonic system (Figure 6.30).
Cyclone wall is made up of Cumulo
Nimbus clouds with no visibility, higher
wind velocity and heavy rain fall with
Figure 6.29 Structure of
lightning and thunder.
Tropical Cyclone
Tropical cyclones mostly move along
Coriolis force is induced by the rotation with the direction of trade wind system.
of the Earth. The mechanisms of formation So they travel from east to west and
vary across the world, but once a cluster make land fall on the eastern coast of the
of storm clouds starts to rotate, it becomes continents (Figure 6.31).
Figure 6.30 Track of Tropical cyclone

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W E
Not to scale
Figure 6.31 Distribution of Tropical Cyclone
Landfall: The condition at which the In the pursuit of a more organized and
eye of the tropical cyclone crosses the efficient naming system, meteorologists
land is called ‘Land fall’ of the cyclone later decided to identify storms using
(Figure 6.32). names from a list arranged alphabetically.
Since 1953, Atlantic tropical storms
have been named from lists originated
Lightning and
Thunder are caused
by differences in the
electrical charge of
different parts of the cloud. The top of
the cloud becomes positively charged
Figure 6.32 Landfall of tropical cyclone and the bottom is mostly negatively
charged. When the difference is great
Naming of Tropical Cyclones lightning occurs. Differences in the
The practice of naming storms (tropical charge between cloud and the earth
cyclones) began years ago, in order to surface also cause lightning.
help in the quick identification of storms Thunder is caused by rapid
in warning messages because names are expansion of the air that is heated as
presumed to be far easier to remember the lightning passes through it.
than numbers and technical terms
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member countries to submit a list of their

Fact File
own eight names for the cyclones.
Cloud Seeding or Artificial
Rainfall 6.7.3 Tornado and Water Spouts
People have always wanted to create It is a very small intense, funnel shaped
rain, so that they would not suffer from very speed whirl wind system. Its speed and
drought. Modern science has been direction of the movement are erratic (Figure
successful in causing rain in a limited 6.33). The winds are always as fast as 500
way through cloud seeding. This km ph. The fast moving air converges in the
method is based on the knowledge of middle and rises up. The uplift is capable of
growing ice crystals in clouds. rising dust, trees and other weaker objects in
One method to cause rainfall from its path. South and western part of Gulf States
clouds is to introduce particles of dry of USA experiences frequent tornados.
ice (solid CO2) into the cloud from Water spouts are formed over water body
an air plane. The dry ice causes ice similar to tornados in the formation and
crystals to form in the cloud. These structure. This sometimes leads to fish rain, if
ice crystals coalesce, grow, melt and the mass of fish comes under the water spout.
fall as rain. Cloud seeding will not be
successful unless the cloud is already
Web link for Water spout at Chennai,
saturated with water vapour.
Tamil Nadu https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=v0RubwHxlgM
by the National Hurricane Centre. They
are now maintained and updated by an
international committee of the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).
Large scale destruction caused by
Odisha cyclone in 1999, triggered the issue
of naming tropical cyclones developed in
the North Indian ocean. As a result, naming
conventions for storms that develop in
the Indian Ocean began in 2004. WMO Figure 6.33 Tornado
(World Meteorological Organisation)had
B. Temperate Cyclone
informed each of the eight South Asian
The cyclone formed in the mid latitudes
is called as temperate cyclone. As they
An isohyets or are formed due to movement of air
isohyetal line is a masses and front, they are called as
line joining points of ‘Dynamic cyclone’ and ‘Wave cyclone’.
equal rainfall on a This cyclone is characterised by the four
map in a given period. A map with different sectors, which are varied with
isohyets is called an isohyetal map. their weather patterns (Figure 6.34).
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Student Activity
Students have to collect the recent names of the hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones
and date and location of landfall in last 5 years.
Names Location of Landfall Date of Land fall

Hurricanes
Typhoons
Cyclones
Direction of storm Movement
Cumulonimbus
Clouds
Cold
Stratus Clouds
Air Cool
Air
Warm Air
A Heavy
Showers
Moderate to Light
Showers
B
Cold Warm
Front Front
1000
Cool
Air Warm Front
Cold 996
992 Cold Front
Air
Precipitation
B
1004
Warm Air
Figure 6.34 Sector structure of Temperate cyclone

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Cold air Cold air Cold air
Cool air
t
ron Wa
ld f rm
Co fron nt W
t f ro arm
l d
Co fro
nt
Warm air
Warm air Warm air
a) b) c)
Cool air Cool air

Cold air Cold air
W Cool air
ar
m
fro
nt W Front
nt nt ar
fro fro m
ld ld fro
Co Co nt Warm air
Warm air Warm air
Figure 6.35 Development of Temperate cyclone
6.7.4 S
tages in the Formation of Temperate
Cyclone Condition of Super Cyclone
Formation
a. Frontogenesis –Formation of front due
to collision of two contrasting air masses 1. Longer travel or stay of low pressure
(Figure 6.35). system over warm ocean water.
b. Cyclone genesis – Formation of cyclone 2. The speed of jet stream may influence
due to conversion of fronts into various the formation of super cyclone.
sectors.
c. Advancing Stage – The stage where cold Track
front advances towards warm front. Temperate cyclone moves along with the
d. Occlusion stage - The stage where the cold westerly wind system from west to east.
front over takes warm front Anti Cyclones
e. Frontalysis – The last stage where fronts Anti cyclone is a whirlwind system in which
disappear and cyclone ends its life. high pressure area at the centre and surrounded
by low pressure at periphery rotating clockwise
Characters in northern hemisphere and anti clock wise in
Unlike tropical cyclone, temperate cyclone southern hemisphere(Figure 6.36).
forms over both land and water in all seasons. This is the largest among the whirl wind
It covers larger area than tropical cyclone and systems. Normally, they are associated with
stays for a longer period. high pressure belts of sub tropical and polar
region.
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Figure 6.36 Anticyclone
Anti cyclones are classified as warm core and cold core, based on their temperature, which are
resulted in aridity and cold waves respectively.
Buoyant: Able to keep afloat on the top of air or liquid.
Collision: Hit by accident when moving.
Equilibrium: A balanced state of molecules where the acting forces are equal.
Escarpment: A long, steep slope especially one of the edge of a plateau or surface.
Expansion: The action of becoming larger or more extensive.
Funnelling: Guided through the area that has widening at front and narrow at the end.
Hygroscopic: Tending to observe moisture from air.
Insolation: Amount of solar radiation reaching a given area.
Meteorology: is a branch of the atmospheric sciences with a major focus on weather forecasting.
Molecules: A group of atoms bonded together.
Permeable: Allowing liquids or gases to pass through it.
Subsistence: The gradual movement of air molecules from higher altitude to lower altitude.
Torrid: Region of Very hot and dry condition.
Vortex: A whirling or rotating mass of fluid or air.
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Evaluation 8. Albedo means

I Choose the best a. Amount solar radiation reflected
answer by the surface
1. Which of the b. Amount moisture absorbed by the
following surface
atmospheric layer c. Amount moisture present in air
known as the weather layer?
d. Amount of molecules present
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere in air
c. Thermosphere d. Mesosphere 9. Which instrument is used to measure
2. Which is the most suitable layer for the relative humidity in air?
flying Jet air craft? a. Hygrometer b. Barometer
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere c. Thermometer d. Altimeter
c. Mesosphere d. Exosphere 10. Convectional rainfall mostly occurs
3. Which of the following atmospheric in ?
structure absorbs the ultra violet rays a. Temperate region
of the sun and protect the earth from
b. Equatorial region
intense heating?
a. Troposphere b. Ozonosphere c. Tundra region
c. Thermosphere d. Exosphere d. Desert region
4. An imaginary line connecting the
places having equal atmospheric II Very short Answer.
temperature is called 11. Define lapse rate.
a. Isotherm b. Isohytes 12. What is mountain wind?
c. Isobar d. Contour 13. Draw and label the pressure belts on
5. Speed of the wind is measured by the globe.
a. Barometer b. Hygrometer 14. Differentiate rainfall and snow.
c. Thermometer d. Anemometer 15. What are the stages of formation of
6. What happens to atmospheric pressure temperate cyclone?
with increase in altitude?
a. It remains constant III Short Answer.
b. It increases 16. Why is ozone layer depleting?
c. It decreases 17. Draw the diagram for heat budget and
d. It constantly fluctuates mark the radiation emit.
7. Which one of the following winds is 18. How is an urban heat island formed?
the example of secondary winds? 19. Differentiate between sea breeze and
a. Trade winds b. Westerlies land breeze.
c. Polar easterlies d. Monsoon 20. List the forms of precipitation.
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IV Detailed Answer. 4. Johnson E. Fairchild, Principles of

21. Elucidate the types of clouds. Geography (1964), Holt, Rinehart and
Einston Inc, New York, USA.
22. Discuss the mechanism of Asian
5. Lal. D.S., Climatology(2014), Sharda
monsoon.
Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad, India.
23. How is the cyclone different from 6. R. Knowles and J. Wareing,
anticyclone? Economic and Social Geography
Made Simple Paperback(1990), Rupa
Publications India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi,
References India.
1. Alan Strahler, Introducing Physical 7. Savindra Singh, Physical Geography
Geography (2016), John Wiley & Sons, (2016), Pravalika Publications,
New Jersey, USA. Allahabad, India.
8. Woodcock. R.G., Weather and Climate
2. Critchfield, General Climatology
(1976), Macdonald and Evens Ltd,
(2008), Pearson Publications, London,
Estover, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
United Kingdom.
3. Goh Cheng Leong, Certificate
Physical and Human Geography Web References
(2002), Oxford University Press, New 1. http://www.imd.gov.in/
Delhi, India. 2. https://glovis.usgs.gov/
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ICT CORNER
Atmosphere Vital Blanket

explore atmosphere system.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere’ page. Click launch to
start the interactive atmosphere page.
• Click begin and select ‘Objects’ check box to observe the vertical content of the
atmosphere.
• Select ‘Temperature’ and ‘Pressure’ check boxes to study physical properties of the
atmosphere.
• Use https://www.windy.com to observe live wind flow of any place on the earth.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Interactive Atmosphere’s URL:

https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.vertical/vertical
structure-of-the-atmosphere/#.Wq-xD8OuzIU
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Unit 7
The Biosphere
“Man’s attitude towards nature is today critically important simply because
we have now acquired a fateful power to alter and destroy nature. But man
is a part of nature and his war against nature is inevitably a war against
himself.” – Rachel Carson
Chapter Outline
7.1 Introduction • Throw light on the importance,
vastness and variety that exists in
7.2 Biosphere
the life sphere.
7.3 Ecosystem
• Describe the distribution of life
7.4 Biomes
forms and their adaptations over
7.5 Biodiversity geographical space.
7.6 Endangered Species • Sensitise the student on their role in
7.7 Conservation of biodiversity conserving the biosphere.
7.1 Introduction present biosphere that we are part of and

which we are gifted with.
The earth was formed 4.6 billion years
ago. Geographers are concerned about In the last 100 years, man has had
the earth and its various spheres. These used, overused and misused the natural
spheres did not exist on the primitive earth resources of the earth. This has disturbed
as they are today. They evolved over a long the ecological balance of the earth. The
period of time after the earth was formed. realization about the damage caused
There was no life on earth for a very long to earth by our action came when we
time. Scientists believe that the first life began to experience global warming,
forms on earth came into existence about desertification, increase in diseases and
3.5 billion years ago. Which marked, ‘The distress and recurrence of severe natural
birth of the biosphere’. disasters.
Since then life has multiplied in It was in 1962 that Rachel Carson
numbers and varieties and evolved to the published the book ‘Silent Spring’ which
inspired an environmental movement that
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led International agencies to focus their presence of water. The above factors, along
attention on protecting and sustaining the with the existence and interaction of the
biosphere. three spheres of the earth (the lithosphere,
In 1971, UNESCO launched the Man hydrosphere and atmosphere) gives rise to
and the Biosphere Programme to study the fourth sphere which is the life sphere
our impact on nature and how it could be or biosphere (Figure 7.1). The term
minimized. Even after several decades the Biosphere was coined by Eduard Suess
programme still continues to shape the in 1875. Later contributions to the study
future of sustainability of the earth. of biosphere were from, Charles Darwin
and many other scientists.
7.2 Biosphere
Thus, in the biosphere, life exists on
The word Biosphere originates from land, water and air and life forms range
the Greek words bios = life and from microorganisms to plants, animals,
sphaira = sphere. Earth is the only planet birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals
in the solar system that supports life. including human beings.
There are many reasons that contribute
The biosphere is formed of biotic
to this and the most important being the
components. It consists of organisms,
earth’s distance from the sun, the presence
population, community and ecosystem.
of oxygen in the atmosphere and the
BIOSPHERE: HYDROSPHERE:
living matter on earth the water on the surface
including all plant of the earth in oceans,
and animal life rivers, lakes, rain and mist
forms
ATMOSPHERE: LITHOSPHERE:
the thin, fragile the earth’s crust
layer of gases that including landforms,
surrounds the earth rocks and soils
Figure 7.1 Biosphere
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air, soil, water, climate, minerals, etc. Sun is

Organism – includes animals, plants the main source of energy for the earth.
and micro organisms.
B. Biotic Component: This includes
Population – is a group of similar a variety of living organisms such as
plants or animals living in an area. microorganisms, plants and animals. The
Community – refers to all the plants biotic component of an ecosystem can be
and animals living in an area. further divided into producers, consumers
Ecosystem – all living and non living and decomposers based on their capacity
things and their interaction within an to sustain themselves (Figure 7.2).
area.
Ecosystem
https://youtube/aYmdrJWLQ4Y
7.3 Ecosystem a. Producers: Organisms that can

Life cannot exist in isolation. It flourishes produce or manufacture their
in an environment which supplies own food are known as producers.
and fulfills its material and energy Plants that have green pigments
requirements. A biotic community and or chlorophyll, produce their own
its physical environment in which matter food in the presence of CO₂ in the
and energy flow and cycle is called as atmosphere, water from the soil and
ecosystem. sunlight through a process called
The term ecosystem was first proposed ‘photosynthesis’. These green plants
by Arthur George Tansley in 1935. Tansley are called as ‘autotrophs’ (auto –
defined ecosystem as, ‘the system resulting self; trophs – nourishing) as they
from the integration of all living and manufacture their own food.
non-living factors of the environment’. b. Consumers: Consumers are
The ecosystems can vary in size. It can organisms that cannot manufacture
be very small, extending to about a few their own food and get their food and
square centimeters or it can extend over nutrients from producers directly or
many square kilometers. Example; tropical from other organisms. They are called
forests. as ‘heterotrophs’ (hetero – others;
trophs – nourshing).
7.3.1 Major components of an ecosystem
Consumers can be divided into primary,
The ecosystem is made up of two main
secondary and tertiary consumers.
components:
A. Abiotic Component and 1. Primary Consumers
Organisms that feed on producers
B. Biotic Component
(green plants) are called primary
A. Abiotic Component: This component consumers. They are also called as
of the ecosystem includes the non-living ‘herbivores’ or plant eating organisms.
substance of the environment. Example; light, Examples of terrestrial herbivore are
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Biotic Component
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Organisms that get Organisms that get

Organisms that make
their food by eating their food by breaking
their own food by
producers or other down dead plants &
photosynthesis
consumers animals
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Omnivores
Consumers Consumers Consumers
Feed Directly on Plants Feed on Primary Feed on Secondary Eat both plants and
i.e. Herbivores Consumers Consumers animals
Figure 7.2 Biotic Components
grasshopper,sheep, goat, cow, rabbit, or secondary consumers. Example: an

deer, elephant etc. Examples of owl eats a snake but an owl is eaten by
aquatic herbivores are zoo plankton, a hawk, therefore a hawk is a tertiary
krill, squid, small fish, sea urchin, etc. consumer. Tertiary consumers that
occupy the top trophic level, and are
2. Secondary Consumers
not predated by any other animals are
Animals that kill and eat the
called ‘apex predators’. However, when
herbivores or plant eating animals
they die their bodies will be consumed
are called secondary consumers.
by scavengers besides the decomposers
They are also called as ‘carnivores’,
Example; alligator andhawk.
Example; lion, tiger, fox, frog, snak,
spider, crocodile, etc. Some organisms eat both plants and
3. Tertiary Consumers animals. These animals are called
They are top predators as‘omnivores. Example; cockroach, fox,
in a food chain. They seagull and human.
are carnivores at the Some omnivores are ‘scavengers’,
topmost level in a which eat food that other animals have
food chain that feed left behind Example; hyena and vultures.
on other carnivores
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Plants and animals that live on or soil. They, in turn, create another
inside other plants or animals are called as food source for producers within the
Parasites. Example; mistletoe lives on other ecosystem. Mushrooms, yeast, mould,
plants. Other examples are tapeworms, fungi and bacteria are common
round worms, lice, ticks, flea etc. decomposers.
‘Detritivores’ are consumers that feed 7.3.2 Food Chain and Food Web
on detritus. Detritus includes fallen leaves, Every living creature in an ecosystem has
parts of dead trees and faecal wastes of a role to play. Without producers, the
animals. Ants, termites, earthworms, consumers and decomposers would not
millipedes, dung beetle, fiddler crabs and survive because they would have no food
sea cucumbers are detritivores. to eat.
Without consumers, the populations of
The earthworm is
producers and decomposers would grow
called as the friend of
out of control. And without decomposers,
the farmer. Find out
dead producers and consumers would
the reason why?
accumulate as wastes and pollute the
environment.
4. Decomposers: Decomposers are All organisms of an ecosystem depend
organisms that help decompose dead on one another for their survival. Each
or decaying organisms. Decomposers organism living in an ecosystem plays
are also heterotrophs. Decomposers an important role in the flow of energy
are nature’s built-in recycling system. within the system. Organisms need energy
By breaking down materials – for respiration, growth, locomotion, and
decomposers return nutrients to the reproduction. This movement of energy is
Student Activity
Give at least two examples for each level.
Trophic level Example
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usually understood through food chains B. Food Web

or food webs. While a food chain shows A Food Web is a complex network of
one path along which energy can move interconnected food chains. Food chains
through an ecosystem, food webs show all show a direct transfer of energy between
the overlapping ways that organisms live organisms.
with and depend upon one another. A chain might involve a mouse eating
some seeds on the forest floor, a snake
A. Food Chain
eating the mouse and later an eagle eating
A food chain describes the flow of food
the snake.
in an ecosystem. This flow or feeding
structure in an ecosystem is called ‘trophic With each step, some of the energy
structure’. Each level in this structure is from the sun, which is trapped within the
called a trophic level. A food chain starts seeds, is getting passed on.
the movement of energy from one trophic In a food web, the mouse might eat
level to the next (Figure 7.3). Example; Plant seed, or some grain, or maybe even some
(primary producer) is eaten by a rabbit grass. The mouse might be eaten by a
(herbivores, primary consumer), rabbit is snake, or the eagle, or even a fox. The
eaten by a snake (carnivores, consumer or snake could be eaten by the eagle, but also
primary carnivore)and the snake is eaten might be eaten by a fox in the forest.
by a hawk (tertiary consumer).
Figure 7.3 Food Chain
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Since each organism can eat multiple consumers to feed on. The plant and
organisms and be eaten by multiple animal species in such an environment
organisms, a food web is a much more could become endangered or even
realistic scheme of the transfer of energy extinct. For this reason, it is vital that an
within an ecosystem (Figure 7.4). ecosystem remains balanced containing
Food chains and food webs are found an appropriate proportion of producers
in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. and consumers.
Organisms in a food chain or food web
are linked and dependent on one another 7.3.3 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
for survival. If organisms in one trophic Energy in an ecosystem flows from
level become threatened, it impacts the producers to consumers. The available
organisms in other trophic levels. Primary energy in a food chain decreases with
consumers get less food due to loss or each step or trophic levels up in the
destruction of habitat. food chain. As such, there is less energy
This in turn means less primary available to support organisms at the top
consumers for secondary and tertiary of the food chain. That is why the tertiary
Eagle
Python
Wolf
Thrush
Rat Dragon Fly
Frog
Butter Fly
Fruit Fly
Grasshopper
Mangoes
A Flowering plant Lavenders
Corn
Figure 7.4 Food web
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Figure 7.5 Energy Pyramid

and quaternary consumers are far less in 7.3.5 Cycles in an Ecosystem
number in an ecosystem than organisms Nutrients move through the ecosystem
at lower trophic levels. in cycles is called ‘biogeochemical cycles’.
A biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or
7.3.4 Energy Pyramids
pathway by which a chemical element
Energy pyramids are another tool that moves through the biotic and the abiotic
ecologists use to understand the role of components of an ecosystem. All life
organisms within an ecosystem. As you processes are associated with the atmosphere
can see, most of the energy in an ecosystem by important cycles such as the Carbon,
is available at the producer level. As you Oxygen, Nitrogen cycles etc. Through these
move up on the pyramid, the amount of cycles energy and materials are transferred,
available energy decreases significantly. stored and released into various ecosystems.
It is estimated that only about 10% of the Let us discuss one of biogeochemical cycles
energy available at one trophic level gets in detail - the Carbon cycle.
transferred to the next level of the energy The Carbon Cycle
pyramid. The remaining 90 percent of Carbon is exchanged, or cycled among
energy is either utilized by the organisms all the spheres of the earth. All living
within that level for respiration and organisms are built of carbon compounds.
other metabolic activities or lost to the It is the fundamental building block
environment as heat. of life and an important component of
The energy pyramid shows how many chemical processes. Living things
ecosystems naturally limit the number need carbon to live, grow and reproduce.
of each type of organism it can sustain Carbon is a finite resource that cycles
(Figure 7.5). through the earth in many forms.
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Carbon is an essential element in all All producers and consumers are not
organic compounds and since there is decomposed. The organic matter of some
only a limited amount available it must be of them is preserved in fossil fuels such as
recycled continuously. This takes place in coal and petroleum for millions of years.
the biosphere. Atmospheric carbon is fixed In a carbon cycle (Figure 7.6), carbon
in green plants through photosynthesis. moves between reservoirs. Carbon
This carbon is passed on to other living reservoirs include the atmosphere, the
organisms through the food chain. The oceans, vegetation, rocks, and soil.
carbon food compound is utilized and Today, the carbon cycle is changing.
later released to the atmosphere through Human activities have added more
the process of respiration. carbon into the atmosphere. More
By-products of respiration are carbon- carbon is moving to the atmosphere when
dioxide and water which are returned to fossil fuels, like coal and oil, are burned.
the air. More carbon is moving to the atmosphere
A carbon cycle is completed by as humans destroy the forest. This increase
decomposers like bacteria and fungi in carbon in the atmosphere causes the
which break down dead plants and animal earth to warm up more than the normal
tissues there by releasing some carbon to level, leading to climate change and many
the air, water and soil. problems connected with it.
Animal
respiration
Figure 7.6 Carbon Cycle

