Algebra I Homework Two

Name:
Instruction: In the following questions, you should work out the solutions in a clear and concise manner. You may
share the ideas with peers, but you should write down the solutions independently. Three questions will be randomly
selected and checked for correctness; they count 50% grades of this homework set. The other questions will be checked
for completeness; they count the rest 50% grades of the homework set. Staple this sheet of paper as the cover page of
your homework set. The sample answers will be posted on the course website.
1. (Section 1.6) Prove that Sn is generated by the following elements:
(a) Sn is generated by the n − 1 transpositions (12), (13), · · · , (1n). [Hint: (1i)(1j)(1i) = (ij)]
Sn is generated by transpositions (ij), and (ij) = (1i)(1j)(1i). So Sn is generated by (12), (13), · · · , (1n).
(b) Sn is generated by the n − 1 transpositions (12), (23), · · · , (n − 1 n). [Hint: (1j) = (1 j − 1)(j − 1 j)(1 j − 1)]
Each of the transpositions (12), (13), · · · , (1n) can be generated by (12), (23), · · · , (n − 1 n) using (1 j) =
(1 j − 1)(j − 1 j)(1 j − 1) and induction. So Sn can be generated by the n − 1 transpositions (12), (23), · · · , (n − 1 n)
by preceding claim.
(c) Sn is generated by (12) and (123 · · · n). [Hint: (i i + 1) = (12 · · · n)(i − 1 i)(12 · · · n)−1 ]
By (i i + 1) = (12 · · · n)(i − 1 i)(12 · · · n)−1 and induction, (12) and (123 · · · n) generate (i − 1 i) for i = 2, · · · , n.
Then by the preceding claim, (12) and (123 · · · n) generate the whole group Sn .

2. (Section 1.6) An is the only subgroup of Sn of index 2. [Hint: Show that a subgroup of index 2 must contain all
3-cyc1es of Sn .]
The case n = 2 is obvious. Now assume that n ≥ 3. Let H < Sn and [Sn : H] = 2. If (1 2 3) 6∈ H, then
(1 3 2) = (1 2 3)2 ∈ H since |G/H| = 2. All 3-cycles in Sn are conjugate to (1 3 2). As a normal subgroup of Sn , H
contains all 3-cycles in Sn . Hence H ≥ An . So H = An .

3. (Section 1.6) Find all normal subgroups of Dn .

Dn is generated by two elements a and b with an = b2 = e and ba = a−1 b. Then bak = a−k b by induction. All
elements of Dn are of the form ai or ai b for i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1. Let H be a normal subgroup of Dn .

If all elements of H are of the form ai , then H = hak i for some k dividing n. Such an H is normal in Dn .

If H contains an element ak b, then ak+2 b = a(ak b)a−1 ∈ H by normality of H, and ak+2 bak b = a2 ∈ H. So
ak−2` b = (a2 )−` (ak b) ∈ H. Therefore at least one of b and ab is in H. Therefore H is one of the following: ha2 , bi (when n
is even), ha2 , abi (when n is even), Dn .

Overall, all normal subgroups of Dn are:

(a) Dn and {e};

(b) hak i for k a factor of n;
(c) ha2 , bi and ha2 , abi, when n is even.

4. (Section 1.7) In the category G of groups, show that the group G1 × G2 together with the canonical projections
π1 : G1 × G2 → G1 and π2 : G1 × G2 → G2 is a product for {G1 , G2 }.
Given a group H and a family of homomorphisms of groups {ϕi : H → Gi | i = 1, 2}, define ϕ : H → G1 × G2 by
ϕ(h) := (ϕ1 (h), ϕ2 (h)). Then πi ◦ ϕ(h) = πi ((ϕ1 (h), ϕ2 (h))) = ϕi (h) for i = 1, 2. Thus G1 × G2 together with πi (i = 1, 2)
is a product for {G1 , G2 }.
.
5. (Section 1.7) Every family {Ai .| i ∈ I} in the category of
.
sets has a coproduct. [Hint: consider ∪Ai = {(a, i) ∈
(∪Ai ) × I | a ∈ Ai } with Ai → ∪Ai given by a 7→ (a, i). ∪Ai is called the disjoint union of the sets Ai .]
. .
Consider ∪Ai = {(a, i) ∈ (∪Ai ) × I | a ∈ Ai } with ιi : Ai → ∪Ai given by a 7→ (a, i). Given a set B and a
.
family of functions {ϕi : Ai → B | i ∈ I}, define the function ϕ : ∪Ai → B by (a, j) 7→ ϕj (a). Then for a ∈ Ai ,
.
ϕ ◦ ιi (a) = ϕ((a, i)) = ϕi (a). So ∪Ai is the coproduct of {Ai | i ∈ I} in the category of sets.

