Engines, Motors, and

Mobility
[ME F317]
BITS Pilani Dr. Saket Verma
Department of Mechanical Enginerring
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Lecture No.: 5-6

Fuel-Air Cycles and their Analysis
Ideal cycles in IC engines

3
Heat addition processes in IC engine

Constant
volume
(V=C)

Constant
Polytropic pressure
(P=C)
Heat
Addition

Adiabatic Isothermal
(Q=0) (T=C)

4
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Processes in IC engine cycles
Other processes
remain same for
Heat Addition
all ideal cycles of
an IC engine

Adiabatic
Constant volume compression
Constant volume Constant
and constant
process pressure process
pressure
Adiabatic
expansion

Otto cycle Diesel cycle Dual cycle Heat rejection

at constant
volume

5
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Otto Cycle/constant volume cycle (SI
Engine)
The Otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition internal P
3
combustion engines.

1 2 3 4
TDC 2

BDC
1
TDC BDC
v
• 1-2 Isentropic compression from BDC to TDC
W12  m u2  u1 
T
3

• 2-3 Isochoric heat input (combustion)

Q23  m u3  u2 
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (power stroke)
W34  m u3  u4 
4
2

• 4-1 Isochoric heat rejection

Q41  m u4  u1  1
s

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 Efficiency of Otto Cycle
P
3

Compression Ratio
2
v v
r 1  4 4
v2 v3
1
Thermal Efficiency TDC BDC
v
T
W W  W12 u u
th ,ASC  net  34  1 4 1 3

Q in Q23 u3  u2

T1 1
th,cold ASC  1   1   1 4
T2 r 2

1
s
ASC= Air standard cycle, cold = heat capacity is
7 assumed constant

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Diesel Cycle/constant pressure cycle (CI
Engine)
2 3
P
1 2 3 4
TDC

4
BDC
1
TDC BDC
v
• 1-2 Isentropic compression from BDC to TDC
T
W12  m u2  u1 
• 2-3 Isobaric heat input (combustion) 3

Q23  W23  m u3  u2 

• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (power stroke) 2
4
W34  m u3  u4 
• 4-1 Isochoric heat rejection
Q41  m u4  u1  1
s

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 Efficiency of Diesel Cycle
P

2 3

Compression Ratio Cutoff Ratio

v1 v3
r 
v2 v2 4

1
TDC BDC
Thermal Efficiency v
T
Wnet W23  W34  W12 u u
th,ASC    1 4 1 3
Q in Q23 h3  h 2
2

th,cold ASC  1 
1  
 1 4

r  1     1
1
s

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Dual combustion cycle or semi-Diesel cycle
or Limited Pressure Cycle

Process 1  2 Isentropic compression

Process 2  X Constant volume heat addition
Process X  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection
X 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
X

4
4 2

1
1 Qout

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Actual CI/diesel engine

• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached
TC and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.

• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated

by a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle

• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume & constant pressure  Dual Cycle

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Modern CI Engine Cycle vs Dual Cycle

Fuel injected
A at before TDC
I

Ai Combustion
r Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaus

Stroke Stroke Stroke t
Stroke
Qin Qin Qout

Ai
Dual r TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process

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Thermal Efficiency

Qout m u4  u1
 Dual  1   1
cycle Qin m (u X  u2 )  (h3  hX )

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

1     1 
 Dualcycle  1   1  
r   (   1)    1 

where Compression ratio: r = v1/v2 and

Explosion ratio: = α = Px/P2
Cut-off ratio: ρ= v3/vX

Note, the Otto cycle (ρ =1) and the Diesel cycle (α =1)
are special cases:

1  Diesel  1 
1  
 1
Otto  1  r  1     1
r  1

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Thermal Efficiency

The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either the fractions
of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition (common
assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or the maximum
pressure P3.