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I.G. Simmons (1982) the most extensive

carbon sink
A ecosystem unit which is convenient to
is a natural or designate is called a ‘Biome’. It may be
artificial reservoir concluded that a biome is in fact a large
that accumulates and ecosystem where we study the total
stores carbon for an indefinite period. assemblage of plant and animal communities.
The process by which carbon sinks Since vegetation is the most dominant
remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from component of a biome and as vegetation and
the atmosphere is known as carbon climate are very intimately related, the world
sequestration. The main natural is divided into a number of biomes based on
carbon sinks are plants, the ocean major world climatic types (Figure 7.7).
and soil.
7.4.1. Types of Biomes
7.4 Biomes World Biomes are mega ecosystems
An ecosystem consists of a biological existing and operating over large areas.
community and an abiotic environment. These divisions are based on climate
Ecosystem may be broadly divided into pattern, soil types, and the animals and
land or terrestrial ecosystem and water or plants that inhabit an area. Basically,
aquatic ecosystem. The aquatic ecosystem biomes are classified into two major
can be further divided into freshwater and groups such as Aquatic biomes and
marine ecosystem. Terrestrial biomes.
An ecosystem becomes a biome when Wetlands are transition zones between
it extends over a large area. According to aquatic and terrestrial biomes
W E
Tundra
Boreal Forest
Temperate Forest
Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands
Desert and dry shrublands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands Not to scale
Tropical and subtropical forests
Figure 7.7 Biomes of the World

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To understand the earth biomes, it is river Ganges, Brahmaputra and the

necessary to understand the following: Indus which carry huge volumes of
1. The characteristics of regional water.
climate. b. Marine Biome
2. Aspects of the physical environment. Marine biome is an aquatic biome
which is salt water biome occupying
3. The type of soil and the processes seas and oceans of the world. Marine
contributing to soil development. biome plants have various roles,
4. The distribution of flora in the area. plants such as sea grasses and macro
algae give shelter and nutrient for
5. The distribution of fauna in the
many animals.
area and their adaptation to the
environment. Marine plants are sources of nutrients
for the corals and help corals to build up
A. Aquatic Biomes reefs. The reefs are kept intact by plants
The aquatic biomes are the most like coralline algae.
important of all the biomes as, the water
forms the vital resource and is essential
for any life form. Since many types of
species live in the water, it is one of the
most important natural resources that
need to be protected.
Aquatic Biome is further divided into:
a. Fresh Water Biome and
b. Marine Biome
Coral Reefs
a. Fresh Water Biome
These biomes are spread over all Corals are marine invertebrates which live
parts of the earth and have different in compact colonies. They inhabit tropical
set of species depending on their oceans and seas. Corals grow optimally
location and climate. Fresh water in temperatures between 23°C and 29° C
biomes include areas of ponds, lakes, but corals cannot survive in waters below
streams, rivers and wetlands. Lakes 20°C.Coral reefs are marine ecosystems
and ponds are stagnant water bodies which are held together by structures
and are smaller in their area. The made of calcium carbonate secreted by the
diversity of life forms in river changes corals. Coral reefs are mainly classified
with increasing water volume. For into three types – Fringing reef, Barrier
example, Dolphins are found in the reef and Atoll .
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Fact File Marine biome includes fishes, whales,

crustaceans, molluscs, sea anemones,
Sea grasses are plants that live in
fungi and bacteria. Marine species are
saltwater. There are over 50 species
continuously impacted by change in climatic
of sea grasses. Sea grasses have
condition and the oceans are frequently
flowers, roots, and specialized cells
disturbed by ocean waves and currents.
to transport nutrients within a plant.
This makes them similar to land plants c. Wetlands:
and different from algae or seaweeds. A wetland is an area of land which is
permanently or periodically saturated
with water and exists as a distinct
Fringing reefs grow seaward from the ecosystem. Wetlands play many roles in the
shore along the coast forming a fringe. environment, such as water purification,
They are the common type of reefs. flood control, carbon sink and shoreline
stability. Wetlands are home to a wide range
of aquatic plants and animal life. Wetlands
can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.
Examples of aquatic vegetation that thrive
in wetlands are milkweed, bald cypress
trees, mangroves and cattails.
Fringing Reef
Barrier reefs also border the shoreline

but are separated from the coast by an
expanse of water or lagoon.
Mangrove
Barrier Reef Fact File
Atolls are coral reefs that are circular in Crustaceans are chiefly aquatic
shape enclosing a lagoon with absence of arthropods having a body covered
an island in the center. with a hard shell or crust and several
pairs of legs. Example: crab, lobsters,
crayfish, barnacles shrimps, krill etc.
Molluscs are organisms with
soft bodies. Often their bodies are
covered by hard shells. Example:
Atoll Reef snail, slug, squid, cuttlefish, mussel,
clams, oysters, octopuses etc.
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Fact File
A Bog is a type of wetland ecosystem
characterized by wet, spongy, poor-
ly drained peaty soil formed from
dead plants specially moss. Bogs have
moss, sedges, grasses, such as cotton
grass; insectivorous plants like pitcher
plants; and many orchids. The gradu-
al accumulation of decayed plant ma-
Swamp terial in a bog functions as a carbon
sink.
A Fen is a low land that is covered
wholly or partly with water. They re-
ceive nutrients from ground water and
have peaty alkaline soil. Their charac-
teristic flora are sedges and reeds.
Mangrove swamps are coastal
wetlands found in tropical and
subtropical regions. These wetlands
are often found in estuaries, where
Marshland
fresh water meets salt water. Mangrove
trees dominate this wetland ecosystem
due to their ability to survive in both
salt and fresh water. The Sundarbans
is the largest Mangrove region in the
world and a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
Mangrove forests of Tamil Nadu:
Mangrove forests are found along the
Fen coast of Tamil Nadu in Pichavaram,
Muthupet, Ramnad, Gulf of Mannar
and Punnakayal.
B. Terrestrial Biome
Terrestrial biomes are very large
ecosystems over land and they vary i. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest
according to latitude and climate. They Biome
can be divided into numerous sub-types.
Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest Biome
They are broadly divided into eight types.
extends between 10° North and South
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of the equator (Figure 7.8). This biome by thick undergrowth and creepers. The
is seen in the Amazon Basin of South main trees in this biome are mahogany,
America, Congo Basin of Africa and the rose wood, ebony, cinchona, rubber,
Indo Malaysian Region of Southeast Asia coconut palm, cane, bamboo etc.
(Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Malaysia and This forest biome has innumerable
Guinea) insects, birds, reptiles and furless animals.
This biome receives direct sunlight At the edge of the forest animals like
throughout the year and so temperatures gorilla, and monkey are found.
are high year round. The average annual Important tribes inhabit this biome,
temperature is 20°C to 30°C. The average for example the Pygmies in the jungles
annual rainfall of the tropical evergreen of Africa and the Yanomani and Tikuna
rain forest is 200cm. tribes of the Amazon region. Traditionally
The Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest they live by hunting and gathering food.
Biome has the largest number of plant In the recent years in South East Asia, the
and animal species. Broad leaved, tall tropical evergreen rainforest has been
evergreen hard wood trees are found slowly replaced by rubber and sugarcane
in this biome. Trees grow up to 20 to 35 plantations. The human settlements in
meters high. The forest is characterized this biome are small and scattered.
N
Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean
W E
GREENLAND
S
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA EUROPE
North Pacific North Atlantic
Ocean Ocean
North Pacific
AFRICA
Ocean
Indian
SOUTH
AMERICA Ocean
AUSTRALIA
South Atlantic
South Pacific
Ocean
Ocean
Distribution of tropical rain forests. Not to scale
Figure 7.8 Tropical Evergreen Forest Biome
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The forests of the

Silent Valley National
Park in Kerala on the
Western Ghats are
the last remaining tropical evergreen
forests in India. It is part of the Nilgiris
Biosphere Reserve Tropical Rain Forest
W E
Not to scale
Student Activity
On the outline map of the world draw the equator and colour and label the
following.
1. Show the areas of tropical rain forest, tropical grass land, and Tropical desert in
Africa and South America in both the hemispheres.
2. Colour and label the Taiga forest and it is the longest belt of distribution. Reason
out why so.
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3. Find out why Tropical deserts are on the western margins of the continents.
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Give two reasons for their pole ward distribution.

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mahua (illupai), Mango, Wattle,

Bamboo, semal (Illavamaram), sheesham
(Karuvellamaram) and banyan.
The animals of this biome are
elephant, lion, tiger, leopards, bison,
tapier, hippopotamus, wild boar, flying
squirrel along with a wide variety of bird
species. This biome faces rapid rate of
deforestation and is, therefore, one of the
most disturbed ecosystem in the world.
Tropical Monsoon forest Large tracts of forests have been destroyed
ii. Tropical deciduous Forest (Monsoon for agriculture and urban development.
Forest) Biome Several species of precious animals have
Tropical deciduous forest is found in the now become endangered Example: lions,
regions experiencing monsoon climate. tigers, leopards, etc.
This biome is also called as the dry forest iii. Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome
or monsoon forest biome.
The temperate deciduous forest is a biome
This is found in South and South that is always changing. This biome lies
East Asia in parts of India, Myanmar, in the mid- latitude areas of the earth,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia and between the tropics and Arctic Circle i.e.,
southern coastal China. It is also found between 30° and 50° north and south of the
in eastern Brazil and in smaller areas equator. The temperate deciduous forest
in South and Central America, the biome can be seen in the eastern United
West Indies, southeastern Africa, and States, most parts of Europe, China, Japan,
northern Australia. North and South Korea (Figure 7.9). The
In this biome, the temperature varies average annual temperature is 10°C.
from one season to another season. In These biomes have four seasons
summer the maximum temperature ranges such as winter, spring, summer and fall.
from 38°C to 48°C. Summer season is Winters are cold and summers are warm.
warm and humid. In the dry winter season As winter approaches, the duration of day
temperature ranges between 10°C to 27°C. light decreases. In this biome, deciduous
The total amount of precipitation is 75 to trees shed their leaves in the fall. The
150 cm/year and this affects the natural production of chlorophyll in the leaves
vegetation of the tropical deciduous forest slows and eventually stops revealing leaves
biome. having bright red, yellow and orange
The plants shed their leaves during colors. These forests are also known as
the dry season. Trees here have huge broad leaved forest, because the trees have
trunks with thick rough barks. The wide flat leaves. Some important trees
plants grow at three different levels. The found here are oak, maple, beech, hickory,
common trees are teak, sal, sandalwood, cedar and chestnut. On the forest floors
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N
Greenland
W E
S
Asia
North
Europe
America
Africa
South
America
Australia
Not to scale
Figure 7.9 Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome

that receive very little sunlight are found fertile. This is one of the most important
mosses, azaleas and mountain laurels. agricultural regions of the world.
Inhabiting the temperate deciduous Grasslands
forest are ants, insects, flies, bees, wasps,
Grasslands are found bordering the
cicadas, walking sticks, moths, butterfly,
deserts and make up for one fourth of
dragon flies, mosquitoes and praying
the natural vegetation of the earth. Those
mantises.
that lie in the low latitudes are called
Frogs, toads, snakes and salamanders tropical grasslands and the ones which lie
are some of the reptiles in this biome. in the mid latitudes are called temperate
Common birds found in this biome grasslands.
are woodpecker, robin, jays, cardinals,
owls, turkeys, hawks and eagles. Small
mammals like rabbits, otters, monkeys,
beavers, squirrels and porcupine are also
seen in this biome along with bears, grey
fox, wolves, white tailed deer and moose.
Animals that live in this biome adapt
to the changing seasons. Some animals
migrate or hibernate in winter.
Most of this forests on the earth are
cleared for agriculture. The soil here is very Kangaroo in Australian savanna
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iv. Tropical Grassland Biome or

Savanna Biome
The tropical grass land biome is generally
referred to as the Savanna biome. A
savanna is a rolling topography that
features vast open grasslands scattered
with small shrubs and isolated trees. It is
found between the tropical rainforest and
desert biome. Tropical grassland biomes
are mainly found in Africa, South America,
India and Australia. Tropical grasslands in
Baobab tree
Africa is known as the savannas. Tropical
grasslands are called as llanos in Columbia In many parts of the savannas of Africa
and Venezuela and as Campos in Brazil of people have started using the grassland
South America. for grazing their cattle and goats. Due
Savanna biomes experience warm to overgrazing in this region most of the
temperature year around. It has very long tropical grasslands here are lost to the
and dry winter season and a very wet Sahara desert year after year.
summer season. The grass here is very tall
v. Temperate Grassland Biome
often one or two metres tall scattered with
small shrubs and isolated umbrella shaped The temperate grassland biomes are
trees like the acacia and the baobab trees generally found in the interior of the
which store water in their trunks. continents in the mid latitudes. These
Most of the animals in the savanna have grassland biomes are found in the
long legs, like the giraffe and kangaroo. transitional zone between the humid
The carnivorous animals like lions, coastal areas and the mid latitude
leopards, cheetahs, jackal and hyenas live deserts.
in this biome. Zebras and elephants are The temperate grasslands are known
also found in this biome. as Steppes in Europe and Asia, Prairies
in North America (Canada and USA),
Pampas in South America, Veldts in
South Africa, Downs in Australia and
Puszta in Hungary. The annual range of
temperature is quite large with summer
temperature reaching as high as 38°C and
winter temperatures falling down to -40°
C. The rainfall is moderate from 25 cm to
50 cm. Grasses form a major part of the
vegetation in the temperate grasslands.
African Savanna
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The height of the grasses depends upon

the amount and distribution of rainfall.
Thar Desert
and New Mexico states of USA and it further
extends to Mexico. The deserts in the southern
Bison in Prairie hemisphere are, the Atacama desert west
of Andes mountains in South America, the
Namibian and the Kalahari deserts in southern
Africa and the Great Australian desert in the
central and southern parts of Australia.
The tropical deserts are not conducive
for the growth of vegetation due to
shortage of water. The plants found here
Prairie Dogs
are the xerophytes which have their own
The animals in this area include the moisture conserving methods such as
bison, wolves of the Prairies of North long roots, thick barks, waxy leaves,
America. The other animals and birds are thorns and small leaves so as to avoid
coyotes, prairie dog, foxes, mice, rabbits, evapo-transpiration.
badgers, rattle snakes, pocket gophers, The main trees and bushes found in
weasel, grasshoppers, quails and hawks. this region are acacia, cacti, date palm,
kikar, babul etc.
vi. Tropical Desert Biome
A tropical desert is the hottest and
driest place on earth where rainfall is
very scanty and irregular. This biome is
typically found in the western parts of the
continents within the tropics.
In the northern hemisphere, the Afro –
Asian deserts form the longest belt which
includes the Sahara desert, Arabian desert
and the Thar deserts. In North America the
tropical deserts cover, California, Arizona Succulent
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One of the toughest

foot races in the world
is held in Sahara
every year in April.
This race is called The Marathon des
Sables (MDS) and participants have to
cover a distance of 250km over Sahara
desert in southern Morocco in a span
of 7 days. About 1500 participants
Cacti aged between 16 to 79 from all over
the world participate in this race.
The animals in this biome are limited in
Source : Morocco World News
number. They are able to bear the drought
and the heat of the desert. Animals like
gathering and hunting while some herd
the camel, antelopes, fox, spotted hyena,
cattle, goats and camel and some of them
fallow deer, cape hare, hedgehog etc., live
practice very simple subsistence farming.
in the desert.
vii. Taiga or Boreal Forest Biome
The tropical desert biomes are
agriculturally unproductive except The taiga biome is the largest terrestrial
in and near the oasis. In the oasis, biome and extends across Europe, North
cultivation is carried through America and Asia. The taiga biome is also
irrigation either from streams or from known as coniferous forest or boreal forest
underground sources. Date palms are biome. It extends from about 50° to 70°
widely grown here. North latitudes. This region lies between
the temperate grassland in the south and the
polar tundra in the north. The taiga region
is absent in the southern hemisphere mainly
because of the narrowing of continents
towards the South Pole.
This biome has short wet summer and
long cold winters. The taiga region has
low mean annual precipitation ranging
between 35 cm to 60 cm and the rainfall
Oasis in Sahara occurs mostly in summer. It receives
The people in the deserts are generally plenty of snow during winter.
nomads living in tents and moving from The taiga or boreal forest biome
place to place. They are the Berbers of consists mainly of evergreen coniferous
North Africa, the Bedouins of the Arabian forests. The important coniferous trees in
deserts, the Damara in Namibia, the this biome are pines, spruces, firs, maples
Bushman of the Kalahari Desert and the and cedars. During the short summer
Aborigines of Australia. They practice food season snow melts and this helps lichens,
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mosses and short grasses to grow and cover

the ground. These are called ‘meadows’.
Taiga is the home of some larger animals
like moose, deer, and bears, while smaller
animals like bobcats, squirrels, chipmunks,
ermine, and moles are also found. Animals
of the taiga have specialised adaptation
including lot of thick fur or feathers and the Ermine
ability to change colours during different
seasons example ermine.
Moose
Coniferous forest
Lumbering is the main occupation of the
people in areas which are easily accessible.
The softwood from the coniferous forests
is widely used in the manufacture of wood
pulp and paper, newsprint, matches,
furniture and building materials.
The hunting of fur bearing animals
like musk rats, ermine, and silver fox are
important economic activities. The taiga
forest is endangered due to logging and
Siberian Tiger
mining by humans. When trees are cut
down in the taiga it takes a very long time
Fact File
to restore itself because of the very short
The ermine is a small mammal, which growing season.
is covered with thick dark brown fur in
summer. This changes to white in the viii Tundra Biome
winter, an adaptation which helps the Tundra is a Finnish word which means
ermine to blend into its surroundings barren land. The tundra region is a vast
and makes it more difficult for the bowl lying beyond the Arctic Circle (66.5°
predators to spot them. North latitude) in the northern hemisphere
along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The
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Arctic tundra extends southwards from

North Pole to the Taiga forest. Tundra is
also found in the high altitudes especially
in the Alpine region.
Due to long and severe cold winters,
this region is treeless and has very little
vegetation. The growing season for plants
is very short. Natural vegetation mainly
consists of shrubs, sedges, grasses, mosses
and lichens.
Polar Bear
Arctic Fox
Bearberry
Lichen Caribou
Musk Ox
Cotton Grass
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The main features of this climate in entomologist E.O. Wilson used the term
the tundra region are the general absence Biodiversity and this term has been used
of insolation and presence of very low since then. Biodiversity refers to the
temperature throughout the year. The variety of life on Earth. This includes the
average annual temperature is about number of species of plants, animals and
-12°C. The ground surface is covered with microorganisms along with the diversity
snow for at least 8 to 9 months in a year. of genes in these species. Moreover, it
In this biome, the sub soil remains embodies the different ecosystems on the
permanently frozen and is known as planet, for example forests, deserts, coral
permafrost. Permafrost tundra covers reefs and wetlands.
vast barren areas of northern Russia and Biodiversity is the variability among
Canada. Algae and fungi are found on living organisms. This includes diversity
the rocky cliffs and rosette plants grow within species, between species, and
in rock and gravel beds. Spongy turf between ecosystems. The variety of
and lichen develop in the drier inland biodiversity or the number of species in a
tundra. given area is referred to as species richness.
Animals common to Arctic tundra are Normally variety of life increases with size
the polar bear, arctic wolf, arctic fox, arctic of area.
hare and arctic weasel. Large herbivores Biodiversity can be identified at three
such as musk oxen, caribou and reindeer levels:
are found. Lemmings are also found in
this Biome. Insects like moths, butterflies, A. Genetic diversity
beetles, mosquitoes and black flies are B. Species diversity and
common in the Arctic tundra. Migratory
birds include tundra swans, harlequin C. Ecosystem diversity
ducks, sand pipers, plovers, geese and
A. Genetic diversity refers to the
gulls.
total number of genetic characteristics
The Antarctic region is covered with in the genetic makeup of a species.
ice sheets. It is too cold and dry to support Example: Each human being is very
vegetation. However, some portions of different from others. Genetic diversity
the continent have areas of rocky soil that helps the population to adapt to changes
support plant life. Vegetation comprises of in the environment or adapt to different
mosses, lichens and liver worts. This area environments. Domestication of dogs can
is referred to as Antarctic tundra. Seals be taken as a common example.
and Penguins inhabit the shore areas of
B. Species diversity is the number of
Antarctica.
different species of plants and animals
that are present in a region. A community
7.5 Biodiversity
with more number of species enjoys
The term biological diversity was used as species richness. Naturally undisturbed
early as 1968 by wildlife conservationist forests have greater species richness than
Raymond F. Dasmann. Latter in 1988, reforested areas or plantations.
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There are three types of Species: 2 million are known to us ranging from
microorganisms to giant mammals and
a. Endemic species - is one whose
reptiles. New species are being discovered
habitat is restricted only to a
while many species are also disappearing
particular area because of which it
from the face of the earth.
is often endangered. It differs from
“indigenous,” or “native,” which 7.5.1. Biodiversity hotspots
although it occurs naturally in an
Areas that are rich in species diversity
area, is also found in other areas.
are called as “Hotspots”. The hottest
b. Exotic Species - is any species spots for species diversity are the tropical
intentionally or accidentally rainforests. Tropical rainforests comprise
transported and released by man into of only 7% of all land on earth, yet are home
an environment outside its original to nearly 50% of all the species on Earth!
range. These are often the most India is among the World’s 17 nations that
severe agents of habitat alteration and are exceptionally rich in species diversity.
degradation, and a major cause of the The British biologist Norman Myers
continuing loss of biological diversity coined the term ‘biodiversity hotspot’ in
throughout the world. 1988. According to him, a biodiversity
c. Cosmopolitan Species – It is a species hotspot is a biogeographic region
that is found to be distributed over characterised both by exceptional levels
most regions of the earth example: of plant endemism and by serious levels of
cats, dogs, human beings. The killer habitat loss. Conservation International
whale is considered as the most (CI) adopted Myers concept of ‘hotspots’
cosmopolitan species in the world. and it made an extensive global study
of hotspots in 1999. According to CI, to
C. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety qualify as a hotspot a region must meet
of life forms in a prescribed ecosystem. two strict criteria: (i) It must contain at
Ecosystems may be both terrestrial and least 1,500 species of endemic plants,
aquatic. Distinctive terrestrial ecosystems and (ii) It must have lost at least 70% of
include forests, grasslands, deserts, etc. its original habitat. In 1999, CI’s book
while aquatic ecosystems are rivers, lakes, ‘Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and
oceans etc. Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions’,
In understanding biodiversity, the identified 34 biodiversity hotspots in the
most common question that arises in different countries of the world.
our mind is how many different plant Currently there are 34 biodiversity
and animal species are there on earth? hotspots that have been identified and,
There can be no definite answer to this most of them occur in tropical forests
question. At present the conservation (Figure 7.10). They represent just 2.3%
scientists have identified over 8.7 million of Earth’s land surface, but between them
species worldwide. Of this only about they contain around 50% of the world’s
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W E
Not to scale
Figure 7.10 Biodiversity hotspots of the world
The 34 biodiversity hotspots of the World

