Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GEOGRAPHY
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
II
Page MONTH
UNIT TITLE
No
1 Fundamentals of Geography 1 June
2 The Solar system and the Earth 21 June
3 Lithosphere – Endogenic Processes 51 July
4 Lithosphere – Exogenic Processes 78 August
5 Hydrosphere 105 September
6 Atmosphere 137 October
7 The Biosphere 177 October
8 Natural Disasters - Public Awareness For
218 November
Disaster Risk Reduction
PRACTICAL
9 Map and Scale 231 July
10 Representation of Relief Features and August
244
Climatic Data
11 Interpretation of Topographical Map 254 August
12 Weather Maps 263 November
13 Field Work and Report Writing 278 December
Note: For ICT corner, Digi Links QR codes use any other QR scanner.
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IV
11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 5
NRSC
IMD
Remote Sensing:Publications and Public Relations Unit, ISRO HQ, AntarikshBhavan, New BEL Road, Bangalure-560
094; NRSC Data Centre, National Remote Sensing Centre, Balanagar, Hyderabad-500 037; Remote Sensing
Census of India Offices in different States.
Applications Group, Space Application Centre, SAC Post, Ahmedabad- 380 053;Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC),
4-Kalidas Road, Dehradun- 248 001.
Hyderabad.
V
Cyclone, Rainfall and Weather Information: Indian Meteorological Department, Nungambakam, Chennai – 600 006.
Survey of India (SoI), Dehra Dun and in different
Survey of India - Topographic Sheets: Map Sales Office, Electronic Complex - Block II Ground Floor, Thiru. Vi. Ka.
States.
Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai – 600032.
National Atlas and Thematic Mapping
Geology and Minerals:Department of Geology and Mining, Thiru. Vi. Ka. Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai - 600
Organizaiton (NATMO), Kolkata.
032;Geological Survey of India, No A 2 -B Rajaji Bhavan, Besant Nagar, Chennai – 600090.
Regional Planning/Town and Country Planning
Surface and Groundwater and Climate Data: Office of the Chief Engineer, State Ground and Surface Water Resources
Organisations.
Data Centre,Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113; Central Ground Water Board. http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in
Naval Hydrographic Office, Dehra Dun.
Soil Data and Maps:Regional Head, ICAR-NBSS&LUP, P.B.No. 2487, Hebbal, Agricultural Farm, Post, Bengaluru - 560
National Centre for Earth Science Studies,
024.
Thiruvananthapuram.
Rainfall, Landuse, Irrigation and Crop Data:Village / Block/Taluk level Data available at Department of Economics and
Centre for Water Resources Development and
Statistics, All District Headquarters; Department of Economics and Statistics, 259, Block II, DMS Compound,Teynampet,
Management, Kozhikode.
Chennai-600006.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Soil, Rainfall and Weather Data: Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore –
IndianCouncil of Agricultural Research, Jodhpur.
641003.http://tawn.tnau.ac.in/General/HomePublicUI.aspx
Central Research Institute for Dry Land
Population Data:Census of India - Tamil Nadu, 'E' Wing, 3rd Floor, Rajaji Bhawan, Besant Nagar,Chennai – 600090.
Agriculture (ICAR), Hyderabad.
http://censusindia.gov.in/
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Economic Appraisals & Annual Statistical Abstracts of Tamil Nadu:Stationery and Printing Department, 110, Anna Salai,
Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur.
Chennai-600002.http://www.stationeryprinting.tn.gov.in
French Institute of Pondicherry, Puducherry.
Soil and Watershed Atlas: Remote Sensing Centre, Agriculture Engineering Department, Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035.
National Institute of Malaria Research, (ICMR), http://www.aedatlas.tn.nic.in
New Delhi.
GIS Data Layers of Tamil Nadu:Tamil Nadu Geographical Information System (TNGIS), Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.
http://www.tngis.tn.gov.in
2/3/2020 4:13:42 PM
11th Std_GEOGRAPHY_FRONT.indd 6
UPSC
UM
VI
Department of Geography,Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous), Chennai - 600 004.
Tamilnadu Public Service Commission Group Department of Geography,Bharathi Women’s College (Autonomous), 85, PrakasamSalai, Chennai-600 108.
services Examinations conducted by Govt.of
Department of Geography, Tourism and Travel Management, Madras Christian College
Tamilnadu.
(Autonomous), Tambaram, Chennai - 600 059.
Teachers Recruitment Board,School education
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous),Salem – 636 007.
and Collegiate education,Govt.of Tamilnadu.
Department of Geography,Sri Vijay Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science, Nallampalli, Dharmapuri – 636807.
Department of Geography,Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Namakkal – 637002.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Coimbatore - 641 018.
Department of Geography, Nirmala College for Women (Autonomous), Coimbatore – 641 018.
Department of Geography, Bharathiar University Arts & Science College, Amaikulam,
PuliamParai (P.O.), Gudalur - 643 212.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Karur – 639 005.
Department of Geography, Periyar E.V.R. College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli – 620 023.
Department of Geography,Government Arts College,Thiruverumbur, Tiruchirappalli – 620 022.
Department of Geography,KundavaiNachiar Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Thanjavur - 613 007.
Department of Geography, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous),Poondi - 613 503, Thanjavur District.
Department of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam- 612 002.
TNPSC TRB Department of Geography, Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Kumbakonam - 612 002.
Department of Geography,SriMeenakshi Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous),Madurai – 624 002
Department of Geography, MVM Government Arts College for Women, Dindigul - 624 008..
Department of Geography, Government Arts College for Women, Nilakottai - 624 208, Dindigul District.
2/3/2020 4:13:42 PM
Unit 1
Fundamentals of Geography
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How might the ship that Columbus traveled have sailed at the time when no engine and
power fuel available?
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EUROPE
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AMERICA
SOCIAL SCIENCES
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GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENT
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PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Figure 1.6 Relationship of Geography with Physical and Social Science Disciplines
8
PHYSICAL CLIMATOLOGY
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
HYDROLOGY
GEOGRAPHY OCEANOGRAPHY
BIO-GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
ANTHROPO GEOGRAPHY
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
HUMAN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
iv. Hydrology encompasses the study of animal geography and Ecology are the
earth’s realm of water such as oceans and branches of biogeography.
surface water bodies like rivers, reservoirs vii. Environmental Geography is the
and ponds. It also makes a study of study of environmental issues arising
underground water and its recharge and out of misuse of various spheres of
also pollution of water bodies. the earth and their implications. The
v. Oceanography is the study of seas and ozone layer depletion, global warming,
oceans. The shape, size, depth and bottom melting of polar ice caps, rising sea
relief of ocean, distribution of oceans, level and other related aspects are also
ocean currents and various life forms given due importance. It also tries
existing in ocean are also studied to give sustainable solutions to these
under oceanography. problems.
vi. Biogeography is a study of 1.7.2 Human Geography
ecosystems over geographical space. Human Geography is concerned with
It also analyses the changes in the the changes made by the humans over
ecosystems. Phytogeography or the natural or physical landscape. The
plant Geography, Zoo Geography or ethnic and political aspects are taken into
12
15
16
17
19
Steps
• Use the URL or QR code to download and install ‘Mapit GIS’
app in your smartphone. Open the app and go to settings tab on
the top right corner of the page and set units of measurement
of your choice.
• Select scale icon from the bottom and place the targets by pressing ‘Balloon’ icon from
the bottom. Scale icon will provide you instant survey of distance using GPS.
• Long press the scale icon and it will transform into ‘Area mode’. Follow the same step to
drop the balloon and survey the area between any numbers of points.
• Touch the menu navigation button from the top left corner and change the map styles
you want to survey.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.osedok.gisdatacollector&hl=en
20
Earth's rocky core formed first Galaxies are in three major forms:
when heavy elements collided and 1. Spiral Galaxies: It consists of a flat and
bound together. Dense materials sank rotating disk of stars, gases and dust.
to the center, while the lighter material It has a central concentration of stars
created the crust. The planet's magnetic known as the ‘bulge’. The Milky Way and
field probably formed around this the Andromeda are spiral galaxies.
time. Gravity captured some of the 2. Elliptical Galaxies: It contains older
gases that made up the planet's early stars with fewer gases. Messier89
atmosphere. galaxy is an elliptical galaxy.
22
SERPENS
AQUILA OPHIUCHUS
SCUTUM
LIBRA
CAPRICORN
SR 1806
SRB 1806-20
18
8806
006 200
SCORPIO
SAGITTARIUS LUPUS
Sagittarius
Capricorn Scorpio
se
lip
Ec
Aquarius
Libra
ber
Ma
tem
y
Sep
Pisces
SUN Virgo
Taurus Cancer
Gemini
Internal structure:
Inner core
radiative zone Subsurface flows
convection zone Photosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
Figure 2.6 Structure of the sun
26
(275-195 BCE) estimated size of earth from The Sun’s gravitational pull differs in
observations that the elevation of the sun force at the poles. The North Pole points
varied with position on the Earth’s surface in the same direction to the North Star
in Egypt.The Following Observations when it revolves about the Sun. If the
Show that the earth is sphere in shape Earth would not have been tilted on its
1. Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after axis, the days and nights would have been
sunset. of same duration always.
2. Ships disappear below the horizon as
2.14 Motions of the earth
they sail across ocean.
3. The moon looks like a disc. The earth has two basic movements:
1) Rotation and 2) Revolution.
4. The Earth casts a circular shadow
during lunar eclipses.
Galactic movement:
The Earth is an oblate spheroid, bulged at
This is the movement
the equator and flattened at the poles. It is
of the earth with the
called ‘Geoid’ (Figure 2.9) meaning the earth
sun and the rest of
is earth-shaped. The bulge at the equator is
the solar system in an orbit around
caused by the centrifugal force of the Earth’s
the centre of the MilkyWay Galaxy.
rotation. The gravitational pull of the earth
This, however, has little effect upon the
is the strongest at the flattened poles and it
changing environment of the earth.
is weaker towards the equator.
1. Rotation: The spinning of the earth
HOTS around its axis is called the rotation of
the earth. The axis is the imaginary line
Chimborazo in Ecuador is higher than passing through the centre of the earth.
