Fourth Sem. Mech Engg. Engg. Thermodynamics. Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

Engineering Thermodynamics
Fourth Semester
Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

(Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department)
Synergy Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar

At: Bhimpur, Near Phulnakhara, PO: Pahala,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha-752101, INDIA.

SIT, BBSR, DR. R. C. Nayak, ETD, 4th Sem, Mech.
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 1
THEORY Where, J = mechanical equivalent of heat [ J

= 1(SI)]
PARAMETERS :
Process Relation :
P - Pressure (bar)
PV
1 bar = 1105 N / m 2 = Constant
T
1 N / m 2 = 1 Pascal
P1V1 P2V2
 
M  Micro  10 6 T `1 T2
m  milli  10 3  Compressio n  Pressure increases &

volume decreases
k  kilo  10 3
 Expainsion  Pressure decreases & vol-
  Mega  10 6 ume in creases.
For P = Constant :
G Giga  109
P1  P2  P  C
V  volume(m 3 )
T2 V2

V  velocity ( m / s ) T1 V1
U  int ernal energy ( J / kg ) For Volume constant :
h  Enthalpy ( J / kgorkJ / kg )
V1  V2
S  Entropy ( kJ / kgK )
T2 P2
STATE POINT RELATION : 
T1 P1
PV  mRcT
For t = Constant (Isothermal) :
Rc  Characteristic gas cons tan t T1  T2
P1V1  P2V2
C pair 1.005 103 J / kgK
For t = Constant (Isothermal) :
C vair  0.718 10 3 J / kgK PV n
C
R cair  0.287 10 3 J / kgK n 1

n 1
T2  P 2  n V 
 1.4     1 
air T1  P1   V2 
Rc Cp
C p  Cv  & 
J Cv
2 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
Adiabatic :  Clearance Volume  The Volume where pis-
 1
ton can’t go thruogh it 3
 1
T2 P   V 
  2    1  vol = Volumetric efficiency
T1  P1   V2 
 mech = Mechanical efficiency
 
 PV  P2V2
1 1
the = Thermal efficiency
GAS CYCLE :
 Otto cycle  constat heat addition volume
cycle
 Diesel cycle  constant pressure cycle
 Dual cycle  Both Pressure & volume re-

Fig-2
mains constant
 Petrol engine  Spark Ignition (SI) engine.
Engine Parameter & arrangement :  Diesel engine  Compression Ignition (C.I)

engine
Wd Work done
O / P  What we got 
Fig-1   
I / P What we pay 
 4 stroke engine  Cycle begins when piston

is at TDC
 2 stroke engine  Cycle begins when piston
Spark Plug = Petrol
is at BDC
Nozzle = Diesel
FOR 4- STROKE ENGINE :
TDC = Top Dead center
(1) Suction : Piston moves from TDC to
BDC = Bottom Dead Centre BDC IV open and EV Closed.
Vs = Swept volume (2) Compression : Piston moves from BDC
to TDC EV and IV both closed.
Vc = Clearance volume (3) Expansion : Piston moves from TDC
 Swept Volume  The volume under which to BDC, IV & EV both closed.
piston can compress the mixture (4) Exhaust : Piston moves from BDC to
TDC, EV open.
 C.I  Through nozzle fine spray of fuel

is injected & mixed with compressed air which
is at high temp & pressure.
 S.I  By using of spark plug air fuel mix-
ture is ignited.
PARAMETER :
D = d = Bore dia / cylinder dia / piston dia :
V1
L = Stroke length r
V2
 = Length of connecting rod.
1  2  Adiabatic compression
Vc = Clearance volume
2  3  Heat addition at constant volume
Vs = Swept volume
3  4  Adiabatic expansion
 big vol  4 1  Heat rejection at constant volume
r = Compression ratio  small vol 
 
O / p Wd H . A  H .R H .R
 = Cut off ratio.    1 
1 / p H .A H .A H .A
 Wd  H . A  H .R
OTTO CYCLE :
H . A  Cv (T3  T2 )
• Constant Volume cycle H .R  Cv (T4  T1 )

• In this cycle heat addition & rejection H .R Cv (T4  T1 )
takes place const volume Now,   1  H . A  1  C (T  T )
v 3 2
Ex : Petrol engine :
(T 4  T1 )
  1  ........(1)
(T 3  T 2 )
V1 bigger vol
 r  compression ratio  
Fig-3 V2 smaller vol
Process 1-2 :
 1
T2 V 
  1 
T1  V2 
T2
  (r )  1............................(i )
T1
Process 3-4 :-
 1
 1
V  V 
T
 3   4    1   V4  V1 & V3  V2 
T4  V3   V2 
T3
  (r )  1 .............................(ii )
T4 V1
Compression ratio, r  V
from (i) & (ii) 2
T2 T3 V3
   (r )  1 Cut- off ratio,   V
T1 T4 2
T2  T3 V4 V1 V1 V2 r
  (r ) r 1 Expansion ratio, re  V  V  V  V  
T1  T4 3 3 2 3
T3  T2 Wd HA  HR HR
  (r ) r 1    1 
T4  T1 disel
HA HA HA
HA  C p (T3  T2 )
 T T 
  1   4 1 
 T3  T2  HR  Cv (T4  T1 )
1 Cv (T4  T1 ) 1 (T4  T1 )
  1  disel 1  1 
(r)r 1 C p (T3  T2 )  (T3  T2 )
DIESEL CYCLE : 1-2 :-
It is known as constant pressure cycle i.e.  1
H.A takes place at const. Pr. T2 V 
  1   (r )  1
T1  V2 
1 1
 T1  T2   1
 T3 
(r )  (r ) r 1
2-3 :-
Fig-4
T3 V3 V 1
  T2  T3  2  T3 
T2 V2 V3 
3-4 :-
 1  1
T3 V  r
  4    
T4  V3  
 1

 T4  T3  
r Fig-5
Substituting values of T1 , T2 , & T4 in eq n
    1 T3 1 
 T3      1 
 (r ) 
 1    
1 r
 T
T3  3

  
 
 1   1 1  
 T3  1     
1 (r )   
1  
  1 
 T3 1   
    H . Av c  m Cv (T3  T2 )
H . Ap c  m C p (T4  T3 )
 1      1   1
 r 1   H .Rv c  m Cv (T5  T1 )
1  (r )   
1 
r    1 
V1
    
    Compression ratio, r  V
2
1  1   1 
1    1
  V4 V4
Cut off ratio,   V  V

r  (r )   1  3 2
3
1 1    1  Explosion ratio,   
 diesel 1    1    2
 (r )   1 
V5 V1
DUEL CYCLE : Expansion ratio, V  V
4 4
HA in both P = Const & V = Const
V1 V2
= V V
2 4
1 r T4 1 1
= r   T1     1
    (r )
W .d HA  HR H .R  1
  1   T 1
H .A H .A H .A T4     4   1
r  (r )
 1 
m Cv (T5  T1 )  T4 T4   T 
      T4  4 
= 1  m C (T  T )  mC (T  T )      
v 3 2 p 4 3
(T5  T1 )
  1  1   1 1 
(T3  T2 )   (T4  T3 ) T4    
(r ) 1   
1 
(Divide Cv on numerator & denomi- T4  1   1
1     T4 1  
nator)    
Process 4-5 :-
1    1    1 
V 
 1  1  
T5
  4  
 T5  T4    (r ) 1   
r 1 
T4  V5  1   1    1 
   
Process 3-4 :-       
T3 V3 1
  T3  T4   1
 1     1 

T4 V4      
 r    
1 
Process 2-3 :-   1   

T2 P2  
 1
 T2  T3 
T3 P3 
 1
 1     1 

T 1     
 T2  4   r    
  1 
  1    
Process 1-2 :- 
 1
T1 V   1
  2 
T2  V1 
1
    1

 
 dual 1   
r
  1   (   1)
1
 T1  T2 
(r ) 1 Procedure for sloving problem :
1. Read the question & confirm (Medium :
air, Cycle : otto, diesel, dual length 40 cm, the vol. after compression is
word is there) 1.2 lit, the pr at the end of suction is 1 bar, cut
2. Then check above cycle. off takes place 5% of stroke. Calculate the 
& MEP.
3. Draw P-V & T-S diagram
Ans.
4. Write the data given
5. If medium is air then assume C p air, C v

air, R c & Vair. Fig-7
6. If cut off ratio word is there.
[Ex. cut off takes place at 5% of stroke]
d = 25 cm = 0.25 cm
Fig-6 l = 40 cm = 0.4 m
V2  1.2 103 m3
P1  1 105 N / m 2
V3  V2  0.05 V3 
5
V3  Vc  Vs  V2 
5
V4  V2 
100 100
 Vs  V1  V2
Vs 
 2
d L

  0.25   0.4
2

4 4
 Work done/cycle =  vs  19.63  10 3 m 3

Pm Vs
 Pm = Mean effective pressure

V3  V3  0.05Vs  1.2  0.05  19.63 10 3

Vs = Stroke volume = d2 L  2.18  10 3 m 3
4
Power  W .d / cycle  No. of cycle / sec .

1 1  (r ) r  1 
 dielel 1   r 1  
Q.A disel cycle having bore dia 25 cm & strok r (r )  P  1 
v1  v4  vc  vs W23  P2 (V3  V2 )
 v2  v3  (1.2  19.63)  10 3 Process 4-1 P3 V3r  P4 V4r

r
 20.83  10 3 m 3 P P 
 3   4 
P4  P3 
V1 20.83  10 3
r   17.19
V2 1.2  10 3  P4  ________
V3  V2  0.05  Vs V 4  V1
v3 v2 0.05  vs P3 V3  P4 V4
  Wd 3 4 
v2 v2 v2 r 1
0.05 vs 0.05  19.63  103 Wd41  0
   1  1
v2 1.2  10 3
   1 .82 Wd / cycle  Wd12  Wd 23  Wd 34  Wd 41
1 1   r 1  Wd  Pm  Vs  Pm  _______ J
 diesel  1   r 1   m3
r (r )    1 
Q. Dual cycle having comp. ratio = 9, expension
1 1  (1.82)1.4  1  ratio =5, the inlet temp & pr is 30oC & 1 bar
 1   
1.4 (17.19) 0.4  1.82  1 
heat liberated at const pressure is twice then of
at const Vol. If bore dia is 250 mm & strok
2.31259  1 length 400mm having working cycle per sec
 1 as 8 cal pr. & temp at all state points,  , MEP..
3.581395
 diesel  63.34%
wd / cycle  pm  vs
wd / cycle  wd1 2  wd 23  wd 3 4  wd 41
FIG-8
 
1-2 P v  P v
1 1 2 2

P V 
 1   2 
P2  V1  v1
r 9
 P2 v2
P1v1  P2 v 2 v5
Wd 1 2  re  5
 1 v4
Process 2-3 P3  P2 P1  1 10 5 N
m2
 v4  m 3
V3  V2  m 3
v4
  _______
v3
T4 V4
3-4 
T3 V3
 T4  ________ T3  _________
HA3 4  2 HA23
 mCp (T4  T3 )  2mCv(T3  T2 )
 T3  ___________
T4  ___________
T3 P3
2-3 
T2 P2
P3 
P3
 