1 The Tropical Andes 18 The Philippines
2 Mesoamerica 19 Indo-Burma
3 The Caribbean Islands 20 The Mountains of Southwest China
4 The Atlantic Forest 21 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
5 Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena 22 Southwest Australia
6 The Cerrado 23 New Caledonia
7 Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests 24 New Zealand
8 Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests 25 Polynesia and Micronesia
9 Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands 26 The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
10 The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 27 Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
11 The Guinean Forests of West Africa 28 The Eastern Afromontane
12 The Cape Floristic Region 29 The Horn of Africa
13 The Succulent Karoo 30 The Irano-Anatolian
14 The Mediterranean Basin 31 The Mountains of Central Asia
15 The Caucasus 32 Eastern Himalaya
16 Sundaland 33 Japan
17 Wallacea 34 East Melanesian Islands
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endemic plant species and 42% of all 7.6 Endangered species

terrestrial vertebrates.
Rare, endangered or threatened plants
India has 4 and animals are elements of our natural
biodiversity hotspots: heritage that are declining rapidly. If we
the Western Ghats, the cherish these species, like we do other
Himalayas, the Indo- rare and beautiful objects, these living
Burma region and the organisms become treasures of the highest
Sundaland [includes magnitude.
Nicobar group of Islands].
The International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has
identified and classified species based on
the nature of their depleting numbers.
The IUCN’s Red List of Threatened
Norman Myers (born Species, identified in 1964, is the world’s
24 August 1934) is a most important inventory of the global
British environmentalist conservation status of biological species.
specialising in Species are classified by the IUCN Red
Biodiversity hotspots. List into nine groups specified through
Professor Norman Myers was the first criteria such as rate of decline, population
to alert global community to tropical size, area of geographic distribution, and
deforestation, the mass extinction degree of population and distribution
underway and environmental security. fragmentation (Figure 7.11).
• Extinct (EX) – The species has
disappeared and no known individuals
remaining
Fact File
Endemism is an ecological word • Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known
meaning that a plant or animal lives only to survive in captivity, or as a
only in a particular geographical naturalized population outside its
location, such as a specific island, historic range
habitat type, country or any defined • Critically Endangered (CR) – Species
zone. For example, The Asiatic Lion that have drastically dwindled and are
of the Gir forest of Gujarat. The at extremely high risk of extinction in
Kashmir Stag known as Hangul, the wild
which is found in the riverine forests
• Endangered (EN) – High risk of
of Kashmir Valley and Chamba in
extinction in the wild
Himachal Pradesh. The Lion Tailed
Macaque is India’s most threatened • Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of
monkey which is endemic to the endangerment in the wild
Western Ghats of South India. • Near threatened (nt) – Likely to become
endangered in the near future.
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of Critically Endangered, Endangered,

Conservation and Vulnerable.
International (CI)
According to the IUCN those species
is an American non-
that have dwindled drastically are
profit environmental
called as Critically Endangered and are
organization founded in 1987 in
included as Red List. Species that have
Virginia. Its goal is to protect nature
disappeared are called as extinct species.
as a source for food, fresh water,
In the Red List of 2012 that was released
livelihood and a stable climate.
on 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit
CI has helped to support 1,200 19,817 species were threatened with
protected areas across 77 countries, extinction.
safeguarding more than 601 million
hectares of marine and coastal areas.
• Least concern (lc) – Lowest risk

widespread and abundant
• Conservation dependent (cd) – This
group has now merged with near
threatened.
• Data deficient (dd) – Not enough data A Hawaiian plant species called Alula
to assess the risk of extinction of the locally referred to as cabbage on a stick
species. has moved from Critically Endangered
• Not evaluated (ne) – Species not yet to Extinct in the Wild. It is one of the 38
been evaluated against the criteria. Red Listed Hawaiian plant species with
less than five wild individuals remaining.
In the context of the IUCN Red List, It used to grow on the windy sea cliffs of
‘threatened’ embraces the three categories Kauai. Alula was destroyed by hurricanes
Extinct in
Extinct the wild Threatened Lower Risk
EX EW CR EN VU cd nt lc
Figure 7.11 Species Classification by IUCN

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Iwa and Inki in 1982 and 1992 leaving trend continues, around 93% of Eastern
only less than 10 plants alive. Gorillas will be eliminated by 2054.
The Pygmy Hog: It is the smallest
and rarest wild pig on earth and it is a
Critically Endangered species previously
spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India and Nepal. but now only found in
Assam, India. In 1995, the Pygmy Hog
Conservation Programme was started by
Goutam Narayan of Ecosystems-India,
with the help of the Assam government
and now their numbers have increased to
The majority of the great ape species are about 150.
now Critically Endangered. The Eastern
Gorilla the largest living primate is endemic
to the Eastern Democratic Republic of
Congo, south western Uganda and Rwanda.
This species which was listed as Endangered
has moved to Critically Endangered in
2016 due to an ongoing population decline.
This decline is due to illegal hunting and
destruction of forests for agriculture. If this
Fact File
The IUCN Red 7.6.1 Causes of Extinction of Species
List of Threatened Extinction is defined as the permanent
Species (also disappearance of an organism from the
known as the face of the earth. In other words, all
IUCN Red List or members of a species have died. This
Red Data List), means a loss of biodiversity. Extinction of
founded in 1964, is the world’s most species may take place (Figure 7.12) due
comprehensive inventory of the global to a variety of causes as given below:
conservation status of biological
species. The International Union for 1. Sudden and rapid changes of
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is environmental conditions
the world’s main authority on the 2. The sudden outbreak of disease and
conservation status of species. A series pest infections.
of Regional Red Lists are produced 3. Some sudden events like forest fires,
by countries or organizations, which volcanic eruption etc.
assess the risk of extinction to species
within a political management unit.
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4. Direct hunting and persecution of c. Climate Change- Example, bleaching

species leading to ‘selective mass and loss of coral reefs due to global
extinction. warming
5. Ecological substitution by other d. Pollution of air, water and soil –

species of large carnivorous animals Pollution can alter the growth and life
which compete for the same food of organisms in a great way.
resources. e. Over exploitation of one resource –
Over exploitation through Hunting
6. Climatic change accelerates the or Poaching, Deforestation etc.,
competition between large mammals can influence the life of all the
for shelter and food. interdependent species.
7. Extinction of weak species during Despite rapid efforts in protecting terrestrial
the course of competition with more and marine habitats, world’s diversity of
powerful and stronger species. species is still dwindling. Since the 1960’s
over 100,000 ‘protected areas’ have been
8. Man-induced environmental changes established. This represents 11,265,408
also cause species extinctions. sq.km of land and 1,609,344 sq.km of
Between 1600 and 1900 it is estimated that ocean. Yet, terrestrial and marine species
one species went extinct every four years. have declined over the same period. This
In modern times, the rate is soaring. suggests that the common conservation
The graph below (Figure 7.12.) shows strategy of protecting areas of land and
how the rate of extinction of species has sea is inadequate.
increased over the past 50 years. This
could be attributed to the rapid increase 7.7. Conservation of Biodiversity
in population during the same period of Conservation of bio-diversity is the
time. proper management of the biosphere
According to IUCN the rate of by human beings in such a way that
extinction of mammals and birds had it gives maximum benefits for the
started much earlier by 1700 itself at a present generation and also develops its
much faster rate as shown in the graph potential to meet the needs of the future
below (Figure 7.13). generations.
The three basic objectives of
7.6.2 Major Threats to Biodiversity biodiversity conservation are :
The following are some of the major (a) To maintain essential ecological
threats to biodiversity: processes and life supporting systems.
a. Habitat destruction and degradation (b) To preserve the diversity of species.
b. Invasive alien species-these can (c) To make sustainable utilization of
destroy native species Example, species and ecosystems.
lantana Camera plant in India.
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60,000 8,000
7,000
50,000
6,000
Extinctions
40,000
Population (Millions)
Extinction Numbers
5,000
Human Population
30,000 (Millions) 4,000
3,000
20,000
2,000
10,000
1,000
0
1800
1830
1860
1890
1920
1950
1980
2010
Source : USGS Time
Figure 7.12 Species Extinction and Human Population

Cumulative extinctions as % of IUCN - evaluated species
1.60
Mammals
1.40
Birds
1.20
1.00
Vertebrates
0.80
0.60
Other Vertebrates
0.40
0.20
Background
0
1500-1600 1600-1700 1700-1800 1800-1900 1900-2014
Figure 7.13 Rate of Extinction of animals and birds

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habitats. This strategy involves identification

of species rich areas and adopting methods
to protect it in the form of National Park or
Wildlife Sanctuary or Biosphere Reserve etc.
In this way biodiversity can be conserved in
their natural habitat from human activities.
Ex-situ conservation involves
maintenance and breeding of endangered
plants and animals under partially or wholly
controlled conditions in specific areas like
zoo, gardens, nurseries etc.
Other examples of ex-situ conservation
Figure 7.14 Causes of Animal extinction
include:
There are two types of conservation (i) Seed gene bank
methods (Figure 7.15) namely in-situ and
(ii) Field gene bank
ex-situ conservations.
(iii) Botanical gardens
In-situ conservation means the
conservation of species within their natural
Biodiversity
conservation
In-situ Ex situ
Protected Area Sacred plants home

Network gardens
Biosphere National parks

Sacred groves Seed banks, Field
reserves and Wildlife
gene banks and
Sanctuaries
Cryopreservation
Botanical gardens
Arborata,
Terrestrial Marine Zoological gardens,
Aquaria
Figure 7.15 Biodiversity Conservation methods
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7.7.1 Biodiversity conservation in India Table 7.1 Specialised projects in India

India is one of the 17 mega bio-diverse
Sl.No Name of the Project Year
countries of the world (according to
Conservation International). With only 1 Project Tiger 1973
2.4% of the world’s land area, 16.7% of 2 Operation Crocodile 1975
the world’s human population and 18% 3 Project Rhinoceros 1987
of livestock, it contributes about 8% of
4 Project Snow Leopard –
the known global biodiversity. India has a
5 Project Elephant 1988
number of globally important endangered
species like Asiatic lion, Asian elephant, 6 Project Sea Turtle 1999
one-horned rhinoceros, Gangetic river 5. Specialised projects: To save the
dolphin, snow leopard, Kashmir stag, endangered species of animals,
dugong, gharial, great Indian bustard, specialised projects are being
lion tailed macaque etc. The following implemented with international
steps have thus been taken to protect and cooperation (WWF, UNDP, UNEP,
manage the wildlife of the country. IUCN) as well as on a stand-alone basis
like the following: (Table 7.1)
1. The Government of India enacted
the Wild Life (Protection) Act More recently, the Black Buck (chinkara)
1972 with the objective of effectively the Great Indian Bustard and the snow
protecting the wild life of this country leopard have been given full or partial
and to control poaching, smuggling legal protection against hunting and trade
and illegal trade in wildlife and its throughout India.
derivatives.
6. The Protected Areas of India
2. The National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL) chaired by the Prime Protected areas are those in which human
Minister of India, provides for policy occupation is small and exploitation
framework for wildlife conservation of resources is limited. These are
in the country. defined according to the categorization
3. The National Wildlife Action (Table 7.2.).
Plan (2002–2016) was adopted There are 4 categories of the Protected
in 2002, emphasizing the people’s Areas in India.
participation and their support for
• National Parks,
wildlife conservation.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries,
4. The Indian Constitution lays the
subject of forests and wildlife in • Conservation Reserves, and
the Concurrent list thus laying the • Community Reserves.
responsibility of wildlife conservation National Park
on both the Centre and the State.
• National parks in India are IUCN
category II protected areas.
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Table 7.2 Protected Areas of India (Jan 2017)

Protected Areas Number Total Area in sq Km % of the Country
National Parks (NPs) 103 40500 1.2
Wild life Sanctuaries (WLSs) 537 118005 3.6
Conservation Reserves (CRs) 67 2350 0.1
Community Reserves 26 47 0.01
Total Protected Areas (PAs) 733 160902 4.91
Source: ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas
(http://www.wiienvis.nic.in/Database/ConservationAreas_844.aspx)
• A National park is an area with Conservation reserves
ecological, geomorphological and
• These terms denote the protected areas
natural significance with rich fauna
of India which typically act as buffer
and flora, designed to protect and to
zones between established national
develop wildlife or its environment.
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved
• Activities like grazing, hunting, and protected forests of India.
forestry or cultivation etc. are
• They are called as ‘Conservation
strictly prohibited.
Reserves’ if they are uninhabited and
• No human activity is permitted inside completely owned by the Government
the national park. of India but used for subsistence by
• India’s first national park was communities.
established in 1936 as Hailey National Community Reserves
Park, now known as Jim Corbett
National Park, Uttarakhand. •
They are called ‘Community
Reserves’ if a part of the land is
• There are 103 national parks in India privately owned.
(National Wildlife Database, April
2015). 7. Biosphere Reserves: A biosphere
reserve is an area of land or water that
Wildlife Sanctuary is protected by law in order to support,
sustain and conserve ecosystems.
• The difference between a Sanctuary
and a national park lies mainly in Biosphere Reserves of India protect
the rights of people living inside. very large areas of natural habitat that
In a Sanctuary, certain rights are are much bigger than national parks
allowed but in a national park, no or wildlife sanctuaries. Biosphere
rights are allowed for grazing of any reserves may cover multiple national
livestock. In a wildlife Sanctuary, the parks, sanctuaries and reserves which
Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, are contiguous.example, the Nilgiri
control or prohibit certain activities. Biosphere covers: Bandipur National
Park, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve,
• There are a total of 537 wildlife
Silent Valley National Park, Nagarhole
sanctuaries in India.
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Figure 7.16 Biosphere reserves in india

National Park and Mukurthi National of the eighteen biosphere reserves
Park.(Figure 7.16) are a part of the World Network
• Biosphere reserves are traditionally of Biosphere Reserves, based on
organized into 3 interrelated zones, UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere
known as: (MAB) Programmed list.
1. Core area, 8. Some Other Important Conservation Sites
2. Buffer zone, • Tiger Reserves – Project Tiger
3. Transition zone. was launched by the Government
of India in the year 1973 to save
• Presently, there are 18 notified the endangered species of tiger in
biosphere reserves in India. Ten out the country. Starting from nine (9)
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Table7.3 Important Conservation Sites In India ( Dec 2016)

Reserves/Conservation Sites Numbers Total Area in Sqkm.
Tiger Reserves 50 71027
Elephant Reserves 32 69583
Biosphere Reserves 18 87492
RAMSAR Wetland Sites 26 12119
Natural World Heritage Sites 07 11756
Important Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Areas 107 10773
Marine Protected Areas 131 9801
Potential/ Important Bird Areas 563 –
Source: ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas (http://www.wiienvis.nic.in/Database/
ConservationAreas_844.aspx)
reserves in 1973 the number has now • Bishnoi villages: In and around
grown to fifty (50) in 2016. Table 7.3. Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds
gives a list of conservation sites and of blackbuck, nilgai and peacocks
their numbers in India. can be seen as an integral part of the
community and nobody harms them.
9. Role of communities: Communities
are playing a vital role in the
conservation and protection of Activity
wildlife in India, example:
Identify community conserved areas
• Sariska Tiger Reserve: In Sariska in Tamil Nadu and prepare a poster.
tiger reserve Rajasthan villagers have
fought against mining by citing the
wildlife protection act. In many areas, Highlight:
villagers themselves are protecting
In 1798, in a small village called
habitats and explicitly rejecting
Vedanthangal near Chennai, the
government involvement.
British soldiers shot some storks
• Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri: The in the local wetland. The villagers
inhabitants of five villages in the stormed the Collector’s office and
Alwar district of Rajasthan have made him issue an order not to harm
declared 1200 hectares of forests as the the nesting birds. This took place long
Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri declaring before the concept of conservation
their own set of rules and regulation of biosphere entered our thoughts.
which do not allow hunting, and are India has experienced many such
protecting the wildlife against any incidents only some of which have
outside encroachments. been recorded.
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by Kings and princes, but hunting led to

their extinction in the country. In 1948,
The Asiatic Cheetah of India Becomes Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo
Extinct shot three of the last cheetahs in India, in
Cheetah is found in Africa and Asia. Surguja, State of Madhya Pradesh which is
It is the fastest land animal on Earth. present day Northern Chhattisgarh.
The Asiatic cheetah, is slightly smaller
than the African cheetah. It has a fawn- The Indian government had plans to
coloured body with black spots and reintroduce cheetahs back in India in 2009
distinctive black “tear marks” running but this project has not yet been taken up
from the corner of each eye down the side
of its nose.
Biodiversity is necessary for our
existence as well as valuable in its own
right. This is because it provides the
fundamental building blocks for the
goods and services that provide us with
a healthy environment.Biodiversity
includes fundamental things to our
health like fresh water clean air and food
products, as well as many other products
like timber, medicine and fibre.
Biodiversity also includes various
other important things and services such
The Asiatic cheetah also known
as cultural, recreational and spiritual
as the Iranian cheetah is a Critically
nourishment that play an important role
Endangered subspecies surviving today
in maintaining our personal life and
only in Iran. It was once found in the
social life.
Arabian Peninsula, Near East, Kyzyl-
Kum desert, Caspian region, Pakistan It is therefore the duty of every citizen
and India. Asiatic cheetahs were once to conserve this valuable life on earth,
widespread across the continent but were the most precious gift we can pass on to
eradicated in India, where they were the future generations.
hunted for sport. The spread of farming
also greatly reduced their numbers in the
19th and 20th centuries. Eventually the
animal was wiped out in Asia to which it
was once native.
Cheetah has been known to exist in

India for a very long time. They were kept
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Boreal: Relating to the region of the earth just south of the Arctic, especially its plants
and animals.
Coral polyps: Tiny, soft-bodied organisms related to sea anemones and jellyfish. At
their base is a hard, protective limestone skeleton called a calicle, which forms the
structure of coral reefs. Reefs begin when a polyp attaches itself to a rock on the sea
floor, then divides, or buds, into thousands of clones.
Ecologist: A person who studies the natural relationships between the air, land, water,
animals, plants, etc.
Endemic: Native or restricted to a certain place.eg. Lion-tailed macaque endemic to the

Nilgiris.
Entomologist: A person who studies or is an expert in the branch of zoology concerned

with insects.
Ex-Situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological

diversity outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources using
many techniques and facilities.
Habitat: The natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism.
Lagoon: A stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef.
Oasis: A small area in a desert that has supply of water and is able to support vegetation.
An oasis forms when groundwater lies close enough to the surface to form a spring or to be
reached by wells.
Permafrost: A thick subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing point
throughout the year, occurring chiefly in Polar Regions.
Poaching: Trespassing, especially on another’s game reserve, in order to steal animals

or to hunt.
Sedges: Any grass like plant, typically growing on wet ground and having rhizomes,
triangular stems, and minute flowers. Sedges are found to grow in cold regions,
Vulnerable: Exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed or destroyed;
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Evaluation a. Savannah b. Desert

I. Choose the best answer c. Tropical rain forest d. Taiga
8. The Tropical grasslands of North
1. Who first proposed the America.
term ‘Ecosystem’ ? a. Savannah b. Steppes
a. E.O. Wilson c. Pampas d. Downs
b. I.G. Simmon 9. The Taiga biome extends over the
c. A.G. Tansley latitudes -------------------------------- .
d. Raymond F Dasmann a. 0° to20° North and South
2. What is the main source of energy for b. 30° to 50° N
the earth ? c. 50° to 70° N
a. Moon b. Stars d. beyond 70° N
c. Sun d. Tides 10. Which of the following is not covered
3. What is the position of a rabbit in a by the Nilgiri Biosphere?
food chain? a. Bandipur National Park
a. Primary consumer b. Nagarhole National Park
b. secondary consumer c. Sariksha National park
c. tertiary consumer d. Mukurthi National park
d. Quaternary consumer
II. Give short answers:
4. Which organism eats both plants and
animals?
11. What is a Biosphere?
a. Herbivores
12.
Write how the Asiatic Cheetah
b. Carnivores became extinct in India.
c. Omnivores 13. Mention the types of biomes.
d. Detritivores 14. Name the different types of coral reefs.
5. Which of the following is found in 15. How many Biodiversity Hotspots are
the desert biome? there in India? Name them.
a. Eucalyptus b. Pine
c. Teak d. Cacti III. Give answers in a paragraph:
6. Which of the following are native 16. What are Consumers? Explain the
tribes inhabiting the tropical types of consumers.
evergreen forests of Africa?
17. Write a short note on energy pyramids.
a. Yanomani b. Pygmies
18. What is meant by Species Diversity?
c. Tikuna d. Aborigines Explain
7. The largest number of plant 19. Write a note on biogeochemical cycle?
species are found in ------------------------------
20. Write a note on National Parks with
biome.
examples.
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IV. Give detailed answers:
21. Mark the areas of the Tropical Rain forest Biomes on the given world map and mention
any four characteristics of them.
22. Distinguish between the Tropical Desert and the Tundra biomes.
23. Explain how species are classified in the Red List of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Project
1. Observe life forms in your local area and draw a food web.
2. Complete the following table
Plants and their Animals and
Sl No Biome Location Climate Adaptation to their Adaptation to
Environment Environment
1. Tropical
Evergreen Rain
Forest
2. Tropical
Monsoon
Forests
3. Temperate
Deciduous
Forests
4. Tropical
Grasslands
Or Savannah
5. Temperate
Grasslands or
Steppe
6. Deserts
7. Taiga or Boreal
Forests
8. Tundra
3. Collect pictures of endangered species of Tamil Nadu and prepare a poster.
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Reference Websites
1. Arumugam, N. and V. Kumaresen; 1. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/