Mount Everest, if measured from the The earth completes one rotation in 23
centre of the Earth. Why? hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. It
rotates in an eastward direction opposite
33
Effects of earth’s rotation: The rotation It passes through the poles and allows
of the earth causes the following effects: the entire earth to have an equal amount
of time during the daylight and night
1. The apparent rising and setting of time hours. This line can be seen from
the sun is actually caused by the space, and the exact location of the line is
earth’s rotation which results in the dependent on the various seasons.
alternate occurrence of day and night
everywhere on the earth’s surface. Revolution of the Earth
2. Rotation of the earth is also responsible The movement of the earth in its orbit
for the difference in time between around the sun in an anti-clockwise
different places on the earth. A 24 direction, that is, from west to east is called
hour period divided by 360 degrees revolution of the earth. The earth revolves
34
35
36
of day light and darkness are equal all over SolsticesPosition of the earth on 21 June
the world. On 21 March the sun is directly The North Pole is inclined or tilted towards
overhead at the equator. Throughout the the sun. It, therefore, experiences complete
world, on this day all the places experience light for 24 hours. The South Pole is tilted
almost equal hours of day and night. away from the sun so it is in complete
This position of the sun is called spring darkness for 24 hours. The rays of the
equinox. sun fall vertically at the tropic of cancer
Position of the earth on 23 September (23½º N). In the Northern hemisphere, the
Neither pole of the earth is inclined days are longer than the nights (Table 2.2).
towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall It is summer in the northern hemisphere
vertically on the equator. All the places and winter in the southern hemisphere.
have equal days and nights. It is autumn The day 21 June is known as summer
in the northern hemisphere and spring solstice.
in the southern hemisphere. Again on 23
September the sun is directly overhead Position of the earth on 22 December
on the equator and it is called autumn The South Pole is inclined towards the sun
equinox. This day (23 September) when and the North Pole is away from it. The
sun’s rays for fall verticaly on the equator, rays of the sun fall vertically at the tropic
is known as autumnal equinox (Figure of Capricorn (23½° S). The greater part of
2.13). the southern hemisphere gets the direct
rays of the sun so the days are long and
37
12 12
00 12 hours
100 S
200 S
14 10 hours 14
300 S
400 S
16 8 hours 16
500 S
18 6 hours 18
600 S 23 1 hours 23
700 S
800 S 0 hours (Constant night)
900 S
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
the nights are short here. In the northern days and the nights. The duration of the
hemisphere the nights are longer than the daylight varies with latitude and seasons.
days at this time. The southern hemisphere An eclipse is a complete or partial
has summer. The northern hemisphere obscuration of light from a celestial body and it
has winter. This day (22 December), when passes through the shadow of another celestial
the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic body. The eclipses are of two types. They are:
of Capricorn, is known as winter solstice.
A) Solar Eclipse
Eclipses It occurs on New Moon days, when
Let us understand the effect of the the moon is between the Sun and the
revolution of the earth on the length of the Earth. Thus it obscures a part of the Sun
viewed from the Earth, but only from a
38
E
The Egyptians could have determined the
day of the fall equinox by counting forward
91 days after the summer solstice.
umbra obscures the entire the moon’s it becomes a ‘Full Moon’. These stages are
surface. Lunar eclipse can be seen from the waxing moon. After the full moon, the
anywhere on the night side of the Earth. moon starts waning or receding through the
It lasts for a few hours due to the smaller stages of Gibbous, last quarter, crescent, and
size of the moon. finally becomes invisible as dark New Moon.
40
10 7
18 26
22
Effects of the spherical shape of the earth same intensity as the direct rays. As
1)
Variation in the amount of solar we go pole wards, the rays spread over
radiation received: the regions beyond the Arctic and the
If the earth were a flat surface, Antarctic circles in an extremely slanting
oriented at right angle to the sun, all the manner. This is how we get the various
places on the earth would have received temperature zones.
the same amount of radiation. But the Lower the degree of latitude; higher the
earth is spherical/ geoid. Hence the temperature. Not only that, the rays striking
sunrays do not heat the higher latitudes at a low angle must travel through a greater
of the earth as much as the tropics. On thickness of the atmosphere than the rays
any given day only the places located at
striking at a higher angle. The rays striking
particular latitude receive vertical rays
at a lower angle are subject to greater
from the sun. As we move north or south
depletion by reflection and absorption by
of this location, the sun’s rays strike at
the atmosphere.
decreasing angles. The yearly fluctuations
in the angle of the sun’s rays and the length Heat zones
of the days change with the continual The spherical shape of the earth along
change of the earth’s position in its orbit with its movement around the sun causes
around the sun at an inclination of 66½ differences in the angles at which the sun’s
to the orbital plane.
rays fall on the earth’s surface. This causes
2) Difference in the angle of the sun’s rays a difference in the distribution of heat on
striking different parts of the earth. the earth’s surface.
Away from the equator, the sun’s rays As a result, the world has been
strike the earth’s surface at particular divided into three distinct heat zones or
angle. The slanting rays are spread over temperature zones. They are the Torrid
a large area and do not heat with the zone, Temperate zone and Frigid zone.
41
42
43
45
46
49
Steps
• Use the URL to reach the ‘Time Zone Map’ page or scan the QR code.
• Use the mouse and surf over the interactive map to observe the time variations and
current time in a particular place.
• Select ‘Eclipses’ under ‘Sun and Moon’ menu to observe eclipses and transits of
planets.
• Click ‘See list of all eclipses & planet transits worldwide (1900 to 2199)’ option form
the list and use the interactive map to identify date and paths of eclipse and transits.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/
50
Lithosphere:
Endogenic Processes
3.1 Introduction
Do you know that the Russians tried to dig
through the centre of the Earth? It indeed
is a daring attempt.
While the famous Voyager 1 satellite
took 26 years to exit our Solar System
(16.5 billion km away), almost the same
amount of time (24 years) was taken for
man to dig out a mere 12.3 km into the
earth’s surface.
Russia drilled Kola Super Deep bore Figure 3.1 Kola Super Deep
hole between 1970 and 1994. The deepest Borehole, Russia
51
Earth
movements
Endogenetic Exogenetic
Underground
water (Karst)
L A U R A S IA
GO
ND
WA
NA
LA
ND
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
250 million years ago 200 million years ago
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
145 million years ago 65 million years ago
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA
INDIA
AFRICA
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
ANTARCTICA
PRESENT DAY
55
W E
JUAN FERNANDEZ
PLATE
ANTARCTICA PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE
Not to scale
W E
Not to scale
Plates are composed of the continental Plate margins mark the occurrence of
or oceanic landmass. The subduction the most significant landforms, including
of the oceanic plates results in the volcanoes, fold mountains, island arcs
occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes and deep-sea trenches. There are three
adjacent to trenches. principal types of plate boundaries. They
57
Volcanic
arc
boundaries.
ch
en
Tr
Continental
3.5.1 Divergent plate boundaries Oceanic Crust
crust
Divergent plate boundary is the margin Lithosphere Lithosphere
where two plates move apart. For
Asthenosphere
instance, the African plate and South
American plate move apart and form a
divergent plate boundary. Narrow oceans Figure 3.10 Divergent margin
High
represent young divergent boundaries
Ra ntain
islands such as the Azores, Ascension, St.
Plateau
e
ng
and wide oceans are indications of
u
Helena and Tristan da Cunha.
Mo
old ocean basins. Ocean ridges are Continental crust
Continental crust
the boundaries between plates of the Web link: Mid Atlantic Ridge
Lithosphere Lithosphere
lithosphere. www.britanica.com/place/
atlanticocean
Astheno sphere
Atlantic Ocean
is widening at an
Secondly, rift valley is formed when
estimated rate of 1 to
two plates move apart. If a divergent
10 cm a year
boundary runs through the continent,
A fissure is created when oceanic the continent splits apart and rift valley
lithosphere separates along the oceanic is formed. The African Rift Valley of East
plate boundary. The gap is filled by magma Africa is an example.
that rises from the asthenosphere. The
3.5.2 Convergent plate boundary
magma cools and solidifies to create a new
Convergent plate boundary is the margin
oceanic crust. Hence, the divergent plate
where two plates collide with one another.
boundary is termed as the constructive
For instance, the South American plate
plate boundary. It is also called as accreting
and Nazca plate collide with each other.
plate margin.
There are two kinds of surface features
Let us see what happens in the divergent
associated with the convergent margin.
plate boundary. Firstly, submarine
The first is the ocean trench that forms a
mountain ridge is formed through the
line between the two colliding plates.
fissures in the oceanic crust when the
plates move apart.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an ideal Wadati-Benioff
example of a submarine mountain ridge zones are nothing but
in the Atlantic Ocean. It is the longest Subduction zone
mountain ridge in the world.
It extends for about 16,000 km, in a 'S'
shaped path, between Iceland in the north
and Bouvet Island in the south. It is about A trench is a narrow and deep depression of
80 to 120 km wide. It reaches above the the ocean floor. It is formed when the oceanic
sea level in some places thus forming the plate slides down underneath continental
58
two plates collide each other. For instance, Figure 3.12 Transform plate boundary
the Himalayas were formed when the Indian
plate collided with the Eurasian plate. The 3.6 Convection Cell
zone marking the boundary of the two Now you may think why plates keep
colliding plates is known as suture line. moving. The plate movements are caused
Volcanic
arc
mantle,
Oceanicthe
Crustnewly formed magma will
Continental
crust
tendLithosphe
to rise caused by the heat derived from the core.
re to the Earth’s surface, where
Lithosphe re
it may form volcanoes. The area in the When looking at the figure.3.13 you will
Asthenosphere
subduction zone where most earthquakes understand how and why plates move in
occur is known as the Benioff zone. different directions.
High When the molten materials( magma)
Ra ntain
Plateau
circulate in different directions, they push
e
ng
u
Mo
Continental crust
or pull the plates in different directions.
Continental crust
Thus, the plates move towards each other,
Lithosphere Lithosphere
move away from one another and move
side by side. The plate movements cause
Asthenosphere
the formation of fold, fault, earthquake, and
volcano to occur. Let us see the cause, effects,
Figure 3.11 Convergent plate boundaries and distribution of the internal forces.
59
Ocean
Trench
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
Lithosphere Lithosphere
Cold
Convection
Cell
Hot
Outer
core
Inner
core
Axial Planes
3.7.1 Parts of a Fold
Hinge Lines
(fold axes) Axis Up thrown part of a fold is called anticline.
Down thrown part of a fold is syncline.
Hinge
line
b
Lim
Li m b
bisects the angle between two limbs is
b
60
D. Recumbent E. Isoclinal
1. The Andes
2. The Rockies
3. The Atlas
4. The Himalayas
5. The Alps
5. When one side of the fold is pushed so The fault plane is the flat surface
much that it lies positioned over the along which broken blocks of rock slide
other, such a fold is called recumbent past one another. A fault dip is an angle
fold. between the fault plane and horizontal
plane. Up thrown side represents the
When plates converge, the weak
uppermost block of a fault. Down thrown
rocks and sediments lying between two
side represents the lowermost block of a
plates get squeezed and folded. Parallel
fault. Sometimes it becomes difficult to
folds form long chains of fold mountain
find out, which block has really moved
ranges with high peaks. The fold
along the fault plane. Hanging wall is the
mountains are characterised by peaks and
upper wall of a fault. Foot wall represents
valleys. The tops of anticlines become
the lower wall of a fault.
the peaks and synclines become the
valleys. Intermontane plateaus (plateau A fault scarp is the steep wall like slope
surrounded by the mountain ranges all caused by faulting of the crustal rocks.
sides) may be found between the high Sometimes the fault scrap is so steep that
ranges. Example, Tibet. it resembles a cliff.
62
Footwall Block
Reverse Fault
Normal Fault
Figure 3.18 Narmada Rift Valley, India
word meaning ‘trough’. A Rift Valley may
subsequently get filled by water and a
river may flow through it. Normally, a rift
Hanging Wall Block valley is long, narrow and very deep. For
Footwall Block example,
all Block i. Rhine rift Valley is flanked by two
Reverse Fault Block Mountains namely the Vosges
and the Black Forest.
Figure 3.17 Normal fault and Reverse fault
When movement occurs along a normal ii. The rift of River Narmada in India lies
fault, the hanging wall slips downward. between the Vindhyas and Satpura
block mountains.
Landforms made by Normal fault are: iii. The great rift valley of Africa.
