CHAPTER

5 Air Standard
Cycle
 Review – Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle was introduced as the most efficient heat engine that
operate between two fixed temperatures TH and TL. The thermal
efficiency of Carnot cycle is given by

TL
 th , Carnot  1
TH

Upon derivation the performance of the real cycle is often measured in

terms of its thermal efficiency

Wnet
 th 
Qin

2
 Review – Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas equation is defined as

Pv  RT or PV  mRT

where P = pressure in kPa

v = specific volume in m3/kg (or V = volume in
m3)
R = ideal gas constant in kJ/kg.K
m = mass in kg
T = temperature in K

3 3
The Δu and Δh of ideal gases can be expressed as

u  u 2  u1  C v (T2  T1 )

h  h2  h1  C P (T2  T1 )

Δu - constant volume process

Δh - constant pressure process

4
 Review – Thermodynamics Processes

 According to a law of P V n  constant

Process Description Result of IGL

P1 P2
isochoric constant volume (V1 = V2) 
T1 T2
V1 V2
isobaric constant pressure (P1 = P2) 
T1 T2
constant temperature
isothermal (T1 = T2) P1V1  P2V2
n
polytropic -none- n
P1  V2   T1  n 1
     
isentropic constant entropy (S1 = S2) P2  V1   T2 

5
 Review – Properties of Air

R = 0.2871 kJ/kg.K
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
k = 1.4

where R = ideal gas constant

Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = specific heat at constant volume
k = specific heat ratio
6
 Introduction

 IC Engine – combustion of fuel takes place inside an engine’s cylinder.

7
 Air-Standard Assumptions

 Air continuously circulates in a closed loop.

 Always behaves as an ideal gas.
 All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process
from an external source.

8
 Air-Standard Assumptions

 A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial
state replaces the exhaust process.
 The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is
air and has constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature
(25oC or 77oF).
 No chemical reaction takes place in the engine.

9
 Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

 Top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore,
intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume, displacement
volume, compression ratio, and mean effective pressure

10
 The compression ratio r of an engine
is defined as

V max VBDC
r 
V min VTDC

 The mean effective pressure (MEP)

is a fictitious pressure that, if it
operated on the piston during the
entire power stroke, would produce
the same amount of net work as that
produced during the actual cycle. Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin
11
 Otto Cycle
The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

12
 The processes in the Otto cycle are as per following:

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

P 3 T 3
Pvg=Constant Qin

Qin

4 2
2 4
Qout

1 1 Qout

v2 v1 v s
(a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram 13
 Related formula based on basic thermodynamics:

n
n
P1  V2  T  n 1
     1 
P2  V1   T2 

Qin  mCv T3  T2 

n
n
P1  V2   T1  n 1
     
P2  V1   T2 

Qout  mCv T4  T1 

14
 Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle:

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin

 Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet ,23  Wnet ,23  U 23

3
Wnet ,23  Wother ,23  Wb ,23  0   PdV  0
2

 Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
15
  Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.
Qnet ,41  Wnet ,41  U 41
1
Wnet ,41  Wother ,41  Wb ,41  0   PdV  0
4
 Thus, for constant specific heats,
Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )

 The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Otto  1 
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mCv (T3  T2 ) 16
 ( T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
 Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
k 1 k 1
T2  V1  T3  V4 
  and  
T1  V2  T4  V3 

 Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1,

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2

17
 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes

T1
 th , Otto  1 
T2

 Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

k 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 
k 1 k 1
T1  V2  1
   
T2  V1  r

 where the compression ratio is

r = V1/V2 and

1
 th , Otto  1 
r k 1 18
 Example 5.1

An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working
fluid. Initially P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17°C, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the
heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are added. Determine all T's, P's, th,
the back work ratio and the mean effective pressure.