Environmental Studies natural-sciences/environment/
ecological-sciences/man-and-
2. Bharatdwaj, K;(2006); Physical
biosphere-programme/
Geography: Biogeography. Discovery
Publishing House, New Delhi 2. http://www/wildlifeindia.com/forest-
of-india, html
3. Carson, Rachel (1962); Silent Spring.
Indian Edition. Goa: Other India 3. www.ramsar.org
Press 4. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/
4. Radha, Environmental Studies ( Based forestry/types-html
on UGC Syllabus). Prasana PD 5. https://en.unesco.org/events/4th-
5. Rajagopalan, R. (2005); Environmental world-congress-biosphere-reserves
Studies : from Crisis to Cure. Oxford 6. www.iucnredlist.org/
University Press, New Delhi
7. www.biodiversityhotspots.org/
6. Environmental Studies (E.V.R
8. www.envis.nic.in
University Book)
9. www.uep-wcmc.org
7. Bharucha, Erach; Text Book
For Environmental Studies.
UGC New Delhi and Bharathi
VidyapeethInstitute for
Environmental Education And
Research, Pune
8. Publication division (2004) – Indian
forest
9. BBC documentary, the state of the
planet, - David Attenborough
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ICT CORNER
Biosphere Facing Surface
Explore and evaluate

yourself in World’s
biosphere.
Steps
• Use the URL or scan the QR code to download and install “Geography Learning
Trivia Quiz” app in smartphone.
• Click on the ‘clock’ to watch the timeline.
• Enter your name,Select Diﬃculty level and continents to be evaluated in the quiz.
• Answer the quiz by pinning the balloon on the map, complete the quiz and review the
answers. Check your progress in biosphere using achievement tab and leaderboard tab.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.yamlearning.
geographylearning&hl=en
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Unit 8
Natural Disasters -
Public Awareness For
Disaster Risk Reduction

8.1 Introduction • Define the terms – Disaster Risk
8.2 Public awareness for disaster Reduction, Resilience and Public
risk reduction Awareness.
8.3 Disasters and rules of action for
• Understand the need for public
disasters
awareness for disaster risk
8.4 Earthquake
8.5 Landslide reduction.
8.6 Cyclone • Explain the rules of actions for
8.7 Flood disasters.
8.8 Drought • Learn and experience the various
8.9 Lightning mock drills for disasters.
8.1 Introduction Recognizing the importance of
On an average, 232 million people are Disaster Risk Reduction in 2005, 168
affected by different types of disasters governments and all leading development
every year. In recent years disaster risks and humanitarian actors signed the Hyogo
have been on the rise due to factors Framework for Action (HFA), committing
such as population growth, unplanned themselves to a ten-year multi-stakeholder
urbanization, environmental degradation, and multi-sector plan to invest in disaster
conflicts and competition for scarce risk reduction as a means to building
resources, climate change, diseases disaster-resilient societies.
epidemics, poverty and pressure from Public awareness campaigns can be
development within high-risk zones. started modestly and tailored to meet
Hence, disaster risk reduction is the need the needs of specific populations and
of hour. target groups. These approaches can
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be integrated into almost all existing the awareness of public for disaster risk
initiatives, whenever and wherever they reduction. Every school has to setup the
take place. They can build on and support following school disaster committees:
existing volunteer mobilisation and peer- 1. Coordination Committees
to-peer communications. To support
2. Awareness generation Team
this, it requires strong and unified
disaster reduction messages and clear 3. Search Rescue and Evacuation Team
and targeted information, education and 4. Site safety Team
communication materials. 5. First Aid Team
6. Warning and Information Team
8.2 Public awareness for disaster risk 7. Bus safety Team
reduction
8. Water / Food Arrangement Team.
There are four key approaches to public
awareness for disaster risk reduction: All the teams should participate in the
Campaigns, participatory learning, mock drill.
informal education, and formal school-
Mock Drill means
based interventions.
Practicing of something
Let’s take formal school based that can happen in future
interventions to learn in detail. so that it can be easily
Formal school-based interventions: dealt with in.
The focus of formal school-based
interventions cover two areas: school
Mock drills
disaster management and disaster risk
reduction in school curricula. These Mock drills form a vital part of the
are considered to be formal because school disaster management process, and
accountability and responsibility for provide an intensive learning experience.
school safety and curricula belong They should be followed by reflection
exclusively to education authorities, and assessment by all members of the
so they require support for long-term school community. Lessons learned are
planning and capacity building. incorporated into the school disaster
School disaster management: The management plan, and goals set for
primary goal of school disaster management improvement next time. Depending on
are to ensure the safety of students and staff. hazards faced, there are several major
Sustained school disaster management types of drills that can be practiced.
requires the familiar participatory and
8.3 Disasters and Rules of actions
ongoing process of identification of hazards
during disasters
and risks, mitigation and reduction of risks,
and developing response capacity. 8.3.1 Earthquake
A school disaster management plan, An Earthquake is sudden, rapid shaking of
developed at the school level, should thesurface the earth due to the movements
be the living document that expresses of the earth plates. This results as shifting
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Nepal – India Earthquake

The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (also known as the Gorkha Earthquake) killed
nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred on 25 April, with a
magnitude of 8.1 Richter scale. Its epicentre was east of Gorkha District at Barpak.
It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21 people making
April 25, 2015 the deadliest day on Nepal’s history. The earthquake triggered another
huge avalanche in the Langtang Valley, where 250 people were reported missing.
Figure 8.1. Nepal Earthquake, 2015
Students’ activity Rules of actions during an earthquake:

1. Stay calm, do not panic.
Mock drill: Earthquake. 2. If you are in a building, sit down on
In case we are inside the class when the floor under a table or any other
earthquake occurs, instruct loudly furniture and firmly hold on to it until
“earth quake position – drop, cover, the earthquake has stopped.
and hold on”. Drop down on your 3. If there is no table nearby, cover your
knee. Cover your head, neck and face. face and head with your hands and sit
Go under a table to protect your head. on the floor in a corner of the room.
4. Keep away from glass windows, glass
of the rock bolcks in the earth surface.
doors and things that can fall down.
Earthquakes strike suddenly without
warning and can occur at anytime. The 5. Do not try to leave the building quickly;
impacts of the earthquakes include deaths, during earthquakes people mostly
injuries and damage of property. die because they try to run out of the
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building and become trapped under

ruins if the building is destroyed.
6. Do not go to the staircase, a balcony or
an elevator.
7. If you are in the street, keep away from
buildings; try to get into an open space
and avoid power transmission lines.
8. If you are at home, turn off electrical
equipments and gas quickly.
9. If you are in chemistry class or a Figure 8.2. Drop, Cover, Hold-Mock
laboratory where chemicals are stored,
drill
try to leave the room because chemicals
may cause injuries; caused by rainfall, snowmelt, stream
erosion, flood, earthquakes, volcanic
After earthquake:
activity, disturbance by human activities,
1. First check if you have any injuries, or any combination of these factors.
and then check the condition of the
Landslides cause property damage,
surrounding people.
injury and death and adversely affect a
2. After the earthquake when you leave variety of resources. For example, water
the shelter, do not return for 2-3 hours supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal
because the quakes may repeat (an systems, forests, dams and roadways can
aftershock). be affected.
3. Check if there is fire; in case of a mild
During a Landslide
one try to extinguish it.
1. Listen for any unusual sounds that
4. Be cautious about the possibility of
might indicate moving debris, such as
gas leakage and damage caused to
trees cracking or boulders knocking
electrical wiring.
together.
5. Be careful while opening wardrobe
2. If you are near a river, be alert for
doors to take necessary items;
any sudden increase or decrease in
6. Use only lanterns; do not use an oil water flow and for a change from clear
lamp or a candle. to muddy water. Such changes may
7. Listen to the radio to receive indicate landslide activity upstream, so
information about the earthquake. be prepared to move quickly.
3. Be alert especially when driving.
8.3.2 Landslide Embankments along roadsides are
A landslide is defined as the movement particularly susceptible to landslides.
of a mass of rock debris down a slope. 4. Disconnect the power supply in the
Landslides are caused by the direct areas of landslide.
influence of gravity. Landslides can be
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After the Landslide Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone

1. Stay away from the slide area. There to cyclones.
may be danger of additional slides Districts in Tamil Nadu which are
2. Check for injured and trapped persons frequently affected by cyclones: All the 13
near the slide, without entering the coastal Districts of Tamil Nadu are affected
direct slide area. by cyclonic storms which occur during May-
3. Direct rescuers to their locations. June and in October-November months.
These Districts are: Tiruvallur, Chennai,
4. Listen to local radio or television for
Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore,
the latest emergency information
Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur,
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin,
after a landslide or debris flow. Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari.
On an average, about five or six tropical
8.3.3 Cyclone
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and
The major natural disaster that affects Arabian sea and hit the coast every year.
the coastal regions of India is cyclone and Out of these, two or three are severe.
as India has a coastline of 7516 km; it is When a cyclone approaches to the
exposed to nearly 10 percent of the world’s coast, a risk of serious loss or damage
tropical cyclones. occurs from severe winds, heavy rainfall,
About 71 percent of flood prone areas storm surges and river floods. The effect of
are in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, a storm surge is most pronounced in wide
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such
Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal.
West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal
Figure 8.3. Forces of Cyclonic wind

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Figure 8.4. Effects of Cyclone
followed by those in the Arabian Sea and During a cyclone

the ratio is approximately 4:1. During the 1. If you are in a building during a strong
cyclonic storms, wind speed is between gust, it is necessary to close and fasten
65 km/h to117 km/h. windows and doors. It is better to stay in
Rules of action before a cyclone the rooms.
1. Go to high-lying places from low-lying 2. Turn off all electrical devices.
areas 3. Protect yourself with your hands or a
2. Those residing in old buildings should scarf. Protect the eyes, nose and mouth
temporarily relocate to safer buildings; from dust.
Jewels and documents should be kept 4. If you are in a forest area, try to find a
in safe custody. place protected from the wind. If there
3. Battery-operated radio, plastic torch- is no such place nearby, lie down on
light, lamp, kerosene, match-box the ground.
should be kept safely for future use.
5. If you are in a car it is better to stay
4. Keep in ready all the first-aid kit and there and close the windows. Do not
material available with you. park the car under unstable objects
5. Keep in stock foodstuffs, material, fuel, that can break down and fall on the
drinking water and life-saving drugs car.
needed for the next week.
After cyclone
6. It is also important to take cattle and
other pets to safer places. 1. Turn off electricity, gas and water and
unplug all electric appliances.
7. It is important to know that if we see
quickly approaching storm clouds it 2. Beware of snakes and other animals
is possible to predict strong winds immediately after the cyclone.
several minutes in advance. 3. Do not go for sightseeing.
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4. Stay away from damaged power lines, namely, the monsoon, the highly silted
falling trees and flood water. river systems and the steep highly erodible
5. Boil and purify water before drinking. mountains, particularly those of the
Himalayan ranges. The average rainfall
8.3.4 Flood in India is 1,150 mm with significant
Flood destructions have always brought variation across the country. The annual
miseries to numerous people, especially in rainfall along the western coast and the
rural areas. Flood results in the outbreak Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over most
of serious epidemics, specially malaria of the Brahmaputra valley amounts to
and cholera. Simultaneously, scarcity of more than 2,500 mm. Twenty-three of
water also arises. It has a drastic effect on the states (29) and union territories (7)
agricultural produce. Sometimes, water in the country are subject to floods and
remains standing over large areas for long 40 million hectares of land, roughly one-
span of time hampering the Rabi crops. eighth of the country’s geographical area,
India is one of the most flood prone is prone to floods. The National Flood
country in the world. The principal Control Program was launched in the
reasons for flood lie in the very nature of country in 1954.
natural ecological systems in this country,
Fact File
Tropical Cyclone Vardha hit Chennai on 12th December, 2016. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) reports that at least 10 people have died in Tamil Nadu.
Maximum sustained wind speeds of over 130 km/h was recorded, and the storm has
caused severe damage to parts of the city of Chennai. Over 4,000 trees have been
uprooted, power lines downed and buildings damaged.
NDRF teams clear up damage after Cyclone Vardha. Photo: NDRF
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Do’s before flood

1. Keep furniture and electrical appliances
on beds and tables
2. Put sandbags in the toilet bowl and cover
all drain holes to prevent sewage back flow.
3. Keep your mobile charged
4. Listen to radio or watch television for the
latest weather bulletin and flood warnings.
5. Keep strong ropes, a lantern, battery
operated torches, extra batteries ready. Figure 8.7. Drought condition
6. Keep umbrellas and bamboo sticks with drought prone while 33 percent areas
you. receive rainfalls less than 750 mm is
considered to be chronically drought
8.3.5 Drought prone.
Drought is a period of time (months or Rules of action before, during and after
years) during which a part of the land has Drought
shortage of rain, causing severe damage
Before drought:
to the soil, crops, animals, and people.
It sometimes causes even death. During 1. Rainwater harvesting should be
drought high temperature is experienced. followed.
Such conditions may affect our health. 2. Sewage water should be recycled and
The primary cause of drought is used for domestic purpose.
deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the 3. Building canals or redirecting rivers
timing, distribution and intensity. for irrigation.
In India around 68 percent of the 4. Utilise water economically.
country is prone to drought. Of the entire During drought:
area 35 percent receives rain falls between 1. Wear cotton clothing and a hat.
750 mm to 1,125 mm which is considered
2. In case of overheating, immediately
move to a shady area.
3. Consume adequate amounts of
water stay.
After drought:
1. If anyone faints after sunstroke,
emergency medical measures should be
taken.
2. Contact local government agencies to
receive information about disaster and
assistance for the population.
Figure 8.6. Crops affected by Drought
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8.3.6 Lightning hitting a tree branch. The heat travels

Lightning is an atmospheric electrostatic through the tree, vaporizing its sap and
discharge (spark) accompanied by creating steam that causes the trunk to
thunder, which typically occurs during explode.
thunderstorms, and sometimes during
• Lightning flashes
volcanic eruptions or dust storms.
more than 3 million
Lightning generates 10-20 ampere current
times a day or 40 times
and it is therefore fatal. It is especially
a second worldwide.
dangerous for people in an open area.
• An average lightning bolt can
release enough energy to operate a
• You can hear
100-watt light bulb for more than
thunder from about
three months straight (about 250
16 km of its starting
kilowatt-hours of energy).
point.
• Lightning bolts travel at the speed
Before lightning
of up to 80,000 km / second.
1. If you are planning to go to the
• The average length of a single countryside, check the weather forecast.
lightning bolt is 3-4km.
2. If a thunderstorm is expected it is better
to postpone the trip.
Lightning strikes often have fatal 3. It is good if you can estimate the distance
consequences. On an average, 2000 people to the front line of a thunderstorm. In
die from lightning in the world every order to do this you must check the
year. Lightning mostly strikes tall things, time interval from the moment you see
such as trees that break down and catch the lightning until you hear thunder.
fire or it may strike power transmission Lightning always precedes thunder.
lines and antennas fastened on roofs and We know that the sound speed travels
buildings which causing fire. The air on average about 1km every 3 seconds.
temperature, when lightning occurs, is as Reduction of the time interval between
hot as 9982.2 °C. the sight of lightning and the resulting
Thunder is the sound caused by thunder means that the danger is
lightning. A charged, superheated approaching and protective measures
lightning bolt creates a “resonating tube” must be taken. If there is no interval
as it travels. The air in the tube rapidly between lightning and thunder means,
expands and contracts causing vibrations it means that the cloud is already over
that we hear as the your head.
rumble of thunder.
During Lightning:
Lightning strikes can
1. If you are in a building it is necessary
explode a tree. Imagine 15
to close windows, doors, ventilation
million volts of electricity
pipes and chimneys.
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Figure 8.8. Lightning
2. It is necessary to turn off the telephone, It is dangerous to stand or lie down on

TV set, and other electrical equipments the ground, because this increases the
because lightning may strike electrical exposure area.
cables and pass through wiring. 8. It is necessary to get rid of metal items
3. Do not take a shower because both such as a bicycle, coins etc.
water and metal conduct electricity. 9. Do not stand under an umbrella.
4. Do not light the fireplace because the 10. Do not run during the occurrence
heat coming from the chimney may of lightning; move slowly towards
attract lightning. a shelter because the air flow may
5. It is better to stay away from electric attract lightning;
wires, lightning rods, water pipes, 11. If you are in a car, do not get out. It is
antennas and windows. better to close the windows and turn
6. If you are in an open area during a of the antenna. Do not park your car
thunderstorm, do not stand under a under tall trees or any structures that
tall tree. Lighting is most damaging may fall down and hit you.
for tall trees. It is better to stay 12. If there is an injured person next to
30-40 meters away from them. Avoid you, remember that the victim may
trees that are standing separately. lose consciousness. It is necessary to
Remember that lightning does not provide first aid.
strike bushes.
13. Cover your mouth with a wet cloth in
7. If the area is open, it is better to find a order to protect your lungs.
lower place or a cavity and squat there.
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Student activity
Read the following rules for lightning and practice the mock drill as given below.
1. Follow the 30/30 rule.
2. If there are less than 30 seconds between thunder and lightning, you are in danger.
3. Get inside and stay there until 30 minutes after the last lightning flash.
4. practice lightning crouch
5. If you see or feel lightning and there is nowhere to go for shelter, immediately
squat down.
6. Balance on the balls of your feet, touch your heels together.
7. Cover your ears.
8. This way the charge may go through your back in to the ground without harming
your vital organs.
5. Prevention: The outright avoidance of

adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters.
1. Disaster: A serious disruption of the
6. Public awareness: The extent of
functioning of a society involving
common knowledge about disaster
human, and material, and impacts
risks, the factors that lead to disasters
that exceed the ability of the affected
and the actions that can be taken, to
society to cope using its own resources.
reduce vulnerability to hazards.
2. Disaster risk reduction: The practice
of reducing disaster risks through 7. Resilience: The ability of a society
systematic efforts to analyze and exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
manage the causal factors of disasters. adapt to and recover from the effects
3. Mitigation : The lessening of the of a disaster.
adverse impacts of hazards and related 8. H
yogo Framework for Action – A
disasters global blueprint for disaster risk
4. Preparedness: The capacity developed reduction efforts between 2005 to 2015
by organizations, to effectively – by providing specific operational
anticipate, respond to, and recovers guidance for promoting disaster risk
from the impacts of disaster events. reduction.
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Evaluation a) 9982.2 0 C b) 8892. 2 0C

IC
hoose the best c) 9892. 2 0C d) 9899.20C
answer from the 8. If there are less than _____ between
given below. thunder and lightning, you are in
1. On anaverage danger.
million a) 40 sec b) 60 sec
people are affected by different types of
c) 50 sec d) 30 sec
disasters every year.
a) 423 b) 232 9. India is exposed to nearly _________
% of world’s tropical cyclone.
c) 322 d) 332
2. The Hyogo Frame work for Action a) 10 b) 20
(HFA) was signed by the 168 c) 30 d) 40
governments and other actors in
10. During disaster consider the most
appropriate from the given below.
a) 2006 b) 2008
a. Think that the life is more valuable
c) 2005 d) 2002
b. Think that things are more valuable.
3. There are ______ key approaches
to public awareness for disaster risk c. Think that life and things are
reduction equally valuable
a) 8 b) 6 d. Think that life is less valuable than
c) 9 d) 4 things.
4. 33 percent of total areas in India which II. Give a short note on
receives rainfalls less than -------- is 11. Public awareness for disaster risk
considered to be chronically drought reduction.
prone.
12. Hyogo Frame work for Action (HFA)
a) 650 mm b) 750 mm
13. What are the causes of landslide
c) 850 mm d) 950 mm
14. 30/30 rule for lightning.
5. It is important to practice Drop, Cover,
15. Drought.
Hold for
a) Fire b) Earthquake III. Write the short answer
c) Lightning d) Flood 16. Mention any three rules of action for
landslide.
6. One among the given occurs mostly in
the slope of high lands 17. Write the rules of action before
drought.
a) Earthquake b) Flood
18. What are the rules of action after
c) Landslide d) Lightning
cyclone?
7. When lightning occurs, the air
19. Name the districts of Tamil Nadu
temperature is
vulnerable to frequent cyclone.
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IV. Write in detail VI. Group discussion

20. Write any three Do’s and Don’ts for 1. Discuss in group how you can
earthquake. manage drought condition before
21. Describe the ways and means of how it occurs.
to protect ourselves from lightning
and thunder. Reference
22. Explain the rules of action during 1. Kenji Okazaki, GRIPS, 2007 Disaster
landslide. Education, UNESCO.
V. Mock drill exercise 2. Towards a culture of safety and
1. Prepare a school disaster resilience, UNICEF.
management plan focusing on the 3. Teachers Guide on Disaster, TNSCERT.
following mock drills that can be 4. Children’s action for disaster risk
scheduled to be conducted by the reduction, UNISDR
various committees.
2. Drop, cover, hold mock drill for
earthquake
3. Mock drill for lightning.
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Unit 9
Maps and Scale
Chapter Outline
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Scale • Know about the types of maps and
scales.
9.3 Measurement of
distance between places • Convert the scales from one form to
another.
9.4 Measurement of area
• Draw the various types of scale.
9.5 Enlargement and reduction of
maps • Identify the components of the map.
9.1 Introduction Scale

A map is a visual representation of an entire The scale of the map is ratio between two
world or a part of the earth, represented places on the map and their corresponding
on a flat surface drawn to scale. Maps distance in the ground. It can be expressed
attempt to represent both physical and as statements, representative fraction, or
cultural features like relief, climate, natural as linear scale. The scale of a map should
resources, political boundaries, roads, be placed at a prominent place. It can be
population, economic activities and so on. placed just below the title or somewhere
Components of a map at the bottom.
Basic Components of a map are title, Legend
legend, direction, scale and source. It gives
It explains about different signs and
the extent of latitude and longitude of the
symbols used in a map and is usually
area mapped.
placed at the left or right corner at the
Title bottom of the map.
Title tells about the content of the map Direction
and is placed mostly at the top centre or at It is a convention that top of the map
the bottom centre of the map. is oriented towards north and this is
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Figure 9.1 Physical map of India
represented by an arrow pointing upward outside the frame of the map on the bottom
placed at the top right corner of the map. right. On the bottom left the name of the
Sometimes a Compass Rose is used instead author, publisher, place of publication and
of an arrow to show the direction. year of publication should be given.
Source
Every map must give the source of the data
used. The source should normally be given
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Excercise 1
Refer the map (Figure 9.1) and label the components of a map on the outline map of India
o o o o o o o o
68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 E
o
36 N N
W E o
36 N
S
o
32
o
32
o
28
o
24
o
20 o
20
o
16
BAY OF BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
o
12 o
12
o
8 N
o
Not to Scale 8 N
o
72 N o INDIAN o o o
76 84 88 92 E
OCEAN
Excercise 2 Scale : 1 : 2,00, 000 ,000