1. Rift Valley or Graben The Great Rift Valley of Africa is
When a narrow block of land drops or the longest rift valley in the world. It
subsides between two parallel normal stretches for 6,400 km from Mozambique
faults, rift valley (Graben) is formed. in the south to Syria in the north. The
Graben originates from the German depressions have become lakes. The lakes
Graben
Tectonic Stress
Epicenter
Seismic
Waves Focus
Fault Plane
65
66
W E
Not to scale
67
69
70
Volcanic neck
Dyke Sill Laccolith
Sill
Lapolith
Stock
Dyke
Dyke
Batholith
Batholith ( )
5
Dyke ( ) 1 6
Sill ( )
4
Chamber ( ) 3
Lapolith ( )
2
72
Sedimentary Rock
Sediment
73
74
75
76
Steps
• Use the URL to land on ‘Google Earth’ or scan the QR code from your smartphone.
• Open “Google Earth” app and type “Everest” in the search box to explore the
folded mountain structure created by tectonic collision.
• Type volcano name in search box and explore the landscape formed by its eruption.
• Roll over the globe using your mouse and zoom in and zoom out to explore the
land mass and its tectonic plate extensions.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
77
Lithosphere:
Exogenic Processes
79
rocks due to temperature changes, makes rocks and freezes, the pressure exerted on
the rocks break down into small pieces the rock is enough to wedge the walls of
(Figure 4.2). Due to this, the breakup the crack farther apart, thus expanding
of rocks occurs, grain by grain. This is and deepening the crack. Thus, frost
known as granular disintegration. wedging results in weathering of rock.
Block disintegration occurs in rocks 4.3.1.3 Exfoliation
such as granite rock. So in the areas of jointed
Rocks generally heat or cool more on the
igneous or layered sedimentary rocks due
surface layers. The alternate changes in
to the great diurnal range of temperature,
temperature could cause their outer layers
the rocks may break up along the joints and
to peel off from the main mass of the rock in
cracks into a large rectangular shaped blocks.
concentric layers just as the skin of an onion.
4.3.1.2 Frost Wedging The process by which curved layers of rock
Almost all liquids contract when frozen, breakaway from the rock beneath them
but when water freezes it becomes larger leaving behind dome shaped monoliths
in size or takes up more space. As water is called exfoliation (Figure 4.2). It is also
expands it puts great pressure on rocks. called as ‘onion weathering’. Exfoliation
When water enters into the cracks of occurs commonly in the arid areas.
Frost Wedging
W te
Wa
Water
ter IC
CE
ICE
80
81
Slump
Great mass of bed rock moves downward
by rotational slip from a high cliff is
known as slump. Most common reason
for slumping is erosion at the base of
the slope which reduces the support for
overlying sediments.
Debris Slide
Debris slide is more extensive and occurs
Figure 4.6 Rock fall on a larger scale than slump but there is
a little amount of water. The materials
Rock slides involved in debris slide are a mixture of
Rockslides usually follow a zone of soils and rock fragments.
weakness. Presence of water increases
Debris flows
slippage. Collisions down the slope
generally break the rock mass into rubble Debris flow is defined as mass wasting event in
that eventually results in rockslides. which turbulence occurs throughout the mass.
Debris flow includes earth flows, mudflows,
Land slides and debris avalanches. Debris flow occurs
Landslides occur when a large piece of when the rock or soil mass loses coherency
rock breaks off and slides down hill. It is when lots of water is involved. Debris becomes
often initiated by earthquakes and very mixed up completely and flows as liquid mud.
heavy rain. It often carries large boulders which can be
82
84
85
Angel Falls, in
Venezuela, is Earth’s
highest waterfall
(979 m).
Figure 4.9 Gorge
86
Gandikota, Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh is known for its spectacular gorge
formed by river Pennar that cuts through the Erramala hills. This handsome piece of
Nature’s architecture is known as the Hidden Grand Canyon of India. Magnificent
Gandikota fort is located majestically on top of this gorge. Belum Cave found here is
the second largest cave system in India. In fact, geologists have also found surplus
deposits of Quartz in the stalactite and stalagmite formations of the cave. Adjacent
to Gandikota fort, lies a magnificent lake that is believed to have been established by
emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya using water from the Pennar river.
87
Areas of deposition
Areas of erosion
90
Sea or Lake
Turbidity
Current
Topset
beds
Lagoon Lagoon
Students activity
Label the following diagram of landforms made by the river.
Journey of a river
key words
Mouth
Tributary
Meander
Delta
Source
Floodplain
Ox bow lake
Confluence
91
94
4. Drumlins 1. Sinkholes
It is an inverted boat-shaped deposition in A sinkhole is an opening more or less
an outwash plain caused by deposition. circular at the top and funnel-shaped
towards the bottom. When as sinkhole
5. Kames
is formed solely through the process of
Kames are the number of ridges formed solution, it is called as a solution sink.
along the ice front.
2. Doline
4.8 Ground water (Karst Topography) A doline is a closed depression draining
The word “karst” literally means “rocky underground in karst areas. It can be cylindrical,
mountain” comes from a region in former conical, bowl or dish shaped. The diameter
Yugoslavia that includes Croatia and ranges from a few meter to many hundreds of
Slovenia. The word is derived from the meters. The name doline comes from dolina,
Slavic word Kras. the Slovenian word meaning valley.
95
3. Lappies 5. Polje
Lappies are the irregular grooves and Polje is an elongated basin having a flat
ridges formed when most of the surfaces floor and steep walls. It is formed by the
of limestone are removed by solution coalescence of several sinkholes. The basins
process. often cover 250 square km and may expose
4. Uvala “disappearing streams.” Most of these basins
have steep enclosing walls that range from
Series of smaller sinkholes coalesce into a
50 to 100 meter in height, giving rise to the
compound sinkhole is called uvala.
name “blind valley.”
6. Caves
Caves normally have an opening through
which cave streams are discharged. Caves
having an opening at both the ends are
called tunnels.
HOTS
96
97
4.9 Wind
The wind is the main geomorphic agent
in the arid region. Wind in arid region has
greater speed which causes erosional and
depositional activities in the desert. The
landforms which are created by erosional
and depositional activities of wind are
called as Aeolian Landforms.
Action of the wind
The action of the wind is carried in the
following ways;
1. Deflation: Removal of sand and dust
particles by wind. It forms depression
in the desert. When depression is Figure 4.24 Oasis (Top)
filled with water, it is called as Oasis. Mushroom rock (Bottom)
2. Abrasion: Action of wind in which
sand particles carried by the wind erosion in the lower part of the rock than
strike against the rock. the top. These result in the formation of
3. Attrition: Sand particles carried by the rock pillars shaped like a mushroom with
wind striking each other is known as narrow pillars with broad top surfaces.
attrition. 3. Yardang
4.9.1 Erosional Landforms of Wind Yardangs are extensively grooved, fluted,
1. Deflation Hollows pitted and irregular rock ridges or reliefs
When deflation causes a shallow of about 1 to 10 meters high running
depression by persistent movements parallel to the prevailing winds. They are
of wind, they are called as deflation caused by differential erosion. When the
hollows.
sand-laden wind corrades zones of softer
2. Mushroom Rock or weaker rock between harder vertical
A mushroom rock, also called rock ridges from old lake sediment where soft,
pedestal, or a pedestal rock, is a naturally consolidated rock and bedrock surfaces
occurring rock whose shape, as its name
are eroded into alternating ridges and
implies, resembles a mushroom.
furrows. Large-scale yardangs are found
In deserts, a greater amount of sand
in Egypt (near Kom Ombo, north of Lake
and rock particles are transported close to
the ground by the winds which cause more Aswan).
98
Zeugen
Zeugen is a landscape of alternate
horizontal ridges and furrows made by
the action of wind abrasion. It may be as
high as 30 m height.
99
100
Sand spit
Offshore sand bar
Tombolo
101
Evaluation b. Erode
I. Multiple Choice c. Dharmapuri
Questions d. Coimbatore
1. Which of the following 4. The swirling movement of the
is the chemical falling water into the plunge pool
weathering process? is called
a. Exfoliation a. Plunge pool
b. Frost Wedging b. Groove
c. Carbonation c. Rapids
d. Thermal expansion d. Eddying
2. Feldspar found in Granite changing to 5. A winding curve or bend in a river
clay is the most common example of a. Ox-bow lake
a. Oxidation b. Flood plain
b. Carbonation c. Meander
c. Solution d. Levees
d. Hydrolysis 6. A bowed or curved delta with the
3. Which district in Tamil Nadu has the convex margin facing the body of
highest frequency of landslide? water, also called as fan delta.
a. Nilgiris a. Arcuate Delta
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103
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Plate Tectonics’ simulation page.
• Download JAVA binary file from the page and install it .Click ‘Play’ button to run
the JAVA applet.
• ‘Plate tectonics’ crust page will open. Modify temperature, composition and
thickness of the crust and measure the density and depth using the scale provided.
• Select ‘Plate Motion’ page and drag the crust form to converge or diverge motion
and observe the exogenic process.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/plate-tectonics
104
Hydrosphere
Activity: List the major rivers from the map, find their source and mouth.
Name of the river Source Countries through Sea or ocean it Type (Delta
which they flow drains into or estuary)
Amazon. R
Nile .R
Yangtzekiang. R
Ganga. R
107
Land
Surface
Unsaturated zone
Water Table Surface Water
saturated zone
Ground Water
Creviced rock Water (not ground Water) held by molecular attraction Gravel
Air Surrounds surfaces of rock particles Air
Fact File
5.4 Cryosphere
Mount Kilimanjaro (5895m) in
Cryosphere includes the water in frozen Tanzania, Africa, located closer to
state. Glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, lake the equator has permafrost.
and river ice, permafrost, seasonal snow
and ice crystals in the atmosphere together
form cryosphere. Earth’s climate is highly Seasonal snow and ice crystals are
influenced by the extent of cryosphere as confined to middle latitudes and high
it controls the energy budget of the earth mountains in lower latitude. Sea ice is
(Figure 5.2). frozen ocean water. Its formation, growth
Perennial ice cover is found in and melting are all confined to the ocean.
Greenland and Antarctica as ice sheets, An ice shelf is a thick, floating slab of ice
as mountain glaciers and as permafrost that forms where a glacier or ice flows
Ice cap
Snow Snow
Lake/River Iceberg
Ice
Glacier
Glacler Ice Sheet
Seaice IceSheif
Permafrost
Sea
Land
110
Not to scale
Contiguous Zone
(up to 12 miles)
Land
Area
Continental Shelf (deep sea bed)
113
SRI
100
LANKA
SRI
NE
LANKA
C ZO
50
N
MI
Not to scale Indian Ocean
NO
O
00
C
E
E
650E 700 750 800 850 900 950 V
SI
North Indian Ocean with Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal .The dashed Lines OU C LU
TER EX
LIMIT OF
demacrate India’s EEZ,Which covers about 2 million sq,km, Which is roughly
60% of India’s land area.India’s coastline including islands is about 7000 km long.
fathoms. The width of the continental shelf landslides, turbid currents, large sediment
varies according to the nature of the rock slumps, under water canyons, gorges cut by
beneath the crust. If the crust is dynamic the currents and rivers occur. The deposit
then the shelf would be narrow and vice from the continental shelves immediately falls
versa. Continental shelves are formed due to down here. The origin of continental slope is
either any one or combination of the factors believed to be due to erosional, tectonic and
like fluvial deposits, marine erosion, tectonic aggradational processes.
forces, and the fluctuations in sea level in the
past. Continental shelves are well known for Continental rise
oil, natural gas, mineral deposits and coral The area between the continental
reefs. World famous fishing grounds like slope and the sea floor is known as the
Grand Bank are situated here. The world’s continental rise. This part is noted for
widest continental shelf (1210 km long) is the accumulation of sediments similar to
located along the coast of Siberia, in Russia. the alluvial fans near the foot hills in the
Continental shelf on the east coast of land. It represents the boundary between
India is formed by deltas of the Ganga, the continents and abyssal plain. It constitutes
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. about 5% of the oceanic area.
