A study on Group Theory: Basic Concepts and Examples

Aung Chan Min

July 2023
Term paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
in Mathematics of University of Mandalay.
Introduction to Group Theory: Basic
Concepts and Examples
Abstract

Group theory is a fundamental branch of mathematics that studies the algebraic structures
known as groups. This term paper provides an introduction to the key concepts of group theory,
exploring its basic definitions, properties, and examples. By understanding the fundamental
principles of group theory, we lay the foundation for further exploration into more advanced topics
in algebra and other fields. This paper aims to provide a clear and accessible introduction to group
theory, enabling readers to grasp the essential concepts and applications of this fundamental
branch of mathematics.

Introduction
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1 Preliminary
1.1 Definition
We say a set A is a subset of set B and write A ⊂ B iff every element of A is in B.

1.2 Definition
We say a set A is equal to a set B and write A = B iff A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

1.3 Definition
A mapping f : S → T is said to be one-to-one (write 1-1) or injective if for s1 =
̸ s2 in S,

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f (s1 ) ̸= F (s2 ) in T .
Equivalently, f is 1-1 if f (s1 ) = F (s2 ) implies that s1 = s2

1.4 Definition
A mapping f : S → T is said to be onto or surjective if and only if for any t ∈ T , there exists
an s ∈ S such that t = f (s).

1.5 Definition
A mapping f : S → T is said to be 1-1 correspondence or bijective if and only if f is both 1-1
and onto.

1.6 Definition
A mapping f : A → B is well-defined if a = b in A implies f (a) = f (b) in B.

1.7 Definition: divide

Suppose a and b are integers and b is not zero. If there is an integer c such that a = bc, then we say
a divides b and write a|b.
find references for each definition in this section

2 Definition and Basic Properties of Groups

2.1 Definition
A nonempty set G is said to be a group if in G there is defined an operation ∗ such that:

(a) a, b ∈ G implies that a ∗ b ∈ G. (We describe this by saying that G is closed under ∗.)

(b) Given a, b, c ∈ G, then a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c. (This is described by saying that the associative

law holds in G.)

(c) There exists a special element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ G (e is called the
identity or unit element of G).

(d) For every a ∈ G there exists an element b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e. (We write this element
b as a−1 and call it the inverse of a in G.)

Note that a set containing exactly only the identity element forms a group. e.g. {1} forms a
group under multiplication and {0} forms a group under addition.

2.2 Properties of a group

If G is a group, then:

1. Its identity element is unique.

2. Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse a−1 ∈ G.

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 3. If a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a

4. For a, b ∈ G, (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1

5. If a, b, c ∈ G and a ∗ b = a ∗ c, then b = c.

6. If a, b, c ∈ G and b ∗ a = c ∗ a, then b = c.

3 Homomorphism
3.1 Definition
Let G be a group under the operation ∗ and G′ the group under the operation ◦; then the mapping
φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism if φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) for all a, b ∈ G.

3.2 Properties of Homomorphism

If φ is a homomorphism of G into G′ , then

(a) φ(e) = e′ , where e is the unit element of G and e′ is the unit element of G′ .

(b) φ(a−1 ) = φ(a)−1 for all a ∈ G.

3.3 Definition
If φ is a homomorphism of G into G′ and e′ is the identity element of group G′ , then the kernel of
φ is defined by ker φ = {x ∈ G|φ(x) = e′ }

4 Isomorphism
4.1 Definition
Let G be a group under the operation ∗ and G′ the group under the operation ◦; then the mapping
φ : G → G′ is a isomorphism if φ is bijective(both 1-1 and onto) and φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) for all
a, b ∈ G.
In other words, a bijective homomorphism is called isomorphism.

4.2 Definition: Isomorphic

Two groups G and H are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism of G onto H.
We shall denote that G and H are isomorphic by writing G ≃ H.

5 Subgroups
5.1 Definition
A nonempty subset, H, of a group G is called a subgroup of G if, relative to the product in G, H
itself forms a group.

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 Every group G automatically has two obvious subgroups, G itself and {e}. These two subgroups
are called trivial subgroups. The remaining ones are called proper subgroups. [1]
In some books, you may find only {e} is called the trivial subgroup. [2]

5.2 Examples and Non-Examples of Subgroups

5.3 Lemma
A nonempty subset A ⊂ G is subgroup of G if and only if A is closed with respect to the operation
of G and, given a ∈ A, then a−1 ∈ A.