6. (Section 1.8)
(a) S3 is not the direct product of any family of its proper subgroups.
Q
Suppose on the contrary, S3 = i∈I Gi for some nontrivial subgroups Gi . By |S3 | = 6 = 2 × 3, we have |I| = 2
and S3 = G1 × G2 , where {|G1 |, |G2 |} = {2, 3}. Then both G1 and G2 are abelian, and so is S3 = G1 × G2 . This
contradicts the fact that S3 is non-abelian.

1
 (b) Zpn (p prime, n ≥ 1) is not the direct product of any family of its proper subgroups.
If Zpn = H1 × H2 , then |H1 | = pr and |H2 | = pn−r for some 1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1. Let d := max{r, n − r} ≤ n − 1. On
one hand, Zpn = hxi for some element x with |x| = pn . On the other hand, every y ∈ H1 × H2 satisfies that |y| = pr
for some r ≤ d < n. This is a contradiction.
(c) Z is not the direct product of any family of its proper subgroups.
Suppose on the contrary, Z = H1 × H2 where H1 and H2 are proper subgroups. Then H1 = hai and H2 = hbi for
a, b ∈ Z. Then H1 ∩ H2 = hci for c = lcm(a, b). This contradicts the fact that direct product components have trivial
intersection. So the statement is true.

7. (Section 1.8) Give an example to show that the weak direct product is not a coproduct in the category of all
groups. [Hint: it suffices to consider the case of two factors G × H.]
Consider the weak direct product Z2 × Z3 of Z2 = {0̄, 1̄} and Z3 = {0̄, 1̄, 2̄} with canonical inclusions ι1 : Z2 → Z2 × Z3
and ι2 : Z3 → Z2 × Z3 . Define ϕ1 : Z2 → S3 by 1̄ 7→ (12), and define ϕ2 : Z3 → S3 by 1̄ 7→ (123). Then both ϕ1 and
ϕ2 are homomorphisms of groups. If there exists a homomorphism of groups ϕ : Z2 × Z3 → S3 such that ϕ ◦ ιi = ϕi for
i = 1, 2, then (12), (123) ∈ Im(ϕ), and thus Im(ϕ) = S3 , and thus ϕ is an isomorphism between Z2 × Z3 and S3 . This is a
contradiction because only one of Z2 × Z3 and S3 is abelian.

8. (Section 1.9) The group defined by generators a, b and relations an = e (3 ≤ n ∈ Z+ ), b2 = e and abab = e is the
dihedral group Dn . [See Theorem 1.6.13.]
Let G be the group defined by generators a, b and relations an = e, b2 = e and abab = e. Let E be the identity element
of Dn . Theorem 1.6.13 says that Dn is generated by two elements A and B with An = B 2 = ABAB = E. By Theorem
1.9.5, there is an epimorphism of groups f : G → Dn . In particular |G| ≥ |Dn | = 2n. Now in G, ba = a−1 b. So every
element of G is of the form ai bj for 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 and 0 ≤ j ≤ 1. Hence |G| ≤ 2n = |Dn |, and thus |G| = |Dn |. Then
f : G → Dn is an isomorphism. This proves the claim.

9. (Section 1.9) The operation of free product is commutative and associative: for any groups A, B, C, A ? B ' B ? A,
and A ? (B ? C) ' (A ? B) ? C.
The definition of free product shows that

A?B =B?A = {a1 · · · ak | k ∈ N, ai ∈ A ∪ B, ai and ai+1 are not in the same group},
A ? (B ? C) ' (A ? B) ? C ' {a1 · · · ak | k ∈ N, ai ∈ A ∪ B ∪ C, ai and ai+1 are not in the same group}.

Alternatively, we may show that both A ? (B ? C) and (A ? B) ? C are coproducts of {A, B, C} in the family of groups.

10. (Section 1.9) A free group is a free product of infinite cyclic groups.
Y∗
Let X be a nonempty set, and F (X) the free group generated by X. We prove that F (X) = hxi, where hxi denotes
x∈X
the free group generated by x, an infinite cyclic group.

Let ι : X → F (X) be the canonical inclusion map. For every x ∈ X, ι induces a homomorphism of groups
ιx : hxi → F (X) by xn 7→ ι(x)n . Given a group G and a family of homomorphisms of groups fx : hxi → G for x ∈ X, define
f : X → G by x 7→ fx (x). By the definition of free group on X, there is a unique homomorphism of groups fe : F (X) → G
such that fe ◦ ι(x) = f (x) for x ∈ X. Then

fe ◦ ιx (xn ) = fe ◦ (ι(x)n ) = [fe ◦ ι(x)]n = f (x)n for xn ∈ hxi.

This shows that F (X) is the coproduct of {hxi | x ∈ X} in the category of groups, that is, the free product of {hxi | x ∈ X}.