On the West coast of India the continental
shelves are formed due to faulting and Abyssal plain
consequent submergence. The Abyssal plain is the vast area of flat
terrain in the bottom of the oceans. It is
Continental Slope the largest part of ocean relief covering
The zone of steep slope extending from the more than 50% of the total area. There is
continental shelf to the deep sea plain or an accumulation of very fine sediments on
abyssal plain is called continental slope. The the floor. The sediments are combinations
slope angle varies from 5° to 60°. It occupies 9% of fine particles of clay and microorganisms.
of sea floor. This is the region in oceans where As in the case of sedimentary rocks of earth’s
114
Coastal
Shoreline Plain
Submarine
Canyon
Continental
Shelf
Continental
Slope
Continental
Abyssal Rise
plain
Figure 5.8 Ocean relief
surface these sediments are in layers and are oceanic ridge system. They are formed by
used to trace geological events in the past. the tectonic forces acting from within the
earth. Mid oceanic ridges are located on the
Mid oceanic ridges divergent plate boundaries where magma
The mid-ocean ridges are submarine flows through the fissure to form new oceanic
mountains. They are continuous and are crust. They form the longest mountain
connected to form a single global mid- range in the world extending for more than
115
T - TRENCH
R - RIDGE
N
W E
S
Aleuan Trench
Kuril Trench
Japan Trench
Izu Trench M
Ryukyu Trench idd
le
Am
Mariana Trench er
ica
nT
re
nch
Philippine Trench
Peru Chile Trench
Tonga Trench
Kermandec Trench
Diamanna Trench
Zialandia trench
Not to Scale
118
18
00 16
Latitude
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
0
Not to scale
-2
Temperature in ˚C
20
18
Latitude
00 16
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
Not to scale 0
-2
_
_
Polar
relief and the
Tropical _ 2,000
submarine ridges
_ Temperate
1,000 _ 4,000 with shallow water do not allow
free mixing of open sea water. The
Depth(m)
Depth(m)
40 50 60 70 of a rake, a traditional
Temperature (oF) wooden tool with the
long handle and long
Figure 5.14 Vertical distribution
of temprature in Oceans pointed wooden toothed spade at the
bottom for collecting salt.
Brain Storming
123
more than 37
37
36
35
34
less than 34
Parts of Waves
1. Crest: The upper or highest part of a
wave is called the crest. (Figure 5.16)
2. Trough: The lowest part of a wave is
called the trough.
3. Wave height: The vertical distance
between the crest and the trough is
5.11 Ocean movements known as wave height.
Water in the ocean is never in a state of 4. Wave length: The horizontal distance
rest. Ocean water is always in motion. It between two crests or two troughs is
moves horizontally as well as vertically. known as wave length.
124
125
150 0
120 0
90 0
600
300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
800 800
N
La
br
ad
ian
C
C W E
nd
or
g
enla rve
C.
600 e No 600
Gr Berling S C.
St. Johns ic C
. London h io
N. Pacific C. lant as
400 New York NA
t Oy 400
ry C.
C tream C.
North alifo lf S
North
hio
Cana
Pacific Gyre rn Gu Atlantic ro
s
Gyre Ku
ia
200
200
C.
N Equa torial C.
C
li
N. Equatorial C.
ma
N. Equatorial C.
So
0 0
00
S Equatorial C.
S. Equatorial C. S. Equatorial C.
ustralian C.
u s t r a l i a n C.
Benguela
Walvis Bay
Peru C
sC
Pacific Gyre South Indian
a
Durban
.
ulh
il C
.
E. A
Ag
Braz
C.
400 Gyre 400
.A
W
West Wind Drift West Wind
60 0
East Wind Drift 600
East Wind Drift
800 800
1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
Not to Scale
Cold Current Warm Current
128
130
Normal Year W E
EI Nino
S
North
Europe Asia America
Pacific Ocean
South Equatorial
Current South
Cold America
Water
Australia
South Pacific
Current
N
N
W E
EI Nino Year W E
S
S
North
Europe Asia America
Warmer
Winter
Pacific Ocean
Weaker wind moves warm water east
South Equatorial
South Current South
America America
Australia
South Pacific
Current
Not to Scale
131
132
La Nina
La Nina is just the opposite to the condition of El Nino. When trade winds are strong,
colder water up wells on the East Pacific Ocean, walker air circulation is confined to
the west Pacific, wet condition in Southeast Asia and dry weather in South America is
observed.
The difference in the atmospheric pressure between the west and east tropical Southern
Pacific Ocean is referred to as Southern Oscillation. Meteorologists have established a close
inter link between Southern Oscillation and occurrences of El Nino and La Nina events. The
acronym ‘ENSO’(El Nino Southern Oscillation) is often used to study both the phenomena.
1. Abyssal plains: An extremely large, flat, under water plain on the deep ocean floor.
2. Continental rise: is area between the continental slope and the sea floor.
3. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): extends from the base line to a maximum of 200 nautical
miles (370.4 km).
4. Isthmus: A narrow steep of land that connects two large land masses and separates two
bodies of water.
5. Hot spot: An area is the mantle from where rocks melt and magma rises through
circular to form volcano.
6. Permafrost: is the condition prevailing when water freezes above and below the
ground, (including rock or soil) for more than two consecutive years
7 Trace elements: A chemical element present in minute amount in a particular sample
or environment.
8. Isohaline: is an imaginary line drawn to join places having equal salinity
9. Swell: is a type of wind-generated waves that is not affected by the local wind.
10. Reservoir: A large lake use as a source of water supply
133
134
135
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ocean current page.
• Click ‘earth’ option from the left bottom side of the page. Click ‘Play’ button to
start and stop the animation. Use ‘Control’ menu to change the date.
• Select ‘Ocean’ from ‘Mode’ menu and toggle between ‘Currents’ and ‘Wave’ menu
from ‘Animate’ option to observe the global ocean currents.
• Select ‘Currents’ and ‘SST’ or ‘SSTA’ options from ‘Overlay’ menu to observe
temperature anomaly. Roll the globe and zoom in and out to view the animation.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://earth.nullschool.net/
136
Atmosphere
137
km
60 Mesosphere
48
Upper limit for
military jet aircraft
22mi (35km)
40 Ozone layer
Weather Ballons
11-19mi (18–30Km))
Stratosphere
31
Passenger Airplane
Thunderstorm cloud 8mi (13km)
up to 8mi (13km)
19
Mount Everest
5.5mi (8.8 km)
10
Troposphere
Aurora
Thermosphere
Meteors
Low
Lo orbit
space shuttle
185km (115mi)
80
50 Mesosphere
10 Stratosphere
Troposphere
Ozone layer
Figure 6.4 Thermosphere
141
UV 1. UV causes a
F F chlorine atom
CFC molecule
C C to break way from
the CFC molecule.
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
Stratosphere
Cl
O O
Cl
O O
Cl O Cl
free chlorine O O O O
O free chlorine
O3-ozone ClO2- chlorine O2- oxygen free oxygen CIO-chlorine O2- oxygen
monoxide molecule from stratosphere monoxide molecule
2. The free chlorine 3. The chlorine atom 4. A free oxygen atom 5. The result is
atom hits an ozone plus one oxygen atom hits the chlorine another free chlorine
molecule. away. monoxide molecule. atom.
6. Free chlorine will continue to deplete ozone in the stratosphere.
142
143
51 units absorbed
by Earth’s surface
Heat Budget
Figure 6.6 Heat Budget
Distribution of Temperature
Distribution of temperature varies both 6.3.1 Factors Affecting the Horizontal
horizontally and vertically. Let us study it Distribution of Temperature
under The horizontal distribution of temperature
a. Horizontal Distribution of on the earth’s surface varies from place to
Temperature place. Following are the factors affecting
b. Vertical Distribution of Temperature the horizontal distribution of temperature
of the earth:
A) H
orizontal Distribution of a. Latitude: The angle formed by the
Temperature solar radiation to the ground is
Distribution of temperature across the called ‘angle of incidence’. The solar
latitudes over the surface of the earth radiation passes vertically along
is called horizontal distribution of the equator. The angle of incidence
temperature. On maps, the horizontal decreases from equator towards the
distribution of temperature is commonly poles. The area heated by the solar
shown by isotherms. Isotherms are line radiation increases towards the poles
connecting points that have an equal and therefore, temperature decreases
temperature at mean sea level. from the equator to the poles.
144
145
cooled.
e. Formation of fronts: the movement
of warm air over the cold air during
Air Temperature Air Temperature
the formation of the various fronts
Figure 6.7 Vertical distribution of leads to inversion condition.
Temperature f. Mountain wind: The subsidence
of cold mountain wind at the early
Student Activity morning leads to the displacement
of warm air from the valley to higher
If the temperature of Chennai (7 m)
altitude. This type of inversion is
is 348C, calculate the temperature of
called as ‘valley inversion’.
Kodaikanal (2133m) using normal
lapse rate.
Albedo is the amount
6.3.3 Inversion of Temperature of solar radiation
reflected from the
The condition at which the temperature
surface. The variation
increases with altitude is called as
is based on the nature of the earth’s
‘inversion of temperature’. In this
surface. Snow has higher albedo
condition, warm air lies over cold air.
compared to forest.
The conditions for inversion of
temperature are:
a. Long winter nights: The bottom layer 6.3.4 Measurements of Temperature
of the atmosphere in contact with the Unit of
ground is cooled and the upper layer Scientist Year
Temperature
remains relatively warm. Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit 1714
b. Cloudless sky: The higher amount Celsius Andrew Celsius 1742
of terrestrial radiation reaches the Kelvin Lord Kelvin 1848
146
North Pole
Polar Zone
Arctic
C ircle
Temperate Zo
ne
Tropic o
f cancer
SUN
Equato
Tropical Zone r
Tropic o
f Capric
orn
Temperate Zo
ne
Antarc
tic Ci rcle
Polar Zone
South Pole
(B) July
L
H
H
H
H
H H
H
The atmospheric pressure belts envelope Winds are classified based on the nature
on the surface of the earth. They are and area of influence as follows;
equatorial low pressure belt, sub tropical
high pressure belts, sub polar low pressure 6.4.5 General Atmospheric Circulation,
belts and polar high pressure belts. Pressure Belts and Primary Wind
System
6.4.4 Wind Systems
From the equator to the poles, each
Wind is the horizontal movement of air hemisphere has four pressure belts and
molecules from areas of high pressure totally there are seven belts on the globe. The
to areas of low pressure to maintain the pressure belts lead to formation of primary
atmospheric equilibrium. The wind wind system as follows:
always moves perpendicular to isobars. If
a. The equatorial low pressure belt
the earth did not rotate, the winds would
(between 5oN and 5oS): This is the
blow in a straight path. Then the rotation
region of calm, weak and changeable
Coriolis Effect winds. Due to the high temperature
over this region, the air gets heated
The rotation of the earth affects the expands and become lighter and
moving objects on the earth surface. rises upward and creates low pressure
Free moving objects, affected by the over the region. This region is a
rotation of the earth, do not follow belt of calm and referred to as the
a straight line. In the northern ‘Doldrums’. The winds blow from
hemisphere they drift towards right the sub tropical high pressure belt
and towards left in the southern towards the equatorial low pressure
hemisphere. A car travelling down belt. Due to Coriolis Effect these
a straight road at 95 km/hr in winds are deflected to the right in the
northern hemisphere would drift to northern hemisphere and to the left
the right of the path if the friction in the southern hemisphere. As winds
between surface and tyre is absent. are named after the direction from
The tendency is called as Coriolis which they originate they are called
Effect as it was discovered by as the North East and South east trade
G.G. Coriolis. This is the reason why winds. As the winds favoured trading
racket launching stations are located ships they are called as ‘Trade winds’.
on the east coastal areas. Example:
Sriharikota, French Guyana.