Solution:
Data given:
T1  290 K
V1
9
V2
Q23  7.5 kJ
P1  95 kPa
V1  3.8 Litres
19
Example 5.1
Pr ocess 1  2 isentropic compression 
k 1
T2  V1 
 T2  290 9 
0.4
   698.4 K
T1  V2 
k 1
P2  V1 
 P2  95 9   2059kPa
1.4
 
P1  V2 
Pr ocess 2  3 Const. volume heat addition 
st 0
1 law : Qnet  Wnet  U
Q23  mCv T3  T2 
0.2871 290  3
IGL : Pv
1 1  RT1  v1   0.875 mkg
95
Q23 v1
q23   Q23  1727 kJ
kg
m V1 20
Example 5.1

Back to IGL : ButV3  V2

P3 P2
q23  Cv T3  T2  
T3 T2
 0.718 T3  698.4  P3  9.15 MPa
T3  3103.7 K
Pr ocess 3  4 isentropic exp ansion 
k 1
T4  V3 
 T4  T3 1/ 9 
0.4
   1288.8 K
T3  V4 
k
P4  V3 
 P4  P3 1/ 9   422 kPa
1.4
 
P3  V4 

21
 Example 5.1

Pr ocess 4  1Const. volume heat rejection 

Q41  mCv T4  T1 
q41  Cv T4  T1 
 0.718 1288.8  290 
 717.1 kJ
kg

Then:
Wnet  qin  qout
 q23  q41
 1009.6 kJ
kg

Wnet
th ,Otto   0.585 58.5% 
qin
22
 Example 5.1

What else?

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin
wnet wnet
 
v1  v2 v1 1  v2 / v1 
wnet 1009.6
   1298 kPa
v1 1  r  0.875 1  1/ 9 
1

wcompr u12 Cv T2  T1 

rbw   
wexp ans u34 Cv T3  T4 
 0.225  22.5% 

23
 Supplementary Problems 5.1

1. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the

compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is
transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition process. Taking
into account the variation of specific heats with temperature, determine (a) the
pressure and temperature at the end of the heat addition process, (b) the net
work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for
the cycle.
[(a) 3898 kPa, 1539 K, (b) 392.4 kJ/kg, (c) 52.3 percent,(d ) 495 kPa]

2. The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the

isentropic compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35°C, and 600 cm 3. The
temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion process is 800 K. Using
specific heat values at room temperature, determine (a) the highest
temperature and pressure in the cycle; (b) the amount of heat transferred in,
in kJ; (c) the thermal efficiency; and (d) the mean effective pressure.
[(a) 1969 K, 6072 kPa,(b) 0.59 kJ, (c) 59.4 percent, (d) 652 kPa]

24
 Diesel Cycle

 The processes in the Diesel cycle are as per following:

25
 Diesel Cycle

v1 v3
 Compressio n ratio, rv and  Cut  off ratio, rc
v2 v2

26
 Related formula based on basic thermodynamics:

n
n
P1  V2  T  n 1
     1 
P2  V1   T2 

Qin  mCP T3  T2 

n
n
P1  V2  T  n 1
     1 
P2  V1   T2 

Qout  mCv T4  T1 

27
 Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle

Wnet Q
 th , Diesel   1  out
Qin Qin
 Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.
Qnet ,23  Wnet ,23  U 23
3
Wnet ,23  Wother ,23  Wb ,23  0   PdV  0
2

 P2 V3  V2 
 Thus, for constant specific heats
Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR ( T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 )
28
 Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant
Qnet ,41  Wnet ,41  U 41
1
Wnet ,41  Wother ,41  Wb ,41  0   PdV  0
4

 Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )

 The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Diesel  1 
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 ) 29
 PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
T4 P4

T1 P1

 Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

k k k k
PV
1 1  PV
2 2 and PV
4 4  PV
3 3

 Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by

the first equation and obtain
k
P4  V3 
    rc k
T4  V2 
 Therefore,
1 rc k  1
th , Diesel  1 
r k 1 k  rc  1
30
 Example 5.2

An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cut-off

ratio of 2.5. The state at the beginning of compression is fixed by P = 0.9
bar ant T = 300K. Calculate:
i. the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
ii. the maximum pressure, Pmax, and
iii. The mean effective pressure.