Transformation of rc and a into more natural variables yields

k  1  Qin  1   1 1 P3
rc  1    k 1  
k  P1V1  r k  1  r k P1

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COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL
CYCLES

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
Otto  Dual  Diesel

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COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL
CYCLES

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak
pressure (actual design limitation in engines):

Diesel  Dual  otto

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Assumptions in AIR-STANDARD
CYCLES
1. The working medium is assumed to be a perfect gas and follows the
relation PV = mRT or P = ρRT.
2. The physical constants viz., Cp, Cv, γ and M of working medium are the
same as those of air at standard atmospheric conditions. For example
in SI units, Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg K; M = 29 kg/kmol
Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K, γ = 1.4
3. There is no change in the mass of the working medium (closed cycle).
4. All the processes that constitute the cycle are reversible.
5. Heat is assumed to be supplied from a constant high temperature source
and not from chemical reactions during the cycle.
6. Some heat is assumed to be rejected to a constant low temperature sink
during the cycle.
7. It is assumed that there are no heat losses from the system to the
surroundings. Also, engine operation is frictionless.
8. The working medium has constant specific heats throughout the cycle.
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Theoretical Cycles

If constant pressure intake and exhaust processes are added then

constant mass assumption can be overcome

Theoretical Otto Cycle Theoretical Diesel Cycle

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Fuel-Air Cycles
Fuel-Air Cycles

FUEL-AIR ACTUAL
AIR-STANDARD THEORETICAL CYCLES
CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES
Air standard Change in the Accurate Accurate
assumption are mass of the working working
applicable working medium medium
Eff. = f(r) medium properties are properties as
possible taken – but all well as the
Eff. = f(r) the processes processes
are kept
idealized
Eff. = f(r, A/F, Pi,
Ti)

Eff. = Efficiency
r = Compression ratio
A/F = Air-fuel ratio

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Fuel-Air Cycles: Considerations
and Assumptions
Considerations
1. The actual composition of the
cylinder gases
2. The variation in the specific
heat with temperature
3. The effect of dissociation
4. The variation in the number
of molecules
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Assumptions
1. There is no chemical change
in either fuel or air prior to
combustion.
2. Subsequent to combustion,
the charge is always in
chemical equilibrium.
3. There is no heat exchange
4. Processes are frictionless
5. Instantaneously combustion
at top dead center
COMPOSITION OF CYLINDER
GASES
• Intake air is composed of: dry air (N2, O2, CO2 etc.) + water vapour
• Fuel is generally a mixture of hydrocarbons (CnHm)
• Some amount of exhaust gases are left in the clearance volume called
residuals.
• The actual composition of the cylinder contents are (Fuel +Air + Water
vapor + residual gas)
• The fuel air ratio changes during the engine operation

 The change in air-fuel ratio affects the composition of gases before and after combustion
particularly the percentage of CO2, CO, H2O etc.. in the exhaust gas.
 The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume various with speed and load on the
engine.
 The fresh charge composition varies its composition because when it enters in
the cylinder comes in contact with the burnt gases

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COMPOSITION OF CYLINDER
GASES
Process SI Engine CI Engine
Air, Fuel, Recycled exhaust & Air, Recycled exhaust &
Intake
Residual gas Residual gas

Air, Fuel Vapor, Recycled Air, Recycled exhaust &

Compression
exhaust & Residual gas Residual gas

Composition products ( Composition products (

Expansion CO2, CO, H2, O2, NO, OH, O, CO2, CO, H2, O2, NO, N2,
H,…) OH, H2O, O, H,…)

Composition products Composition products

Exhaust (mainly N2, CO2, H2O) (mainly N2, CO2, H2O &
If Φ<1 O2 or If Φ>1 CO & H2 O2)

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VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEATS
• All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show Variable Properties of Air

an increase in specific heat with temperature. 1.5 

• The increase in specific heat does not follow 1.3

1.1
any particular law. Cp
0.9
• First Order approximation of Variable 0.7 Cv
Specific Heats: 0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, K

c p  a p  k1  T & cv  bv  k1  T
• This approximation holds good between 300-
1500 K. 2nd order approximation should be
used beyond this temperature range.
• Since the difference between Cp & Cv is
constant, the value of γ decreases with Cp
increase in temperature. C p  Cv  R & 
Cv