6 Coset
6.1 Definition
Let G be a group under ∗ and H be a subgroup of G. If a ∈ G, then the set aH = {a ∗ h|h ∈ H} is
called the left coset of H and the set Ha = {h ∗ a|h ∈ H} is called the right coset of H.
Not all cosets are subgroups. show with examples

6.2 Lemma
Let G be a group under ∗ and H be a subgroup of G.
If a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, then Ha = Hb.
If b−1 ∗ a ∈ H, then aH = bH. [2][6.1, page 95]

a ∗ b−1 ∈ H Then (a ∗ b−1 )−1 = b ∗ a−1 ∈ H

Let x ∈ Ha Let y ∈ Hb
x = h1 ∗ a where h1 ∈ H y = h2 ∗ b where h2 ∈ H
−1 −1 −1
x∗b = h1 ∗ a ∗ b y∗a = h2 ∗ b ∗ a−1
Since h1 ∈ H and a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, Since h2 ∈ H and b ∗ a−1 ∈ H,
h1 ∗ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H h2 ∗ b ∗ a−1 ∈ H
x ∗ b−1 ∈ H y ∗ a−1 ∈ H
x ∈ Hb y ∈ Ha
Ha ⊂ Hb Hb ⊂ Ha

a ∗ b−1 ∈ H implies that Ha = Hb

Should I add proof for second one?
Not all left cosets the same right cosets prove aN = N if and only if a ∈ N

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7 Normal Subgroups
7.1 Definition
The subgroup N of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if a−1 N a ⊂ N for every a ∈ G.

If G is a group under ∗ and N is a normal subgroup of G.

Then a−1 N a ⊂ N for every a ∈ G
∴ (a−1 )−1 N a−1 ⊂ N
a−1 ((a−1 )−1 N a−1 )a ⊂ a−1 N a
N ⊂ a−1 N a
a−1 N a = N

Although we defined a normal subgroup via a−1 N a ⊂ N , we actually have a−1 N a = N . Note
that a−1 N a = N does not mean that a−1 na = n for every n ∈ N .It means that the set of all
a−1 ∗ n ∗ a is the same as the set of all n.
a−1 N a = N is equivalent to N a = aN . Hence we can restate the definition of normal subgroup
as follows.

7.2 Definition
A subgroup H of a group G is normal in G if gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. That is, a normal subgroup
of a group G is one in which the right and left cosets are precisely the same.[2]
N ◁ G if and only if every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in G.[1][Theorem2.5.6]
should choose only one

7.3 Every kernel forms normal subgroup

Suppose G is a group under ⋄ and G′ is a group under ♠
Let φ be a homomorphism of G into G′ .
Then φ(a ⋄ b) = φ(a)♠φ(b)
Let K be the kernel of φ.

Let x ∈ a−1 Ka, where a ∈ G

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Then there exists k in K such that x = a−1 ⋄ k ⋄ a

φ(x) = φ(a−1 ⋄ (k ⋄ a))

φ(x) = φ(a−1 )♠φ(k ⋄ a)
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠(φ(k)♠φ(a))
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠(e′ ♠φ(a))
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠φ(a)
φ(x) = e′
x∈K
−1
a Ka ⊂ K
K ◁G

8 Factor Groups or Quotient Groups

8.1 Definition
If G is a group under ∗ and N is a normal subgroup of G, then the cosets of N forms a group under
the operation N a ⋄ N b = N (a ∗ b). This group is called factor group or quotient group of G by
N and is denoted by G/N .

9 Homomorphism Theorems
9.1 First Homomorphism Theorem
Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K. Then G′ ≃ G/K, the isomorphism
between these being effected by the map ψ : G/K → G′ defined by ψ(Ka) = φ(a).

Proof. Let G be a group under ∗ and e be the identity element of G.

Let G′ be a group under ◦ and e′ be the identity element of G′ .
Then, since φ is a homomorphism of G onto G′ , φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b)
K = ker φ = {g ∈ G|φ(g) = e′ } is a normal subgroup of G.
Hence G/K = {Ka|a ∈ G} forms a group under the operation ⋄, where Ka ⋄ Kb = K(a ∗ b)

Define ψ : G/K → G′ by ψ(Ka) = φ(a) for a ∈ G.

First of all, we shall show that ψ is well defined.

Suppose Ka = Kb, where Ka, Kb ∈ G/K
Since φ is homomorphism, φ(e) = e′ . Hence e ∈ K
Since K is normal subgroup of G, e ∈ K Choose only one line
Hence e ∗ a = a ∈ Ka
If Ka = Kb, there exists k ∗ b ∈ Kb such that a = k ∗ b, where k ∈ K

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 a=k∗b
φ(a) = φ(k ∗ b)
φ(a) = φ(k) ◦ φ(b)
φ(a) = e′ ◦ φ(b)
φ(a) = φ(b)
ψ(Ka) = ψ(Kb)
Hence if Ka = Kb, ψ(Ka) = ψ(Kb)
∴ ψ is well-defined.