Solution:
Data given:

V1
 18
V2
V3
 2.5
V2
31
Example 5.2

Pr ocess 1  2 isentropic compression 

k 1
T2  V1 
 T2  300 18 
0.4
   953.3K
T1  V2 
Pr ocess 2  3 Const. pressure heat addition 

V2 V3  V3 
P2  P3    T3  T2    2383.3 K
T2 T3  V2 
Pr ocess 3  4 isentropic exp ansion 
V4 V1 V2
 .  18 1 / 2.5   7.2
V3 V2 V3
k 1
T4  V3 
 T4  2383.3 1/ 7.2 
0.4
   1082 K
T3  V4 
32
 Example 5.2

Qin  Q23  mCP T3  T2   qin  C p T3  T2   1437.15 kJ

kg

Qout  Q41  mC P T4  T1   qout  C p T4  T1   561.48 kJ

kg

wnet  qin  qout  875.67 kJ

kg

What we need?
wnet
i th,diesel   0.6093  60.93% 
qin
ii  Pmax  P2  P3
k 1
 P2   T2  k
      P2  5148 kPa  Pmax 
 P1   T1 
wnet 875.67
iii  MEP    969.1 kPa
V1 1  1/ r  0.9566 1  1/18 
33
 Supplementary Problems 5.2

1. An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as the
working fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the compression process is
95 kPa and 20°C. If the maximum temperature in the cycle is not to exceed
2200 K, determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective
pressure. Assume constant specific heats for air at room temperature.
[ (a) 63.5 percent, (b) 933 kPa]

2. An ideal diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 to 1. The maximum cycle

temperature is 1700C and the minimum cycle temperature is 15C. Calculate:
i. the specific heat transfer to the cycle
ii. the specific work of the cycle
iii. the thermal efficiency of the cycle

34
 Dual Cycle

 Dual cycle gives a better approximation to a real engine. The heat

addition process is partly done at a constant volume and partly at constant
pressure. From the P-v diagram, it looks like the heat addition process is a
combination of both Otto and Diesel cycles.
35
 Dual Cycle

 The same procedure as to Otto and Diesel cycles can be applied to Dual
cycle. Upon substitutions, the thermal efficiency of Dual cycle becomes

rp rck  1
 th  1 
r p 
 1  k c p rc  1 rvk 1
36
 Example 5.3

At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard dual

cycle with a compression ratio of 18, the temperature is 300 K and the
pressure is 1 bar. The pressure ratio for the constant volume part of the
heating process is 1.5 to 1. The volume ratio for the constant pressure
part of the heating process is 1.2 to 1. Determine (a) the thermal
efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure. (WRONG
SOLUTION!!)
Solution:
Data given:

V1 P1
 18  1.5
V2 P2
V4
T1  300 K  1.2
V3
P1  1bar
37
Pr ocess 1  2 isentropic compression 
k 1
T2  V1 
 T2  300 18 
0.4
   953.3K
T1  V2 
Pr ocess 2  3 Const. pressure heat addition 

V2 V3  V3 
P2  P3    T3  T2    2383.3 K
T2 T3  V2 
Pr ocess 3  4 isentropic exp ansion 
V4 V1 V2
 .  18 1 / 2.5   7.2
V3 V2 V3
k 1
T4  V3 
 T4  2383.3 1/ 7.2 
0.4
   1082 K
T3  V4 
38
 Pr ocess 4  5 isentropic exp ansion 
k 1 k 1 k 1
T5  V4   V4   V4   V3  
   T5  T4    T4     
T4  V5   V5   V3   V5  
0.4
 1715.94 1.2   1
18 
 584.85K
Information needed?