Based on the details given below, mark the Legend low rainfall, moderate rainfall,
components of the map in their appropriate heavy rainfall
place in the map of Tamil Nadu.
Latitude 88N to 138N. Longitude 748E
Title: Tamil Nadu - Distribution of
to 808 E
rainfall during Northeast Monsoon 2017
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Excercise 3 representing 10 km of the corresponding

Draw the symbols used in topographic distance on the ground.1 inch equals
sheet to show various categories of 16 miles. This example tells us that
a. Railway lines 1 inch on the map represents 16 miles
on the ground. This is the easiest scale
b. Roadways
to understand because it generally uses
c. Water features
familiar units.
d. Physical features
Example :
e. Cultural features
f. Vegetation 1 centimetre to 10 kilometres
2. Representative fraction (RF)

9.2 Scale
It shows the relationship between the map
The scale is defined as the ratio between distance and the corresponding ground
the distance of two points on the map distance in the same units of length. R. F.
and their corresponding distance on the is generally shown as a fraction. For
ground. The scale is an essential element example, a fraction of 1 : 40,000 shows that
in all types of maps. The scale of the map one unit of length on the map represents
permits the user to convert distance on 40,000 of the same units on the ground
the map to distance on the ground. i.e; 1 cm or 1 inch on the map represents
A map scale provides the relationship 40,000 cm and 40,000 inches, respectively
between the map and the whole or a part on the ground.
of the earth’s surface shown on it. We can R.F has the following characteristics :
also express this relationship as a ratio of
1. If the numerator is in centimeters,
distances between two points on the map
then the denominator is in metres and
and their corresponding distance on the
kilometres.
ground. The scale can be represented as
a fraction where the numerator refers to 2. If the numerator is in inch, then the
map distance and the denominator refers denominator is in miles.
to ground distance. Example :
There are at least three ways of representing RF is represented as 1/40,000
scale. They are: or 1:40,000
1. Statement Scale 3. Graphic or bar scale
2. Representative Fraction (R. F.) In this type of scale the map distances
3. Graphical or Bar Scale and the corresponding ground distances
are marked using a line bar with primary
1. Statement Scale and secondary divisions on it. However,
unlike the statement of the scale method,
The scale of a map may be indicated in the
the graphical scale stands valid even when
form of a written statement. For example,
the map is reduced or enlarged. This is the
if on a map a written statement appears as
unique advantage of the graphical method
stating 1 cm represents 10 km, it means
of representing scale.
that on that map a distance of 1 cm is
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Example: Step 1:
convert into same units of
R. F. 1:50,000 measurement
Metres 1000 500 0 1 2 3 4 Kilometres
(1 Km 5 100000 cm)
Step 2: 10 km 5 1000000 cm Therefore
Solved Examples 5 cm: 1000000 cm
Statement of Scale into R. F. Step 3: simplify the ratio
1. Convert the given Statement of Scale of 1 1: 1000000/5

inch represents 5 miles into R. F. Answer : R.F. 5 1: 200000 or 1/200000
Solution b. 2 inches represents 4 miles
The given Statement of Scale may be Step 1:
converted into R. F. using the following measurement
steps. (1 mile 2 63,360 inches)
1 inch represents 5 miles Step 2: 4 miles 5 63,360 3 4 5 253440
or 1 inch represents 5 3 63,360 inches Therefore 2 inches: 253440 inches
(1 mile 5 63,360 inches) Step 3: simplify the ratio
or 1 inch represents 316,800 inches 1: 253440/2 5 126720
Answer R. F. 1 : 316,800 or 1/316800
Answer : R.F. 5 1: 126720 or 1/126720
R. F. into Statement of Scale c) 1 cm represents 100 metres
2. Convert R. F of 1 : 200,000 into Step 1:
Statement of Scale (In Metric System) measurement
Solution (1m 5 100 cm)
The given R. F. of 1 : 200,000 may be
Step 2: 100 m 5 10000 cm Therefore
converted into Statement of Scale
1 cm: 10000 cm
using the following steps :
1 : 200,000 means that 1 unit on the map Answer : R.F. 5 1: 10000 or 1/10000
represents 200,000 units on the ground. Construction of the Graphical/Bar Scale
or 1 cm represents 200,000 /100,000 (1
1. Construct a graphical scale for an
km 5 100,000 cm) R.F. 1 : 50,000 and read the distances
or 1 cm represents 2 km in kilometre and metre.
Answer 1 cm represents 2 km (NOTE: By convention, a length of nearly
3. Convert the given Statement of Scale 15 cm is taken to draw a graphical scale.)
into Representative Fraction (R. F.). Calculations
a. 5 cm represents 10 km To get the length of line for the graphical
b. 2 inches represents 4 miles scale, these steps may be followed:
c. 1 cm represents 100 metres R.F. 51 : 50,000 means that 1 unit of the
map represents 50,000 units on the ground
a. 5 cm represents 10 km
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or 1 cm represents 50,000 cm or 0.5 Km c. 1 cm to 1 km

(1 Km 5 100000 cm). Therefore, 10 cm d. 1 cm to 50km
represents 5 km e. 1 cm to 100 km
Construction 9.3. Measurement of distance between
The graphical scale may be constructed by places
following these steps: The linear features shown on the maps can
Draw a straight line of 10 cm and be classified into two broad categories, i.e.
divide it into 5 equal parts these are the 1.Straight lines
primary division. Mark the first division 2. Erratic or zigzag lines.
as 0. Assign the value of 1 km for the
four divisions starting from 0. Therefore Straight line features
the primary scale has 4 divisions and is The measurement of straight line features
4 km long. like roads, railway lines and canals is simple.
Divide the extreme left side division It can be taken directly with a pair of dividers
into 10 equal parts and mark each division or a scale placed on the map surface.
by a value of 100 metres, beginning from 0.
Erratic or zig zag lines
This is the secondary scale representing
1000 mts. However, care should be taken to measure
Metres 1000 500 0 1 2 3 4 Kilometres
distances , along erratic paths, such as roads,
boundaries, coastlines, rivers and streams.
The distances along all such features can be
measured by placing a thread at the starting
Exercise
point and carrying it along the line up to the
1. Convert the statement into RF. end point. The thread is then stretched and
a. 1 cm to 10 km measured to determine the distance. It can
b. 1 cm to 5 km also be measured by using a simple instrument
c. 1 cm to 1 km called Rotameter. The wheel of the ‘rotameter’
is moved along the route or line from start to
d. 1 cm to 50km
end and the reading noted down.
e. 1 cm to 100 km
2. Convert the RF into statement:
a. 1: 100000
b. 1: 50000
c. 1: 250000 Thread
d. 1: 5000000 Curved L-line
e. 1: 30000
3. Construct a graphical scale for the
following:
a. 1 cm to 10 km Measuring a curved line using a thread and a ruler
b. 1 cm to 5 km
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Example Step 1.
Measure the distance between
a. Measure the straight line distance the two points with the help of a
between the towns Peel and Castle thread.
town. Step 2. Place the thread on a scale and
read the measurement in cm.
0 5 10 km
0 5 10 mi (example if it is 3.2cm)
Step 3. Note the scale of the map in this
Irish Sea
Ramsey
case 1 cm 5 1 km
Step 4.
Multiply the measured distance
with the scale of the map.
Peel
(3.2 3 1 km 5 3.2 km)
DOUGLAS
Answer : The distance between the two
Castletown
points is 3.2 km
Calf of
Man Irish Sea
Chicken Exercise
Rock
1. Measure the road and railway distance

Step 1. Measure the distance between the between your nearest town and
towns Peel and Castle town with a Chennai city from Tamil Nadu in your
scale or thread in cm.(example if atlas.
it is 2.9 cm)
2. Measure the length of Tamil Nadu
Step 2. Note the scale of the map in this coastline .
case 1 cm 5 10km 3. Measure distance between any two
Step 3.
Multiply the measured distance nearest villages in a topo sheet.
with the scale of the map.(2.9 3
10km 5 29km) Activity
Answer : The distance between the two https://support.google.com/maps/
urban centres is 29 km
answer/1628031?co5GENIE...hl5e
a. Measure the irregular line distance
Using this link measure distance
between the points A and B.
between any two selected places of
B
your choice.
A 9.4 Measurement of Area

The measurement of a geographical area
can be carried out on a map. There are
0 1 2 3 km number of methods used to measure area
on a map. One of the simplest methods is
by means of similar squares.
Fig. 1.8: A String along the irregular distance
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Step 1: Count the number of full squares

first 5 10 (shaded blue) 1 small
square 5 1 cm2
Step 2: Next, count the numbers of the
fractional squares
¾ square (yellow) 5 4,
½ square (green) 5 2 and
¼ square (pink) 5 10
Step 3:
Calculate the total number of
squares 10
10 3 1 510,
Number of 3/4 square
4 3 3/4 5 3
Number of 1/2 squares
2 3 1/25 1 and
number of 1/4 squares
10 3 1/4 5 2.5
Step 4: Add all these values
(10 1 3 1 1 1 2.5 5 16.5 squares)
Step 5:
Multiply 16 with the scale of
the map
16.5 3 1 km2 516.5 km2
Hence the area of the given place is 5 16
square Km.
Square method: The square method
is the most common method to measure
Example:2
area. In this method, the area to be
measured is covered by squares by placing
a sheet of graph paper beneath the map on
an illuminated tracing table or by tracing
the area onto the graph sheet. The squares
pertain to a scale.
Example:1
Calculate the area of the given map whose
scale is 1 centimetre 5 1 kilometre cover
the given area with a set of squares of side.
Area of 1 small square 5 1 km2
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Measure the given area using square Hence the area of the given place is 5 15
method: scale is 1 centimetre 5 1 kilometre square Km.
(area of one small square 5 1 square Km )
Solution: Activity
https://www.makeuseof.com › Internet
Measure the area of any selected
village/plot /area of your choice using
this link.
9.5 Enlargement and reduction of

maps
In the process of compiling maps
cartographers are often required to either
reduce or enlarge maps. Reduction or
Step 1: Count the number of full squares enlargement involves change in the size.
first 5 11 4 Units
Step 2: Next, count the numbers of the
fractional squares
4 Units
¾ square 5 2,
2 Units
½ square 5 4 and
¼ 5 2
Step 3:
Calculate the total number of
squares 2 Units
11 3 1 5 11
An enlargement provides the same map
Number of 3/4 square: but proportionally larger than the original.
2 3 3/4 5 1.5 A reduction gives the same map that is
Number of 1/2 squares: proportionally smaller than the original.
4 3 1/25 2 and The above image or map has been
number of 1/4 squares: reduced by ½ .The amount that an original
image has been enlarged or reduced is
2 3 1/4 5 0.5)
called a scale factor, or an enlargement or
Step 4: Add all these values reduction factor. It is the constant factor
(11 1 1.5 1 2 1 0.5 5 15 squares) by which all dimensions of an object are
Step 5:
Multiply 15 with the scale of enlarged or reduced in a map. If shapes have
the map been reduced by half, the scale factor is ½.
15 3 1 515 km2 The ratio between the area of a map on
one scale and its area to another scale is
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equal to the square of the ratios between Step 1: Draw a network of squares on the
the scales of the original and enlarged or original map, each side being 1 cm. in length.
reduced maps.
Graphical Method
Graphically maps can be enlarged or
reduced with the help of similar squares.
The square method is the most
common and simplest method for
enlargement and reduction of maps. In
order to enlarge a map, cover the original
map with a set of squares of equal sides.
The side of the squares has to be enlarged
proportionally to that the original map.
The side of the square of the new map has
to be determined using the formula.
Rajasthan R.F=1:16,000,000
New scale
Scale of the new map 5 3 Side of the square of the original map.
old scale
Example: 2 Step 2: Calculation
This is a map of Rajasthan drawn on a When the scale is 1/16,000,000 the side of
scale of 1/16,000,000 and is to be enlarged the small square is one cm.
on the scale of 1/8,000,000. For Scale of the map 1/16,000,000 side
of the small square 51 cm
Rajasthan Therefore, If scale is to be 1/8,000,000
side of the small square of new map 5 x
1/8,000,000
X5 x 1 cm
1/16,000,000
1 x 16,000,000
X5 5 2cm
1 x 8,000,000
When the scale is 1/8,000,000 the side of
the small square will be 2cmNow draw a
network of squares, each side measuring
2 cm. The number of squares will be the
same as on the original map. Now transfer
the outline of original map on the enlarged
R.F=1:16,000,000 map square by square.
To enlarge the given map on the scale of

1/8,000,000:
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R.F= 1:8,000,000
Australia
Example: 3
This is a map of Australia drawn on the
scale of 1/32,000,000 and is to be enlarged
on the scale of 1/16,000,000. The side of
each square is ½ cm.
Calculation
To enlarged the given map on the scale of
1/16,000,000:
In the given map, when the scale is
1/32,000,000 the side of the small square
is 0.5 cm. R.F= 1:32,000,000
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Australia
R.F= 1:32,000,000
Australia R.F= 1:16,000,000
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Therefore, If scale is to be 1/16,000,000 side of the small square 5 x

1/16,000,000
X5 x 0.5 cm
1/32,000,000
32,000,000
X5 5 2 cm
16,000,000
When the scale is 1/16,000,000 the side of the small square will be 2 cm. Now draw a network
of squares, each side measuring 2 cm. The number of squares will be the same as on the original
map. Now transfer the outline of original map on the enlarged map.
Exercise:
Trace the outline of any two districts of Tamil Nadu from your atlas and enlarge and
reduce the same.
References
1. Singh R.L. and R. Singh (2001) Map Work and Practical Geography, Central Book
Depot, Allahabad.
2. Singh L.R. (2013) Fundamentals of Practical Geography, ShardaPustakBhavan,
Allahabad.
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350
0
325
0
300
0
275
0
250
Unit 10 225
0
0
200
0
Representation of Relief
Features and Climatic Data
Chapter Outline • Understand how to identify
10.1 Introduction different landscapes.
10.2 Methods of Representing • List types of measuring landscapes
Relief Features • Draw cross section of contours and
10.3 Climatic Diagrams identify landforms.
10.4 Wind Rose Diagram
10.1 Introduction Hachures are small lines drawn to

represent slopes. The lines are drawn
A map gives all the information about a
thicker to represent steeper slopes and
place according to the scale and projection
thinner for gentle slope. The slopes above
used for mapping. A two dimensional
45° is depicted completely in black colour.
map is capable of representing the third
dimension - relief (elevation and slope) Hachures
by various methods which has been in
practice from ancient times.
10.2 Methods of Representing Relief

Features
The important methods of representing
relief features are hachures, contours,
form lines, spot heights, bench marks,
trigonometrical points, hill shading, layer-
colouring, and so on. Each method has its
own merits and demerits in depicting the
relief of the land. Figure 10.1 Hachures
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Contours are imaginary lines connecting dots with their respective values written
places having same elevation above mean beside it.
sea level. They are drawn in brown colour. Bench marks represent the actual height
Form lines are like contours representing of a tall structure like a tall building, pillar,
features that are not actually surveyed. bridges or any other object of permanent
They are shown by broken lines. nature. They are marked with the letters BM
Spot heights are heights of places surveyed with the respective height.
and they denote the actual height above Trigonometrical Stations are points
mean sea level. They are shown in maps as included in the triangulation survey and
How Topographic Maps Works
Contour Lines
Index Contour
Contour Line
Contour Interval
Figure 10.2 Contours Figure 10.3 Form lines
Location indiated Elevation indicated

by a symbol by a label
34
1563 1563
Preferred First alternative

Figure 10.4 Spot heights
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Private
BM B298
x 3263 6
S
BM CI
32357 x 3227
Benchmark
E
Figure 10.5 Benchmark
767.6
areas if light was shining from a certain
direction.
752.9
72 Layer Colouring is a method showing
relief in layers and each layer is given a
877.9
853
different colour. Physical maps in atlas
and wall maps use this method to show
relief features. Ocean depth is also shown
Figure 10.6 Trigonometrical Stations in various shades of blue. There is an
international recognition for colours
are marked in the map with a triangle with used in these maps. Accordingly blue
the actual height of the place. represents water bodies, green for plains,
Hill Shading (levels of gray) is a method of various shades of brown for highlands and
representing relief on a map by depicting white for snow covered peaks.
the shadows that would be cast by elevated
Layer Coloring
Jesup
Area of different heights are shown using different
colours. Brown shows the highest point.
100
150 100
Height in metres (m) above sea level
More than 300 100 - 200
200 - 300 Less than 100

Gassaway
Figure 10.7 Hill Shading Figure 10.8 Layer colouring

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Contours point or a line. In over hanging cliff

the contours cut each other.
Contour is universal method to show the
relief. The unit of measurement of contour Figure 10.10 gives the general features
is generally metres above the mean sea shown by contours.
level. Contour has an advantage that it Drawing Cross Section from
does not hide the other features drawn Contours
on the toposheet. Reading contours is a
skill that helps us to understand the actual The following figure shows the way two
landscape. The skill can be obtained by adjacent hills are shown by contours.
understanding the salient features of a) Two adjacent hills shown by contour
contours. They are as follows: Drawing cross section of the contours
1. Contours are drawn at regular intervals allows one to know the exact landform
in brown colour. Generally 20m
interval is followed in 1:50,000 and 40
100m interval in 1:250,000 toposheet. 30
2. Every fifth contour is a dark line to

20
10
enhance map reading.

3. The value of contour is printed by
breaking the contour line andalso 40
given at the edge of the toposheet.

30
20
10
4. Generally contours never cut or cross

each other. In case of water fall and
cliffs
1.10 contours
Readingalmost
contourtouch a same
lines can tell us a about Figure
the 10.9 Two adjacent hills
nature of landforms.
Knoll: Spur:
a low circle-shaped contours form a V or U shape
hill on the end of a spur pointing away from higher land
Flat land: Steep slope:

contours very widely spaced contours close
together
40 Gentle slope: 110
contours widely spaced Escarpment:
50 Plateau: a large sudden drop in
60 generally level,
70 height at edge
80 elevated area
Round hill: 86 of plateau
contours in
100
Cliff:
a circle or
90 50
contours on top
oval shape 80 or almost on top
70 40
60 of each other
Saddle: River: Valley: Gorge:

a lower area flows downhill contours form contours on both
between two areas and contours a V or U shape sides of a narrow
of higher land point to higher pointing to valley are very steep
ground higher ground
Figure 10.10 Contours of different land features

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depicted in the toposheet. Drawing cross 5. Draw vertical lines from each
section involves selecting a section within intersection point on the line AB with
the portion of the contour, marking the the contours to the horizontal line
intersections of these selected contours representing its value.
on suitable vertical scale and joining 6. Join all these points to identify the
these points to indentify the land form. feature shown.
Generally closely spaced contours indicate 7. Shade the feature in black to complete
that the slope is steep, and widely spaced the cross section.
contours indicate that the slope is gentle.
(Figure 10.11 and 10.12) General instruction to identify features
Steps to be followed in drawing cross shown in contours:
section: • A hill is shown by circular contours
with height less than 1,000 m.
1. Draw the contours in brown colour.
• A plateau is an elevated land represented
2. Draw a line AB for which the cross by inner most contour roughly rectangular
section has to be drawn. in shape and closer outer contours. The
3. Below the contour draw required height may generally vary from 300m
number of horizontal lines of equal to 600 metres. If a plateau is enclosed
distance and interval (2mm) to by mountains, it is called intermontane
represent all the contour values given plateau and when it is formed in the foot
in the diagram hills it is called piedmont plateau.
4. Write the value of all the contours • A ridge is an elongated and steep sloped
in such a way that the lowest value high mountain with two or more peaks
of the contour forms the base line shown by elliptical contour lines. A
and the values increase according narrow low depression between two
to the contour interval given in the peaks is called Col. Saddle is similar
diagram. to a col but higher, broader and gently
sloping from peaks of a ridge.
M.S.L
80
25
50 Close Contour lines 75

75
indicate a steep slope
100 DEPRESSION
125
70
150
A B When far apart they show
a gentle slope 65
60
.158
M 60
Spot heights are heights
50 between Conltour lines and
40 are shown thus .158
30 60
20 65
70
10
75
M.S.L M.S.L 80
Figure 10.11 Hill Figure 10.12 Valley

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• A valley is a long depression with contours meeting at a same point on

steep slope formed by the vertical the hill slope. The difference between
erosion of the river within the stretch the value of the highest and the lowest
of upland. The contours bend sharply contour touching the same point gives
across the river in a ‘V’ shape with the height of the waterfall.
the apex pointing towards higher • A cliff is a steep sloped exposure of a
elevations. valley or coast. If it is near sea we call
• Spurs are projection of land from it sea cliff.
higher to lower ground. Contours • Gorge is a very steep valley at higher
bend smoothly with the apex of the ‘V’ elevations formed by river erosion. It
pointing towards lower ground. can be identified by closely converging
• A waterfall occurs when there is a contours in the river course.
sudden difference in height of the river • A volcano is represented by closed
valley.A waterfall is a place where contours with the innermost
water flows over a vertical drop or a contours having lesser values than
series of steep drops in the course of the surrounding, denoting the crater
a stream or river. It is represented by depression.
4000
3000
3500
3400
3200
A B
500
400
300
200
100
metres
500 In Metres
4000
400 3600
300 3500
3400
200
3200
100
Figure 10.13 Plateau Figure 10.14 Inter montane plateau

WATERFALL
Sea Cliff V Shaped valley
00
00
17
100
16
00
00
15
00
00
12 00
13
COASTLINE
14
11
0 0
10
0
80
W 10
A B 0
0
SEA
70
600
200
500
300
60
400
700
300
0
50
A 400 A B
W = WATERFALL B
0
30
CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 m

20
CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 m

0
10
1700
m
1600 CONTOUR
CONTOURINTERVAL
INTERVAL100
100mm 800 800
1500 500 m
1400 400 700 700
1300 300 600 600
1200 200
500 500
1100 100
1000 0 400 400
Figure 10.15 Waterfall Figure 10.16 Sea cliff Figure 10.17 V-Shaped

valley
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Exercise 1 diagrams drawn to represent climatic data.