Now we shall prove prove ψ is homomorphism and then ψ is 1-1 and onto.

ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = ψ(K(a ∗ b))

ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = φ(a ∗ b)
ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b)
ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = ψ(Ka) ◦ ϕ(Kb)

Hence ψ is homomorphism of G/K into G′

Now we shall prove that ψ is 1-1 and onto.

Suppose that ψ(Ka) = ψ(Kb)

φ(a) = φ(b)
−1
φ(a) ◦ φ(b) = φ(b) ◦ φ(b)−1
φ(a ∗ b−1 ) = e′
a ∗ b−1 ∈ K
Ka = Kb
∴ ψ is 1-1

Suppose y ∈ G′ .
Since φ is onto, there is an element x ∈ G such that y = φ(x)
This means that there exists Kx ∈ G/K such that y = φ(x) = ψ(Kx)
ψ is onto.
Therefore ψ is isomorphism of G/K onto G′ . And hence G′ ≃ G/K

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9.2 Correspondence Theorem
Let the map φ : G → G′ be a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K. Let H = {a ∈ G|φ(a) ∈ H ′ }.
If H ′ is a subgroup of G′ , then H is a subgroup of G, K ⊂ H, and H/K ≃ H ′ . Finally, if H ′ ◁ G′ ,
then H ◁ G.

Proof. Let G be a group under ♡

Let G′ be a group under ⋄
Let e and e′ be the identity elements of G and G′ respectively.

Since H ′ is a subgroup of G′ , e′ ∈ H ′
Then φ(e) = e′ ∈ H ′
e∈H
H ̸= ϕ
Hence clearly, H is a nonempty subset of G.

Let a, b ∈ H
φ(a), φ(b) ∈ H ′
φ(a) ⋄ φ(b) ∈ H ′
φ(a♡b) ∈ H ′
a♡b ∈ H
H is closed under ♡

Let a ∈ H
φ(a) ∈ H ′
Since H ′ is a subgroup, φ(a)−1 ∈ H ′
φ(a−1 ) ∈ H ′
a−1 ∈ H
∴ If a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H

Therefore H is a subgroup of G.

Let k ∈ K
Then φ(k) = e′ ∈ H ′
Hence k ∈ H
K⊂H

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 Now we can say that φ is a homomorphism of H onto H ′ with kernel K. By first homomorphism
theorem, H/K ≃ H ′

Finally, if H ′ ◁ G′ and a ∈ G,
φ(a)−1 H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′
Hence φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′
Let x = a−1 ♡h♡a ∈ a−1 Ha
φ(x) = φ((a−1 ♡h)♡a)
= φ(a−1 ♡h) ⋄ φ(a)
= (φ(a−1 ) ⋄ φ(h)) ⋄ φ(a)
φ(x) ∈ φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a)
φ(x) ∈ H ′ (∵ φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′ )
x∈H
−1
a Ha ⊂ H
H ◁G

9.3 Second Homomorphism Theorem

Suppose G is a group under ∗. Let H be a subgroup of G and N a normal subgroup of G.
Then HN = {h ∗ n|h ∈ H, n ∈ N } is a subgroup of G, H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H, and
H/(H ∩ N ) ≃ (HN )/N .

Proof. First of all, we shall prove HN is a subgroup of G

Let e be the identity element of G
Since H is a subgroup of G, e ∈ H.
Since N is a normal subgroup of G, e ∈ N .
Then e ∗ e ∈ HN and hence HN is nonempty.
Also e ∈ H ∩ N and hence H ∩ N is nonempty.

Let h ∗ n ∈ HN , where h ∈ H and n ∈ N

Since h ∈ H, h ∈ G
Since n ∈ N , n ∈ G
Since G is a group under ∗, G is closed under ∗.
h∗n∈G
Hence HN is nonempty subset of G

Let x, y be any two elements of HN

Then there exist h1 , h2 ∈ H and n1 , n2 ∈ N such that x = h1 ∗ n1 and y = h2 ∗ n2 .

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 x ∗ y = h1 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∗ n2
x ∗ y = h1 ∗ (h2 ∗ h−1
2 ) ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∗ n2

= h1 ∗ h2 ∗ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2

Since h1 , h2 ∈ H, h1 ∗ h2 ∈ H
Since N is normal subgroup of G, h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∈ N

∴ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2 ∈ N

h1 ∗ h2 ∗ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2 ∈ HN

x ∗ y ∈ HN
HN is closed under ∗

Let a = h ∗ n ∈ HN , where h ∈ H and n ∈ N .

