Chapter 9

GAS POWER SYSTEM

Objective:
Study power systems utilizing working fluids that are always a gas.

9.1 Internal Combustion Engines

Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (control mass analysis):

a. The spark-ignition engine: Ignitions by a spark plug (SI Engine).
b. The compression-ignition engine: Ignition by compression (CI Engine)

9.1.1 Actual Cycle

Nomenclature for reciprocating piston–cylinder engines:

a. Piston
b. Cylinder
c. Intake & Exhaust Valve
d. Spark plug or fuel injector
e. Connecting rod
f. Crank shaft
g. Stroke
h. Bore
i. Displacement volume (VL)
j. Clearance volume (Vs)
k. Top Dead Center (TDC)
l. Bottom Dead Center (BDC)

Compression Ratio:
Total Volume V  VS VT
r  L   8  10 (for SI engine) and 15 - 25 (for CI engine)
Clearance Volume VS VS

Four-stroke internal combustion engine:

The piston executes four distinct strokes within the cylinder for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft.

Indicator diagram: Piston Movement:

a. intake stroke : TDC - BDC : 0o – 180o
b. compression stroke: BDC – TDC : 180o – 360o
c. power stroke: TDC - BDC : 360o – 540o
d. exhaust stroke: BDC – TDC : 540o – 720o
 Fig 9.1 Pressure–volume diagram for four-stroke reciprocating internal combustion engine

Although internal combustion engines undergo mechanical cycles, the cylinder contents
do not execute a thermodynamic cycle.

The performance parameter: Mean Effective Pressure (mep)

net work for one cycle (area enclosure p - V curve) Wcycles (9.1)
mep  
displacement volume VT  VS

For two engines of equal displacement volume, the one with a higher mean effective
pressure would produce the greater net work and, if the engines run at the same speed,
greater power.

9.1.2 Air-Standard Analysis

Assumes:
a. A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the working fluid.
b. The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer from an external source.
c. There are no exhaust and intake processes as in an actual engine. The cycle is
completed by a constant-volume heat transfer process taking place while the
piston is at the bottom dead center position.
d. All processes are internally reversible.
e. In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are assumed constant at their
ambient temperature values.

Three air-standard cycle idealizations:

a. Otto Cycle ( constant volume),
b. Diesel Cycle ( constant pressure),
c. Dual Cycle (limited pressure)
9.1.2.1 Air-Standard Otto Cycle:

The air-standard Otto cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes the heat addition occurs
instantaneously while the piston is at top dead center.

p-v:
 a-2-1-b: the work input
 a-3-4-b: the work done

T-s:
 b-2-3-a: the heat added
 b-1-4-a: the heat rejected

The enclosed area of each figure:

the net work output = the net heat added.

The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes in series (2s-2v):

1-2: Isentropic compression: Q12 = 0, W12 = m (u2 – u1)
2-3: Constant-volume, heat transfer to the air: W23 = 0, Q23 = m (u3 – u2)
3-4: Isentropic expansion (power stroke) : Q34 = 0, W34 = m (u3 – u4)
4-1: Constant-volume, heat is rejected from the air: W41 = 0, Q41 = m (u4 – u1)

Cycle Analysis

Expressions for these energy transfers are obtained by reducing the closed system energy
balance assuming that changes in kinetic and potential energy can be ignored.
 Nett Work cycle:
Wcycles = W34 – W12 = m [(u3 – u4) - (u2 – u1)] (9.2)
= Q23 – Q41 = m [(u3 – u2) - (u4 – u1)] (9.3)

 Efficiency:
Wcycles (u 3  u 2 )  (u 4  u1 ) (u  u )
  1 4 1 (9.4)
Q23 (u 3  u 2 ) (u 3  u 2 )
When air table data are used to conduct an analysis involving an air-standard Otto cycle,
the specific internal energy values can be obtained from Table A-22 or A-22E as
appropriate.

For the isentropic processes 1–2 and 3–4:

V  v (9.5)
v r 2  v r1  2   r1
 V1  r
V 
v r 4  v r 3  4   v r 3 .r (9.6)
 V3 
Where : r = V1/V2 = V4/V3 = compression ratio
The parameter vr is tabulated versus temperature for air in Tables A-22.
The value of Pressure, can be achieved from ideal gas equation and pressure ratio as
follows:
 For the isentropic processes 1–2 :
T V p 
p2  p1 2 1 or, p2  p1  r 2  (9.7)
T1  V2  pr 1 
 For the isochoric processes 2–3 and 4–1:
T 
p3  p2  3  (9.8)
 T2 
T  p 
p4  p1  4  or , p4  p3  r 4  (9.9)
 T1   pr 3 
In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are assumed constant at their ambient
temperature values:
k 1
T2 V 
For compression:   1   r k 1 (9.10)
T1  V2 
k 1
T4  V3  1
For expansion:    (9.11)
T3  V4  r k 1

where : T4/T3 = T1/T2, then T4/T1 = T3/T2

and k is the specific heat ratio, k = cp/cv

Effect of Compression Ratio on Performance

(For the cold air-standard Otto cycle, k = 1,4):

c v (T4  T1 ) T  T4 / T1  1  T 1
 1 1 1    1  1  1  k 1 (9.12)
c v (T3  T2 ) T2  T3 / T2  1  T2 r
cv = constant

This equation indicates that the cold air-standard Otto

cycle thermal efficiency is a function of compression ratio
and specific heat ratio. The possibility of autoignition, or
“knock,” places an upper limit on the compression ratio
of spark-ignition engines

mep can be achieved from:

Wcycles Wcycle Wcycles Wcycles / m
mep     (9.13)
V1  V2  V   1  1
V1 1  2  V1 1   v1 1  
 V1   r  r

Mass can be find by:

p1V1
m (9.14)
( R / M )T1
9.1.2.2 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle:
The air-standard Diesel cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes the heat addition occurs
during a constant-pressure process that starts with the piston at top dead center.

p-v:
 a-2-1-b: the work input
 a-2-3-4-b: the work done

T-s:
 b-2-3-a: the heat added
 b-1-4-a: the heat rejected

The enclosed area of each figure:

the net work output = the net heat added.