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VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEATS

For Compression process 1-2

 1
 v1 
T2  T1  
 v2 
For combustion process 1-2

Qv c  C v (T3  T2 )

For expansion process 3-4

 1 In expansion, temp decreases – spec heat decreases- γ
 v3 
T4  T3   increases
as volume ratio < 1 – temperature will decrease
 v4 
As area under the curve decreased, net work done decreases
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Dissociation

• Dissociation is the disintegration of combustion products, at high

temperature.
• Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to combustion.
During dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion the
heat is liberated.
• In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 (1000 °C) into CO and O2
occurs, whereas there is a very little dissociation of H2O (1300 °C) .

• Effect of dissociation
 With dissociation the maximum temperature is reduced during
combustion, and hence the pressure produced. This results in lower
power output and efficiency.

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 Effect of dissociation

The shaded area shows the loss of

Dissociation is lower at lean mixture power due to dissociation
due to low combustion temperature
and rich mixture due to presence of
excess CO
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Effect of number of moles

• The number of molecules in the cylinder varies after combustion

due to chemical reactions.
• The number of molecule present after combustion depend upon
 Fuel-Air ratio
 Type and extend of reaction in
• According to the gas law:
PV = N R T
• The pressure depends on the number of molecules or moles present.
• Hence, the number of mole does a direct effect on the amount of
work that the cylinder gas impact on the piston.

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EFFECT OF OPERATING
VARIABLES
Compression Ratio

The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with The indicated thermal efficiency increases
the compression ratio in the same manner as with lean mixtures and compression ratios.
the air-standard cycle efficiency, principally
for the same reason, due to more scope of
the expansion work
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Fuel-Air Ratio
• As the mixture is made lean the temperature rise due to combustion will not be
significant as a result.
• The specific heat is lowered. It decreases the losses due to dissociation.
• The thermal efficiency therefore, higher and, in fact, approaches the air-cycle
efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is reduced

Fig.: Variation of efficiency with mixture strength for

a constant volume fuel-air cycle
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Fuel-Air Ratio
• With rich mixture - in addition to higher
specific heats and chemical equilibrium
losses, there is insufficient air which will
result in formation of CO and H2 during
combustion, which represents a direct
wastage of fuel
• Maximum power is achieved at 5-10% rich
A/F mixture.
• At chemically correct ratio there is still
some oxygen present because of
chemical equilibrium effect a rich mixture
will cause more fuel to combine with
oxygen at the point thereby raising the
temperature and giving maximum power.

Fig.: Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

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Assessment question

Q: A petrol engine having a compression ratio of 6 uses a fuel with calorific

value of 42 MJ/kg. The air-fuel ratio is 15:1. Pressure and temperature at
the start of the suction stroke is 1 bar and 57 ◦C respectively. Determine the
maximum pressure in the cylinder if the index of compression is 1.3 and
the specific heat at constant volume is given by Cv = 0.678 +0.00013 T,
where T is in Kelvin. Compare this value with that obtained when Cv =
0.717 kJ/kg K.

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Residual fraction

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Unburned mixture calculation

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Burned mixture calculation

The approximate burned gas composition is determined using the following

assumptions:

1. For lean and stoichiometric mixtures ( φ ≤ 1) CO and H 2 can be

neglected.
2. For rich and stoichiometric mixtures ( φ ≥ 1) O 2 can be neglected.

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 Summary
Air-standard cycles
assumptions:
Idealized working
medium
+
idealized processes
• Easy to analyze
• Efficiency is the only function
of compression ratio.
• Efficiency obtained in more
than double than the actual
engine.
Fuel-air cycle Actual cycle
assumptions: assumptions:
idealized processes Nill
• Easier to analyze than an actual cycle
• Efficiency is the function important
parameters such as compression
ratio, A/F .
• Efficiency obtained in close (70-80%)
the actual engine.
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 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

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