P2
5-1 V5  V1
T5 P5

T1 P1
 P5  _____
r 1
T4  V5 
 
T5  V4 
4-5
 T5 
 dual  _____
wd
cycle
Pm 
vs
Power = w.d/cycle  No of cycle/sec.
= _______watt.
p1v1  p2 v2
wd / c  c   0  p3 v4  v3 
 1
O
 P  w.d  H . A  HR  1  HR
BRAYTON CYCLE : I H .A HA HA
It is a simple cycle used for gas turbine P
power plant it consist of compressor, turbine,
combustion chamber.
H . A23  mC p (T3  T2 )
Initially medium (air) is allowed to be com-
pressed in compressor, now this compressed H .R41  mC p (T4  T1 )
air is ignited in combustion chamber by add-
ing of fuel, where heat addition to the medium
takes place, Now this heated air in expanded is No loss so no effect of for & comp, consid-
turbine, after expanding heat is rejected from ered.
the medium by provision of heat exchanger.
m Cp(T3  T2 ) (T  T )
  1   1 4 1
m Cp(T4  T1 ) (T3  T2 )
 1
T2  P2  
1-2  
Fig-9 T1  P1 
 1  1
T3  P3   P  
3-4     2 
T4  P4   P1 
Fig-10
 1
T T P  
 2  3   3 
T1 T4  P4 
r 1
T T  P 
 r p  r
r r 1
 3 2   2 
T4  T1  P1 
P2 Wnet  WT  WC
where r p  Pr essure ratio  P
WT  h3  h4
1
1
 brayton  1  WC  h2  h1
r 
r 1
r
p
Q.H . A.  h3  h2
due to loss  of Tur & comp comes in
picture. Q.H .R.  h4  h1
Effect of irrenversibility in Turbine & compres-
sor in brayton cycle If  of turbine and com-
Wnet
pressor is given i.e. t (  of turbine), c (   
H .A
of compressor)
(whenever in question comp & expension
given)
Fig-11 Q. A gas turbine power plant being supplied at

o
1 b a C to be compressed upto 5 bar with
r , 2 7
isentropic efficiency of 25%, compressed air

is heated upto 1000K in combustion chamber,
where pressure drop of 0.2 bar. determine isen-
1  21  3  41  Initially tropic efficiency of the turbine, if  cycle is 20%.
1  2  3  4  due to efficiency (T & C )
T21  T1 h21  h1
c   Fig-12
T2  T1 h2  h1
T3  T4 h3  h4
c  
T3  T41 h3  T41
Solution :
h = Enthalpy
P1  P4  P41  1bar  1105 N
m2
 m C pT
P2  P21`  5 bar  5  10 5 N
smaller m2

bigger
T1  27  273  300k (h3  h4 )  (h2  h1 )

(h3  h2 )
 c  0.25, T3  1000k
(as pressure drop of 0.2 bar) (T3  T4 )  (T2  T1 )
 Bary ton 
(T3  T2 )
T  ?
T4 =950.23 k
 Brayton  20%  0.2
T3  T4
T   0.136
T3  T41
for 1-21 process
 1
T P 
1 1  Effect of inter cooling on Brayton cycle :
2
  2
T1  P1  In this cycle there are provision of & com-
pressor & 1 turbine as shown in figure below.
 T21  475.14 k
T21  T1
c 
T2  T1
 T2  1175.7 K Fig-13
for 3-a1 process

 1
T  P41 
1 
  
4
T3  P3 
Fig-14
T41  638.79 k
T3  T4
Now T  T  T 1
3 4
( w.d ) net
 Brayton 
H .A
WT  WC

H . A23
H . A.  H . A.56  H . A.78
 m C p (T5  T6 )  m C p (T8  T7 )
H .R.  m C p (T10  T1 )
T5  T7  T9
T2  T4  T10
P2  P3  P7  P8
P2  P3  P7  P8  P1  P4  P6  P9
H . A  h5  h4
HR
[T3  T1 ], [ P2  P3 ],   1
HA
HR  h6  h1 Wd net
Work ratio 
WT  h6  h5 WT
Regeneration on Brayton cycle :

WC  h4  h1
HR
  1
HA
Fig-17
Generally Intercooling process takes place
in between 1st & 2nd compressor & it is of
const pressure process, Intercooling is re-
quired to avoid high pressure & high tempera-
ture at the end of single compression.
Fig-18
Effect of reheat and inter cooling :
Fig-15
For 1  2 process
 1
T2  P2 
 rp  1
1  1
 
T1  P1 
 rp = pressure ratio
P2

P1
For 4  5 process
H .R.  h6  h1  T6  T1
r 1 r 1
T4  P4  P 
H . A.  h4  h3  T4  T3  rp  1
1 1 r 1
    2 
T5  P5   P1 
T2  T6  T1 
T2
1  T 
   1  2
T4
T3  T5  T5 
1  T 
 4
HR  T T 
  1  1   6 1   
HA  T4  T3  
1 
1 
  1 
 r  1 
 1 2  
T p
 T T   T2  T6 
 1   2 1    T4  
 T4  T5   T3  T5   1 
1   1 
 r  1 
 p 
T 
T1  2  1
 1  1 
T T2
   1
 T  T4
T4 1  5 
 T4 
T4  T2
 
T4
T1 T2  T1 
 1  
T4 T1  T2  In regeneration cycle  of the Brayton
   1 cycle is only dependent on the temp after com-
 T5 
1   pression & the temp of the medium entering
 T4  into the turbine.
Procedure for solving problem : Data Given :

1) Read the question & confirm (cycle used
P1  1 10 5 N
in power plant, H.A & H.R. at cont pr.) m2
2) Then check about  of compressor & Tur-- T1  25  273  298k
bine is given or not is given.
P2 3
W  3
  net P1 1
H .A
T3  650  273  923k .
Wd net  WT  WC
3) Then check about the conditions (Re- Wc  ?
heat, inter coooling)
WT  ?
4) Draw T-S diagram
5) Write the  formula & then solve the th  ?
problem. work ratio = ?
Q. A Brayton cycle operates with air entering
1
the compressor at 1 bar & 25oC The pressure  brayton  1 
r 
 1
ratio across the compressor is 3 to 1 and the p

max. temp in the cycle is 650oC. Determine the

compressure work & turbine work, thermal  & rp  3
work ratio of the cycle.
WC  h2  h1  T2  T1  C p
Solution:
Cycle :- Brayton  (407.88 298) 1.005 110.1 kj/ kg
WT  h3  h4  T3  T4   C p
 (923  674.34  298) 1.005

 249.90kj / kg
1 2
FIG-19
r 1
C P air  1.005 103 J / kgk T2  P2  r
 
T1  P1 
CV air  0.718  10 3 J / kgk
0.4
RC air  0.287  10 3 J / kgk  T2  298(3) 1.4
 air  1.4 T2  407.88K

34 P1  1 bar  1  105 N/m 2
r 1
T1  300 k
T3  P3  r
 
T4  P4  P2 P21
 5
P1 P1
 T4  674.34K .
T3  1075 k
 P3  P2 & P4  P1 
 P P  ηcom  0.80
 2  3  3 
 P1 P4  η tur  0.85
Wd net  ?
Wnet  WT  WC  (249.90  110.43) KJ / kg
Wd net  Wd T  Wd c
= 139.47 KJ/kg
Wd T  h 3  h 4
Wnet Wnet 139.47  C p (T3  T4 )

    0.269
H . A Cp T3  T2  517.69  1.005  (1075  738.18)  338.58
= 26.9% Wd c  h 2  h 1
 1.005 (518.93  300)  220.02 kj/kg
 CP (T2  T1 )
Wd net 139.47
work ratio  W  249.9  0.558 1  21
T
 1
T21  P21   0.4
   T  300 (5)
1 1.4
Solution : T1  P1 
2
T21  475.14 k
T21  T1
ηc   T2  518.93 k
Fig -A T2  T1
3  41
CP air  1.005 kj/kgk
CV  0.718 kj/kgk  1
T3  P3 
air
 1075
 0.287
RC kj/kgk
   T41 
T41  P41 
air
51.4
0.4
γ air  1.4
 T41  678.74 k for maximum work,
dW
T3  T4 0
ηT  drp
T3  T41
for 1 2 process
 T4  738.18 k
 1
 1
Wd T  338.5 kj/kg T3  P2  
   T2  T1  (rp ) 
Wd c  220.02 kj/kg T1  P1 
Wd net  Wd T  Wd c  118.48 kj/kg
for 3  4 process
Wd net Wd net
η    1
HA Cp (T 3  T 2 )
T3  P3  
 

118.48
 0.212  21.2 %
T4  P4 
558.85  1

 T3  T4  (rp )
Wd net 118.48
Work Ratio    0.35 1
W Tur 338.6  T4  T3   1

(rp )
Q. In an air standard Brayton cycle the min

temp T1 is governed by the ambient atmosphere  
  1
  1 
& max temp T3 is dictated by the material of 
 Wd  Cp T3  T1 (rp )  
 Cp T3   T1 
   1
construction of turbine blade. For fixed val-    (rp ) 1 
 
ues of T1 & T3 determine the Pr ratio (rp) for
obtaining max net work per unit mass of air.   1
  1

 Cp  T3  T1 (rp )    Cp  T3 (rp )   T1 
   
   
Given T3 & T1 as fixed values)

So, T3 = T1
(we convert T2 & T4 in terms of rp but not T3
Fig-B & T1 as in quetion its given to keep T3 & T1
P2 P3 fixed)
Pressure ratio, rp  P  P
1 4
 1

 Wd  Cp T3  1  rp    Cp T3  rp
 1

 1
Wd = HA - HR    
 
= Cp (T3 - T2) - Cp (T4 - T1)
(T3 = T1 as given fixed value) The figure above shows the arrangement of
a single acting reciprocating air compressor.
dW
Now, dr  0 It consist of crank, connecting rod, piston,
p
cylinder, exhaust valve, inlet valve.
  1 
 1   
 1 In reciprocating air compressor maximum
 Cp T3  0  Cp T3 (rp ) 
 amount of pressure of air is the requirement.
In double stage reciprocating air compres-
 1  
sor maximum pressure of air is possible but
1    
 1
 Cp T3 (rp )   Cp T3  0  0 that amount of temp is not required. so
 intercooling is used in such arrangement.
1 1   
For working of a reciprocating air compres-
 1 1 
0 (rp )    (rp ) r  0 sor work is done on the compressor i.e. work
 
done on system i.e. indicating -ve symbol.
1 1 2 
1  1 
 (rp )   (rp ) 
Equation for work done per kg of air com-
 
1 1 2 
pressed in compressor (single stage) without
 
 (rp )  (rp ) clearance :
Here,
Reciprocating Air Compressor :
In reciprocating air compressor the work- P1  P4 
P  P 
ing medium is air i.e. atmospheric air enters  3 2 
into the cylinder piston arrangement & this air
is compressed by change of position due to
crank rotation.
Reciprocating air compressor may be single

stage or double stage depending on the pres- Fig-D
sure requirement.
Fig-C Wd  Area under P  V diagram

 1  2  3  4 1
  (Wd 41  Wd12  Wd 23
 P V  P2V2  Wd 
n
P2 V2  P1 V1 
  P1 (V1  V4 )  1 1  P2 (V3  V2 ) n 1
 n 1 
n P V 
 P V  P2 V2   P1V1  2 2 1
  P1V1  1 1  (  P2 V2 ) n 1
n 1  P1V1 
 
