Group Theory

Shubham
June 25, 2021

1 Group and Subgroups 2 Cyclic Groups

1.1 Groups 2.1 Theorem 1
Set S under binary operation ∗ is a group if If |a| infinite then ai = aj ⇐⇒ i = j

If |a| = n then < a >= {e, a, a2 , ...., an−1 }

• Closure under ∗ holds and ai = aj ⇐⇒ n|(i − j)
• |a| = | < a > |
• Associative under ∗ holds
• ak = e implies o(a) | k
• Identity under ∗ exists

• Inverse under ∗ exists 2.2 Theorem 2

If o(a) = n then for any k > 0 we have
• Additional If commutative under ∗ holds then n
< ak >=< agcd(n,k) > and o(ak ) = gcd(n,k)
its Abelian group
• < ak >=< aj > ⇐⇒ gcd(n, k) = gcd(n, j)
imp example : Special Linear groups of Matrices o(ak ) = o(aj ) ⇐⇒ gcd(n, k) = gcd(n, j)
• < a >=< aj > ⇐⇒ gcd(n, j) = 1
1.2 Theorems o(a) = o(aj ) ⇐⇒ gcd(n, j) = 1
1. Uniqueness of Identity and Inverse • Generators of Zn are k ⇐⇒ gcd(n, k) = 1

2. Cancellation (lef t and right) 2.3 Theorem 3

3. Sock Shoes Property (ab)−1 = (b−1 a−1 ) o(subgroups of < a >) divides o(< a >)

for k > 0 k < n k ∈ Z k | n there exist a

1.3 Subgroups n
unique subgroup of order k namely < a k >
S ⊂ G , S 6= φ is subgroup of G if it a group under • Unique subgroup of order k of Zn are < n|k >
same operation of G.
Tests 2.4 Theorem 4
−1
1. one-step group for a, b ∈ S ab ∈S Euler Phi φ(d) = {x ∈ Z | gcd(x, d) = 1 x < d}

2. two-step group for a, b ∈ S ab ∈ S and • φ(mn) = φ(m)φ(n)

b−1 ∈ S • φ(pn ) = pn − pn−1 p is prime
3. Finite step group G is group S is finite then The no of elements of order d in cyclic group is
S is subgroup if it is closed under operation φ(d) and d | o(cyclicgroup)
of G.
The no of elements of order d in finite group is
Some Results multiple of φ(d)

1
3 Cosets 4.2.1 H and K are finite subgroups of
Group then
H 6= ∅, H < G , G is a group. |H| |K|
Then the cosets of H in G are : − HK = {hk|h ∈ H k ∈ K} and |HK| = |H∩K|

for any a ∈ G
5 Normal Groups
aH = {ah|h ∈ H}
Ha = {ha|h ∈ H} Def H E G ⇐⇒ aH = Ha ∀a ∈ G , H < G
aHa−1 = {aha−1 |h ∈ H} Test H E G ⇐⇒ xHx−1 ⊆ H ∀x ∈ G
1. Subgroups of abelian group are normal.
3.1 Properties
2. Normal subgroups are not abelian generally.
1. aH = H ⇐⇒ a ∈ H
3. Z(G) normal in G.
2. a ∈ aH
4. An normal in Sn
3. (ab)H = a(bH) same for Right coset.
5. H < G and H is unique in G then H E G
4. aH = bH

• ⇐⇒ a ∈ bH 6 Factor Groups
• ⇐⇒ a −1
b∈H
Killing H as H acting as Identity.
5. |aH| = |bH| = |H|
G
If H E G then factor group is H = {aH|∀a ∈ G}
6. Either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ∅ under operation (aH)(bH) = (abH) for a, b ∈ G
7. aH < G ⇐⇒ a ∈ H

8. aH = Ha ⇐⇒ aHa−1 = H

4 Lagrange’s Theorem
{”Bramhastra of Group T heory ”}

4.1 Statement
If G is finite and H < G then |H| divides |G|,
moreover the no of distinct left(or right) cosets of
H in G are |G|
|H|

The Converse is not true

4.2 Corollary
|G|
1. If G is finite then |G : H| = |H|

2. If G is finite then for a ∈ G o(a) | o(G)

3. If G is finite then for a ∈ G a|G| = e

4. Group of prime order are cyclic

5. Fermat Little Theorem

for any a ∈ Z, p is prime the
ap mod p = a mod p

2
7 Results
7.0.1 Lagrange’s theorem
1. Total no of Left cosets of Infinite Group eg
nZ in Z is n − 1.
2. If H < G K < G then g(H ∩ K) = gH ∩ gK

3. If |G| = pq p,q primes then every H (H < G)

is cyclic.
4. order of U (n) is even n > 2
5.

3
8 Homomorphism
9 Isomorphism