Match the following Mean monthly temperature of stations can
be shown in simple graph. Comparison of
maximum, minimum temperature with
1 A
mean monthly temperature can be done by
drawing a multiple graph. Generally rainfall
2 B
is shown as bar diagram for individual
station. Special climatic diagrams combine
both bar and graph to show the climatic
3 C variations among stations.
4 D
Example 1
1. Draw graph to show the average
5 E
maximum and minimum temperature
for Chennai city.
6 F
In the x axis,mark the months of the year.
1 cm = one month
10.3 Climatic Diagrams In the y axis, mark the temperature
after selecting suitable scale considering
Climatic diagrams show specific weather
element for a specific station for a specific the lowest and highest temperature of the
time. Graph, bar charts, combination of station. (1 cm = 2 degrees Celsius)
graph and bar and wind roses are few climatic
Temperature /
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Maximum
29.3 30.9 32.9 34.5 37.1 37.0 35.3 34.7 34.2 32.1 29.9 28.9
Temperature in °C
Minimum
21.2 22.2 24.2 26.6 28.0 27.5 26.4 25.9 25.6 24.6 23.1 21.9
Temperature in °C
Chennai - Average maximum and minimum temperature

o o
Maximum temperature in C Minimum temperature in C
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 10.18 Chennai - Average maximum and minimum temperature
250
CHENNAI - AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL

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Example 2
Draw climatic diagram for the following station.
Station: Cuddalore
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall mm 15.54 10.44 12.48 20.96 57.1 41.24 64.4 99.28 147.17 204.22 165.07 133.76
Temp. oC 25.3 26.58 28.46 30.61 31.32 30.75 30 29.34 29.03 27.89 26.45 25.36
Cuddalore - Annual Temperataure and Rainfall

220 35
204.22
200
30
180
165.07
160
25
147.17
140 133.76
Temperature in ºC
Rainfall in mm
20
120
99.28
100
15
80
64.4
57.1 10
60
41.24
40
5
20.96
20 15.54
10.44 12.48
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
Rainfall Temperature
Figure 10.19 Cuddalore - Average temperature and rainfall
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Exercise :
Draw climatic diagram for the following station.
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Coimbatore
Rainfall mm 7.56 13.34 23.04 85.78 178.47 481 492.64 315.2 202.82 263.57 153.53 44.03
Temp. oC 25.4 26.43 27.89 28.77 28.06 26.37 25.55 25.68 26.17 26.21 25.99 25.29
Karur
Rainfall mm 8.14 16.72 23.73 62.44 96.94 90.68 122.52 106.8 144.68 213.49 135.09 67.64
Temp. oC 23.2 24.4 26.06 27.41 27.17 25.75 25.06 24.96 25.22 24.74 23.91 23.01
Tirunelveli
Rainfall mm 14.9 31.45 24.32 85.27 128.5 195.7 147.82 118.9 116.18 203.96 163.37 68.79
Temp. oC 21.1 21.63 22.44 22.95 22.7 21.64 21.19 21.15 21.46 21.3 21.24 21.13
Vellore
Rainfall mm 4.64 9.91 10.58 28.44 94.3 71.28 96.26 122.3 172.47 195.62 122.08 58.25
Temp. oC 23.2 25.08 27.46 29.69 30.04 28.51 27.56 27.11 26.92 25.9 24.33 23.07
Source: India Water Portal | Safe, sustainable water for all. www.indiawaterportal.org/
10.4 Wind Rose Diagram Example

Wind rose diagrams show wind data for a Percentage of Days
particular station. It is in the form of star shape Wind Direction Wind Blowing from
so it is also called star diagram. Wind rose this Direction
diagram is used to depict the wind direction North 27
and average frequency for a particular site. North east 9
Wind data are generally collected at 10 m East 8
above ground and if required at various South east 14
height for specific purposes. They can be South 10
prepared for month-wise, season-wise or South west 7
yearly as needed. Wind velocity can also be West 6
shown within this diagram. Sometimes they North west 15
even include air temperature information. Calm 4
Wind rose diagram is vital for constructing Step 1: Select a suitable scale (in this case
runways in airports. The run way is generally 1 cm = 10%)
oriented towards the prevailing wind. Wind Step 2: Draw a circle to represent the calm
rose diagram is an essential inclusion in for this scale.
pilots chart and sailing charts. Architects
and builders need to analyse the wind rose Step 3: Mark the directions in this circle
diagram for proper ventilation. The concept using a protractor as shown in the figure.
of simple wind rose diagram is given below. (considering 0° for north, 45° for NE, 90°
for East, 135° for South east, 180° for
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South, 225° for South west, 270° for West Step 5: Mention the calm in the centre,
and 315° for North west. mention the scale chosen to draw the
000 o or 360 o diagram and name the directions as
instructed above.
337.5 o 022.5 o
N Wind Rose Diagram
NNW NNE
315 o 045 o Percentage of days wind blowing from various direction.
NW NE
292.5 o WNW ENE

067.5 o
270 o 090 o
W E
1 c.m = 10% of days
4
ESE 112.5 o
(4 c.m diameter)
247.5 o WSW
SW SE
135 o
225 o SSW
S
SSE
202.5 o 157.5 o
180 o Activity
Step 4: Draw a bar with suitable with Know about the wind rose diagram
equal to the length of 2.7 cm in northern and its interpretation in this web site:
direction, 0.9 cm in the north eastern https://www.envitrans.com/how-to
direction and so on to complete the -interpret-a-wind-rose.php
diagram.
Exercise
Draw wind rose diagram for the following stations.
Direction of Wind / Percentage of days wind blowing from this
Wind Blowing Days direction from the Stations
Kota Delhi Cuddalore Cochin
North 10 4 6 2
North east 15 4 30 10
East 15 10 20 10
South east 10 8 8 6
South 2 4 6 25
South west 2 6 6 25
West 2 29 6 5
North west 4 3 6 7
Calm 40 10 12 10
References Web References

1. Singh R.L. and R. Singh (2001) Map 1. https://www.slideshare.net/TimCor
Work and Practical Geography, Central ner/earth-science-mappingtopogra
Book Depot, Allahabad. phic-maps-ppt
2. Singh L.R. (2013) Fundamentals of 2. https://www.slideshare.net/bala1957
Practical Geography, ShardaPustak- /use-of-toposheets-in-civil-engineer
Bhavan, Allahabad. ing-projects
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Unit 11
Interpretation of
Topographical Map
Chapter Outline and information given by it. Map reading

in actually, denotes the formation of the
11.1 Introduction visual picture of the ground depicted on a
11.2 Conventional signs map. It requires good deal of practice. The
and symbols best way to familiarise once self with the
11.3 Open Series Maps topography of a region is to compare the
11.4 Marginal Information topographic map of the region with the
11.5 Interpretation of Topo sheet actually area depicted through a field visit
11.6 Interpretation of selected topo called ground truthing. It is not possible
sheet for anyone in their life time to collect
direct information about the whole earth
Learning Objectives: but the student can get a large amount
of information about the earth from the
• Understand the importance of
topographic sheet or from these maps.
conventional signs and symbols
Topographical map commonly known
• Appreciate the marginal informa- as topo sheets, are special maps prepared
tion printed on the topo sheet by survey department that show a three-
• Develop map reading skills dimensional surface on a two-dimensional
sheet of paper. In India the topographic
• Identify the various physical and
sheets for the whole country are prepared
cultural features in a topo sheet.
by an organisation called as the ‘Survey
• Interpret a topographic sheet of India’ (SOI). The sheets are prepared
largely on a scale of 1:50,000. Maps on scale
11.1 Introduction
of 1: 25,000, 1: 250,000 and 1:1,000,000 or
A Map is a representation of a part or
million sheets are also prepared.
whole of the earth’s surface on a two
dimensional surface. A map is a good 11.2 Conventional signs and symbols
guide, but it requires some skill on the part Features which have to be repeatedly
of the map user to follow the direction represented on maps are depicted by
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special signs and symbols. The signs • Yellow - Cultivated areas are shown as
bear some pictorial resemblance to the yellow wash.
original feature and their meaning is • Red - Grid lines (East and North) and
quiet clear. Some conventional signs need their numbering; roads, cart track
to be studied closely before they can be and foot path, settlements, huts and
recognised. buildings are shown in red.
Point, line and area symbols are used
• White patches - Uncultivated land
to depict various physical and cultural
and glaciated and snow covered areas
features. They can be in the form of
alphabets, figures, signs or colour wash. in mountains. (Figure 11.1)
The Survey Of India ( SOI) have
11.3 Open Series Maps
standardised a set of conventional signs and
symbols to be used in topographical maps. Survey of India (SOI) brings out two series
Seven colours are commonly used in of maps through the National Map Policy,
the maps of Survey of India. 2005.
1) Defence Series Maps (DSMs) -
• Black - All writings on the map except These topographical maps (on Everest/
grid numbers (names, abbreviation WGS-84 Datum and Polyconic/UTM
such as DB, RS, PO), river banks, Projection) are on various scales (with
broken ground, dry streams, surveyed heights, contours and full content without
trees, heights and their numbering, dilution of accuracy). These maps
railway lines, telephone and telegraph mainly cater for defence and national
lines, lines of latitude and longitude, all securityrequirements. This series of maps
boundaries, any written amplification (in analogue or digital forms) for the entire
(such as ‘open scrub’, ‘metalled road country are classified by the Ministry of
under construction’, ‘meter guage’ are Defence.
given in black. 2) Open Series Maps (OSMs) - OSMs are
• Brown - Contour lines, their brought out exclusively by SOI, primarily
numbering, form lines, sand features for supporting development activities in
and barren rocky areas such as hills the country. OSMs bear different map
and dunes are represented in brown. sheet numbers and are in UTM Projection
on WGS-84 datum. Each of these OSMs
• Blue – Blue colour is used to show
(in both hard copy and digital form)
water features or water bodies (Rivers,
become‘Unrestricted’.
Lakes, ponds, tanks, wells, etc.,)
• Green - Wooded and forested areas 11.4 Marginal Information
shown as green wash, orchards, Marginal information includes the
scattered trees and scrubs shown by topographical sheet number, its location,
green symbols. grid references, its extent in degrees and
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Figure 11.1 Conventional Signs and Symbols
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Figure 11.2 Open Series Map
minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc. 11.5 Interpretation of Topo sheet
Marginal information is classified in to:
Study of Topographical Maps
• Extra Marginal Information- Serial
Topographic maps are general reference
Number, name of the State, District
maps. They are also called ordnance maps.
and other general information.
These maps are ideal for researchers,
• Intra Marginal Information – Grid planners, administrators, defence personal,
information, contour values, names of hikers, tourists and for class room purpose.
the next nearest places connected by They give clear details of actually surveyed
transport lines and distance in Km. natural and manmade features. These maps
• Inter Marginal Information or Body are drawn to scale.
of the Map– depicts the topography by Geographical knowledge and clear
using various Signs and symbols understanding of conventional signs and
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72 E
78 E
o o
W E
36o N S
84 E
o
J-43
102 E
36o N
66o E
90 E
96 E
o
o o
I-43 I-44
o
o
32 N 32 N
H-42 H-43 H-44 H-45 H-46 H-47
28o N
o
22 N
G-42 G-43 G-44 G-45 G-46 G-47
o
o
24 N 24 N
F-42 F-43 F-44 F-45 F-46 o
102
o
o
20 N 20 N
E-43 E-44 E-45
o
o
16 N 16 N
D-42 D-43 D-44 D-46
o
12o N 12 N
C-42 C-43 C-44 C-46
o o
8 N 8 N
72 E
78 E
84 E
66o E
o o o B-46
o o
4 N 4 N
90 E
96 E
o o
Figure 11.3 Index System

symbols is essential to understand and • Man made
interpret a Survey of India Topographical
• Vegetation
sheet.
• Land use
A topographic sheet is usually
interpreted under the following sub • Settlement
headings: • Transport and communication
• Marginal information
Marginal Information
• Relief
The marginal information includes the
• Drainage topographical sheet number, direction, its
• Natural and location, grid references, latitudinal and
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J42X16 (1:50,000)
J42 (1:1,000,000) A B C D E
OSM Sheet No A B C D E F 01 05 09 13 J42X16 (1:50,000) F G H I J
(UTM/WGS84) G H I J K L 02 06 10 14 NW NE K L M N O
>>>> P Q R S T
M N O P Q R 03 07 11 15 J42X16SE J42X16Y
U V W X Y
S T U V W X SW SE
Topo Sheet No. 04 08 12 16 (1:25,000) (1:10,000)
(Everest/Polyconic)
42 43 44 45 46 47
38 (1,000,000) 40'
A E I M
B F J N
J 37 42 51 60 69 75 80 89
C G K O
D H L P 36'
38D (1:250,000)
I 38 43 52 61 70 76 81 90
01 05 09 13
02 06 10 14 32'
03 07 11 15
04 08 12 16 H 39 44 53 62 71 77 82 91
38D16 (1:50,000) 28'
NW NE
G 40 45 54 63 72 78 83 92
SW SE
38D16SW 24'
(1:25,000)
F
41 46 55 64 73 79 84 93
20'
68' 70' 90'
E 47 56 65 74 85 94
16'
86' 88'
D 48 57 66 86 95
Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal 12'
C 49 58 67 87 96
8'
B 50 59 68 88 97
4'
66' 72' 74' 76' 78' 80' 82' 84' 92' 94' 96' 98' 100'
102'
Figure 11.4 Index for conversion of Topo sheet No. to OSM sheet No.
longitudinal extent in degrees, minutes be determined. The contour values and

and seconds, scale, the districts, covered, patterns have to be studied. Spot heights,
contour interval etc., bench marks etc help in understanding
Relief the height of certain areas.
Relief refers to the general topography of Drainage
the area under study. First, the landforms
Drainage of an area can be understood by
like mountains, hills, plateaus along with
observing the characteristics of the rivers,
the peaks, ridges should be identified
their tributaries and drainage pattern.
and the general direction of slope can
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Vegetation port town, religious or tourist station

Important trees are shown by special or a hill station.
symbols. Trees, grasses and shrubs are all The basic occupations that the people
shown in green colour. Agricultural land are probably engaged in, can be understood
is shown in yellow colour. after the land use pattern and the type of
Land use settlement have been understood.
Land use includes the use of land under
Transport and communication
different categories like agriculture,
pasture, barren land and forest area. Other The means of transport and communication
land use categories could be mining, being used can be identified from the
industry, trade, tourism, fishing or cattle presence of national and state highways,
rearing. It also informs us about the district and village roads, cart tracks,
presence (location) of airports, railway camel tracks, footpaths, railways,
stations, schools offices, trade centres, waterways, telephone and telegraph lines,
electric substations, etc. Sometimes, land post offices, etc.
use is directly mentioned, for example, Roads are not drawn true to scale.
brick kiln, limestone quarry, etc. At other Metalled roads are shown by double lines,
times it has to be inferred. and unmetalled by broken double lines.
Foot path shown by red dots and cart track
Settlements
by single broken lines. Different kinds of
The size, shape, pattern site, position railways are shown by different signs.
and function of settlements should
be considered while interpreting a 11.6 Interpretation of selected topo
topographical sheet because all these sheet
aspects are interdependent. Mirzapur and Varanasi District, U.P
Settlements could be dispersed or OSM Sheet No G44Q12 63K/12
scattered, compact or nucleated type. They Introduction
may be radial or linear in pattern. They are
also studied under the following heads, The OSM Sheet No G44Q12 63K/12
based on their size and the activities the (Figure 11.2) covers major part of
population is engaged in. Mirzapur District and partly Varanasi
Permanent settlements are shown District of Uttar Pradesh. It is based on
by solid squares and temporary ones in the survey of 1970-71 and was published
outlines of squares. in 1978. It carries the scale of 1: 50,000 and
covers area about 440 km² extending from
• Rural settlements: They can be 25º 0’N latitude to 25º 15’N latitude and
compact, semi compact, dispersed or 82º30’E longitude to 82º 45’E longitude.
linear, etc. Relief
• Urban settlements: It is the capital It has two distinct physiographic units: 1.
city, administrative town, trade centre, The Ganga Plain and 2. Vindhyan Plateau.
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The Ganga Plain extends on both sides of is by and large towards north where they
the meandering course of the Ganga. In the ultimately join the Ganga.
south it conterminates with the Vindhyan Vegetation
Plateau and is crisscrossed by the Chatar
The northern plain is mostly devoid of
Nadi, Khajuri Nadi and Ujhala Nadi and
vegetation as the land has been cleared for
their tributaries. It is a level plain with an
purposes of agriculture. Only small patches
average elevation of about 100 m above the
of vegetation are found along the Chatar
mean sea level. The BM 84 m lies in eastern
and the Harrai Nadia. Of course there are
part of Mirzapur Town. The northern bank
orchards and other planatations near the
of the Ganga is comparatively lower than its
settlements. In the Vindhyan Plateau there
southern counterpart by about 10 m. The
are two main Reserved Forests, the Danti
eastern loop of the Ganga is wider, nearly
Reserve Forests and the Barkachha Reserved
1.5km. or more in width and is marked by
Forests. They are basically mixed scrub
wide sandy shoals.
forests covering the hill slopes and tops.
The Vindhyan Plateau covers the
Means of Irrigation: Wells and tanks are
southern part of Mirzapur District. It covers
the main means of irrigation is this area.
nearly 50% of the total area of the sheet. It
Recently tube wells and canals have also
is essentially a dissected plateau with an
received attention in the northern Ganga
average elevation of 160m above the mean
Plain.
sea level. The meeting point of the Ganga
Plain and the Vindhyan Plateau is marked Settlements
by 120m contour line. It has an undulating
slope and is depicted with residual and flat- The Ganga Plain is well settled, excepting
topped bulls like Deophulva followed by the sandy and mashy tracts along the
Murli (203 m), Rajghat (174m), Shakhar Gana, particularly in the north-east sector
Pao (167 m). There are two ridges running and on both sides of the N.R. line between
parallel to each other and are separated by Khajuri and Chatar Nalas and opposite
low saddles. Vindhyachal. These tracts are annually
visited by the floods of the driver. The
Drainage density of village settlements is well
The master stream of the area is the Ganga marked along the metalled roads.
which has a meandering course and is fed The Vindhyan upland is sparsely
by other tributaries and streams, the main populated with a few large nucleated
ones being the Chater Nadi, the Khajuri settlements where there is cultivated land
Nadi and Ujhala Nadi. They are mostly and water supply sources like tanks exist.
seasonal in character and rain fed. The The most important town of the area is
streams of the Vindhyan Plateau are also certainly Mirzapur located on the southern
seasonal but have formed notches on its loop of the Ganga and has crescent shaped
surface. They have formed some water- urban structure. Next to Mirzapur stands
falls like the Vindhyan Fall and the Tanda the holy town of Vindhyachal characterised
Fall. The direction of the plateau streams
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by temples, the most important being the Exercises

vindhyavasini Temple. It extends between
Answer the following questions based
the N.R. main line and the Ganga. North of
on the given toposheet/ downloaded
the Gnaga lay the market towns of Kachhwa,
toposheet from Survey of India website -
Chilh and Khamaria where bi-Weekly
http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/pages/
markets are held
show/86-maps-data.
1. What is the general settlement pattern
Transport and cmmunication
of the map? Name it and draw the
It is served by two railways, viz. (1) symbols in the settlement.
N.R. Main line (broad gauge electrified) 2. What is the contour interval of the
running from Mughalsarai and passing map given?
through the main stations of Pahara,
3. Name any two modes of transport and
Jhingura, Mirzapur and Vindhyachal and
communication.
(2) N.E. Line (broad gauge) from Mirzapur
Ghat (R.S) to Madhosingh (Varanasi – 4. Draw any 10 conventional symbols in
Allahabad). A loop-line also exists from
the map.
Pahara to a quary about 2kms away. 5. Identify the landforms features and
The area is well connected by roads. The interpret them.
Allahabad-Mughal sarai metalled road runs 6. Identify the latitude and longitude of
across the region south of the N.R. Main line the toposheet.
and passes through Mirzapur. The National 7. Name any two types of vegetation
Highway No. 7 (Great Deccan Road) runs found in the map.
from Mirzapur to Lohaghat (16km.) on its 8. Describe the drainage features.
onward journey to Kanyakumari (2300 k.m)
9. What do the white patches of land
Another metalled road joins Mirzapur and
signify?
southern parts of the district via Churk,
10. What kind of economic activity is
Robertsganj and Pipri.Besides there are
carried out in this area?
other roads like Jaunpur-Mirzapur Road,
Chilh (Mirzapurghat)-Gopiganj Road and
Mirzapur-Bhatauli Road. There are some References
unmetalled roads linking Mirzapur – Chunar Practical Geography. R.L Singh
and Mirzapur-Mharajganj. The Ganga Plain Practical Geography
is, on the whole better served by roads as
compared to its upland counterpart.
Internet Resources
1. www.surveyofindia.gov.in
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Unit 12
Weather Maps

12.1 Introduction • Aware of weather instruments
12.2 Instruments
• Identify weather symbols
for Measuring
Weather Elements • Ability to draw a station model
12.3 Advancement in Measuring • Interpretation of weather map
Weather Elements • Enhance the knowledge about
12.4 Weather Symbols weather forecasting and cyclone
12.5 Station Model tracking.
12.6 Reading Weather Map
amount of cloud and precipitation. These
12.7 Weather Map Interpretation observations are entered on a weather
12.8 Weather Forecasting map with symbols. Thus, weather map
12.9 Tracking of Cyclones portrays the weather elements marked
with recorded symbols for a region at a
particular time. It reveals the prevailing
12.1 Introduction weather condition.
A weather map is a map of the world or
12.2 Instruments for Measuring
part of it showing at a stated time, the
Weather Elements
weather conditions like temperature,
pressure, direction and velocity of the Weather varies with the changes in weather
wind, humidity, clouds, visibility, nature elements such as temperature, pressure,
and amount of precipitation with the wind, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation,
help of symbols. The trained observers sunshine and visibility. The weather is
in observatories or in meteorological measured employing particular instruments
station note the temperature, pressure, and recorded in weather stations. The
directions and strength of the wind, the weather elements are listed below.
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Temperature Wind
Temperature is the hotness or coldness The wind is moving air over the earth’s
of a substance. The temperature of a surface. The air moves from high
particular place changes based on the pressure to low pressure either vertically
factors like latitude, altitude, season, time or horizontally. Wind vane records the
of day, cloud cover, wind, location of the direction of the wind and points out from
sea etc. Temperature is measured utilizing which direction it blows. Cup Anemometer
thermometers. They are Centigrade, measures wind velocity, which is expressed
Fahrenheit, Wet Bulb, Dry Bulb and Tele in knots.(1.852 km speed) Wind Sock is
thermometers. a device that indicates the origin of wind
In Centigrade thermometer, the direction and speed.
temperature of melting ice is taken as 00 Humidity
C and the temperature of boiling water as
The amount of water vapour present in
1000C. In Fahrenheit thermometer, 320F
the atmosphere is termed as Humidity.
represents the freezing point and 2120F
It concentrates in the lower layer of the
represents the boiling point of water. Wet
atmosphere. It varies from place to place and
Bulb and Dry Bulb thermometers are
time to time. It may be classified as absolute,
used to measure humidity in temperature.
specific and relative humidity. Hygrometer
Tele thermometer is used to record
is the instrument that measures the relative
temperature continuously within and
humidity. Hygrograph is an automatic
outside the building. Thermograph
instrument showing the change in relative
produces a continuous trace of the
humidity. Hygrothermograph records both
changing temperature of a place.
humidity and temperature.
Pressure Cloudiness
Pressure is defined as the weight of a Cloudiness indicates the amount of sky
unit column of air at any place. The covered by clouds. Clouds are present in
barometer is an instrument to measure the lower atmosphere at varying altitude.
atmospheric pressure. While both They are varying in size and shape. The
Barometer and Aneroid Barometer clouds are classified as high, middle and
measures atmospheric pressure above low clouds. Ceilometer is an instrument
and below sea level, Altimeter measures that uses a laser to determine the height
air pressure at a height above sea level. of the cloud base. Ceiling projectors
Barograph provides a continuous record measure the height of the base of clouds
of air pressure. The unit of pressure is above the ground. Cloud mirror measures
measured in millibars (mb). Globally, the the percentage of cloud cover. An Okta
pressure determines the wind and weather is a unit of measurement to describe the
pattern. High pressure and low pressure amount of cloud cover. The measurement
are highly related with the increase or of 0 Okta indicates clear sky and 8 Okta
decrease in temperature. denotes completely overcast sky.
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Precipitation 12.3 Advancement in Measuring