 P V  P2 V2  n  m Rc T2 
   (P1V1  P2 V2 )  1 1    m Rc T1   1
 n 1  n 1  m Rc T1 
n T 
  m Rc T1  2  1
 P V  P2 V2  n 1  T1 
  P1V1  P2 V2   1 1 
 n 1 
n   P2 n 1

 P V  P1V1   Wd  Rc T1   n
 1  
 P2 V2  P1V1    2 2  n 1   P1  
 n 1 
unnit of Wd = J/kg.
 1 
 P2 V2  P1V1  1  
 m  1 kg
 n  1
 n  1  1 Equation for work per kg of air conpressed

 P2 V2  P1V1    in conpressor (single state) with clearance :
 n 1 
 n 
 P2 V2  P1V1   
 n  1

n
mRc T2  mRc T1  Fig-E
n 1
 PV  m Rc T 
n
 Wd 
n 1
Rc T2  T1 
Here, P1  P4 & P3  P2 
m  1kg 
Wd  Wd compression  Wd expansion
 In terms of '1' &'2' compression temperature
Wd c  Area under 1  2  5  6  1
Again,
Wd e  Area under 5  3  4  6  5
In terms of pressure :
 n1
  n1

n   P2  n  n   P3  n 
Wd P1V1    1  P4V4    1
n 1   P1   n 1   P4    1

Vc   P2  n
     volumetric  1    1
Vs   P1  
 
 n 1

 P2  n
P1 V1  V4     1

n
  
n 1  P1  
 
as P1 = P4 & P2 = P3
Let V1 - V4 = Va Fig-F
where, Va = Actual Vol. of air delivered.
 n 1


 2  
 1
n P n
 Wd  P1V a
n 1   P1  
 
Isothermal Efficincy of Reciprocating
 n 1

  P2  n
1 
n Air compressor :-
 m Rc T1   

n 1  
  1 
P
 In such arrangement the compression pro-
cess 1  2 is isothermal (const temp) i.e. PV =
Const.
 n 1

n  P 
 2  1 m 1kg
n
 Wdclearance  Rc T1
n 1  P1  
 
Hence it is concluded that for work per kg Fig -G

of air compressed in air compressor (single
stage) without clearance and with clearance has
not efect i.e. same value of Wd.
Volumetric Efficiency :
It is ratio of actual free air delivered to the P2  P21  P3 
 
displacement of the compressor. displacement  P1  P4 
of the compressor = (Vs)
Wd  Wd 41  Wd121  Wd 21 3
V  V4 V
v  1  a   V1  
V1  V3 Vs  
 P1 V1  0   P1V1 log e  2   P21 0  V21 
  V1  
(-ve sign as we give work on the system) 3. Then check about compression process (if
it given a law (PVn = const., n= any val-
V 
 P1V1 log e  11   P21 V21  P1V1 ues) then con sider it as actual work done
 V2  (or Wdactual or Wdpolytropic)).
But, P1 V1  P21 V21 4. Write the data given :
Pistom Speed = 2 LN
V 
 Wd  P1 V1 log e  11  Where, L = Stroke length
 V2 
N = Speed in rpm
V 
 Wdisothermal  m Rc T1 loge  11  π
 V2  Vs   D2  L
4
for m  1 kg Input of the compressor :
Input of the compressor
V 
 Wdisothermal  Rc T1 loge  11  work done on compressor
 V2  
1000
Isothermal Efficiency : Sometimes the indicated power of a com-
It is the ratio between isothermal work to pressor (IP) is calculated in terms of mean Ef-
the actual work. fective Pressure(Pn).
V  IP   Pm  L  A  N   100 kw
Rc T1 log e  11 
 iso   V2  where, N = revolution per sec of compressor
 n 1

  
 1
n P n N
RcT1   2 Pm = MEP in m2
n 1  P1  
  L = Length of the stroke in m.
A = Area of the piston in m2.
P 1
log e  
2
Related Formula :
  P1 
 n 1
 P21 V1 Single acting single stage :
n  P2  n  
   1 P1 V21
n  1  P1  
 
Procedure for solving problem :

1. Read the question & confirm stage. Fig-H
2. Check about single or double stage.
 n1
  n 1


n P1Va  P2 1  
 1 P1V1    1 

n P2 n 1
Wd  
 
    kw
n 1    Va  V1  V4 n 1  
 1  
P P1  1000
  
Volumetric η
 n 1
 vol
 
P1V1    1

n P n
 2
n 1  P1    1
  V V V V 
   
ηv  1 k   1
  k  c  a  1 4 
P n
2
 P1    V V V 
 Vs  V1  V3    s s s 
 n1
 Mean Effective pressure -
n  P 
 2  1
n
 P1Vs
n 1  P1    without clear--  n 1

   
P1    1

n P n
Pm  2
ance n  1  P1  
 
( I.P. = Indicated Power) * F r e e a i r d e l i v e r e d ( Va)per min = N  v  Vs

( N in RPM )
* Va   Free Air delivered =  v Vs
* Piston speed (rpm) = 2 LN
Fig-I 
* Vs  d2 L
4
SINGLE ACTING WITH TWO STAGE :
Q. Determine the size of the cylinder of a
double acting air compressor of 32 kw input
power in which air is drawn at 1 bar & com-
 n 1

 P2  n pressed to 16 bar according to law PV1.25 = c,
P1Va    1 

n RPS
IP    kw
n 1   P1   1000 RPM = 300, piston speed 180 m/min, v = 0.8
 
(volumetric m)
 n 1

 
P1Vs n v    1 

n P 1 RPS
 2
kw Solution :
n 1  P1   1000
  Indicated Power, IP= 32 kw = 32 103 watt
16th of teh swept vol. Find the dia & stroke of

P4  P1  1  10 N/m
5 2
the compressor.
P3  P2  16  10 5 N/m 2
PV 1.25  Constant (n  1.25) Take L  1.5 .
 300  D
N  300 rpm  RPS   
 60 
Solution : L  1.5
D
Piston speed  180 m/min
 v  0.8
Va 15 m3 / min
 n 1
 P1 1105 N/m2
 
P1Va    1

n P n RPS
IP  2
2 P2  8 105 N/m2
n 1  P1   1000
  N  300 rpm
(as given double action) PV1.3  C (n  1.3)
1
 32  103 Vc  Vs
16
 0.25

1.25   .25
16 300 2 Find D = ?
1105  Va    1
1
 
0.25  1   6 1000 L=?
 
 1

 Va  8.64 m 3 V
V  1  C  P2 n 
  1
VS  P1  
Va V1  V4 8 .64  
mv   
Vs Vs Vs
 Vs  10.8 m 3  1 .1

1   8  1 .3 
 1    0.753
16  1  
Piston speed  2 LN  
 L  0.3 n  75.3 %
π
Vs   d 2  L Free air delivered / min (Va) =
4
 d  6.77 m N   V  V S  300  0 .753  V S
Q. A single stage single acting compressor V S  0 . 066

dellvers 15 m3 of the free air per minute from
1 bar to 8 bar, that compression & expansion  L 
VS   D2  L   1 .5 
follow the law PV1.3= C and clearance is 1/ 4 D 
D  0.383 m, 2  3  int ercooler
L  1.5  0.383  0.574 m  In this question T3  T1 

even if intercooler present
 n 1

 
P1Va    1 

n P n 1 1
I .P  2
 T3  40  273  313 K
n 1  P1   1000 60
 
P1  1 10 5 N
= 66.4 kw. m2
Q. A double 2 stage compressor delivors air T1  20  273K

at 25 bar, the pressure and temp of air at the
beginning of compression in L.P cylinder is P3  P2  7  10 5 N
m2
1 bar & 20 0 C . The temp of air coming out
from intercooler bet n the 2 stage is 40 0 C and P4  25  105 N
m2
the P is 7 bar, the diameter & stoke of LP cyl-
inder are 60cm & 80cm respectively, rpm of  mech  85%  0.85
compressor is 100. The volumetric  of both
stage is 80% neglecting the pr loss in the sys-  vol  80%  0.80, N  100
tem, find the brake power, indicated power if
mechanical  is 85% . Take the compression
Find, IP & BP =?
& expansion follow PV 1.35  cos t .
As T1 and T3 are not same
Solution  Double stage
 V is given so both comp & ex-  n 1


2 n   
P2 n 
 
pansion Work done  n  1 P1V1  P   1
 1  
(  If no V is not given then no ex-
pansion)
 n1

 
P3V3   1

n
n P
 4
n 1  P3  
 
 As it is given double acting

Fig-J
  n 1

 
mRc T1     
 
n P n
 2
n 1  P1  
   
 n 1

 
 T3    1
 P4 n
 
 P3  
 
Fig-K
P1 Va  MRC T1
Va  VS   N
 2
 d  L V
4  Double stage
= 0.181m3  Comp & Exp. present
P1 Va  mRc T1 It is case of with clearance
3
1 105  0.181 Va  2 m
m  0.215 kg min
287  293
P8  P1  1 10 5 N
Wd  speed m2
I .P 
1000
T1  27  273  300K
 244 kw
Pr at delivery = P4
B.P
 mech  P3  P4  P5  50  105 N
I .P m2
I .P. P2  P1  P3  7.07 bar
B.P.   287 kw
 mech
5
Q. A two stage compressor dlivers 2m 3 VC  VS
10
free air per min, the temp & pr of air at
the suction are 27 0 C & 1 bar the pr at the N  100rpm PV 1.35

 c n=1.35
delivery is 50 bar. The clearance is 5% of Given its perfect intercooling
the stroke in LP cylinders as well as in
HP cylinder, assuming perfect inter cool- So T3  T1
ing bent n the 2 stage, find the min power
required to run the compressor at 200rpm.  n 1 n 1

   
mRT1    1    1

n P n P n
also find the dia & stroke (assuming stoke Wd  2  2 3
n 1  P1   P2  
= both bore dia) if compression & expan-  
sion both follows PV 1.35  cos t
Double stage, N=2
PV Parameters : -
m  1 a
RT 1 * P  Pressure (bar)
* T  Temp (K)
= 2.32 kg/min = 0.038 kg/sec
* t  Temp ( 0 C )
Wd
I .P   16.965 kw
1000  3 
* v  Specific volume  m kg 
 
Free air delivered = VS 1 V 1  N
* h  Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Vs1  0.011 m 3
* S  Entropy (kJ/kg K)
* U  Internal energy (kJ/kg)
 1

VC  P2 
 1 * x  Dryness fraction
n
V 1  1   
VS  P1  
  * Dry  Steam
* Wet  Water
= 83.75
Steam
wet steam

VS 1  d2 L saturated steam
4
superheated steam

 d2 d WET STEAM  Denoted by ‘X’
4
Where X : Dryness fraction
 d  24.8 cm
 If given condition of steam of less than
 d  L  24.8 cm satoration condition (Found from steam
table) then that steam is wet steam.
Refrigeration Cycle
 hwet , S wet , U wet , Vwet
(Vapur Compression cycle)
hwet  h f  Xh fg 
 
 S wet  S f  XS fg 
V  XV 
 wet g 
Fig-L
Satorated Steam :
 If given condition of steam is equal to
sturation Cond n then given steam becomes
satrated steam.
 h f , hg , S f , S g , V f , V g  (directly found Fig-N

from steam table)
Superheated Steam :
 If given condition of steam is greater than
saturation condition.
 hsup , S sup , Vsup , U sup
* hsup  hg  C Psteam Tsup  Tsat  Fig-O
 Tsup 
* Ssup  S g  C Psteam log e T 
 sat 
Vsat
Vsup  Vg 
*   
Tsup  sat 
T
 Vsup  can be found