Qout  Q51  mCv T5  T1   204.52 kJ

kg

Qin  Q23  Q34  mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3 

 629.65 kJ
kg

39
 Answer the questions ?

Wnet Qin  Qout Qout 204.52

  th
a     1   1   0.675 67.5% 
Qin Qin Qin 629.65
Wnet
b  MEP 
v1 1  1r 
425.13

0.8613 1  181 
 522.63 kPa

40
 Criteria of Performance

 Indicated power (IP)

 Brake power (bp)
 Friction power (fp) and mechanical efficiency, m
 Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal efficiency
and fuel consumption
 Volumetric efficiency, v

41
 Indicated Power
 Defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the piston as
evaluated from an indicator diagram obtained from the engine using
the electronic engine indicator.

ip = work done per cycle × cycle per minute

 For four-stroke engine,

pi LANn
IP 
2
 And for two-stroke engine, n is the number of cylinders.

IP  pi LANn

42
 Indicated Power

 Indicated mean effective pressure, pi given by:,

net area of diagram work done per cycle

pi   constant pi 
length of diagram displacement volume

 For one engine cylinder

Work done per cycle = pi  A  L
Where A = area of piston
L = length of stroke

 Power output = (work done per cycle) x (cycle per minute)

ip  Pi AL  cycle per unit time

 For four-stoke engines, the number of cycles per unit time is N/2
and for two-stroke engines the number of cycles per unit time is N,
where N is the engine speed. 43
 Brake Power

 Brake power is a way to measure the engine power output.

 The engine is connected to a brake (or dynamometer) which can be

loaded so that the torque exerted by the engine can be measured.

 The torque is obtained by reading off a net load, w at known radius, r.

  Wr

44
 Therefore

bp  2N
 Brake power is also can be expressed as

 m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp   m IP  
2 2
 Then the brake mean effective pressure (Pb) is

Pb   m Pi

45
 Friction Power

The difference between the Ip and bp is the friction power (fp). It

is the power that overcome the frictional resistance of the engine
parts.
fp  IP  bp
46
 Mechanical Efficiency

 Power input to the shaft is usually bigger than the indicated

power due to frictional losses or the mechanical efficiency.

brake power
 mech 
indicated power

47
m
Brake Mean Effective Pressure

 From the definition of Brake power BP   m IP

 Since pi LANn for 4 stroke engine and  m pi LANn Pb LANn

IP  bp  
2 2 2

 Since  m and Pi are difficult to obtain, they may be combined and replaced by a
brake mean effective pressure, Pb

Equating this equation to another definition of bp: Pb LANn


 2NT
2
4
 So: Pb  T
LAn
 Its observed that bmep is proportional to torque.

48
m
Brake Thermal Efficiency

 The power output of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of the fuel
supplied. The overall engine efficiency is given by the brake thermal efficiency,

brake power brake power bp bp

bp    
power given fuel equivalent power Pfe m f Qnet ,v

 mf = mass flow fuel , Qnet,v = net calarofic value of the fuel.

49
 Specific Fuel Consumption

 sfc is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power output and is
a criterion of economical power production.

m f
sfc 
bp

50
 Volumetric Efficiency

 The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an engine’s

induction process is the volumetric efficiency.

 Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle engine,

which have a distinct induction process.

V
V 
Vs

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 Example 5.4

An engine operating at 2400 rpm consumes 12 ml of fuel (s.g. 0.85) in 60 second.

The engine indicates a load of 30 N on the pony brake system and the brake’s
torque arm is 20 cm. Determine (a) the brake power, (b) the mass flow rate of
fuel, and (c) the specific fuel consumption.

Solution:

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 Example 5.4

A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90 mm. Its

rated speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this speed against a brake which has a
torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N and the fuel consumption is
6.741 l/h. The specific gravity of the petrol used is 0.735 and it has a net calorific
value of 44,200 kJ/kg. The engine is tested in an atmospheric condition at 101.325
kPa and 15 oC at air-fuel ratio of 14.5/1. Calculate for this speed, the engine
torque, the bmep, the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption and
the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

Solution:

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Real Case

pi LANn
IP 
2

bp  2N

54