The water or ice particles reaching the Weather Elements
ground surface from the atmosphere is In recent days, weather stations use
known as precipitation. The various forms weather balloons, aircraft and ships to
of precipitation are dew, mist, fog, sleet, carry the instruments for measuring the
drizzle, rain and hail. Conventionally, temperature, pressure, humidity in the
the amount of rain has been recorded lower atmosphere. Weather Radars are
by the instrument called Rain gauge. used to locate precipitation, type, intensity.
The amount of rain will be recorded Radiosonde (an instrument carried
in mm or cm or inches at a given time. by balloon or other means to various
The Automated Weather Station (AWS) levels of the atmosphere and transmitting
instrument records the rainfall with the measurements by radio) is an instrument
help of s ensors. used to measure the vertical profiles of
temperature, dew point and winds. It
Sunshine estimates the wind direction, velocity
Sunshine means that the sun’s rays lie based on radar tracking.
within the visible spectrum that reaches Weather satellites help in providing
the earth’s surface. The amount or all weather information accurately. Some
duration of sunshine in hours per day at a of the important weather satellites are:
given region is measured using a sunshine METSAT-1/ KALPANA -1, OCEANSAT-2,
recorder. The sunshine of a place depends INSAT -3D, SCATSAT-1
on various seasons.
12.4 Weather Symbols
Visibility
Symbols are the pictorial representation
Visibility means the transparency of the of the various elements. On a weather
air in the particular place. It depends on map, weather elements are represented
the presence of water, ice, dust and smoke using symbols. Weather codes are used
particles in the atmosphere. Visibility in weather charts as meteorological
is measured by the distance at which symbols. Weather symbols are created and
prominent objects can be seen and the standardized by the World Meteorological
details discerned. The scale of visibility organization and also by Natural Weather
varies from zero, when objects cannot be Bureaus. Knowledge of weather symbols
easily seen beyond 25 metres, to visibility is prime for weather map interpretation
9, when objects can be easily seen at a and weather forecasting. Weather symbols
distance of 50 kilometres. Scale 0 to 3 are listed below for precipitation, wind
indicate Fog, scale 4 represents Haze direction, cloud cover and sea conditions.
or Mist, scale 5 to 9 represents poor to Weather symbols depicted in weather
Excellent visibility. charts help in weather forecasting.
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WEATHER MAP SYMBOLS Sea Condition

CLOUD COVER WIND CONDITIONS
Weather
Sky Completely
Clear
1/8th Cloud Cover 1/4th Cloud Cover Calm Light
Air
Light
Breeze
Elements Sea Representation
Sl.No. Condition of Symbol
1. Calm Cm
3/8th Cloud Cover Sky Half Cloudy 5/8th Cloud Gentle Moderate Fresh
Cover Breeze Breeze Breeze
3/4th Cloud Cover 7/8th Cloud Cover Sky Completely Strong Moderate Fresh
2. Smooth Sm
Cloudy
3. Slight Sl
Breeze Gale Gale
4. Moderate Mod
Sky Obstructed
from view Strong Whole Storm
Gale Gale
WEATHER CONDITIONS 5. Rough Ro

Pure Air Haze Light Fog Shalow Fog Heavy Fog
6. Very Rough V.Ro
, 7. High Hi
Drizzle Rain Rain
Showers
Snow
Shower Rain and
snow Showers 8. Very High V.Hi
Rain and Sleet Ice Crystals Drifting Drifting
9. Phenomenal Ph
Snow Grains Snow High
Snow Snow Low
Hail Ice Pellets Thunder Heavy Dust Devil Squall Dust/Sand

Lighting storms Thunder
Figure 12.1 Weather Map Symbols Barometric pressure reduced to sea level.
The image indicates the sea level pressure
12.5 Station Model as 105 millibars. The symbol extending
The weather station is the place where from cloud cover is the wind barb, that
all the data about the weather are being shows wind direction and wind speed
recorded, evaluated and documented. (velocity). According to the image, the
Station model is the symbolic drawing of wind blows from the North East direction
the current weather condition, based on to the South West direction at a speed of
the collected data of weather elements 15 knots.
in the particular station. The weather
elements observed are shown in symbols
12.6 Reading Weather Map
in station models. Based on the above flow chart basic
The value highlighted in the upper weather elements are represented. The
left corner is the temperature in following points are to be described while
degree Celsius. The image portrays the reading the weather map.
temperature as 12 degrees Celsius. The Pressure
value highlighted in the lower left corner
is the dew point temperature in degrees 1. Location of high pressure shown as ‘H’
Celsius. According to the example, the in the weather map. The number and
dew point of temperature which is 5 location must be specified
degrees Celsius. The image at the centre 2. Location of low pressure, represents as
refers to cloud cover which is 7/8 cloudy. ‘L’ the number of occurrence, location
The value highlighted in the upper right and nearby isobar value to be noted.
corner represents the last three digits of 3. Trend of Isobars-The general path of
the sea level pressure or in other words, isobars are to be observed.
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Pressure
Temperature (millibars) Wind Speed
(celsius)
12 105 Wind Direction
Cloud Cover
Current weather 5 Weather since

last measurements
Dew Point
(celsius)
Figure 12.2 Station model
4. Pressure gradient denotes gentle or 12.7 Weather Map Interpretation

steepness based on the spacing of The weather map is a symbolic
isobars. When the isobars are closely representation of the atmospheric
spaced the pressure gradient is steep conditions of an area at a given time. On
and gentle if the isobars are widely a weather map, you will find isobars and
spaced. symbols related to pressure, direction and
Wind Direction and Speed velocity of winds, clouds, precipitation
and sea condition on a base map with
1. In weather Map interpretation, wind political boundaries. These details are
barbs indicate wind direction and recorded at different weather stations at
wind speed. The staff part shows wind specified time.
direction. The staff is a line above the
Meteorological Departments forecast
circle that indicates wind direction.
weather conditions by evaluating these
The number and size of the feather and
weather elements shown on a weather
pennants included to the wind barb
map. This weather map is used in
show the wind velocity.
predicting weather conditions for a day, a
2. Sky condition is represented using week or a month in advance, which helps
circle, shaded according to the cloud in taking precautions and safety measures.
cover Weather forecasts help farmers, fishermen
3. Sea condition is shown as codes, for and crew of ships. It also helps air flights
example, Ro- Rough. in predicting atmospheric condition a few
4. Precipitation and temperature and hours ahead.
the other weather data are generally Weather maps are the collection
tabulated and attached to the Indian of weather information from various
daily weather map. meteorological stations pertaining to the
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Weather Map
Pressure Wind Sky condition Precipitation Sea condition
High Pressure Direction Cloud Cover Form
Low Pressure Velocity Cloud Nature Distribution
Figure 12.3 Wether Map
particular map area. The weather charts (0300 HRS GMT). Generally in India this
are prepared daily based on weather observation is predicted as the southwest
observations collected by the Indian monsoon season that gives rain.
Meteorological Department (IMD). The The key elements for weather map
basic knowledge of weather elements is interpretation are:
needed to interpret the weather maps. The
essential weather elements to interpret the 1. Range of Isobars: From the given
given weather maps are: weather map it is observed that the
Schematic representation of weather isobars range from 1002 mb to 1010mb.
map elements The lowest value of 1002 mb is found
over Bihar, Uttar pradesh and West
Weather Map Interpretation Bengal as an enclosed isobar. The 1010
The Indian daily weather map is a political mb is the highest value and is observed
map of India, which also includes Pakistan, in the extreme south western part of
Afghanistan, part of China, Nepal, Bhutan, the Arabian Sea.
Myanmar and Sri Lanka with weather 2. Location of Low Pressure: In this
symbols indicating recorded weather data, weather map, four low pressure zones
isobars and keys for symbols. are identified. Low pressure prevails in
Weather Map Interpretation – Monsoon Bihar and West Bengal, North Western
Season (Example 1) Pakistan, Assam, Eastern part of India
and Lakshadweep Island.
Weather map interpretation includes
3. Location of High Pressure: The high
study and interpretation of all the weather
pressure prevails over Afghanistan with
parameters. The given weather map
1008mb and the other high pressure
depicts the observed weather conditions
prevails over the south western part of
on Monday 1st June 1992 at 08.30 Hrs I.S.T
the Arabian Sea with 1010 mb.
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INDIAN DAILY WEATHER REPORT

WEATHER MAP AT 08.30 HRS .I.S.T. (0300 HRS. G.M.T)
Monday 1 June 1992 (11 Jyaistha 1914 Saka)
o o o o o o o o o
50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
1008
H 1008 N
1006 W E
o o
35 35
1006
S
N
1004
o TA CHINA o
30 IS 30
K 1008
PA
1004 H
1002
o 1005 1008 o
25 25
L Bangladesh 1006
1006
1004
o o
20 20
1008 BAY
OF
o
15 BENGAL 1004 15o
ARABIAN SEA NLM
1006
o 1010 o
10 10
ANDAMAN 1008
L
SEA
5
o
H SRI LANKA
5
o
NLM
1010 hpa
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to scale
o o o o o o o o o
50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
miles 0 50 100 150 200 miles
kilometers 0
Figure 12.4 Example 1 (Monsoon Season)
50 100 150 200 250 300 kilometers
4. Gradient of Pressure: On this map, The wind is not strong in North but
the pressure gradient is steep along the comparatively strong in south.
western coast of India. 6. Cloud Cover: Clear sky is noticed in
5. Wind Direction: The wind moves the North and north western part of
from west to east in the extreme India. Eastern coastal states are partly
southern part of India, The wind flows clouded and the southern states show
from North West to the south east extreme cloudiness and or overcast.
in the rest of the Plateau region. The 7. Sea Condition: Northern Limit of
wind velocity ranges from 5 – 15 knots Monsoon prevails over the Andaman Sea.
in most of the places on the given day.
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8. Precipitation: The rainfall occurred Below normal in the places like northwest
in Assam and Meghalaya because India and extend over the adjoining areas.
low pressure prevails in near Assam,
southern parts of Karnataka, Kerala Conclusion: The general prevalence of
and Lakshadweep. the South Westerly winds the location
of low pressure over the land and high
9. Departure of Maximum and
pressure over the ocean, the occurrence
Minimum temprature from Normal
of rainfall over South and eastern part
Day temperature is above normal in the of India. This season is observed as the
west, Karnataka and eastern parts of India. monsoon season.
INDIAN DAILY WEATHER REPORT

WEATHER MAP AT 08.30 HRS .I.S.T. (0300 HRS. G.M.T)
Tuesday 5th November 1991 (14 Jyaistha 1913 Saka)
o o o o o o o o o
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
o
60
1014
H
1014 N
o W E o
35 35
1014 S
1004
H A
N
CHINA
30
o
IST 30
o
K
1014 PA
1014 1016
o o
25 25
INDIA Bangladesh
1014 H
20
o
H 20
o
BAY
OF
o o
15 BENGAL 15
1014 ARABIAN SEA 1016
o
10
o
10 1012 1014
L ANDAMAN
SEA
5
o
H L SRI LANKA
5
o
L
1012
1012
1012
Not to scale INDIAN OCEAN
o o o o o o o o o
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
miles 0 Figure
50 100 12.5
150 Example
200 miles 2 (Monsoon Season)
kilometers 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 kilometers
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Weather Map Interpretation – Monsoon 6. Departure of Maximum and

Season (Example 2) Minimum temperature from Normal:
The given weather map shows the weather South west states record above normal
condition on Tuesday 5th November 1991 temperature, eastern states have below
at 08.30 Hrs IST 0300 Hrs GMT. normal temperature, except of the
northwestern part of Rajasthan.
Distribution of Pressure Condition
Conclusion: Low pressure prevails in sea
1. Low Pressure: Low pressure areas
and High pressure inland, so it indicates
exist over Northern and Southern Bay
north east monsoon.
of Bengal and Lakshadweep (1012mb).
2. High Pressure: Central part of India, 12.8 Weather Forecasting
the plateau region is marked with High Weather forecasting plays a major role in
pressure. High pressure also prevails predicting the weather in the near future.
over Gujarat and Rajasthan. The other It is difficult to predict the weather that
two high pressure areas are located in could prevail in the future. A thorough
Afghanistan (1014mb), to the East of understanding of meteorology is necessary
India. The pressure gradient is gentle for the forecast familiarity with the local
throughout India. weather helps to correlate the existing
3. Wind Condition: Calm weather weather conditions and in forecast the
prevails in north western coast future weather. The prediction of weather
of Orissa. Winds are northern in for a given place, is normaly for a period
Tamilnadu, Southernly in Gujarat. In of time, for instance is for 24 to 48 hours.
Central India, it is from the northeast. The methods used for weather
4. Sky Cover: Sky cover is almost clear forecasting are conventional, synoptic,
in North. In the South, it is partially numerical weather prediction.
cloudy. Sea condition is moderate. Conventional interprets the trend of
Haze is found near north eastern part weather system. Numerical solutions,
of India. global circulation models, variation
5. Precipitation: Rain or thundershowers analysis for synoptic hours.
have occurred at a few places in coastal The weather forecast categories are
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and South now casting, short range, medium range
Interior Karnataka at one or two places long range and forecasting. Now casting
in Telangana, Rayalasaema and Kerala. gives the details of the current weather
Weather
Forecasting
New casting Short Range Medium Range Long Range
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and forecasts up to a few hours ahead imprints the accurate weather elements
using radar products. such as winds, rainfall, and sea surface
Short range forecasts is for one to temperature.
three days. Weather mainly rainfall for Weather forecasting is based on the
each successive 24 hour intervals may be weather observation of surface data
predicted up to three days. It concerned based on radars. Numerical Weather
about the observed latest weather charts Prediction (NWP) using current and
and new systems. past observations to predict weather in
Medium range forecasts are for 4 to 10 near future AWIPS- Advanced Weather
days – average weather conditions and the Interactive Processing Systems used by
weather on each day may be prescribed forecasters and process satellite, radar,
with progressively lesser details and surface observations, and weather
accuracy than that for short range forecasts forecasting models.
dependent on NWP (Numerical Weather Occultation method is one of the
Prediction) products. most recent and capable atmospheric
Long range forecast is an extended remote sensing technique applied to GPS
range forecast for more than 10 days in measurements.
a season. It may range from a monthly The meteogram is a chart that shows
to a seasonal forecast. Local forecast is a how one or more weather variables has
location specific forecast valid for a radius changed at a station over a given period of
of 50 km around the weather stations. time. Auxiliary charts- satellite imageries,
A persistence forecast predicts that satellite bulletins, satellite observations
future weather will be the same as present and current weather observations. These
weather. Analogue forecast will be like the predictions are significant for warning of
weather that historically occurred when natural hazards.
similar conditions were present. Statistical
forecast is made routinely of weather 12.9 Tracking of Cyclones
elements based on the past performance of Tropical cyclone forecasting involves the
computer models. Trend forecast: surface prediction of several interrelated features,
weather systems tend to move in the same including the track of the cyclone, its
direction and at approximately the same intensity, resulting rainfall and storm
speed as they have moved. surge and the areas threatened. Cyclone
tracking is a constantly evolving science.
Current Scenario of Weather Different methods are used, including
Forecasting using satellites, radars, etc. A skilled
The weather satellites monitor the meteorologist has often developed an
weather conditions and provide accurate ability to detect overall patterns in
information of weather. Satellite imageries climatological conditions and can assess
are pictorial representations of radiation how these may affect cyclone development.
reaching the sensors from the earth Manual forecasts made by skilled
from the different spectral bands that
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Cyclone Tracking based on Satellite

Images – Vardah (Example)
Vardah at peak strength on 11 December
Formed December 6, 2016
Dissipated December 11, 2016
3- minute sustained :
Highest 130 km/h 1-minute
Winds sustained : 155km/h
Lowest
pressure 975 mb
Fatalities 38
Damage $5.1 billion
Thailand, Sumatra,
Malaysia, Andaman and
Areas Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka,
affected South India, Somalia
Figure 12.6 Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Very Severe Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, was
meteorologist may be a good complement the fourth cyclonic storm, as well as the
to other forecasting techniques. most intense tropical cyclone of the 2016
North Indian Ocean. The system struck the
At present, the cyclones are tracked
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as
with the help of satellite images. The
South India. Originating as a low pressure
satellite images are collected and put into
area near the Malay Peninsula on December
motion for several hours, and with the
3, the storm was designated as a depression
gathered information, the development
on December 6. It gradually intensified
of a tropical cyclone is tracked. Doppler
into a Deep Depression on the following
radars detect rain associated with cyclones,
day, skirting off the Andaman and Nicobar
which locate and estimate the amount of
Islands, and intensified into a Cyclonic
rainfall and depicts a hurricane’s rainfall.
Storm on December 8. Maintaining a
In the satellite based techniques, track generally westward track thereafter, Vardah
and intensity of cyclone are forecast based consolidated into a Severe Cyclonic Storm
on the cloud pattern associated with the on December 9, before peaking as a Very
cyclone. Generally the outer cloud bands Severe Cyclonic Storm, with winds of 130
of cumulonimbus clouds indicate the km/hr, and a minimum central pressure of
future direction, and the cloud pattern 982 mb on December 11. Weakening into
surrounding eye of the cyclone indicates a Severe Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, made
the future intensity of the cyclone. Below landfall close to Chennai on the following
is an example of tracking Vardah Cyclone day, and degenerated into a remnant low on
by using satellite images. December 13.The name Vardah, suggested
by Pakistan, refers to the red rose.
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Satellite Images
8th December 2016 10th December 2016
9th December 2016 11th December 2017
12th December 2017

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Exercises
80 129
I. Answer the following
1. Give the weather symbols for the
following.
a. Hail
b. Gentle breeze
76
c. Rain 5. Prepare a station model with the
d. Calm following weather parameters.
a. Dry Bulb temperature - 220 C
e. Obscured
b. Dew point -180C
2. Find the wind direction and velocity
from the following wind barbs. c. Barometric Pressure reduced to
a. mean sea level standard gravity is
998mb
d. Total cloud amount -5 oktas
6. Prepare a small project of the Okchi
cyclone with the help of the Satellite
b. Images.
II. Practice
c.
A. Make an Anemometer
Materials
• 4 small paper cups
d. • 4 plastic drinking straws
• Tape
3. Name the weather elements in the • Scissors
given Station Model. • Straight pin
• Pencil with a new eraser
48 • Stapler
986 Procedure
1. This anemometer has four cups
1/2 = -13
which catch the wind and cause the
anemometer to spin. The inward curve
48 of the cups receives most of the force of
the wind. That’s what makes the cups
4. Write an interpretation for the move. The more spins per minute, the
following station model. greater the wind velocity.
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2. Arrange four (4) plastic drinking should make sure that he holds the
straws to form a cross and tape them anemometer so that the wind is
together at the centre. unobstructed.
3. Staple the top side of one drinking cup, 2. Mount or hold the anemometer in a
such as the small paper cups designed place that has full access to the wind
for bathroom dispensers, at the end from all directions.
of each straw, so the open ends of the 3. When the timekeeper says “Go”, the
cups all face the same direction. counter in each group will count how
4. Push a straight pin through the centre many times the marked cup passes them
of the straws into an eraser on the end in one minute and write it down.
of a pencil. This provides the axle. 4. If possible, repeat the above step
5. Mark one of the cups; this will be the four (4) times and record the average
one they use for counting when the number of spins
anemometer spins. Optional: you can multiply the average
6. Blow on the anemometer or turn number of spins by 60 to find out how
an electric fan on low to make sure many times the anemometer would
that it spins easily. How many times spin in an hour and come up with a
the anemometer will spin in one statement such as: the speed of the wind
minute? Can you make a statement today is about 1,000 spins per hour.
connecting the number of spins of
your anemometer and the speed of the Time Number of
wind? (You can use the table below to S. No Interval Spins
record your practice trials).
1.
B. Use an Anemometer to measure Wind
Speed
2.
Materials
• Anemometer 3.
1. Divide the students into small groups
with the following roles (optional)
4.
• One time keeper who will be
responsible for timing one minute
for each trial.
References
• One official “counter” for the day. ap work and practical geography, R.L Singh
1. M
The others may count on their own, and R. Singh
but the counter’s readings will be the undamentals of Practical Geography, (2013)
2. F
ones recorded. L.R Singh.
• One person who will hold the

anemometer while the spins are Internet Resources
counted; the person holding 1. Imd.chennai.gov.in
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III. Interpret the given weather map.
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Unit 13
Field Work and