151
Jet streams
b. The sub tropical high pressure belt c. The sub polar low pressure belt (50o
(25o to 35o N and S): Air begins to to 60o N and S): The warm westerly
cool when it reaches higher altitude wind from sub tropical region moves
over equatorial region and flows towards the pole and collide with the
towards the poles. This wind collides cold polar easterly wind from polar
with the wind coming from the polar high pressure region and raises up to
region at higher altitude and subsides form sub polar low pressure belt.
down over sub tropical latitudes. This d. Polar high pressure belt (80o N
leads to formation of high pressure and 80o S pole): The constant low
belt along the sub tropical region. temperature at the poles due to
It is said that to avoid the slowing inclined solar radiation and reduced
down of ship due to high pressure the insolation leads to the formation of
horses were thrown into the sea. So polar high pressure belt on both poles
this belt is called as ‘Horse latitude’. (Figure 6.13).
The sinking air bifurcated in to two
The high pressure on the surface always
branches towards the equator and
coincide with the low pressure at higher
poles, they are called as trade winds
altitude while the low pressure on the
and westerly respectively. Westerlies
surface always coincide with higher
flow towards the pole from sub
pressure on the higher altitude. High
tropics and turn towards right and
pressure always has divergence of air
left in northern hemisphere and
masses from the centre but low pressure
southern hemisphere respectively.
has convergence of air.
152
Ne Trade winds
Sun’s
Low Low Low Equatorial doldrums (ITCZ) Low 00 Low
Low Rays
SE Trade winds
6.4.6 B
asis of Formation of Pressure b. Dynamism: The sub tropical high
Belts and sub polar low pressure belts
are formed due to movement and
There are two important bases on which collision of wind system. So they
the pressure belts are formed. They are; are called as ‘Dynamically formed
a. Temperature: The equatorial low pressure pressure belt system’.
and polar high pressure belts are formed
due to high and low temperature 6.4.7 Meridional Cell System
respectively. So they are called as The cell along with trade winds, equatorial
‘Thermally formed pressure belts’. low and sub tropical high pressure belts is
called as ‘Hadley cell’, meanwhile the cell
Ocean is dominant formed by westerly wind along with sub
in the southern tropical high and sub polar low pressure
hemisphere between belt is called ‘Ferrell’s cell’. The cell at polar
the latitudes 40ºS formed by polar easterlies with polar high
and 60ºS. Hence the westerlies are and sub polar low pressure belt is called as
so powerful and persistent that the ‘Polar cell’ (Figure 6.14).
sailors used such expressions as ITCZ – Inter Tropical Convergent Zone
“Roaring Forties”, “Furious Fifties” The region where both trade wind
and “Screaming or Shrieking Sixties” systems meet is known as ‘Inter Tropical
for these high velocity winds in the Convergent Zone’.
latitudes of 40º, 50º and 60º respectively.
153
clouds
popause
Polar tro (mirror image
in southern
Hadley cell hemisphere)
Ferrel cell
5
polar cell
0
North pole 600N 300N Equator Latitude
high low high low pressure
easterlies north-east trade winds global winds
Warm south-westerlies
Shifting of Pressure Belts and Primary to the formation of high pressure system
Wind System over ocean. So, the wind blows from
These pressure belts and primary wind sea to land during summer season.
systems are dynamic in character as Meanwhile the land reradiates more heat
they shift 58 north and 58 south from energy to space during winter leading
their position along with the apparent to the formation of high pressure above
movement of the sun. the continent. But the ocean will have
relatively higher temperature than the
6.4.8 Secondary Wind System continent leading to formation of low
Both monsoon and cyclones are considered pressure system over ocean. So, wind
as secondary or regional wind systems. blows from land to sea during the winter
season. This mechanism has an important
Monsoons
effect on rainfall received over the region.
The word ‘Monsoon’ is derived from
the Arabic word, ‘Mausim’ which means Nature of Monsoon System
‘Season’. Monsoons are seasonal winds There are three distinct characteristics related
which reverse their direction due to to monsoon wind system which differentiates
unequal heating and cooling of the land it from other wind systems. They are;
and the water. 1. Minimum 1608 reversal of wind
Mechanism of Monsoon direction between seasons.
The land absorbs more heat energy 2. They affect a large part of the continents
during summer, which leads to the and oceans.
formation of low pressure over continent. 3. The formation of low and high pressure
But the ocean will have relatively lower systems over land and water and their
temperature than the continent leading interchange between the seasons.
154
However, the soil in the limestone plateau doesn’t absorb water. There is barely
any forest cover, so a lot of erosion of top soil happens. All of it flows down into
Bangladesh. The irony is that “the wettest place on earth” grapples with an acute water
shortage after monsoon ends around October. Hence, people call world’s rainiest
place Mawsynram, which is also world’s wettest desert.
157
Cold Cold
Cold
Cold
Buran W E
Karaburan S
Chinook Helm
Nor’easter Bora
NORTH Blizzards
AMERICA Mistral EUROPE
Norther Levant Etesians ASIA
Fohn
Norte
Sirocco
Khamsin
Harmattan
Haboob
(non-Directional)
SOUTH
AFRICA
AMERICA
Berg AUSTRALIA
Pampero Brickfielder
Southerly
Not to scale
Mistral: Cold northerly from central Island, caused by the moist prevailing
France and the Alps to Mediterranean. winds being uplifted over the Southern
Nor’easter: Strong winds from the Alps, often accompanied by a distinctive
northeast in the eastern United States, arched cloud pattern.
especially New England Pampero: Argentina, very strong wind
Nor’wester: Wind that brings rain to which blows in the Pampa.
the West Coast, and warm dry winds to Simoom: Strong, dry, desert wind that
the East Coast of New Zealand’s South blows in the Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria,
and the desert of Arabia.
Mountain and valley Sirocco: Southerly from North Africa
wind systems influence to southern Europe.
the weather pattern of Zonda wind: On the eastern slope of
the mountain top and the Andes in Argentina.
valley bottom. Mountain top can be
seen clearly at early morning and valley 6.4.10 Jet Streams
bottom at evening. But mountain top Jet streams are high altitude westerly wind
will be covered with clouds at evening system blows at a height of 6 to 14 km, with
due to rising of valley wind system and very high speed up to 450 km/hr in wavy form
valley bottom would be covered by at both hemispheres. As they encircle the poles
clouds at early morning due to arrival they are called as ‘Circum polar wind system’
of mountain wind system. These clouds (Figure 6.19).
are sometimes called as ‘fog’ which is Although the jet streams flow at higher
used for cultivation in the dry regions altitude they also influences the surface
like Yemen. weather pattern of the Earth.
159
Student Activity
Mark the direction of the primary winds in the given world map.
N
W E
Not to scale
160
162
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus aabove
bove
b ove 5,486
5,486 metres
me
(mackeral sky)
above 5,486 metres
Al
A ltostratu
Altostratususs
11,828-6,09
,828
828-6
828 66,09
0996 m
1,828-6,096 e
metres
Altocumulus
1,828-6,096 metres
Stratocumulus Cumulus
Below 1,828 metres Stratus Below 1,828 metres
Below 1,828 metres
viii. Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is dark into smog (smoke 1 fog 5 smog)
dull cloud, clearly layered, as it which is more hazardous to the health
brings rain, snow and sleet and it is of the people.(Figure 6.22).
called as rainy cloud.
Condensation
precipitation
Su
rfac
er
un
Transpiration
off
Evaporation
Percolation Lake
Water Streamflow
table
Ocean
Groundwater flow
COLD AIR
summer in the continental interiors
(Figure 6.25).
SNOW SLEET FREEZING RAIN RAIN
Convectional
Figure 6.24 Form of precipitation precipitation
165
Acid snow
a cyclonic activity (Tropical and Temperate) Acid rain
W E
Not to scale
Landfall: The condition at which the In the pursuit of a more organized and
eye of the tropical cyclone crosses the efficient naming system, meteorologists
land is called ‘Land fall’ of the cyclone later decided to identify storms using
(Figure 6.32). names from a list arranged alphabetically.
Since 1953, Atlantic tropical storms
have been named from lists originated
Lightning and
Thunder are caused
by differences in the
electrical charge of
different parts of the cloud. The top of
the cloud becomes positively charged
Figure 6.32 Landfall of tropical cyclone and the bottom is mostly negatively
charged. When the difference is great
Naming of Tropical Cyclones lightning occurs. Differences in the
The practice of naming storms (tropical charge between cloud and the earth
cyclones) began years ago, in order to surface also cause lightning.
help in the quick identification of storms Thunder is caused by rapid
in warning messages because names are expansion of the air that is heated as
presumed to be far easier to remember the lightning passes through it.
than numbers and technical terms
169
170
Typhoons
Cyclones
Cumulonimbus
Clouds
Cold
Stratus Clouds
Air Cool
Air
Warm Air
A Heavy
Showers
Moderate to Light
Showers
B
Cold Warm
Front Front
1000
Cool
Air Warm Front
Cold 996
992 Cold Front
Air
Precipitation
B
1004
Warm Air
Cool air
t
ron Wa
ld f rm
Co fron nt W
t f ro arm
l d
Co fro
nt
Warm air
Warm air Warm air
a) b) c)
W Cool air
ar
m
fro
nt W Front
nt nt ar
fro fro m
ld ld fro
Co Co nt Warm air
Warm air Warm air
Figure 6.35 Development of Temperate cyclone
6.7.4 S
tages in the Formation of Temperate
Cyclone Condition of Super Cyclone
Formation
a. Frontogenesis –Formation of front due
to collision of two contrasting air masses 1. Longer travel or stay of low pressure
(Figure 6.35). system over warm ocean water.
b. Cyclone genesis – Formation of cyclone 2. The speed of jet stream may influence
due to conversion of fronts into various the formation of super cyclone.
sectors.
c. Advancing Stage – The stage where cold Track
front advances towards warm front. Temperate cyclone moves along with the
d. Occlusion stage - The stage where the cold westerly wind system from west to east.
front over takes warm front Anti Cyclones
e. Frontalysis – The last stage where fronts Anti cyclone is a whirlwind system in which
disappear and cyclone ends its life. high pressure area at the centre and surrounded
by low pressure at periphery rotating clockwise
Characters in northern hemisphere and anti clock wise in
Unlike tropical cyclone, temperate cyclone southern hemisphere(Figure 6.36).
forms over both land and water in all seasons. This is the largest among the whirl wind
It covers larger area than tropical cyclone and systems. Normally, they are associated with
stays for a longer period. high pressure belts of sub tropical and polar
region.