Q. Steam of pressure 10 bar saturated is cooled
 CPsteam  2.1 kJ at constant volume till pressure drops to 2 bar
kgK
with a neat stetch find Cond n of steam of pres-
CPwater  4.2 kJ sure 2 bar.
kgK
Steam :
hwater  C pw  Tw
Fig-P
Fig-M
at P=10 bar
3
Vg  V1  0.1944 m
kg
3
and V1  V2  Vwcts  0.1944 m kg
Now, Vwct 2  X Vgs W .d

H .A
at P = 2bar For vapoor compression cycle
Heat Extracted
Vg  0.8857 m
3
COP 
kg W .d
 0.1944  X  0.8857 H .E

W .d
 X 2  X  0.22
Working principle :
Initially refrigerant is placed in the compres-
h2  hwct 2  h f 2  X 2  h fg 2 sor. Due to compression process its pressure
and temp incrases. Now this higher pr of temp
 504.7  0.22  2201.9 refrigerant is passed through the condenser
 986.91 kJ kg where it rejects heat to the cooling medium
(like atmosphere). Now, the reprigerant be-
comes cool. This cooled refrigerant is again
passed through the expansion valve where it
S 2  S wct 2  S f 2  X 2  S fg 2
also rejects heat. Now, this cooled refrigerant
 1.5301  2.2  5.5970 passes to the evaporator where it extracts heat
from the substance to be cooled & it becomes
 2.7558 kJ kgK heated. This heated refrigerant passes to the
Vapour Compression Cycle : compressor & the cycle is completd
(1) Saturated Vapour after Compression :
Fig-Q
Fig-R
HE h1  h u
C.O.P.  
For engine or power cycle Wd h 2  h1
O P (2) Superheated Vapour after Compres-

 sion :
I P
P2  P3  10 bar  10  10 5 N
m2
h1  h4 HE4 1
COP  
Fig-S h2  h1 Wd1 2
At 10 bar
(3) Superheated Vapour before and after
h2  hg 2  2778.1 kj
Compression : kg
h4  h3  h f 3  762.81 kj
kg
S 2  S g  6.5865 kj
Fig-T kgk
& h1  hwct1  h f 1  X 1h fg 1
(4) Wet steam before and after Compression
: But, S 2  S1  S wct1
S wct1  S f 1  X 1S fg 1
At 5 bar
Fig-U
S f 1  1.8607 kj , h f 1  640.23 kj
kgk kg
Q. A Vapour compression cycle working be-
tween 2 pressure limit 5 bar and 10 bar. The S fg 1  4.9606 kj , hg1  2108.5 kj
kgk kg
steam after compression is dry saturated find
cop, work required to run the compressor.  S wct1  S f 1  X 1S fg 1
Condition After compression dry saturated
 6.5865  1.8607  X 1 4.9606
 X 1  0.95
h1  hwct1  h f 1  X 1h fg 1  2643.3 kj

kg
Fig-V
h1  h4 2643.3  762.81
 COP    13.95
h2  h1 2778.1  2643.3
P1  P4  5 bar  5  10 5 N 2 Wd compressor  h2  h1  134.8 kj

m kg
Q. A vapour compression cycle working be- At P=15 bar :
tween 2 pr. limit 11 bar and 15 bar, the temp
after compression is find the COP &
Heat exchanged.
Sol - After compression superheated As at 15
bar, but given =
Fig-W
or P=15 bar
so of steam is superheated
after compression.
from superheated steam table
We take of steam as saturated be-
fore compression as no condition is given
& before superheated the of steam
is saturated
Q. A vapour compression cycle working be-

tween 2pr limit 5 bar & 10 bar, the steam after
compression is 60% dry draw the arrangment
At P= II bar
& find the cop, cal the power required to run
the compressor if 5 kg/sec of steam flows in
compressor.
At P= 15 bar Here its given steam is 60% dry so dryness
praction is 0.6.
Fig-X
P1  P4  5bar 1121.44
  12.78
87.74
P2  P3  10bar
X 2  60%  0.6
Power of compressor  h2  h1  m
h1  h4
cop   87.74  S  43.87kw
h2  h1
Q. A vapour compression cycle working by
At P= 10bar taking refrigerant a R-12. The properties are
given below it table.
h4  h3  h f 3  762.81 kj  hf 2
kg
h f 2  762.81 kj , S f 2  2.1387 kj
kg kgk
Fig-Y
h fg 2  2015.3 kj , S fg 2  4.4478 kj
kg kgk Refrigerant before and after compression
is superheated, having temp 250 0 C & 370 0 C
h2  hwct 2  h f 2  X 2 h fg 2  1971.99 kj
kg
h1  h4
Cop 
S 2  S wct 2  S f 2  X 2 S fg 2  4.80738 kj h2  h1
kgk
S 2  S1  S wct1  4.80738 kj
kgk
S wct1  S f 1  X 1S fg 1
Fig-Z
P=5bar
S f 1  1.8607 kj , h f 1  640.23 kj
kgk kg
P= 5 bar
S fg 1  4.9606 kj
kgk
, h fg 1  2108.5 kj
kg h2  hsyp 2  hg 2  C PR 12 Tsup 2  Tsat 2 
S wc1  S f 1  X 1S fg 1  0.59  360  2.5370  300
h1  hwct1  h f 1  X 1h fg 1  1884 .25  h2  535 kj h  h  360 kj 

kg  g2 g kgk 
h1  h4 1884.25  762.81
Cop   C
h2  h1 1971.99  1884.25 PR 12  2.5
kj , Tsat 2  300 0 C 
 kgk 
h1  hg1  C PR 12 Tsup1  Tsat1 
P=10 bar
Tsup1  2500 C
Tsat  200 0 C
hg1  260 kj
kg
h1  260  2.520  200

1  2  Isentropic compression
 385 kj
kg 2  3  Isothermal compression
P= 15 bar 3  4  Isentropic compression
h4  h3  h f 3  110 kj 4  1  Isothermal compression

kg
W.d = H.A - H.R.
h1  h4 385  110 275
Cop     1.833 H.A.  T2 (S3  S2 )
h2  h1 535  385 150
H.R.  T1 (S4  S1 )
Steam Power Cycle :
Carnot Cycle : (Reversed Carnot Cycle) W.d T2 (S3  S2 )  T1 (S4  S1 )
η 
The cornot cycle using vapour as working H.A T2 (S3  S2 )
fluid (steam).
S3  S2 (T2  T1 )
 [  S3  S4 & S2  S1 ]
It consist of 2 reversible isothermal & 2 S3  S2 (T2 )
reversible adibatic process.
T2  T1
  th 
The Figure below about P-v & T-s diagrm. T2
 T2  maxium temperature
T1  minimum temperature
Fig-1 Fig-2 dQ  C p dT  dQ 
 as, dS 
or dQ  dS  T T 
Drawback of Cornot Cycle :

(1) During Isothermal condensation process, The figure above shows the arrangement
the condensation is stopped at point 1 i.e. before of a rankine cycle. Initially saturated water from
saturated liquid condition is reached. the condenser passes into the pump where its
(2) Heat addition & Heat rejection take place Pr & temp. slightly increase. Now, this
at const. temperature. increased Pr & temp. water passes into the
(3)  of the carnot vapour cycle is 100% which boiler where heat is supplied from external
is practically impossible. source which is shown in process 2  3 in P-V
& T-S diagram. Now this high Pr & temp.
(4) As non-homogeneous mixture
steam enter into the turbine where it expands
(water+steam) enter into the compressor so
which is shown in process 3-4. Now this wet
compressor size must be increased & work
steam inter into the condenser which is show
input have to be large.
in process 4-1. Now the saturated water from
Rankine Cycle : condenser inter into the pump & the cycle is
completed.
From this concept it is found that pump
Fig- 3 work acts as one of the loss.
Fig 4 Fig -5
W.d  Wd 1  2
 =
H.A HA 4 1
(h1  h 2 )  Wd p

h1  h 3   Wd p
3  4  Pump work Wd p  Pump work
4  4  boiler (H.A)
 m  V f (P4  P3 )
1  2  turbine (Expansion)
(h1  h 2 )  Wd p
2  3  Pump work  
(h1  hf 3 )  Wd p
Vf = Saturated water Sp volume. η rankine = ?
h1  h 2
3600 η rankine =
Steam Consumption = Wd h1  h 3
Turbine
P = 12 bar.
Wd net Wd T  Wd p
Work ratio =  h1 = hg1 2784.8 kj/kg
Wd T Wd T
S1 = Sg1 = 6.5233 kj/kgk
 ith
Efficiency ratio =  P = 0.01 bar
Rankine
hf3 = h3 = 29.3 kj/kg

Where  ith is the indicated thermal
efficiency. S1=S2 =Swet2 =6.5233 kj/kgk
3600 Swet2 = Sf2 + X2 Sfg2

 ith 
m s (h 1  hf 3 )
P = 0.01 bar
Where ms is the mass of steam.
Sf2 = 0.1059 kj/kgk,
Hint : If in quest it is not asked about work
ratio then we can neglect pump work. hf2 = 29.3 kj/kg
Q. A rankine cycle works between 2 pr. limit Sfg2 = 8.8697 kj/kgk,
12 bar & 0.01 bar. The steam that exits from
boiler is dry saturated. Find the rankine η . h f g  2484.9 kj / kg
2
Solution : Rankine cycle : since work ratio is

not given so we can neglect pump work.  6.5233  0.1059  x 2 8.8697
 x 2  0.72
h 2  hf 2  x 2 hfg 2
 29.3  0.72  2484.9
 1818.43 kj/kg
Fig - 6
h1  h 2
 η rankine  h  hf
1 3
2784.8  1818.43

2784.8  29.3
Now, P4 = P1 = 12 bar
966.37
  0.3507.
P2 = P3 = 0.01 bar 2755.5
Q : A rankine cycle working between 2 pr. limit Sfg2 = 7.0766 kj/kgk

10 bar & 0.2 bar, find the η neglecting pump
work if the steam after boiler has 90% dryness S2 = S1 = Sf2 + x2 Sfg2
praction.
 6.1417 = 0.8320 + x2 7.0766
 x2 = 0.75
Fig-7 h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
= 2020.12 kj/kg.
h1  h 2 2576.58 - 2020.12
η= 
h1  hf 3 2576.58 - 251.40
Solution :
556.46
P4 = P1 = 10 bar.   0.2393
2325.18
P2 = P3 = 0.2 bar Q. A rankine cyle working between 2 pr limit
10 bar and 0.1 bar Temp after the boiler is 4000C
η rankine = ? find the work ratio steam consumption and also
find rankine η and draw the total arrangement
h1  h2
 rankine  in T-S dia.
h1  h f 3
x1  0.9
hf1 = 762.81 kj/kg Sf1 = 2.1387 kj/kgk Fig-8
hfg1 = 2015.3 kj/kg Sfg1=4.4478 kj/kgk
h1 = 52576.58 kj/kg.
Now, S1 = Swet1 = Sf1 + x1 Sfg1 Solution :
= 6.1417 kj/kgk
Pump work is considered.
At 0.2 bar,
P4 = P1 = 10 bar
h3 = hf3 = 251.40 kj/kg
P2=P3 = 0.1 bar
hf2 = 251.40 kj/kg
tsat = 179.910C
Sf2=0.8320 kj/kgk
tgiven = 4000C
hfg2 = 2358.3 kj/kg
tgiven > tsat, condition of
steam is superheated so Wd pump  m  Vf (P4  P3 )
point 1 is in superheated region. 1 0.001 (10  0.1) 10 2
P = 10 bar,  0.99 kj
tsup = 4000C
in superheated steam table Wd T  Wd p
Work Ratio 
Wd T
h1 = hsup1 = 3263.9 kj/kg
1174.62  0.99