Then a−1 = (h ∗ n)−1

= n−1 ∗ h−1
= (h−1 ∗ h) ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1
= h−1 ∗ (h ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 )
= h−1 ∗ ((h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 )
Since h ∈ H, h−1 ∈ H
Since n ∈ N, n−1 ∈ N
Then, since N is normal subgroup, (h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 ∈ N
h−1 ∗ ((h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 ) ∈ HN
a−1 ∈ HN

Hence HN is subgroup of G.
Now we shall prove H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H. To do so, we need to prove H ∩ N is a
subgroup of H first.
We have already prove H ∩ N is nonempty. Clearly H ∩ N is a subset of H

Let a, b ∈ H ∩ N
Then a, b ∈ H, and hence a ∗ b ∈ H
Also a, b ∈ N, and hence a ∗ b ∈ N
∴a∗b∈H ∩N
H ∩ N is closed under ∗

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 Similarly, if a ∈ H ∩ N,
Then a ∈ H, and hence a−1 ∈ H
And a ∈ N, and hence a−1 ∈ N
∴ a−1 ∈ H ∩ N

Hence H ∩ N is a subgroup of H

Now let h ∈ H
Let h−1 (H ∩ N )h be the set {h−1 ∗ x ∗ h|x ∈ (H ∩ N )}

If h−1 ∗ a ∗ h ∈ h−1 (H ∩ N )h,

Then a ∈ H ∩ N
Hence a ∈ H
Since h ∈ H, h−1 ∈ H
h−1 ∗ a ∗ h ∈ H
h−1 (H ∩ N )h ⊂ H

H ∩ N is normal subgroup of H.
Since nN = N for every n ∈ N , (h ∗ n)N = hN
Hence HN/N = {hN |h ∈ N } is a quotient group under the operation ⋄, where xN ⋄ yN = (x ∗ y)N
Now let φ be a mapping of H into HN/N , defined by φ(h) = hN for h ∈ H
Clearly φ is onto.
Now we shall prove φ is homomorphism.

Let h1 , h2 ∈ H
φ(h1 ∗ h2 ) = (h1 ∗ h2 )N
= h1 N ⋄ h2 N
= φ(h1 ) ⋄ φ(h2 )
∴ φ is homomorphism of H onto HN/N

If we can prove Ker φ = H ∩N , then from first homomorphism, we will get H/(H ∩N ) ≃ (HN )/N .
Let x ∈ H. Then φ(x) = xN

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 x ∈ ker φ ⇐⇒ φ(x) = N
⇐⇒ xN = N
⇐⇒ x∈N
∴ x ∈ ker φ ⇐⇒ x∈H ∩N
ker φ = H ∩ N

Since φ is a homomorphism of H onto HN/N with kernel H ∩ N ,

by first homomorphism, H/(H ∩ N ) ≃ HN/N

9.4 Third Homomorphism Theorem

If the map φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K then, if N ′ ◁ G′ and
N = {a ∈ G|φ(a) ∈ N ′ }, we conclude that G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ . Equivalently, G/N ≃ (G/K)/(N/K).

Proof. Suppose that G is a group under ∗ and G′ is a group under ⋄

Since N ′ ◁ G′ , G′ /N ′ forms a group under ♠, where N ′ a′ ♠N ′ b′ = N ′ (a′ ⋄ b′ ), a′ , b′ ∈ G′
Clearly N ′ e′ = N ′ is the unit element of G′ /N ′
Define the mapping ψ : G → G′ /N ′ by ψ(a) = N ′ φ(a) for every a ∈ G.

ψ(a ∗ b) = N ′ φ(a ∗ b)
= N ′ (φ(a) ⋄ φ(b))
= N ′ φ(a)♠N ′ φ(b)
= ψ(a)♠ψ(b)

Hence ψ is homomorphism of G into G′ /N ′ .

Let N ′ y ∈ G′ /N ′ , where y ∈ G′
Since φ is onto and y ∈ G′ , there is x ∈ G such that φ(x) = y
Hence there is x in G such that ψ(x) = N ′ φ(x) = N ′ y
ψ is onto.
If N is ker ψ, by first homomorphism theorem, we will get G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ .

a ∈ ker ψ if and only if ψ(a) = N ′

N ′ φ(a) = N ′
φ(a) ∈ N ′
a ∈ ker ψ if and only if a∈N
ker ϕ = N

Therefore N is the kernel of ψ.

Since ψ is homomorphism of G onto G′ /N ′ with kernel N ,

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by first homomorphism theorem, G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ .
Since φ is homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K,
by first homomorphism theorem, G/K ≃ G′ .
Since φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K, N ′ ◁ G′ and N = {a ∈
G|φ(a) ∈ N ′ }, by correspondence theorem, N/K ≃ N ′
Hence G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ ≃ (G/K)/(N/K).

Acknowledgements
References
[1] I. N. Herstein. Abstract Algebra. 1996.
[2] Thomas W. Judson. Abstract Algebra Theory and Application. 2012.

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