172
Anti cyclones are classified as warm core and cold core, based on their temperature, which are
resulted in aridity and cold waves respectively.
Equilibrium: A balanced state of molecules where the acting forces are equal.
Escarpment: A long, steep slope especially one of the edge of a plateau or surface.
Funnelling: Guided through the area that has widening at front and narrow at the end.
Meteorology: is a branch of the atmospheric sciences with a major focus on weather forecasting.
Subsistence: The gradual movement of air molecules from higher altitude to lower altitude.
173
174
175
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere’ page. Click launch to
start the interactive atmosphere page.
• Click begin and select ‘Objects’ check box to observe the vertical content of the
atmosphere.
• Select ‘Temperature’ and ‘Pressure’ check boxes to study physical properties of the
atmosphere.
• Use https://www.windy.com to observe live wind flow of any place on the earth.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
176
The Biosphere
“Man’s attitude towards nature is today critically important simply because
we have now acquired a fateful power to alter and destroy nature. But man
is a part of nature and his war against nature is inevitably a war against
himself.” – Rachel Carson
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline
7.1 Introduction • Throw light on the importance,
vastness and variety that exists in
7.2 Biosphere
the life sphere.
7.3 Ecosystem
• Describe the distribution of life
7.4 Biomes
forms and their adaptations over
7.5 Biodiversity geographical space.
7.6 Endangered Species • Sensitise the student on their role in
7.7 Conservation of biodiversity conserving the biosphere.
BIOSPHERE: HYDROSPHERE:
living matter on earth the water on the surface
including all plant of the earth in oceans,
and animal life rivers, lakes, rain and mist
forms
ATMOSPHERE: LITHOSPHERE:
the thin, fragile the earth’s crust
layer of gases that including landforms,
surrounds the earth rocks and soils
Feed Directly on Plants Feed on Primary Feed on Secondary Eat both plants and
i.e. Herbivores Consumers Consumers animals
Student Activity
181
182
Eagle
Python
Wolf
Thrush
Rat Dragon Fly
Frog
Butter Fly
Fruit Fly
Grasshopper
Mangoes
A Flowering plant Lavenders
Corn
Figure 7.4 Food web
183
184
Animal
respiration
W E
Tundra
Boreal Forest
Temperate Forest
Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands
Desert and dry shrublands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands Not to scale
Tropical and subtropical forests
187
Mangrove
Barrier Reef Fact File
Atolls are coral reefs that are circular in Crustaceans are chiefly aquatic
shape enclosing a lagoon with absence of arthropods having a body covered
an island in the center. with a hard shell or crust and several
pairs of legs. Example: crab, lobsters,
crayfish, barnacles shrimps, krill etc.
Molluscs are organisms with
soft bodies. Often their bodies are
covered by hard shells. Example:
Atoll Reef snail, slug, squid, cuttlefish, mussel,
clams, oysters, octopuses etc.
188
189
N
Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean
W E
GREENLAND
S
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA EUROPE
North Pacific North Atlantic
Ocean Ocean
North Pacific
AFRICA
Ocean
Indian
SOUTH
AMERICA Ocean
AUSTRALIA
South Atlantic
South Pacific
Ocean
Ocean
190
W E
Not to scale
Student Activity
On the outline map of the world draw the equator and colour and label the
following.
1. Show the areas of tropical rain forest, tropical grass land, and Tropical desert in
Africa and South America in both the hemispheres.
2. Colour and label the Taiga forest and it is the longest belt of distribution. Reason
out why so.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Find out why Tropical deserts are on the western margins of the continents.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
191
192
S
Asia
North
Europe
America
Africa
South
America
Australia
Not to scale
193
194
Thar Desert
and New Mexico states of USA and it further
extends to Mexico. The deserts in the southern
Bison in Prairie hemisphere are, the Atacama desert west
of Andes mountains in South America, the
Namibian and the Kalahari deserts in southern
Africa and the Great Australian desert in the
central and southern parts of Australia.
The tropical deserts are not conducive
for the growth of vegetation due to
shortage of water. The plants found here
Prairie Dogs
are the xerophytes which have their own
The animals in this area include the moisture conserving methods such as
bison, wolves of the Prairies of North long roots, thick barks, waxy leaves,
America. The other animals and birds are thorns and small leaves so as to avoid
coyotes, prairie dog, foxes, mice, rabbits, evapo-transpiration.
badgers, rattle snakes, pocket gophers, The main trees and bushes found in
weasel, grasshoppers, quails and hawks. this region are acacia, cacti, date palm,
kikar, babul etc.
vi. Tropical Desert Biome
A tropical desert is the hottest and
driest place on earth where rainfall is
very scanty and irregular. This biome is
typically found in the western parts of the
continents within the tropics.
In the northern hemisphere, the Afro –
Asian deserts form the longest belt which
includes the Sahara desert, Arabian desert
and the Thar deserts. In North America the
tropical deserts cover, California, Arizona Succulent
195
Moose
Coniferous forest
Lumbering is the main occupation of the
people in areas which are easily accessible.
The softwood from the coniferous forests
is widely used in the manufacture of wood
pulp and paper, newsprint, matches,
furniture and building materials.
The hunting of fur bearing animals
like musk rats, ermine, and silver fox are
important economic activities. The taiga
forest is endangered due to logging and
Siberian Tiger
mining by humans. When trees are cut
down in the taiga it takes a very long time
Fact File
to restore itself because of the very short
The ermine is a small mammal, which growing season.
is covered with thick dark brown fur in
summer. This changes to white in the viii Tundra Biome
winter, an adaptation which helps the Tundra is a Finnish word which means
ermine to blend into its surroundings barren land. The tundra region is a vast
and makes it more difficult for the bowl lying beyond the Arctic Circle (66.5°
predators to spot them. North latitude) in the northern hemisphere
along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The
197
Arctic Fox
Bearberry
Lichen Caribou
Musk Ox
Cotton Grass
198
200
W E
Not to scale
201
Extinct in
Extinct the wild Threatened Lower Risk
EX EW CR EN VU cd nt lc
Fact File
The IUCN Red 7.6.1 Causes of Extinction of Species
List of Threatened Extinction is defined as the permanent
Species (also disappearance of an organism from the
known as the face of the earth. In other words, all
IUCN Red List or members of a species have died. This
Red Data List), means a loss of biodiversity. Extinction of
founded in 1964, is the world’s most species may take place (Figure 7.12) due
comprehensive inventory of the global to a variety of causes as given below:
conservation status of biological
species. The International Union for 1. Sudden and rapid changes of
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is environmental conditions
the world’s main authority on the 2. The sudden outbreak of disease and
conservation status of species. A series pest infections.
of Regional Red Lists are produced 3. Some sudden events like forest fires,
by countries or organizations, which volcanic eruption etc.
assess the risk of extinction to species
within a political management unit.
204
205
7,000
50,000
6,000
Extinctions
40,000
Population (Millions)
Extinction Numbers
5,000
Human Population
30,000 (Millions) 4,000
3,000
20,000
2,000
10,000
1,000
0
1800
1830
1860
1890
1920
1950
1980
2010
Source : USGS Time
1.60
Mammals
1.40
Birds
1.20
1.00
Vertebrates
0.80
0.60
Other Vertebrates
0.40
0.20
Background
0
1500-1600 1600-1700 1700-1800 1800-1900 1900-2014
Biodiversity
conservation
In-situ Ex situ
Botanical gardens
Arborata,
Terrestrial Marine Zoological gardens,
Aquaria
207
208
209
210
reserves in 1973 the number has now • Bishnoi villages: In and around
grown to fifty (50) in 2016. Table 7.3. Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds
gives a list of conservation sites and of blackbuck, nilgai and peacocks
their numbers in India. can be seen as an integral part of the
community and nobody harms them.
9. Role of communities: Communities
are playing a vital role in the
conservation and protection of Activity
wildlife in India, example:
Identify community conserved areas
• Sariska Tiger Reserve: In Sariska in Tamil Nadu and prepare a poster.
tiger reserve Rajasthan villagers have
fought against mining by citing the
wildlife protection act. In many areas, Highlight:
villagers themselves are protecting
In 1798, in a small village called
habitats and explicitly rejecting
Vedanthangal near Chennai, the
government involvement.
British soldiers shot some storks
• Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri: The in the local wetland. The villagers
inhabitants of five villages in the stormed the Collector’s office and
Alwar district of Rajasthan have made him issue an order not to harm
declared 1200 hectares of forests as the the nesting birds. This took place long
Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri declaring before the concept of conservation
their own set of rules and regulation of biosphere entered our thoughts.
which do not allow hunting, and are India has experienced many such
protecting the wildlife against any incidents only some of which have
outside encroachments. been recorded.
211
212
Coral polyps: Tiny, soft-bodied organisms related to sea anemones and jellyfish. At
their base is a hard, protective limestone skeleton called a calicle, which forms the
structure of coral reefs. Reefs begin when a polyp attaches itself to a rock on the sea
floor, then divides, or buds, into thousands of clones.
Ecologist: A person who studies the natural relationships between the air, land, water,
animals, plants, etc.
Lagoon: A stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef.
Oasis: A small area in a desert that has supply of water and is able to support vegetation.
An oasis forms when groundwater lies close enough to the surface to form a spring or to be
reached by wells.
Permafrost: A thick subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing point
throughout the year, occurring chiefly in Polar Regions.
Sedges: Any grass like plant, typically growing on wet ground and having rhizomes,
triangular stems, and minute flowers. Sedges are found to grow in cold regions,
213
21. Mark the areas of the Tropical Rain forest Biomes on the given world map and mention
any four characteristics of them.
22. Distinguish between the Tropical Desert and the Tundra biomes.
23. Explain how species are classified in the Red List of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Project
1. Observe life forms in your local area and draw a food web.
2. Complete the following table
Plants and their Animals and
Sl No Biome Location Climate Adaptation to their Adaptation to
Environment Environment
1. Tropical
Evergreen Rain
Forest
2. Tropical
Monsoon
Forests
3. Temperate
Deciduous
Forests
4. Tropical
Grasslands
Or Savannah
5. Temperate
Grasslands or
Steppe
6. Deserts
7. Taiga or Boreal
Forests
8. Tundra
215
216
Steps
• Use the URL or scan the QR code to download and install “Geography Learning
Trivia Quiz” app in smartphone.
• Click on the ‘clock’ to watch the timeline.
• Enter your name,Select Difficulty level and continents to be evaluated in the quiz.
• Answer the quiz by pinning the balloon on the map, complete the quiz and review the
answers. Check your progress in biosphere using achievement tab and leaderboard tab.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.yamlearning.
geographylearning&hl=en
217
Natural Disasters -
Public Awareness For
Disaster Risk Reduction
220
221
Fact File
Tropical Cyclone Vardha hit Chennai on 12th December, 2016. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) reports that at least 10 people have died in Tamil Nadu.
Maximum sustained wind speeds of over 130 km/h was recorded, and the storm has
caused severe damage to parts of the city of Chennai. Over 4,000 trees have been
uprooted, power lines downed and buildings damaged.
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives:
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Scale • Know about the types of maps and
scales.
9.3 Measurement of
distance between places • Convert the scales from one form to
another.
9.4 Measurement of area
• Draw the various types of scale.
9.5 Enlargement and reduction of
maps • Identify the components of the map.
represented by an arrow pointing upward outside the frame of the map on the bottom
placed at the top right corner of the map. right. On the bottom left the name of the
Sometimes a Compass Rose is used instead author, publisher, place of publication and
of an arrow to show the direction. year of publication should be given.