The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes in series (2s-1p-1v):

1-2: Isentropic compression: Q12 = 0, W12 = m (u2 – u1)

2-3: Constant-pressure, heat transfer to the air: W23 = p2 (v3 – v2), Q23 = m (h3 – h2)
3-4: Isentropic expansion (power stroke): Q34 = 0, W34 = m (u3 – u4)
4-1: Constant-volume, heat is rejected from the air: W41 = 0, Q41 = m (u4 – u1)

Process 2–3 involves both work and heat:

 The work is given by (isobaric process):
3 (9.15)
W  p dv  p (  )
23
 v v 2 3 2
m 2
 The heat added can be found by applying the closed system energy balance:

m (u 3  u2 )Q  W 23 (9.16)
23

then,
Q
( u u )  p (v  v )
23
3 2 3 2
m (9.17)
( u  pv )  ( u  pv )
3 3 2 2

 h h 3 2

The equation of 1-2, 3-4 and 4-1 processes, same as the Otto cycle.

Nett work cycles:

Wcycles = W23 + W34 – W12 = m [(p2(v3 – v2) + (u3 - u4) – (u2 - u1)]
=Q23 – Q41 = m [(h3 - h2) – (u4 – u1)] (9.18)

Wcycles Q23  Q41 Q u u

Efficiency:    1  41  1  4 1 (9.19)
Q23 Q23 Q23 h3  h2
To evaluate the net work cycle and the thermal efficiency requires values for u and h
from table A-22. Furthermore the values of temperature are needed. Let us consider next
how these temperatures are evaluated.

For a given initial temperature T1 and compression ratio r, the temperature at state 2 can
be found using the following isentropic relationship and vr data:
 V 2  v r1
v r 2  v r1    (9.20)
 V1  r
The pressure can be evaluated by:
T V p 
p2  p1 2 1 or p 2  p1  r 2  (9.21)
T1  V2  pr 1 

To find T3, note that the ideal gas equation of state reduces with p3 = p2, to give
V3
T3  T 2  rc T 2 (9.22)
V2

where rc = V3/V2 called the cutoff ratio, has been introduced.

Since V4 = V1, the volume ratio for the isentropic process 3–4 can be expressed as
V 4
 V V
4 2
 V V
1 2

r ; (9.23)
V 3 V V
2 3 V V
2 3 r c

Then:
  r
v  vr3  V 4   vr 3 (9.24)
r4  
 V 3  rc
In a cold air-standard analysis, the appropriate expression for evaluating T4 is provided
by:
k 1
T 2  V 1 
   r k -1 (9.25)
T1  V 2 
The temperature T4 is found similarly from:
k 1 k 1
T 4   V 3   
    rc  (9.26)
T3 V 4  r 
 

Effect of Compression Ratio on Performance

On a cold air-standard basis, the thermal efficiency of diesel cycle can be expressed as
1  k 1 
  1  k 1  r c  (9.27)
r  k r c  1 

where, r = V1/V2 = compression ratio

rc = V3/V2 = cut-off ratio
9.2 Gas Turbine: Brayton Cycle

Air-standard analysis:
assumptions:
a. The working fluid is air, which behaves as an ideal gas.
b. The temperature rise that would be brought about by combustion is accomplished by
a heat transfer from an external source.

Fig 9.2 Simple Gas Turbine: (a) open atmosphere (b) closed

The cycle consists of four processes in series (2p-2s):

1-2: isentropic compression: Q12  0, W12  m (h2  h1 )  W k
2-3: constant-pressure, heat transfer to the air: W 23  0, Q 23  m (h3  h2 )  Q in
3-4: Isentropic expansion: Q 34  0, W 34  m (h3  h4 )  W t
4-1: constant-pressure, heat is rejected from the air: W  0, Q  m (h  h )  Q
41 41 4 1 out

The thermal efficiency of the cycle:

Wt / m  Wc / m (h3  h4 )  ( h2  h1 ) (9.28)
 
Q in / m ( h3  h2 )

The back work ratio for the cycle is

Wc / m h2  h1 (9.29)
bwr  
Wt / m h3  h4
Effect of Pressure Ratio on Performance

On a cold air-standard basis: 1 (9.30)

 1 k 1
 p2  k
 
 p1 

Irreversibility and losses for the simple Brayton cycle:

Fig 9.3 Effects of irreversibilities on the air-standard gas turbine

The losses caused by pressure drop at 2-3 and 4-1 processes can be ignored.
Turbine isentropic efficiency:
W / m h h (9.31)
ts  t  3 4

Wts / m h3  h4 s
Compressor isentropic efficiency:
W / m h2 s  h1 (9.32)
cs  cs 
W c / m h2  h1

Regenerative Gas Turbine

Fig 9.4 Regenerative air-standard gas turbine

The heat added per unit of mass: Q in / m  h3  hx (9.33)

hx  h2
The regenerator effectiveness is:  reg  (9.34)
h4  h2