S1 = Ssup1 = 7.4651 kj/kgk 1174.62
P = 0.1 bar  0.99
hf3 = h3 = 29.30 kj/kg

Wd T  h1  h 2
vf = vf3 = 0.001000 m3/kg  1174.62 kj/kg
S2 = S1 = 7.4651 kj/kgk
3600
S2 = Swet2 = Sf2 + x2 Sfg2 Stem consumption = Wd  3.064 kg/kj
T
P = 0.1 bar
Problem on Carnot Cycle :
Sf2 = 0.1059 kj/kgk
Q.A ideal carnot cycle working between per
hf2 = 29.3 kj/kg limit 10 bar & 1.5 bar, the steam after adiabatic
Sfg2= 8.8697 expansion is 90% dry cal. η thermal power
develkoped if 0.5 kg/cycle mass flow takes
x2 = 0.83 place, there are 200 cycle/min.
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2 Solution :
 29.3  (0.83  2484.9) condition : Carnot Cycle,
 2089.28 kj/kg
G i v e n , P
2
= P3 = 10 bar
(h1  h2 ) Wdp
η  P1 = P4 = 1.5 bar
(h1  hp3 ) Wdp
x4 = 0.9 = 90%
(3263.9  2089.28)  0.99
 η thermal  ?
(3263.9  29.3)  0.99
= 0.36 Power developed = ?

= (30714) kj/min
30714
=  511.9 kw
60
Fig - 9
REHEAT CYCLE :
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can
be increased by use of reheat and Regenerative
cycle.
T2  T1
η
T2
Fig - 10
at 10 bar t sat  t 2  179.91  273  452.91K
at 1.5 bar t sat  t1  111.37  273  384.37 K
t 2  t1 452.91  384.37
η 
t2 452.91
68.74 Fig - 11
  0.151
452.91
Wd T  Wd 3  4  h 3  h 4
 2778.1  2470.96  307.14 kj/kg
P = 10 bar ;
h 3  h g  2778.1 kj/kg
h 4  hf 4  x 4 hfg 4
P = 1.5 bar
hf1  467.11 kj/kg Here,
hgf 4  2226.5 kj/kg
P6  P7  P1 
 h 4  467.11  0.9  2226.5 P4  P5
 2470.96 kj/kg T1  T3   Reheat
Power, Initially water is supplied to the boiler,
P  (h 3  h 4 )  m
so it is converted to saturated steam. Now, this
 (307.14) kj/kg  0.5 kg/cycle  200 cycle/min
steam is allowed to flow through the super
heater where it is converted to superheated P6 = P1 = 90 bar
steam. This super heated steam is allowed to flow P3 = P2 = 12 bar
through the 1st turbine where it expands. Now
this steam is again allowed to flow through the P5 = P4 = 0.07 bar
2nd tirbine where it expands again. Now this m  5 kg/sec.
steam flows through the condenser where it is
cooled to saturated liquid. Now this saturated Wd
η
liquid passes to the boiler through the pump. HA
Wd
*η  Wd  (h1  h 2 )  (h 3  h 4 )  Wd p
HA
HA  (h1  hf 5 )  (h 3  h 2 )  Wd p
Wd  (h1  h 2 )  (h 3  h 4 )  Wd p
HA  (h1  h f5 )  (h 3  h 2 )  Wd p
REGENERATION CYCLE : P= 0.07 bar
In case of regeneration cycle the η of the
hf 5  163.40 kj/kg
Rankine cycle is increased. By using this cycle
heat lost from the 2nd turbine is utilized to heat Vf  0.001007 m 3 /kg
the water before boiler.
Problem :
h1  3350 kj/kg
Q. Steam at 90 bar and 480 0 C is supplied to a
h 2  2820 kj/kg
steam turbine, the steam is reheated to its
h 3  3440 kj/kg
original temp, passing the steam through
reheater at 12 bar. The expansion after h 4  2360 kj/kg
reheating takes place to condenser pressure
0.07 bar. Find the η of the reheat cycle, work Wd p  1  Vf  (P6  P5 )
available if the flow of steam is 5 kg/sec.
1 0.001004  (90  0.07)  10 2
Neglecting the pr. loss in the system and
assume the expansion through the turbine is  9.055 kj/kg
isentropic, don’t neglect pmp work.
Solution :
Fig- 13
Fig -12
P  [(h1  h 2 )  (h 3  h 4 )] kj/kg m1  m 2  m 3
 (1610)  m m1h1  m 2 h 2  m 3 h 3
 8050 kw
Terms Related :
Wd net  Wd T  Wd p P  Pressure (KN/m2)
 (h1  h 2 )  (h 3  h 4 )  Wd P A  Cross sectinal area,
 1610  9.055 v  Velocity (m/sec)
 1600.945 kj/kg V  Sp. Volume (m3/kg)
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION : PV

h  Enthalpy (kj/kg) ( h = U+ )
A flow is said to be steady if sum of energy J
at input is equal to sum of energy at output and m  mass (kg or kg/sec)
also, mass at i/p side is equal to mass at o/p
z  datum height (m)
side.
g  Accelation due to gravity (g = 9.81m)
Energy balance equation :
Fig -14
System Related :
(i) Nozzle
(ii) Diffuser  2
z g  dQ
m1  h1   1 
1
(iii) Turbine  2000 1000  dt
 
(iv) Compressor
Mixing System :  2
z g  dw

 m2 h 2 
2
 2 
 2000 1000  dt
 
 m is kg/sec.
Fig-15
mass heat work
kg dQ/dm dW/dm
kg/sec dQ/dt. dW/dt. m1  m2
m 2  m / sec A1 V1 A2 V2

m 3 / kg V1 V2
(if mass in kg/sec)

Fig-17 = kg/sec
m1  m2
Procedure for solving problem :
(1) Read the question and confirm
 (2) Then check about the system.

z1g   z2g  dQ
2
V1 V22

m1 h1     m  h    
 2  2 (Tuebine, nozzle)
 2000 1000   2000 1000  dt
(3) Then check about the medium
 V2 z g  dW medium  water
 m3  h3  3  3  
 2000 1000 dt h water  CPw  Twater
If nothing given like term (dQ, dW, Z,V) CPwater  4.2 kj/kgk
neglect them
medium  air
 m1h1  m 2 h 2  m 3 h 3
h air  CPair  Tair
Mass Balance Equation :
CPair  1.005 kj/kgk
medium  steam
“h” can be found from
Fig-18 steam table by consideing
which type of srteam.
(4) Then write energy balance equation :
(If some terms are not given, not calculated,
not asked neglect them)
THERMODYNAMIC RELATION.. x and z are independent variables in the

above expression and accordingly.
Reciprocal and Cyclic Relations:
Thermodynamic relations pertain to the re-  x   y 
    1
lations between different thermodynamic prop-  y  z  x  z
erties of a system. Such relations help to deter-
mine changes in certain properties which are  x   y   x 
rather difficult to measure experimentally. Fur- and  y   z    z   0
 z  x   y
ther, through these relations, the limited experi-
mental data can be used to derive equtions of Equation can be rewritten as
state for different substances which do not un-
dergo chemical reactions or a charge in phase.  x  1
  
Before establishing some general thermo-  y  z  y / x  z
dynamic relations, it is desirable to review a and this is called the reciprocal relation.
few principles of partical ifferential calculus.
Further, the equation can be recast as
Consider to relationship f (x, y, z) = 0
among the three variables x, y and z. Then  x   y   x  1
          z
x = f (y, z)  y  z  z  x  z  y  
 
 x  y
 x   x 
or dx    dy    dz
 y  z  z  y
 x   y   z 
or        1
The subscript denotes the variable held  y  z  z  x  x  y
constant.
Equation is called cyclic relation.
Also y = f (x, z)
Example:-
 y   y  Prove that the ideal gas equation p  = RT
T
or dy    dx    dz
 x  z  z  x satisfies the cyclic relation.
When dy from equation is substituted in Ans.From the given ideal gas equation
equation one obtains.
RT
p = , i.e., the pressure changes due to
 x   y   y    x  
dx      dx    dz     dz changes in volume and temperature (the gas
 y  z  x  z  z  x   z  y
onstant R being constant for a particular gas).
or,
The cyclic relation then slipulates that
 x   y 
dx      dx
 y  z  x  z  p      T 
       1
 x   y   x  
         dz
   r  T  p  p 
 y  z  z  x  z  y 
The three partial derivates can be deter- = T ds + u dp
mined separately and we get
The Helmholtz free energy is defined as
 p   1 RT the difference between the internal energy and
   RT     2 the product to temperature and entropy. Thus
 v r v    
for a unit mass,
   R  R f = u - Ts
   T  
 T  P p T p or df = du - t ds - s dT
= (T ds - p dv) - T ds - s dT
 T    
    p  = - p dv - s dT
 p  R p R
The Gibbs free energy is defined as the
Substituting these values in left hand side difference between enthalpy and the product
of the cyclic relation, we obtain of temperature and entropy. Thus for a unit
RT R  RT mass
     1
 2
p R p g = h - Ts
or dg = dh - T ds - s dT
 p  RT 
= (T ds + v dp) - T ds - s dT
and it equals the right hand side. That = v dp - s dT
proves that the given gas equation satisfies the
cyclic relation. Since u, h, f and g are properties of the
system, the relations are often referred to as
Property relations: the property relations (also called the Gibbs
For a unit mass of the system, the first relations). These relations are applicable to
and second law of thermodynamics are pre- all processes whether reversible or
scribed by the relations. irreversible, and whether in a closed system
or in an open system.
 q   w  du  p du  du
Check for a property:
and  q  T ds
Consider z to be a function of two
 T ds = p du + du independent variables x and y. Mathematically
or du = T ds - p du z = f(x, y)
The enthalpy is defined as the sum of in-
 z   z 
ternal energy and the flow work (i.e., pressure or dz    dx    dy
volume product). Thus for a unit mass,  x  y  y  x
h = u + pu where z is an exact differential, i.e., it
or dh = du + p du + u dp represents a thermodynamic property. Let
the partial derivative in the above identity
= (T ds - p du) + p du + u dp
be written as
 u   u 
T    and p    
 z   z   s v  v  s
   M and    N
 x  y  y  x When differentiated, we obtain
Equation may then be written as  T   2u  p   2u
   and    
dz = M dx + N dy  v  s v s  s v v s
M   z  2 z  T   p 
 