Source
Every map must give the source of the data
used. The source should normally be given
232
o o o o o o o o
68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 E
o
36 N N
W E o
36 N
S
o
32
o
32
o
28
o
24
o
20 o
20
o
16
BAY OF BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
o
12 o
12
8 N
o
o
Not to Scale 8 N
72 N
o
o INDIAN o o o
76 84 88 92 E
OCEAN
233
(1 Km 5 100000 cm)
Step 2: 10 km 5 1000000 cm Therefore
Solved Examples 5 cm: 1000000 cm
Statement of Scale into R. F. Step 3: simplify the ratio
e. 1: 30000
3. Construct a graphical scale for the
following:
a. 1 cm to 10 km Measuring a curved line using a thread and a ruler
b. 1 cm to 5 km
236
0 5 10 mi (example if it is 3.2cm)
Step 3. Note the scale of the map in this
Irish Sea
Ramsey
case 1 cm 5 1 km
Step 4.
Multiply the measured distance
with the scale of the map.
Peel
(3.2 3 1 km 5 3.2 km)
DOUGLAS
Answer : The distance between the two
Castletown
points is 3.2 km
Calf of
Man Irish Sea
Chicken Exercise
Rock
239
Australia
Example: 3
This is a map of Australia drawn on the
scale of 1/32,000,000 and is to be enlarged
on the scale of 1/16,000,000. The side of
each square is ½ cm.
Calculation
To enlarged the given map on the scale of
1/16,000,000:
In the given map, when the scale is
1/32,000,000 the side of the small square
is 0.5 cm. R.F= 1:32,000,000
241
R.F= 1:32,000,000
242
Exercise:
Trace the outline of any two districts of Tamil Nadu from your atlas and enlarge and
reduce the same.
References
1. Singh R.L. and R. Singh (2001) Map Work and Practical Geography, Central Book
Depot, Allahabad.
2. Singh L.R. (2013) Fundamentals of Practical Geography, ShardaPustakBhavan,
Allahabad.
243
Representation of Relief
Features and Climatic Data
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline • Understand how to identify
10.1 Introduction different landscapes.
10.2 Methods of Representing • List types of measuring landscapes
Relief Features • Draw cross section of contours and
10.3 Climatic Diagrams identify landforms.
10.4 Wind Rose Diagram
Contour Lines
Index Contour
Contour Line
Contour Interval
34
1563 1563
S
BM CI
32357 x 3227
Benchmark
E
100
150 100
10
60
.158
M 60
Spot heights are heights
50 between Conltour lines and
40 are shown thus .158
30 60
20 65
70
10
75
M.S.L M.S.L 80
4000
3000
3500
3400
3200
A B
500
400
300
200
100
metres
500 In Metres
4000
400 3600
300 3500
3400
200
3200
100
100
17
16
00
00
15
00
12
00
00 COASTLINE
13
11
14
0 0
10
0
W 10
80
A B 0
SEA
0
200
70
600
500
300
0
60
400
700
300
400
50
A A B
W = WATERFALL B
0
30
0
10
1700
m
1600 CONTOUR
CONTOURINTERVAL
INTERVAL100
100mm 800 800
1500 500 m
1400 400 700 700
1300 300 600 600
1200 200
500 500
1100 100
1000 0 400 400
Figure 10.15 Waterfall Figure 10.16 Sea cliff Figure 10.17 V-Shaped
valley
249
4 D
Example 1
1. Draw graph to show the average
5 E
maximum and minimum temperature
for Chennai city.
6 F
In the x axis,mark the months of the year.
1 cm = one month
10.3 Climatic Diagrams In the y axis, mark the temperature
after selecting suitable scale considering
Climatic diagrams show specific weather
element for a specific station for a specific the lowest and highest temperature of the
time. Graph, bar charts, combination of station. (1 cm = 2 degrees Celsius)
graph and bar and wind roses are few climatic
Temperature /
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Maximum
29.3 30.9 32.9 34.5 37.1 37.0 35.3 34.7 34.2 32.1 29.9 28.9
Temperature in °C
Minimum
21.2 22.2 24.2 26.6 28.0 27.5 26.4 25.9 25.6 24.6 23.1 21.9
Temperature in °C
250
350 35
Example 2
Draw climatic diagram for the following station.
Station: Cuddalore
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall mm 15.54 10.44 12.48 20.96 57.1 41.24 64.4 99.28 147.17 204.22 165.07 133.76
Temp. oC 25.3 26.58 28.46 30.61 31.32 30.75 30 29.34 29.03 27.89 26.45 25.36
204.22
200
30
180
165.07
160
25
147.17
140 133.76
Temperature in ºC
Rainfall in mm
20
120
99.28
100
15
80
64.4
57.1 10
60
41.24
40
5
20.96
20 15.54
10.44 12.48
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
Rainfall Temperature
251
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Coimbatore
Rainfall mm 7.56 13.34 23.04 85.78 178.47 481 492.64 315.2 202.82 263.57 153.53 44.03
Temp. oC 25.4 26.43 27.89 28.77 28.06 26.37 25.55 25.68 26.17 26.21 25.99 25.29
Karur
Rainfall mm 8.14 16.72 23.73 62.44 96.94 90.68 122.52 106.8 144.68 213.49 135.09 67.64
Temp. oC 23.2 24.4 26.06 27.41 27.17 25.75 25.06 24.96 25.22 24.74 23.91 23.01
Tirunelveli
Rainfall mm 14.9 31.45 24.32 85.27 128.5 195.7 147.82 118.9 116.18 203.96 163.37 68.79
Temp. oC 21.1 21.63 22.44 22.95 22.7 21.64 21.19 21.15 21.46 21.3 21.24 21.13
Vellore
Rainfall mm 4.64 9.91 10.58 28.44 94.3 71.28 96.26 122.3 172.47 195.62 122.08 58.25
Temp. oC 23.2 25.08 27.46 29.69 30.04 28.51 27.56 27.11 26.92 25.9 24.33 23.07
Source: India Water Portal | Safe, sustainable water for all. www.indiawaterportal.org/
252
270 o W E 090 o
1 c.m = 10% of days
4
ESE 112.5 o
(4 c.m diameter)
247.5 o WSW
SE
SW 135 o
225 o SSW
S
SSE
202.5 o 157.5 o
180 o Activity
Step 4: Draw a bar with suitable with Know about the wind rose diagram
equal to the length of 2.7 cm in northern and its interpretation in this web site:
direction, 0.9 cm in the north eastern https://www.envitrans.com/how-to
direction and so on to complete the -interpret-a-wind-rose.php
diagram.
Exercise
Draw wind rose diagram for the following stations.
Direction of Wind / Percentage of days wind blowing from this
Wind Blowing Days direction from the Stations
Kota Delhi Cuddalore Cochin
North 10 4 6 2
North east 15 4 30 10
East 15 10 20 10
South east 10 8 8 6
South 2 4 6 25
South west 2 6 6 25
West 2 29 6 5
North west 4 3 6 7
Calm 40 10 12 10
253
Interpretation of
Topographical Map
255
256
minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc. 11.5 Interpretation of Topo sheet
Marginal information is classified in to:
Study of Topographical Maps
• Extra Marginal Information- Serial
Topographic maps are general reference
Number, name of the State, District
maps. They are also called ordnance maps.
and other general information.
These maps are ideal for researchers,
• Intra Marginal Information – Grid planners, administrators, defence personal,
information, contour values, names of hikers, tourists and for class room purpose.
the next nearest places connected by They give clear details of actually surveyed
transport lines and distance in Km. natural and manmade features. These maps
• Inter Marginal Information or Body are drawn to scale.
of the Map– depicts the topography by Geographical knowledge and clear
using various Signs and symbols understanding of conventional signs and
257
72 E
78 E
o o
W E
36o N S
84 E
o
J-43
36o N
102 E
66o E
90 E
96 E
o
o o
I-43 I-44
o
32 N 32 N
o
H-42 H-43 H-44 H-45 H-46 H-47
28o N 22 N
o
G-42 G-43 G-44 G-45 G-46 G-47
o
24 N 24 N
o
F-42 F-43 F-44 F-45 F-46 o
o
20 N o
20 N
102
E-43 E-44 E-45
o
16 N o
16 N
D-42 D-43 D-44 D-46
o
12o N 12 N
C-42 C-43 C-44 C-46
o
8 N 8 N
o
72 E
78 E
84 E
66o E
o o o B-46
o
4 N
o
4 N
90 E
96 E
o o
• Marginal information
Marginal Information
• Relief
The marginal information includes the
• Drainage topographical sheet number, direction, its
• Natural and location, grid references, latitudinal and
258
38D16SW 24'
(1:25,000)
F
41 46 55 64 73 79 84 93
20'
68' 70' 90'
E 47 56 65 74 85 94
16'
86' 88'
D 48 57 66 86 95
C 49 58 67 87 96
8'
B 50 59 68 88 97
4'
66' 72' 74' 76' 78' 80' 82' 84' 92' 94' 96' 98' 100'
102'
Figure 11.4 Index for conversion of Topo sheet No. to OSM sheet No.
259
261
1. www.surveyofindia.gov.in
262
Weather Maps
264
265
3/4th Cloud Cover 7/8th Cloud Cover Sky Completely Strong Moderate Fresh
2. Smooth Sm
Cloudy
3. Slight Sl
Breeze Gale Gale
4. Moderate Mod
Sky Obstructed
from view Strong Whole Storm
Gale Gale
Figure 12.1 Weather Map Symbols Barometric pressure reduced to sea level.
The image indicates the sea level pressure
12.5 Station Model as 105 millibars. The symbol extending
The weather station is the place where from cloud cover is the wind barb, that
all the data about the weather are being shows wind direction and wind speed
recorded, evaluated and documented. (velocity). According to the image, the
Station model is the symbolic drawing of wind blows from the North East direction
the current weather condition, based on to the South West direction at a speed of
the collected data of weather elements 15 knots.
in the particular station. The weather
elements observed are shown in symbols
12.6 Reading Weather Map
in station models. Based on the above flow chart basic
The value highlighted in the upper weather elements are represented. The
left corner is the temperature in following points are to be described while
degree Celsius. The image portrays the reading the weather map.
temperature as 12 degrees Celsius. The Pressure
value highlighted in the lower left corner
is the dew point temperature in degrees 1. Location of high pressure shown as ‘H’
Celsius. According to the example, the in the weather map. The number and
dew point of temperature which is 5 location must be specified
degrees Celsius. The image at the centre 2. Location of low pressure, represents as
refers to cloud cover which is 7/8 cloudy. ‘L’ the number of occurrence, location
The value highlighted in the upper right and nearby isobar value to be noted.
corner represents the last three digits of 3. Trend of Isobars-The general path of
the sea level pressure or in other words, isobars are to be observed.
266
Cloud Cover
particular map area. The weather charts (0300 HRS GMT). Generally in India this
are prepared daily based on weather observation is predicted as the southwest
observations collected by the Indian monsoon season that gives rain.