Report Writing
Chapter Outline
13.1 Introduction • Recognise the importance of field
work in geography
13.2 Need for field work
• Acquire the skill of data collection.
13.3 Field work process
• Enhance the ability for map reading
13.4 Field Report and field sketching.
• Learn to work as a team.
13.1 Introduction • Develop the skill of report writing
The study area for geographers is so vast that
for a student of geography, the knowledge 13.2 Need for field work
of the earth is acquired through class room There are many reasons why field work
teaching, books, journals, maps, internet is very essential for the students of
etc. Theoretical knowledge about the study geography. They are:
area can be learned in the class room while 1. Field work facilitates direct observation
the practical aspects could be acquired only of the study area (local area) and to
in the field through surveys. collect original information.
Field work can be defined as, “The 2. Field observation along with class
process of observing and collecting room teaching helps the students to
data about the natural and manmade understand the geographical concepts
environment’’. Geography is divided into better.
two main branches: physical and human 3. Repeated field observation of the
or cultural geography. Field work helps same place at regular intervals help
in bringing about a better understanding to understand the changing patterns
of the subject for a student of geography. or trends of a phenomena. Example
In the case of understanding physical 1. Quality and growth of vegetation
geography, field work becomes inevitable. during different seasons. 2. Changes
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in water level in a tank or reservoir or stations well in advance, along with

well before and after monsoon. the name and house address, contact
4. Field work will improve the power of details of the students and staff who
observation among the students. undertake the field work.
5. Field trips can kindle the spirit of Prior permission is to be obtained
enquiry among the students well in advance to enter restricted
6. The student’s skill of map reading, areas or reserved forests.
map drawing, field sketching and use Arrangement should be made for
of some geographical instruments will sufficient food and safe drinking water.
be improved. Students should be informed of the
7. Field work is an opportunity for the clothing requirements (Woolen caps,
student to experience and adapt to sweaters, shoes, mosquito repellents etc.).
various environments. Field work site mapping should be
8. It helps to enhance the students view carried out by a small group of students
about the subject and to care for the with the assistance of their supervisor
environment. (teacher). The problem or the aim of
Above all, it can be an enjoyable outing. the study and its objectives are to be
explained in detail. The method of
13. 3 Field work process investigation and the equipments for
Field work for studying physical geography survey in the field are to be discussed
and human geography are quite different. with the students.
Field work in physical geography involves Prepare a field map and discuss
direct observations, photography, field the method of conducting field work
sketches, use of maps, satellite images etc. by different groups of the class. Each
Human geographic studies require sample student may be supplied with a copy
surveys, preparation of questionnaire, of maps for reference. They should be
interviews and use of statistical techniques informed of the ‘dos’ and don’ts during
for data analysis and representation. the field work. The following are some
Any field work involves three stages. of the items to be carried for field work
They are: in physical geography:
1. Pre-field work 1. Stationery, including scripling pads, colour
2. Actual field work and pencils, wax pencils, papers, pens etc.,
2. Camera with zoom and video facility.
3. Post field work
3. Audio/video recorders to record voices
1. Pre-Field Work of birds, local people etc.,
This involves proper planning, 4. Sufficient number of binoculars to
preparation and arrangements. It is view distant objects.
undertaken by the teacher/school 5. Minor field survey equipments like
management/and local authorities. measuring tape, magnetic compass,
The tour details are to be informed to clinometers, GNSS hand set etc.,
the CEO/DEO and field area police
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6. Weather instruments (for field work Though field work has many advantages,
related to weather) like thermometer, it also has a few limitations such as:
rain gauge, barometer, wind vane etc. 1. It is time consuming and expensive.
7. Maps, topographic sheets (non-restricted), 2. It needs necessary equipments,
satellite images of the study area. maps, satellite images etc., for
proper interpretation.
2. Actual Field Work (Method of
3. Delay in receiving permission
Information Collection):
from Government Agencies to
When the students reach the local
visit restricted areas make the trip
study area, the actual field work begins
uncertain.
and information is collected through
4. There are certain risks in travelling,
1. Observe the features and take
changing weather, field illness etc.,
notes. Students can record the
during field work.
information through photography
and video-audiography. 3. Post-Field Work:
2. Prepare field sketches by using The data collected from the field has to
colour pencils. be arranged, photographs and sketches
3. Instruments can be used for added wherever necessary, calculations
measurement of distances, weather carried out, results inferred, maps drawn
elements, heights, depths etc. and report of the same prepared.
4. Find the direction using magnetic
compass and orient the maps and 13.4 Field Report
images. Writing a report of the work carried on in
5. By recollecting the map reading the field is a documentation of the field
practices of topographic maps, work. This helps in systematic reviewing
satellite images and aerial of the work by students who accomplished
photographs for recognition and the task and a reference for future field
mapping the features. trips. Field reports must be short, clear and
6. Find the important locations and informative with supportive data, maps,
routes by using GNSS and web sketches, photographs etc.
based mapping facilities. There are a number of steps involved in
7. Collect unique and representative report writing. They are:
samples of rock, soil, surface
1. Title:
water and groundwater for further
Identify the topic of investigation which
analysis, class room discussion and
is the purpose of field work. This is the
exhibition. Do not collect plant,
title of the work and it has to be written
animal or microorganisms from
in bold letters at the top of the report.
the field, because this activity is
banned by the government. 2. Introduction:
8. Collecting secondary data from Every report should start with a brief
local authorities, officers in -charge introduction to the subject under study.
of the area etc., It should explain what part of geography
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it relates to. For example if the study is method is used in data collection
about a stream, it falls under the branch then the data can be represented as
of physical geography, more specifically photographs or field sketches. 2. If data
geomorphology - an exogenetic agent is collected through surveys, it can be
of denudation. The time frame that represented as a plan or map. 3. Data
was planned for the fieldwork can be collected from secondary sources can be
elaborated. If the field work is extending presented as tables, graphs, diagrams or
for more than one day, then a clear charts. 4. Data collected through GNSS
timetable should be given. surveys can be mapped.
3. Need for the Study: The data represented in various forms
The reason why the field work is have to be neatly labeled and indexed for
undertaken can be mentioned. This easy identification and understanding.
explains the need for the field work. The photographs, diagrams, tables, maps
4. The Study Area: etc. prepared during post field work have
Details of the study area are explained to be arranged in a sequential order. So
here – starting with the absolute or that they can provide an answer to the
geographical location of the study area, purpose of study and add more meaning
the choice of the study area and the and value to the report of work done in
physiography of the area. Other known the field.
physical and cultural details of the study 7. Conclusion:
area can be mentioned here. A copy The conclusion gives the gist of the field
of the map, satellite image etc. can be work – the aim, the results or findings
incorporated here. and how it relates to existing knowledge
5. Methodology Used: and the addition of new knowledge
The methods used to carry out the field through this field work. The conclusion
work have to be mentioned here. The has to present how the fieldwork has
method of information collection varies enhanced the theoretical knowledge
according to the type of study. It could gained in the class.
be through observation, investigation, The table below gives a few steps in the
measurements; data collection from preparation of field report for a few case
primary and secondary sources; field studies under physical geography.
sketches, audio-video recording and
photographs and GNSS surveys.
6. Data Analysis:
The data collected through field
work should be presented in a simple
way for easy analysis. The method
of representation of data should be
according to the method of data
collected. Example: 1. If observation
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Steps involved in preparation of field report for field studies in physical geography
Sub topics River Hillock Forest Coast
Aim To understand river as a natural To understand hillock as natural To understand forest as natural To understand coast as a natural
resource. resource. resource. resource.
Learning Objectives  Identify the stage of river.  Identify the geological  Identify the type of forest.  Identify the type of coast and
TN_Govt_Geography_XI_Std Unit_13.indd 282

 Trace the source of the river. history of the hillock.  List the role of forest in the coastal features.
 Assess the command area of  Determine the height life of the people.  List the role of coast in the
the river. of the hillock by simple  Indentify fauna and flora and life of the people.
 Analyse river as an measurement their trophic level.  Indentify fauna and flora and
ecosystem.  Draw the cross sections of it. their trophic level.
 Co-relate the vegetation with
slope, supply of water and
climate of the place.
Study Area Write about the river chosen, Write about the hillock chosen, Write about the forest chosen,Write about the coastal tract chosen
location of the village or town the village or town where the hill location of the village or town
and location of the village or town
which is selected as study area. is located in the study area. which is located in the study area.
which is located in the tract.
Methodology  With the theoretical  Observe the agents of erosion  Gather information about the
 Gather information about
knowledge gained to indentify responsible for the formation type of trees present in the the area served by the coast
the stages of a river. of the hillock. forest. in terms of supplying sea
282
 Trace the source of the river  Using clinometer measure the  Interact with local people and food, salt, power production,
from published sources. height. collect information about the industrial purpose and
 Gather information about  Draw a sketch of the hillock. resources available in terms recreation.  Gather
www.tntextbooks.in
the area served by the river in  Collection information on information About the type
of timber / fuel / herb / fruits
terms of supplying water for cultural importance of the and nuts / any other. of fauna and flora along the
irrigation, drinking purpose, hillock religious / cave /  Construct a trophic level coast and coastal water.
industrial purpose and paintings / resort. diagram for the forest with the
 Indentify the interaction of
recreation.  Study the varieties of information your collected. people with the resources
 Observe and record the fauna biodiversity and correlate with available in terms of fuel/
and flora along the river side. the climate. food/fish weed /any other.
 Take photo/make field  Construct topic level diagram
sketches for all your for the coastal ecosystem
observations.  With your observation and
gathered information, collect
the historical facts about the
coastal belt.
Limitation Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitation in terms
terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area of fund / time / study area
selected. selected. selected. selected.
(Continued)
2/3/2020 4:43:11 PM
Steps involved in preparation of field report for field studies in physical geography
Sub topics River Hillock Forest Coast
Data Collection Specify the method of data collection Specify the method of data Specify the method of data Specify the method of data
as primary / secondary source. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary
source.
TN_Govt_Geography_XI_Std Unit_13.indd 283

Data Representation Represent the data in any Represent the data in any Represent the data in any Represent the data in any
cartographic form such as sketch / cartographic form such as chart / cartographic form such as chart / cartographic form such as sketch /
chart / graph / map. graph / map / sketch. graph / map / sketch. chart / graph / map.
Findings From the representation list your From the representation list your From the representation list your From the representation list your
findings. findings. findings. findings.
Report - Writing Narrate Narrate the full work in simple Narrate the full work in simple Narrate the full work in simple
the full work in simple language and submit. language and submit. language and submit.
language and submit.
References The report should have the details of The report should have the details of The report should have the details of The report should have the details of
references related to the study and references related to the study and references related to the study and references related to the study and
source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study.
283
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Exercises
L.R Singh.
and R. Singh
References
1. educationnext.org
draw a plan of the same.
2. htts://en.m.wikipedia.org
Internet Resources
of the same and write a short report.
4. Plan a field visit to a nearby hilly area
2. Arrange a field trip to a River line area
field sketch and prepare a short report.

1. Measure your school’s play ground and
plants in that area. Prepare a field sketch

study the slope, gradient, trees and other
study the land, direction of flow of water,
trees and other plants in the area. Make a
of maximum and minimum temperature.

and 4.00 pm and find the monthly average
3. Measure the daily temperature at 11.00 am
undamentals of Practical Geography, (2013)

ap work and practical geography, R.L Singh
2/3/2020 4:43:11 PM
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GLOSSARY
Abyssal plains ஆழ்கடல் சமவெளி
Albedo ஒளி திருப்பும் திறன்
Air Fronts வளி முகம்
Boreal வடமுனைக்குறிய
Cartography நில வரைப்படவியல்
Cataracts வேகமான நீர்வீழ்ச்சி
Cloud Burst மேக வெடிப்பு
Continental rise கண்ட உயர்வு
Coral polyps முருகை / பவள ம�ொட்டுக்கள்
Dark energy இருண்ட ஆற்றல்
Endemic disease ஆண்டு முழுவதும் ேதான்றும் ந�ோய்
Equinox சமநாள்
Exclusive Economic Zone தனித்த ப�ொருளாதார மண்டலம்
Field Measurement Book புல அளவீட்டு புத்தகம்
Galactic movement அண்ட சுழற்சி
Global Positioning System உலகளாவிய அமைவிடம் கண்டறியும் த�ொகுதி
Greenhouse effect பசுமைக் இல்ல விளைவு
Greenwich Mean Time கிரீன்விச் சராசரி நேரம்
Habitat வாழிடம்
Hail ஆலங்கட்டி மழை
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Hot spot வள மையம்
Hygrometer ஈரப்பத அளவி
Isohaline சம உப்பு
Isthmus நிலச்சந்தி
Lagoon உப்பங்கழி / காயல்
Landfall கரையை அடைதல்
Magnetic field காந்தப் புலம்
Map projection நிலவரைபடக் க�ோட்டுச் சட்டம்
Mitigation தணித்தல்
Natural resource இயற்கை வளம்
Oasis பாலைவனச் ச�ோலை
Ozone layer ஓச�ோன் அடுக்கு
permafrost நிரந்தரப் பனிக்கட்டிகள்
Poaching சட்டத்திற்கு புறம்பாக ேவட்ைடயாடுதல்
Preparedness தயார்நிலை
Prime meridian முதன்மைத் தீர்க்கக�ோடு
Sedges க�ோரைகள்
Sleet கல் மழை / ஆலங்கட்டி மழை
spit நீண்ட மணல் திட்டு
Solar flare சூரிய பட்டொளி
Swell வீக்கம்
Toponym இடப்பெயர்
Trace elements சுவடுக் கூறுகள்
Trench அகழி
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INDIA - PHYSICAL MAP
Not to scale
286
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INDIA - POLITICAL MAP
Not to scale
287
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WORLD - PHYSICAL MAP
Notes Pages.indd 288

Artic Ocean N
World Political W E
S
Greenland
Alaska (Denmark)
(USA)
Prime Meridian
nd
an
ay
Canada Iceland Russia
Finla
Swed
Nor w
England
Poland
North Germany North
Ukaraine Mongalia
ce
Kazakhstan
an
Pacific Ocaen Rumania North
Pacific Ocaen
Fr
Ca
North Ita
ly Black sea Korea
spi
Spain
an
al
South
USA Turkey
Japan
sea
Atlantic Ocaen Korea
an China
st
Portug
Mediterranean sea ni
Iraq Iran al n
f ga n p ta
Tropic of cancer Algaria A sta Ne Bu
M ki
Pa ar
288
ex Libya Egypt
i Saudi nm
co
Arabia India ya os
M La
Mauritania Mali Oman
Ph
Niger Arabian Bay of

Central Senigal Chad Sudan Bengal
ilip
Yemen sea
America Vietnam
Nigerla
pines
Venezuela Ivory Ethiopia

Coast a Sri lanka
ali
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Equator Cameroon m Malaysia

Uganda So
Equador Rep. of the Kenya Indian
Congo Tanzania Indonesia
Ocean
e
Peru Brazil Angola

iqu
Zambia
mb
Bolivia
Namibia
za
Tropic of capricorn South Pa

South Botswana Madagascar South
Mo
ra
g ua
Pacific Ocaen y Atlantic Ocaen Pacific Ocaen
South Africa
Australia
Chile
ntina
Arge
New
Zealand
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
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WORLD - POLITICAL MAP
Notes Pages.indd 289

Artic Ocean N
World Political W E
S
Greenland
Alaska (Denmark)
(USA)
Prime Meridian
d n
an
ay
Canada Iceland Russia
Finla
Swed
Nor w
England
Poland
North Germany North
Ukaraine Mongalia
ce
Kazakhstan
an
Pacific Ocaen Rumania North
Pacific Ocaen
Fr
Ca
North Ita
ly Black sea Korea
spi
Spain
an
al
South
USA Turkey
Japan
sea
Atlantic Ocaen Korea
an China
st
Portug
Mediterranean sea ni
Iraq Iran al n
f ga n p ta
Tropic of cancer Algaria A sta Ne Bu
M ki
ar
289
ex Libya Egypt Pa
i Saudi nm
co
Arabia India ya os
M La
Mauritania Mali Oman
Ph
Niger Arabian Bay of

Central Senigal Chad Sudan Bengal
ilip
Yemen sea
America Vietnam
Nigerla
pines
Venezuela Ivory Ethiopia

Coast a Sri lanka
ali
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Equator Cameroon m Malaysia

Uganda So
Equador Rep. of the Kenya Indian
Congo Tanzania Indonesia
Ocean
e
Peru Brazil Angola

iqu
Zambia
mb
Bolivia
Namibia
za
Tropic of capricorn South Pa

South Botswana Madagascar South
Mo
ra
g ua
Pacific Ocaen y Atlantic Ocaen Pacific Ocaen
South Africa
Australia
Chile
ntina
Arge
New
Zealand
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
2/10/2020 6:38:05 PM
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Geography – Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Domain Experts Content writers
Dr. Kumaraswamy.K. UGC BSR Emeritus Professor, Mr.Subramanian.R., P.G.Asst.,Geography,
Department of Geography, GHSS, Nandanam, Chennai-600 035
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli-620 024
Mr.Venkatesan.S, P.G.Asst., Geography,
Dr.Maria Anita Anandhi. J., Associate Professor (Rtd), GBHSS Kavinthapadi, Erode-638 455.
Department of Geography, Nirmala College for Women
(Autonomous), Coimbatore-641 018. Mrs.Nirmala.A, P.G.Asst. , Geography,
Sarojini Varadhappan GHSS, Poonamallee, Chennai-600 056.
Dr. Sulochana Sekhar, Professor & Head.,
Department of Geography, Mrs.Nisha.N.P, P.G.Asst., Geography,
Central university of Tamilnadu, Thiruvarur – 610 005 CGHSS, Pulla Avenue, Shenoy Nagar, Chennai – 6000 030
Dr. G. Baskaran, Professor, Mrs.Axilla Pream Rajini.R.P., P.G.Asst. ,

Department of Geography, Geography, CSI Northwick GHSS, Chennai-600 013
University of Madras, Chennai -600 005.
Mr.Shanmugam.P., P.G.Asst., Geography,
Mrs.R.Geetha, Assistant Professor, GHSS, Kangayam, Tiruppur-638 701
Department of Geography,
Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous), Chennai-600 004. Mrs.G.Vijayakamakshi, P.G.Asst., Geography,
St.Paul's HSS, Mayiladuthurai-609 001.
Dr.B.Vijayakumari, Assistant Professor,
Department of Geography, Mr.Ponmani Vetri Chelvan.P, P.G.Asst.,
Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous), Chennai-600 004. Geography, GBHSS, Mechery, Salem–636 453.
Dr.T.Ponnyin Selvi, Assistant Professor, Mr.Yagnamoorthy.T., P.G.Asst., Geography, Aringar Anna

Department of Geography, GHSS, Vellakovil, Tiruppur-638 111.
Kunthavai Naacchiyar Government Arts College for Women,
Thanjavur-613 007. Mrs.Tamilarasi.M, P.G.Asst., Geography,(Rtd),
C.G.H.S.S Pulla Avenue Shenoy Nagar, Chennai-600 030.
Mr.P.Ravikumar, Assistant Professor,
Department of Geography, Academic Co-ordinator
Presidency College (Autonomous), Chennai-600 005. K.Gomathi Lecturer
District Institute of Education and Training,
Mrs.P.Suriya, Assistant Professor, Tirur, Tiruvallur District.
Department of Geography,
Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous), Chennai-600 004. ICT Co-ordinator
M.Janakiraman B.T. Asst.English,
Reviwers P.U.M.School, Mattayampatti,
Dr.Krishnamurhty, Former chairman, Tharamangalam union, Salem.
Department of Geography, University of Mysore.
Typist
Dr.B. Eswarappa, Former chairman & Professor, N.Gomathi,
Department of Geography, University of Bangalore. District Institute of Education and Training,
Kalayarkovil, Sivagangai District
Dr.V. Madha Suresh, Professor,
Department of Geography, University of Madras.
QR Code Management Team
Mr. K. Annamalai, P.G.T. Geography, . Jaganathan, SGT,
R
Kendirya Vidyalaya, No.1, Palakkad. pums - Ganesapuram, Polur,
Thiruvannamalai.
S. Albert Valavan Babu, B.T. Asst,
Art and Design Team GHS, Perumal Kovil, Paramakudi,
Illustrator/Image Editing Ramanathapuram
R. Muthukumar, M. Murugesan, B.T. Asst.,
S. Santhosh Kumar, PUMS., Pethavelankottagam,
S. Adaikkala Stephen, S. Gopu Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
Art Teachers Government of Tamil Nadu.
Students
Government College of Fine Arts,
Chennai & Kumbakonam.
Layout
Winmac Solutions, Chennai
In -House QC
- Rajesh Thangappan This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
- Manikraj Prabahar M.A Elegant Maplitho paper.
- Manohar Radhakrishnam
Co-ordination Printed by offset at:
Ramesh Munisamy
290
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 1 2/3/2020 4:13:38 PM

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 2 2/3/2020 4:13:38 PM

E-book Assessment DIGI links

Let’s use the QR code in the text books!

11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 3 2/3/2020 4:13:38 PM

HOW TO USE THE BOOK..........

Prov onents rned.

egin vides disc is intro

res duc th A ength er In ses. tem oons s

op ec eve due tto r . ll

ic t on ressu du l be c t ev early unta ntain attern ces

in boxe ted to the

ion ed fo ave b web

nd in the cloud. These

self eva ents.

11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 4 2/3/2020 4:13:41 PM

CAREER GUIDANCE FOR GEOGRAPHY ASPIRANTS

Organisations Supplying Special Publications / Databases

Regional Planning/Town and Country Planning

Universities and Colleges Offering B.Sc., M.Sc., in Geography and

Department of Geography, University of Madras, Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous),Salem – 636 007.

Chapter Outline Learning Objectives:

1.1 Introduction The subject ‘Geography’ is considered as

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1.2 Defining Geography British and the American geographers

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Figure 1.1 Ptolemy’s World Map

Figure 1.2 Magellen’s Voyage around the World

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Figure 1.3 Vasco da Gama

Figure 1.4 Christopher Columbus’s Voyages to America

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important in the discipline of geography due on human activities such as nomadic

TN_Govt_Geography_XI_Std Unit_01.indd 5 2/3/2020 4:15:31 PM

D. Pattison identified the core themes of Themes of

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1.4.1 Location • Toponym: A place name, especially one

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1.5 Geography’s Relation with Physical Relations with Physical Sciences

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the development of ‘anthropogeography’ or

1.5.8 History and Geography

1.6 Approaches to the Study of Born on 14 September 1769 Alexander

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1.6.2 Regional Approach 1.7 Branches of Geography

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GEOGRAPHY POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHIC STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 1.7 Branches of Geography

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Regional Planning/Town and Country Planning

Department of Geography, University of Madras, Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.

Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous),Salem – 636 007.

1.5 Geography’s Relation with Physical Relations with Physical Sciences

1.8.6 Weather Forecasting / Nowcasting: specialisation. Depending upon their area