Further: y y  x  x y 
 y    
 v  s  s v
N   z  2 z Alternatively: Comparing the given

and x  x  y   x y identity with dz = M dx + N dy
 x
M=T N = -p
 M   N  x=s y=v
Thus  y    x 
 x  y Since z corresponds to u which is a
This leads us to conclude that considering thermodynamic property, the following
the expression: dz = M dx + N dy identity must hold good:
If z represents thermodynamic property  M   N   T   p 
of the system, then     , i.e.,     
 y  x  x  y  v  s  s  v
 M   N  Consider the expression:
   
 y  x  x  y dh = T ds + v dp
Maxwell Relations: Here enthalpy h is a thermodynamic
Consider the expression: du = T ds - p dv property and the expression indicates that
enthalpy is a function of entropy and pressure.
Here internal energy u is a That is
thermodynamic property and the expression
indicates that internal energy varies with h = f(s, p)
entropy s and volume v. That is
 h   h 
u = f(s, v) or dh    ds    dp
 s  p  p  s
 u   u 
or du    ds    dv Equating the coefficients of ds and dv, we
 s v  v  s may write
Equating the coefficients of ds and dv, we  h   h 
T   and v 
may write  s  p  p  s
When differentiated, we obtain

 T  2h  v  2h  s   s 
   and    ds    dT    dv
 p  s s p  s  p s p  T v  v T
 T   v  dT  s 
     cv    dv
 p  s  s  p T  v T
Alternatively: Comparing the given From Maxwell relation :

identity with dz = M dx + N dy
 p   s 
M=T N=v    
 T v  v T
x=s y=p
dT  p 
Since z corresponds to h which is a  ds  cv   dv
thermodynamic property, the following T  T v
identity must hold good,
dT
The term cv gives change in entropy
 M   N   T   v  T
    , i.e.,    
 y  x  x  y  p  s  s  p at constant volume and the term
 p 
T-ds Equations   dv represents change in entropy
 T v
u  f (T , v ) at constant temperature.
Equation is known as first T ds equation
 du   u 
or du    dT    dv and is often recast as
 T v  v T
 p 
T ds  cv dT  T   dv....
 u   T v
 cv dT    dv ... (a)
 v T
(ii) Consider variation of enthalpy h with
Invoking property relation : temperature T and pressure p. Then
du  T ds  p dv ... (b) h  f (T , p )
Comparing identities (a) and (b), and
 h   h 
equating the coefficients or dh    dT    dp
 T  p  p T
 s 
cv  T  
 T v  h 
 c p dT    dv ... (c)
Introducing total differential of ds in  v T
terms of s  f (T , v ) Invoking property relation :
dh  T ds  v dp ... (d )
Comparing identities (c) and (d), and
 p 
equating the coefficients, cv dT  T   dv
 T v
 s 
cp  T    v 
 T  p  c p dT  T   dp
 T  p
Introducing total differential of ds in
terms of s  f (T , p ) or (c p  cv ) dT
 p   v 
 s   s  T   dv  T   dp
ds    dT    dp  T v  T  p
 T  p  p T
 p   v 
dT  s  T  dv T   dp
 cp    dp  T v  T  p
T  p T or dT  
c p  cv c p  cv
From Maxwell relation :
From the fundamental relation T  f ( p, v )
 s   v 
     T 
dT  
 T 
 p T  T  p  dp    dv
 p v  v  p
dT  v  Comparing identities (i) and (ii), and equating
 ds  c p   dp
T  T  p the coefficients
 p 
dT T 
The term c p gives change in entropy  T v  T 
T  
c p  cv  v  p
 v 
at constant pressure and the term  T  dp  p   v 
 p c p  c v  T      ... (iii)
 T  v  T  p
represents change in entropy at constant
temperature. Following cyclic relationship holds
Equation is known as second T ds good among the thermodynamic variables p,
equation and is often recast is T and v
 v   p   T   v 
T ds  c p dT  T          1 .... (iv)
 dp  T  v  v  p  p T
 T  p
From identities (iii) and (iv), we have
HEAT CAPACITY RELATIONS
 
Equating the first and second T ds  
1    v 
cp  cv  T 
equations, we get   T   v    T  p
    
  v  p  p T 
expansivity  and isothermal compressibility
 v   p 
2
T    .
 T  p  v T
• Volume expansivity (coefficient of
The following important conclusions can volume expansion)  is defined as the change
be drawn from the above thermodynamic
in volume with change in temperature per unit
relation :
volume, keeping the pressure constant.
 p  1  v 
(i) For any substance   is negative, 
 v T  
v  T  p
 v 
2
where the subscript p indicates that the
and the term  T  is always positive.
 p partial differential is to be taken at constant
pressure.
Obviously (c p  c v ) is positive and
accordingly cp is always greater than cv.
(ii) c p  c v as T  0. Apparently cp
equals cv at zero absolute temperature. PAGE – 284 FIGURE
(iii) For solids and liquids, the volume
change with temperature is negligible under
constant pressure conditions. That is
 v 
   0. That gives c p  c v  0, i.e.,
 T  p
c p  c v . For water, such a situation exists at
With reference to volume-temperature
40 C where specific volume is minimum or
diagram at constant pressure as shown in Fig.
density is maximum.
the slope at any point A is given by
(iv) For an ideal gas: pv = RT
 v 
 v  R v  
     T  p
 T  p p T
This slope divided by volume at that point
 p    RT  RT gives the volume expansivity .
      2
 v T v  v  p v For a perfect gas : pv = RT
 v   RT 
2 RT
 cp  cv   T      2   R or v and therefore
p
T  v 
(v) Quite often, it is considered worth  dv  R
  
while to express equation in terms of volume  T  p P
That gives :  
1 R 1 v 1
     v 
v P v T T point is given by   p  . This slope divided
 T
Apparently, the volume expansivity of a
by volume at that point gives the isothermal
perfect gas is a function of temperature only.
It varies inversely with absolute temperature compressibility  .
T
and is independent of both pressure and For a perfect gas : pv = RT

volume. RT
or v and therefore
* Isothermal compressibility p
 T and adiabittic compressibility S
 v   1 
   RT   2 
In thermodynamics, compressibility is  p T  p 
a measure of the relative volume change of a
That gives :
fluid in response to a pressure change. That is
1  1 
1  v  T   RT   2 
   v  p 
v  p 
This statement is, however, incomplete 1  1  1
  pv   2  
because for any fluid system, the magnitude v  p  p
of compressibility depends strongly on
whether the process is isothermal or adiabatic.
Accordingly we define the isothermal
compressibility as FIGURE – 285
1  v 
T    
v  p T
where the subscript T indicates that the partial
differential is to be taken at constant
temperature. The negative sign implies that a
positive pressure increment results in a
negative volume increment, i.e., an increase
in pressure causes a decrease in volume.
Isothermal compressibility thus represents
the change in volume with the change in Apparently the isothermal
pressure per unit volume, keeping the compressibility of a perfect gas varies
temperature constant. With reference to inversely with pressure and is independent of
pressure-volume diagram at constant both temperature and volume.
temperature as shown in Fig. the slope at any The adiabatic compressibility is defined as
From the cyclic correlations
1  v 
S    
v  p S  s   T   p 
       1
where the subscript s indicates that the partial  T  p  p s  s T
differential is to be taken at constant entropy.
 s   T   v 
The adiabatic compressibility thus represents and         1,
 T  v  v s  s T
the change in volume with change in pressure
per unit volume when entropy is kept constant.  s   p   s 
     
Considering changes in volume due to  T  p  T s  v T
changes in pressure and temperature,
v  f (p, T)  p   s   p 
     
 T s  p T  v s
 v   v    
or dv    dT    dp  v   s   p 
 T  P  p T      
 T s  v T  v T
v 1  v  1  v 
    dT    dp Since  is greater than 1,
v v  T  p v  p T
  dT   dp  p   p 
   
 v s  v T
The above correlation expresses volume
change in terms of volume expansivity and The indicates that on p – v plot, the slope
isothermal compressibility. of an isentropic is greater than that of an
isotherm (Fig....)
Equation can be rewritten as
2
 1  v  
   
 v  T  p  2
cp  cv   Tv  Tv
1  v  
  
v  p T FIGURE – 286
The above identity is called the Mayer
relation.
Ration of specific heats : The ratio of
c p and c v is given as Volume change in terms of volume
expansivity and isothermal
 s   s  compressibility :
T   
cp  T  p  T  p Considering changes in volume due to
   changes in pressure and temperature,
cv  s   s 
T   
 T  v  T  v v  f (p, T)
 v  Apparently the adiabatic exponent  (the

 v 
or dv    dT    dp
 T  p  p T ratio of specific heats c p / c v ) is equal to the
ratio of isothermal compressibility and
dv 1  v  1  v 
    dT    dp adiabatic compressibility. Since  is always
v v  T  p v  p T
greater than unity, the above expression
1  v   v 
Since     or     v ... (i) indicates that  T is always greater than S
v  p T  p T
RELATIONS FOR INTERNAL ENERGY
1  v   v  AND ENTHALPY
 T     or      T v ...(ii)
v  p T  p T (a) When a system undergoes an
dv 1 1 infinitesimal reversible process, the change
   v  dT  ( T v) dp in internal energy between two equilibrium
v v v
states is given by
  dT   T dp
du  T ds  p dv
Frome cyclic property of differentials,
The first T ds equation gives
 p   T   v 
       1  p 
 T  v  v  p  p T T ds  c v dT  T   dv
 T  v
 v 
Substituting the values of   and  p 
 T p  du  c v dT  T   dv  p dv
 T  v
 v 
  from identities (i) and (ii), we obtain   p  
 p T  c v dT  T    p  dv .... (i)
  T  v 
 p   1  Considering the functional relationship
    (  T v)   1
 T  v  v  u  f (T, v) which expresses internal energy
 p  v  u as a function of temperature T and volume v.
or    
u  f (T, v)
 T v  T v  T
That is, the ratio of coefficient of volume  u   u 

expansion  and isothermal compressibility or du    dT    dv .... (ii)

 v
T  v T
 T represents the change in pressure with
temperature when volume is kept constant. The equivalence between (i) and (ii)
Further, from expression gives
 u 
 p / v s  v / p T cv   
   T  v
 p / v T (v / p)S
 u   p 
 1/ v  (v / p)T and    T   p
  T  v T  T  V
(1 / v) (v / dp)S S
The above identity is called the energy  c p   2v 
equation. and     T  2
 p T  T  p
(b) When a system undergoes an
infinitesimal reversible process, the change Further, proceed to show that for a
in enthalpy between two equilibrium states is perfect gas obeying pv = RT, the specific heats
given by c p and c v are function of temperature alone.
dh  T ds  v dp Solution : The specific heat at constant
The second T ds equation gives volume is
 v   s 
cv  T  
T ds  c p dT  T   dp  T  v
 T  p
 v 
 c v   2s
 dh  cp dT  T   dp  vdp or   T
 T p  v T T v
From Maxwell relation :
  v  
 c p dT   v  T    dp ... (iii)  s   p 
  T  p     
Considering the functional relationship  v T  T  v
h = f(T, p) which expresses enthalpy as a  2s   2 p 
or  
function of temperature T and pressure p. vT  T 2  v
h  f (T, p)
 c    2p 
 h    v  T 2 
 h   v T  T  v
or dh    dT    dp ... (iv)
 T  p  p T
which is the required result.
The equivalence between (iii) and (iv)
RT
gives For the perfect gas : p 
v
 h 
cp   
 T  p p R  2p
or  and 0
T v T 2
 h   v 
and    v  T  
 p T  T  p  c 
Hence  v   0
 v T
EXAMPLE
Set up the following expression for the  c v is independent of volume and is a
specific heats at constant volume and at function of temperature alone.
constant pressure : (b) The specific heat at constant
pressure is
 c v   2p 
   T 2   s 
 v T  T  v cp  T  
 T  p
 c   2s 2
or  p   T cp  cv  Tv
 p T Tp 
From Maxwell relation : Therefore, for liquid water
 s   v  (2  10 4 ) 2
    cp  cv 
 p T  T  p 4.85  10 4  10 6
 2s  2v 
or  2   300  0.001003
p T  T p
 24.816 J / kg K
 c p   2v 
      2  0.0248 kJ / kg K
 p T  T  p
(b) For an ideal gas : pv = RT
1  v  p   RT 
RT       
RT For a perfect gas, v  v  T  p RT T  p 
p
p R 1
v R  v 2   
or  and 0 RT p T
T P T 2
1  v 
 c    
Hence  p   0 v  p T
 p T
 c p is independent of pressure and is  p    RT 
   