Meteorological Department (IMD). The The key elements for weather map
basic knowledge of weather elements is interpretation are:
needed to interpret the weather maps. The
essential weather elements to interpret the 1. Range of Isobars: From the given
given weather maps are: weather map it is observed that the
Schematic representation of weather isobars range from 1002 mb to 1010mb.
map elements The lowest value of 1002 mb is found
over Bihar, Uttar pradesh and West
Weather Map Interpretation Bengal as an enclosed isobar. The 1010
The Indian daily weather map is a political mb is the highest value and is observed
map of India, which also includes Pakistan, in the extreme south western part of
Afghanistan, part of China, Nepal, Bhutan, the Arabian Sea.
Myanmar and Sri Lanka with weather 2. Location of Low Pressure: In this
symbols indicating recorded weather data, weather map, four low pressure zones
isobars and keys for symbols. are identified. Low pressure prevails in
Weather Map Interpretation – Monsoon Bihar and West Bengal, North Western
Season (Example 1) Pakistan, Assam, Eastern part of India
and Lakshadweep Island.
Weather map interpretation includes
3. Location of High Pressure: The high
study and interpretation of all the weather
pressure prevails over Afghanistan with
parameters. The given weather map
1008mb and the other high pressure
depicts the observed weather conditions
prevails over the south western part of
on Monday 1st June 1992 at 08.30 Hrs I.S.T
the Arabian Sea with 1010 mb.
268
1008
H 1008 N
1006 W E
o o
35 35
1006
S
N
1004
TA CHINA
IS
o o
30 30
K 1008
PA
1004 H
1002
o 1005 1008 o
25 25
L Bangladesh 1006
1006
1004
o o
20 20
1008 BAY
OF
15
o
BENGAL 1004 15o
ARABIAN SEA NLM
1006
o 1010 o
10 10
1008
L ANDAMAN
SEA
5
o
H SRI LANKA
5
o
NLM
1010 hpa
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to scale
o o o o o o o o o
50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
kilometers 0
Figure 12.4 Example 1 (Monsoon Season)
50 100 150 200 250 300 kilometers
4. Gradient of Pressure: On this map, The wind is not strong in North but
the pressure gradient is steep along the comparatively strong in south.
western coast of India. 6. Cloud Cover: Clear sky is noticed in
5. Wind Direction: The wind moves the North and north western part of
from west to east in the extreme India. Eastern coastal states are partly
southern part of India, The wind flows clouded and the southern states show
from North West to the south east extreme cloudiness and or overcast.
in the rest of the Plateau region. The 7. Sea Condition: Northern Limit of
wind velocity ranges from 5 – 15 knots Monsoon prevails over the Andaman Sea.
in most of the places on the given day.
269
o W E o
35 35
1014 S
H A
N
1004
CHINA
30
o
IST 30
o
K
1014 PA
1014 1016
o o
25 25
INDIA Bangladesh
1014 H
20
o
H 20
o
BAY
OF
o o
15 BENGAL 15
o
10
1012 1014
o
10
L ANDAMAN
SEA
5
o
H L SRI LANKA
5
o
L
1012
1012
1012
Not to scale INDIAN OCEAN
o o o o o o o o o
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
270
271
Figure 12.6 Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Very Severe Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, was
meteorologist may be a good complement the fourth cyclonic storm, as well as the
to other forecasting techniques. most intense tropical cyclone of the 2016
North Indian Ocean. The system struck the
At present, the cyclones are tracked
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as
with the help of satellite images. The
South India. Originating as a low pressure
satellite images are collected and put into
area near the Malay Peninsula on December
motion for several hours, and with the
3, the storm was designated as a depression
gathered information, the development
on December 6. It gradually intensified
of a tropical cyclone is tracked. Doppler
into a Deep Depression on the following
radars detect rain associated with cyclones,
day, skirting off the Andaman and Nicobar
which locate and estimate the amount of
Islands, and intensified into a Cyclonic
rainfall and depicts a hurricane’s rainfall.
Storm on December 8. Maintaining a
In the satellite based techniques, track generally westward track thereafter, Vardah
and intensity of cyclone are forecast based consolidated into a Severe Cyclonic Storm
on the cloud pattern associated with the on December 9, before peaking as a Very
cyclone. Generally the outer cloud bands Severe Cyclonic Storm, with winds of 130
of cumulonimbus clouds indicate the km/hr, and a minimum central pressure of
future direction, and the cloud pattern 982 mb on December 11. Weakening into
surrounding eye of the cyclone indicates a Severe Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, made
the future intensity of the cyclone. Below landfall close to Chennai on the following
is an example of tracking Vardah Cyclone day, and degenerated into a remnant low on
by using satellite images. December 13.The name Vardah, suggested
by Pakistan, refers to the red rose.
273
986 Procedure
1. This anemometer has four cups
1/2 = -13
which catch the wind and cause the
anemometer to spin. The inward curve
48 of the cups receives most of the force of
the wind. That’s what makes the cups
4. Write an interpretation for the move. The more spins per minute, the
following station model. greater the wind velocity.
275
276
277
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline
13.1 Introduction • Recognise the importance of field
work in geography
13.2 Need for field work
• Acquire the skill of data collection.
13.3 Field work process
• Enhance the ability for map reading
13.4 Field Report and field sketching.
• Learn to work as a team.
13.1 Introduction • Develop the skill of report writing
The study area for geographers is so vast that
for a student of geography, the knowledge 13.2 Need for field work
of the earth is acquired through class room There are many reasons why field work
teaching, books, journals, maps, internet is very essential for the students of
etc. Theoretical knowledge about the study geography. They are:
area can be learned in the class room while 1. Field work facilitates direct observation
the practical aspects could be acquired only of the study area (local area) and to
in the field through surveys. collect original information.
Field work can be defined as, “The 2. Field observation along with class
process of observing and collecting room teaching helps the students to
data about the natural and manmade understand the geographical concepts
environment’’. Geography is divided into better.
two main branches: physical and human 3. Repeated field observation of the
or cultural geography. Field work helps same place at regular intervals help
in bringing about a better understanding to understand the changing patterns
of the subject for a student of geography. or trends of a phenomena. Example
In the case of understanding physical 1. Quality and growth of vegetation
geography, field work becomes inevitable. during different seasons. 2. Changes
278
279
280
281
282
Trace the source of the river Using clinometer measure the Interact with local people and food, salt, power production,
from published sources. height. collect information about the industrial purpose and
Gather information about Draw a sketch of the hillock. resources available in terms recreation. Gather
the area served by the river in Collection information on information About the type
of timber / fuel / herb / fruits
terms of supplying water for cultural importance of the and nuts / any other. of fauna and flora along the
irrigation, drinking purpose, hillock religious / cave / Construct a trophic level coast and coastal water.
industrial purpose and paintings / resort. diagram for the forest with the
Indentify the interaction of
recreation. Study the varieties of information your collected. people with the resources
Observe and record the fauna biodiversity and correlate with available in terms of fuel/
and flora along the river side. the climate. food/fish weed /any other.
Take photo/make field Construct topic level diagram
sketches for all your for the coastal ecosystem
observations. With your observation and
gathered information, collect
the historical facts about the
coastal belt.
Limitation Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitation in terms
terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area of fund / time / study area
selected. selected. selected. selected.
(Continued)
2/3/2020 4:43:11 PM
Steps involved in preparation of field report for field studies in physical geography
Sub topics River Hillock Forest Coast
Data Collection Specify the method of data collection Specify the method of data Specify the method of data Specify the method of data
as primary / secondary source. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary
source.
283
2. F
1. M
Exercises
L.R Singh.
and R. Singh
References
1. educationnext.org
draw a plan of the same.
2. htts://en.m.wikipedia.org
Internet Resources
of the same and write a short report.
4. Plan a field visit to a nearby hilly area
2. Arrange a field trip to a River line area
2/3/2020 4:43:11 PM
GLOSSARY
Boreal வடமுனைக்குறிய
Equinox சமநாள்
Habitat வாழிடம்
284
Isohaline சம உப்பு
Isthmus நிலச்சந்தி
Mitigation தணித்தல்
Preparedness தயார்நிலை
Sedges க�ோரைகள்
Swell வீக்கம்
Toponym இடப்பெயர்
Trench அகழி
285
Not to scale
286
Not to scale
287
Greenland
Alaska (Denmark)
(USA)
Prime Meridian
nd
an
ay
Canada Iceland Russia
Finla
Swed
Nor w
England
Poland
North Germany North
Ukaraine Mongalia
ce
Kazakhstan
an
Pacific Ocaen Rumania North
Pacific Ocaen
Fr
Ca
North Ita
ly Black sea Korea
spi
Spain
an
al
South
USA Turkey
Japan
sea
Atlantic Ocaen Korea
an China
st
Portug
Mediterranean sea ni
Iraq Iran al n
f ga n p ta
Tropic of cancer Algaria A sta Ne Bu
M ki
Pa ar
288
ex Libya Egypt
i Saudi nm
co
Arabia India ya os
M La
Mauritania Mali Oman
Ph
Yemen sea
America Vietnam
Nigerla
pines
Zambia
mb
Bolivia
Namibia
za
ra
g ua
Pacific Ocaen y Atlantic Ocaen Pacific Ocaen
South Africa
Australia
Chile
ntina
Arge
New
Zealand
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
2/10/2020 6:38:05 PM
WORLD - POLITICAL MAP
Greenland
Alaska (Denmark)
(USA)
Prime Meridian
d n
an
ay
Canada Iceland Russia
Finla
Swed
Nor w
England
Poland
North Germany North
Ukaraine Mongalia
ce
Kazakhstan
an
Pacific Ocaen Rumania North
Pacific Ocaen
Fr
Ca
North Ita
ly Black sea Korea
spi
Spain
an
al
South
USA Turkey
Japan
sea
Atlantic Ocaen Korea
an China
st
Portug
Mediterranean sea ni
Iraq Iran al n
f ga n p ta
Tropic of cancer Algaria A sta Ne Bu
M ki
ar
289
ex Libya Egypt Pa
i Saudi nm
co
Arabia India ya os
M La
Mauritania Mali Oman
Ph
Yemen sea
America Vietnam
Nigerla
pines
Zambia
mb
Bolivia
Namibia
za
ra
g ua
Pacific Ocaen y Atlantic Ocaen Pacific Ocaen
South Africa
Australia
Chile
ntina
Arge
New
Zealand
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
2/10/2020 6:38:05 PM
Geography – Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Domain Experts Content writers
Dr. Kumaraswamy.K. UGC BSR Emeritus Professor, Mr.Subramanian.R., P.G.Asst.,Geography,
Department of Geography, GHSS, Nandanam, Chennai-600 035
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli-620 024
Mr.Venkatesan.S, P.G.Asst., Geography,
Dr.Maria Anita Anandhi. J., Associate Professor (Rtd), GBHSS Kavinthapadi, Erode-638 455.
Department of Geography, Nirmala College for Women
(Autonomous), Coimbatore-641 018. Mrs.Nirmala.A, P.G.Asst. , Geography,
Sarojini Varadhappan GHSS, Poonamallee, Chennai-600 056.
Dr. Sulochana Sekhar, Professor & Head.,
Department of Geography, Mrs.Nisha.N.P, P.G.Asst., Geography,
Central university of Tamilnadu, Thiruvarur – 610 005 CGHSS, Pulla Avenue, Shenoy Nagar, Chennai – 6000 030
Layout
Winmac Solutions, Chennai
In -House QC
- Rajesh Thangappan This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
- Manikraj Prabahar M.A Elegant Maplitho paper.
- Manohar Radhakrishnam
Co-ordination Printed by offset at:
Ramesh Munisamy
290
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