 RT  p  p T
a function of temperature alone.
EXAMPLE  p   RT  1
  2  
Determine the difference in  RT   p  p
c p and c v for water at 300 K for which
2 p pv
coefficient of volume exp ansion   cp  cv  T v  2  Tv  R
 T R
 2  10 4 K 1 EXAMPLE
isothermal compressibility a Show that for a perfect gas, the
difference between the specific heats
 4.85  10 4 MPa 1 and
(c p  c v ) can be expressed as
specific volume v  0.001003 m 3 / kg
(b) What would be the value of   u    v 
cp  cv  p      
(c p  c v ) for an ideal gas.   v T   T  p
Solution : The difference in specific
 u 
heats for any substance is given by  pv   v   
 v T
where  is the coefficient of volume   u    v 
or c p  c v   p      
expansion.   v T   T  p
Solution : The property relations for
internal energy u and enthalpy h are
(b) The coefficient of volume expansion
T ds = du + p dv
p is defined as
and T ds = dh – v dp
 du + p dv = dh – v dp ...(i) 1  v 
  
From the functional relations u = (T, v) v  T  p
and h = f (T, p), we have and accordingly, we can write
 u   u    u  
du    dT    c p  c v   p     v
 T  v  v T   v T 
 u   u 
dv  c v dT    dv  pv   v  
 v T
 v T
 h   h  EXAMPLE 11.5
and dh    dT   
 T  p  p T Set up a T ds relation in the following
form :
 h 
dp  c p dT    dp
 p T  T 
T ds  c v dT    dv
Substituting the values of du and dh in   
expression (i), we get where  is the coefficient of volume
expansion, a is the isothermal compressibility,
 u 
c v dT    dv  p dv and the other symbols have their usual
 v T
meanings.
 h  Solution : The given relation expresses
 c p dT    dp  v dp
 p T entropy s as a function of temperature T and
volume v. That is
  u  
or c v dT   p     dv s  f (T, v)
  dv T 
 s   s 
  h   or ds    dT    dv
 c p dT   v     dp  T  v  v T
  p T  It is known that:
The above equation is valid for any
 s   p 
process. Writing it for the case when dp = 0,      .... Maxwell relation
 v T  T  v
we have
  u    s 
(c p  c v ) (dT) p   p     (dv) p and T    cv
  v T   T  v
Making these substitutions, we get which is the required relation.
EXAMPLE
 p 
T ds  c v dT  T   dv Set up a T ds relation in the following
 T  v
form
The parameters  and  are defined as
T ds  c p dT   v T dp
1  v  where  is the coefficient of volume
  
v  T  p expansion. The other symbols have their usual
meanings.
1  v 
and      Solution : The given relation expresses
v  p T
entropy s as a function of temperature T and
 1  v   v  pressure p. That is
      s  f (T, p)
 v  T  p  (v / p)T 
 s   s 
 v   p  or ds    dT    dp
     .... (ii)  T  p  p T
 T  p  v T
It is known that :
The cyclic relation between p, v and T
gives  s   v 
      .... Maxwell relation
 p T  T  p
 p   v   T 
       1
 v T  T  p  p  v  s 
and T    c p
 T  p
 v   p  1
or     
 T  p  v T (T / p) v Making these substitutions, we get
 v 
 p  T ds  c p dT  T   dp ... (i)
  ... (iii)  T  p
 T  v
The coefficient of volume expansion is
From relations (ii) and (iii),
defined as
  p 
  1  v   v 
  T  v    or     v
v  T  p  T  p
 p 
When the value of   as obtained  v 
 T  v
When this value of  T  is substituted
above is substituted in expression (i), we  p
get in expression (i), we get
T T ds  c p dT   v T d p
T ds  c v dT  dv
 which is the required relation.
EXAMPLE
 u   p 
Set up the following relation for the   T  p ... (ii)
 v T  T  v
change in internal energy of a substance from
The cyclic relation between p, v and T gives
the measured values of temperature and
volume  p   v   T 
       1
 T   v T  T  p  p  v
du  c v dT    p  dv
  
where  is the coefficient of volume  p   p   v 
or        ... (iii)
expansion, a is the isothermal compressibility,  T  v  v T  T  p
and the other symbols have their usual The parameters P and a are defined as
meanings.
1  v 
Proceed therefrom to show that internal   
energy of an ideal gas is independent of v  T  p
pressure and volume and is a function of
1  v 
temperature only. and   
v  p T
Solution : The given relation expresses
internal energy u as a function of temperature  1  v    v 
T and volume v. That is      
 v  T  p  (v / p) T 
u  f (T, v)
 v   p 
 u   u       ... (iv)
or du    dT    dv  T  p  v T
 T  v  v T
Relations (iii) and (iv) are then combined
 u  to give
Since   defines c v , we can write
 T  v  p  
  
 u   T  v 
du  c v dT    dv ... (i)
 v T
 p 
Consider the property relation : When the value of   as obtained
 T  v
du  T ds  p dv
above is substituted in expression (ii), we get
Keeping T constant, let this relation be
 u  T
divided by dv. That gives    p
 v T 
 u   s 
   T   p The above correlation is then substituted
 v T  v T
in expression (i) and we obtain
Substituting the Maxwell relation
 T 
 s   p  du  c v dT    p  dv
    , we get   
 v T  T  v
which is the required relation. pressure p. That is
(b) For an ideal gas pv = RT h  f (T, p)
1  v   h   h 
   or dh    dT    dp
v  T p
 T  p  p T
p   RT 
    h 
RT T  p  p Since   defines cp , we can write
 T  p
p R 1
    h 
RT p T dh  c p dT    dp ... (i)
 p T
1  v 
   From the property relation :
v  p T
dh = T ds + v dp
p   RT  Keeping T constant, let this relation be
    divided by dp. That gives
RT p  p T
 h   s 
   T   v
p  RT  1  p T  p T
  
RT  p 2  p Substituting the Maxwell relation , we get
 s   v 
 Tp      ,
 du  c v dT    p  dv  c v T  p T  T  p
we get
 T 
Thus the internal energy of an ideal gas  h   v 
  T  v
is independent of pressure and volume and is  p T  T  p
a function of temperature only.
The coefficient of volume expansion is
EXAMPLE
defined as
Set up the following relation for the
change in enthalpy of a substance from the 1  v 
  
measured values of temperature and pressure v  T  p
dh  c p dT  v (1   T) dp
 h 
where  is is the coefficient of volume     v t  v
expansion. The other symbols have their usual  p T
meanings.  v (1   T) ...(ii)
Proceed therefrom to show that
enthalpy of an ideal gas is independent of  h 
When the value of  p  as obtained
pressure and volume and depends only on  T
temperature. above is substituted in expression (i), we get
Solution : The given relation expresses
dh  c p dT  v (1   T) dp
enthalpy h as a function of temperature T and
which is the required expression.
 v  R 3C
(b) For an ideal gas pv = RT     4
 T  p p T
1  v 
  
v  T p   v  
and v  T    dp
  T  p 
p   RT 
  
RT T  p  p
 RT C RT 3C 
  3  3  dp

p R 1
   p T p T 
RT p T
4C
 1  dp
 dh  c p dT  v 1  T    c p dT T3
 T The identity (i) may then be written as
Thus the enthalpy of an ideal gas is
4C
independent of pressure and volume and is a (dh)T   dp
function of temperature only. T3
EXAMPLE Upon integration between the state point
Over a certain range of pressures and 1 and state point 2, we have
temperatures, the equation of state of a certain 4C
h 2  h1   (p 2  p1 )T
gas is prescribed by the relation T3
RT C 4C
v  where C is a constant  (p1  p 2 )T
p T3 T3
Set up expressions for a change in (b) From the T ds relation :
enthalpy and entropy of the gas. Consider the  v 
T ds  c p dT  T   dp, we have
change to occur under isothermal conditions.  T  p
Solution : From the relations
dh = T ds + v dp dT  v 
ds  c p    dp
 v  T  T  p
and T ds  c p dT  T   dp; we have
 T  p For an isothermal (constant temperature
process),
 v 
dh  c p dT  T   dp  v dp  v 
 T  p (ds)T     dp
 T p
For an isothermal process (T = constant)
From the given equation of state:
  v  
(dh)T   v  T    dp ... (i) RT C
  T  p  v 
p T3
From the given equation of state :
 v  R 3C
v
RT C
     4
p T3  T p p T
we can write
 R 3C 
 (ds)T     4  dp
p T  c v  T  c p  T 
ds    dp    dv
Upon integration between the state point T  p  v T  v  p
1 and state point 2,  T   T 
or T ds  c v   dp  c p   dv ... (i)
 p 3C   p v  v  p
(s 2  s1 )T   R log e 2  4 (p 2  p1 )T 
 p1 T  which is the required expression.
p1 3C
This identity is often known as Third T
 R log e  (p1  p 2 )T ds equation.
p2 T 4
(b) The parameters (3 and a are defined
EXAMPLE
as
Set up the T ds equation in the form
1  v 
 T   T    
T ds  c v   dp  c p   dv v  T  p
 p  v  v  p
Further, proceed to show that this rela- 1  v 
and   
tion can be recast as v  p T
 c  v   T  1
T ds  c v dp  p dv Then :    v or   
 v  T  p  v  p  v
where  is the coefficient of volume ex- From the cyclic relationship
pansion and a is the isothermal compressibil-  T   p   v 
       1
ity factor.  p  v  v T  T  p
Solution : Consider variation of entropy
s with pressure p and specific volume v.  T  1
or     p
Then s  f (p, v)  p  v    v 
   
 v T  T  p
 s   s 
or ds    dp    dv
 p  v  v  p  v 
 p  
 s   T 

   T 
   dp  v  
 T  v  p  v  
 T  p
 s   T 
     dv  T 
 T  p  v  p Making the substitution for  p  and
Substituting the relations:  v
 s  c v  s  c  T 
   and    p ,   in expression (/), we get
 v  p
 T  v T  T  p T
Again when volume v in the van der
  1 
T ds  c v   dp  c p   dv Waal’s equation is differentiated with respect
    to temperature T treating pressure p as con-
 c stant, we get
 cv dp  p dv
   a   v   2a   v 
 p  2     (v  b)  3     R
which is the required result.  v   T  p  v   T  p
EXAMPLE
RT  v   2a   v 
Set up ffe following relations for a gas or    (v  b)  3     R
v  b  T  p  v   T  p
which conforms to the van der Waal’s equa-
tion of state.  v  R
or   
R  T  p  RT 2a 
(a) cp  c v   (v  b) 2  v3  [v  b]
1  2a (v  b) 2 RT v3  
R(v  b) v 3

RT v3  2a (v  b) 2
R
(b) T(v  b) cv  constant for an isen-
tropic process where the symbols have their RT R(v  b) v 3
 cp  cv  
usual meanings. v  b RTv3  2a (v  b) 2
Solution : From generalised relation
R v3
for c p and c v , we have  RT 
RT v3 [1  2a (v  b) 2 / RT v 3 ]]
 p   v 
cp  cv  T     
R
 T  v  T  p 1  2a (v  b) 2 / RT v3
The van der Waals equation of state is
 a  (b) Consider the first T ds equation
 p  2  (v  b)  RT  p 
 v  T ds  c v dT  T   dv
 T  v
RT a
or p  2 The van der Waal’s equation of state is
vb v
Differentiating p with respect to T at  a 
 p  2  (v  b)  RT
constant volume, we get  v 
 p  R RT a
   or p   2
 T  v v  b vb v
Differentiating p with respect to T treat-
RT  v 
 cp  cv    ing v as constant, we get
v  b  T  p
 p  R
  
 T  v v  b
 RT 
2 2
RT
Then T ds  c v dT  dv  c v  dT     p  dv
vb vb
1 1  
dT R
or ds  c v  dv 2
T vb  cv  dT
At constant entropy ds = 0 and, there- 1
 RT  RT a 
2
dT R
fore cv  dv  0     2   dv
T vb 1
v  b  v  b v 
dT R dv
or  0 2 2
a2
T cv v  b  c v  dT   dv
1 1
v2
By integration:
R 1 1 
log e T  log e (v  b)  log e constant  c v (T2  T1 )  a   
cv  v1 v 2 
or log e T  (v  b) R / C   log e constant which is the desired expression for
change in internal energy.
or T(v  b) R / cv  cons tan t Under constant temperature conditions,
EXAMPLE c v (T2  T1 )  0 and accordingly
Set up the expressions for changes in in-
ternal energy, enthalpy and entropy for a gas 1 1 
(u 2  u1 )T  a   
which obeys the van der Waal’s equation  v1 v 2 
 a  (b) When a system undergoes an
 p  2  (v  b)  RT infinitesimal reversible process, the change
 v 
Solution : When a system undergoes an in enthalpy between two equilibrium states is
infinitesimal reversible process, the change   v  
in internal energy between two equilibrium dh  c p dT   v  T    dp
states is given by   T  p 
  p   Under constant temperature conditions,

du  c v dT  T    p  dv dT = 0 and then
  T  v 
From the given van der Waal’s equation   dv  
(dh)T   v  T    (dp)T ... (a)
p
RT a
 2   dt  p 
vb v
Considering the functional relation
 p  R R
and    0 p  f (v, T)
 T  v v  b vb
 p   p 
dp    dv  
2
 u 2  u1   du  dT
1
 v T  T  v
Upon integration between state points
 p 
or (dp)T    dv  0 as dT  0 1 and 2,
 v T
2
v
Substituting -the above value of (dp)T in (h 2  h1 )T   RT  dv
identity (a), we get 1
(v  b) 2
  v    p 
2
dv
2
dv
(dh)T   v  T      dv  2a   RT 
  T  p   v T 1
v 2
1
vb
  p   v   p    v b  1 1 
 v         dv ... (b)   RT log e 2 b  
  v T  T  p  T  T   v1  b  v 2  b v1  b 
Using the cyclic relation for p, v and T,  1 1 v b
we have   2a     RT log e 2
 v 2 v1  v1  b
 v   T   p 
       1  1 1  1 1
 T  p  p  v  v T  bRT     2a   
 v 2  b v1  b   v 2 v1 
 v   p  1
or      which is the desired expression for
  p  T  / p  v
T v T
change in enthalpy.
 p  (c) Consider the first T ds equation,
 
 T  v  p 
T ds  c v dT  T   dv
Substituting this value in expression (b),  T  v
we get
The van der Waal’s equation of state is
 p   p  
 dh T   v    T   dv  a 
  v T  T  v   p  2  (v  b)  RT
 v 
From van der Waal’s equation
RT a
 p 
  
  RT a 
 2 or p  2

 v T v  v  b v  T vb v
RT 2a  p    RT a  R
  3 Then      2 
(v  b) 2
v  T  v T  v  b v  v v  b
 p    RT a  RT
R  T ds  c v dT  dv
     2 vb
 T  v T  v  b v  (v  b)
 (dh)T  dT R
or ds  c v
 dv
T vb
Upon integration between state points
  RT 2a   R 
 v   3  T   dv 1 and 2
  (v  b)  v  b 
2
v 
2
dT
2
dv which is the required result.
s 2  s1  c v 1 T  R 1 v  b  h   h   v 
(b)       
 p T  v T  p T
T2 v  b
 c v log e  R log e  2 
T1  v1  b    p 
 T 
 p    v 
  v     
which is the desired expression for   T v  v T   p T
change in entropy.  h   v 
EXAMPLE    
 v T  p T
Show that for any fluid
  p   p    v 
 h   p   p   T    v     
(a)  v   v  v   T  T    T  v  v T   p T
 T  T  v
 h   v   p   v 
(b)  p   v  T  T   T     v
 T p  T  v  p T
Further, proceed to prove that for any From cyclic relation :
pure substance obeying van der Waal’s  p   T   v 
equation, the enthalpy is given by         1
 T  v  v  p  p T
RTb 2a
h   f (T)  p   v   v 
vb v or       
 T 
 v  T
p  T  p
where f(T) is arbitrary and R, a, b are the
constants appearing in van der Waal’s Making this substitution, we get
equation.  h   v 
    T  v
Solution : For unit mass, the enthalpy 
 T
p  T  p
change is given by
 v 
dh  T ds  v dp  v  T 
 T p
and from first T ds equation
 p  (c) From van der Waal’s equation
T ds  c v dT  T   dv
 T  v
RT a
p  2
 p  vb v
 dh  c v dT  T   dv  v dp
 T  v The differentiations with respect to v at
Under constant temperature conditions constant temperature T, and with respect to 7
dT = 0 and therefore at constant v give
 p   p  RT 2a
(dh)T  T   dv  v dp     3
 T  v 
 T
v (v  b) 2
v
 h   p   p   p  R
or    T   v  and   
 v T  T  v  v T  T  v v  b
 h   RT 2a   v 
    v   3 T ds  c p dT  T   dp
 v T  (v  b)
2
v   T  p
 R   v 
T   dh  c p dT  T   dp  v dp
  T  p
vb
  v  
RTv 2a RT  c p dT   T    v  dp
  2   T  p 
(v  b) 2
v vb
For a constant enthalpy process dh - 0
RTv  RT(v  b) 2a
  2 and therefore,
(v  b) 2 v
0  (c p dT) h
RTb 2a
  2    v   
(v  b) 2
v   T    v  dp 
That gives :    T  p   h
RTb  T  1   v  
h  2a  f (T) or    uj  T    v  ... (a)
vb  p  h cp   T  p 
Obviously h depends on T and v. For the given gas:
EXAMPLE RT
The following expressions for the v  T 2
p
equation of state and specific heat c are
 v  R
obeyed by a certain gas:     2T
 T  p p
RT
v  T 2 Substuting the given values of c , v and
p
 v 
and = A + BT + Cp c p , v and   as calculated above in
 T  p
c
p
where , a, B and C are constants.
Obtain an expression for the joule-Thomson identity (a), we get
coefficient. 1
uj  
A  BT  Cp
Solution : Joule-Thomson coefficient
represents the numerical value of the slope  R   RT 
 T    2 T     T 2  
of an isenthalpy on T-p diagram at any point   p   p 
and is denoted by u j . Mathematically,, 

1

A  BT  Cp
 T 
uj   
 p  h  RT RT 
 p  2 T  p   T 
2
 
The property relation for dh is :
dh  T ds  v dp 1 T 2
 (T 2 ) 
From second T ds equation, we have A  BT  CP A  BT  Cp

Fourth Sem. Mech Engg. Engg. Thermodynamics. Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

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Fourth Sem. Mech Engg. Engg. Thermodynamics. Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

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Engineering Thermodynamics

Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

Synergy Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar

Bhubaneswar, Odisha-752101, INDIA.

THEORY Where, J = mechanical equivalent of heat [ J

m  milli  10 3  Compressio n  Pressure increases &

R cair  0.287 10 3 J / kgK n 1

 Dual cycle  Both Pressure & volume re-

Engine Parameter & arrangement :  Diesel engine  Compression Ignition (C.I)

 4 stroke engine  Cycle begins when piston

 C.I  Through nozzle fine spray of fuel

• Constant Volume cycle H .R  Cv (T4  T1 )

Substituting values of T1 , T2 , & T4 in eq n

5. If medium is air then assume C p air, C v

 Work done/cycle =  vs  19.63  10 3 m 3

 Pm = Mean effective pressure

Power  W .d / cycle  No. of cycle / sec .

 v2  v3  (1.2  19.63)  10 3 Process 4-1 P3 V3r  P4 V4r

 mCp (T4  T3 )  2mCv(T3  T2 )

Fig-11 Q. A gas turbine power plant being supplied at

isentropic efficiency of 25%, compressed air

1  2  3  4  due to efficiency (T & C )

for 3-a1 process

Regeneration on Brayton cycle :

Procedure for solving problem : Data Given :

max. temp in the cycle is 650oC. Determine the

 (923  674.34  298) 1.005

 air  1.4 T2  407.88K

Wnet Wnet 139.47  C p (T3  T4 )

 T41  678.74 k for maximum work,

Q. In an air standard Brayton cycle the min

Given T3 & T1 as fixed values)

Reciprocating air compressor may be single

Fig-C Wd  Area under P  V diagram

 n  1  1 Equation for work per kg of air conpressed

Hence it is concluded that for work per kg Fig -G

Procedure for solving problem :

( I.P. = Indicated Power) * F r e e a i r d e l i v e r e d ( Va)per min = N  v  Vs

* Va   Free Air delivered =  v Vs

* Piston speed (rpm) = 2 LN

16th of teh swept vol. Find the dia & stroke of

Q. A single stage single acting compressor V S  0 . 066

L  1.5  0.383  0.574 m  In this question T3  T1 

Q. A double 2 stage compressor delivors air T1  20  273K

 V is given so both comp & ex-  n 1

 As it is given double acting

 h f , hg , S f , S g , V f , V g  (directly found Fig-N

 hsup , S sup , Vsup , U sup

* hsup  hg  C Psteam Tsup  Tsat  Fig-O

 Vsup  can be found

at P = 2bar For vapoor compression cycle

O P (2) Superheated Vapour after Compres-

h1  hwct1  h f 1  X 1h fg 1  2643.3 kj

P1  P4  5 bar  5  10 5 N 2 Wd compressor  h2  h1  134.8 kj

Q. A vapour compression cycle working be-

S wc1  S f 1  X 1S fg 1  0.59  360  2.5370  300

h1  hwct1  h f 1  X 1h fg 1  1884 .25  h2  535 kj h  h  360 kj 

h1  260  2.520  200

h4  h3  h f 3  110 kj 4  1  Isothermal compression

Drawback of Cornot Cycle :

hf3 = h3 = 29.3 kj/kg

3600 Swet2 = Sf2 + X2 Sfg2

Solution : Rankine cycle : since work ratio is

Q : A rankine cycle working between 2 pr. limit Sfg2 = 7.0766 kj/kgk