See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/327218239

The fire station location problem: A literature survey

Article  in  International Journal of Emergency Management · January 2018

DOI: 10.1504/IJEM.2018.094239

CITATIONS READS

0 397

1 author:

Esra E. Aleisa
Kuwait University
38 PUBLICATIONS   248 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Wastewater and GCC View project

abstraction hierarchies View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Esra E. Aleisa on 10 March 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Int. J. Emergency Management, Vol. 14, No. 3, 2018 291

The fire station location problem: a literature survey

Esra Aleisa
College of Engineering and Petroleum,
Industrial and Management Systems Engineering Department,
Kuwait University,
Khaldia Bldg. 8KH, 3rd Floor,
P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait
Fax: +(965) 2481-6137
Email: e.aleisa@ku.edu.kw
Email: aleisaE@gmail.com

Abstract: Urban fire causes significant threat to the loss of lives and property.
The location of a fire station is critical to reduce response time to incident place
and eventually increase possibility of beating life-threatening dangerous
flashovers. Fuzzy international standards, population density, traffic conditions
and distance to other existing fire stations, fire resources and hazardous are
some of the criteria considered in the fire station location problem. In this
paper, we conduct a thorough literature survey of well-founded research that
bring forth methodologies for better fire stations locations. It compares
methodologies that adopt fuzzy multi-objective optimisation, maximal
coverage, geographic information system (GIS), genetic algorithm (GA), ant
algorithm, Tabu search (TS) and simulated annealing (SA) to solve the
complex problem with higher efficiency and in due course of increasing
possibility of rescue and survival.

Keywords: fire stations; location; response time; mathematical modelling;

operations research; optimisation.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Aleisa, E. (2018) ‘The fire
station location problem: a literature survey’, Int. J. Emergency Management,
Vol. 14, No. 3, pp.291–302.

Biographical notes: Esra Aleisa is an Associate Professor in the Industrial

and Management Systems Engineering Department, College of Engineering
and Petroleum, Kuwait University. She received her BS in Industrial
Engineering from Kuwait University and her PhD in Industrial Engineering
and Production systems from SUNY Buffalo. Her research interests
includes, life cycle assessment, planning and design of large scale facilities,
simulation and improvement of manufacturing and service systems, especially
of that related to wastewater treatment and reuse. She is a member of Omega
Rho, the international operations research honour society, IEEE, INFORMS,
IIE, ASEE.

1 Introduction

In the USA in 2006, one person died in a fire accident approximately every 162 min and
one person was injured every 32 min (Karter and Stein, 2008). Urban fire causes

Copyright © 2018 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

292 E. Aleisa

significant threat to the loss of lives and property. In the USA, building fires
were responsible for over 3000 deaths, 15,000 injuries and $9.2 billion in fire-related
property damage in 2005 (Yamashita, 2000). Furthermore, each year, fire causes
about 300,000 deaths globally, most of which occur at home (Zhang et al., 2006).
Dedman (2005) found the cost of property damage by response time per fire
to be $27,000 for less than 3 min, $34,000 for 5 min, $41,000 for 7 min and $61,000
for greater than 9 min. In this research, we aim to survey and compare literatures
that better generate locations for fire stations (FP). Adopted methodology in this
regards differs according to the criteria considered, the scale of the problem and
the type of standards issued by authorities, each of which has a wide spectrum of
attributes. For instance, criteria for FP location include: Determine minimal reasonable
number of FP, minimise overlap of fire station services, minimise distance between
FP and any accident site, minimise distance between FP and high-risk areas, maximise
service coverage, support distance balancing (even distribution of FP), minimise time
travelled from FP to accident sites, minimise total setup cost of FP, maximise service
of high-risk areas, attain targeted number of FP, and others. Perhaps, the most
common performance measure is the reduction of response time (Savsar, 2014).
We also discuss the inclusion of travel speed in some of the formulations. We also
discuss the different constraints and methodologies including those are based on
operations research, fuzzy theory, genetic algorithms, tabu search simulated annealing
(SA) and GIS.

2 Objectives considered in locating FP

The fire station location problem does have different objectives. The classification of
literatures according to the objective is provided in Table 1. The formulations in
Schreuder (1981), Tzeng and Chen (1999) and Badri et al. (1998) aimed to determine the
minimal reasonable number of stations by considering an economical trade-off between
accident-loss cost and total setup cost of FP. Tzeng and Chen (1999), Badri et al. (1998)
and Yang et al. (2007), in particular, have considered minimising the total setup cost of
FP, both fixed cost and annual operating cost, while also minimising the total loss cost of
fire incidents. They intended to determine the location of FP that will be capable of
providing timely aid when a fire incident occurs, or in other words, to determine the
location of FP that minimises the time travelled from the station to the accident site.
The differences between the aforementioned literatures are that Badri et al. (1998)
considered minimising the distance travelled between FP and accident points, whereas
Tzeng and Chen (1999) considered the preceding as well as minimising the distance
travelled between FP and high-risk areas.
Another objective considered in locating FP aims to minimise the service overlap of
FP (Huang et al., 2005). In this strategy, Badri et al. (1998) focused on maximising the
services of those areas with more forecasted fire incidents, whereas Indriasari et al.
(2008) considered maximising the benefits of FP, which is translated into minimising the
losses to the public.
 The fire station location problem: a literature survey 293

Table 1 Criteria considered when locating fire stations

294 E. Aleisa

Table 1 Criteria considered when locating fire stations (continued)

 The fire station location problem: a literature survey 295

Wei and Juncheng’s (2012) formulation maximised the coverage of fire station services
within a predetermined response time of 5 min. Huang et al. (2005) also aimed to locate
FP where coverage maximisation as well as distance balancing are guaranteed. On the
other hand, Erden and Coskun (2010) used several criteria for finding the optimal
location of FP and assigned different weights to these criteria using the analytic hierarchy
process (AHP) of Saaty (1982, 2000). Their criteria were as follows: high population
density, proximity to main roads, distance from the existing FP, distance from hazardous
material facilities, wooden building density and distance from the areas subjected to
earthquake risk.

3 Response time

A common performance measure is the response time (Savsar, 2014). It is a critical factor
in the effectiveness of the firefighting services since well-set response time standards can
minimise the risk to people and property loss. Response time is defined as the time from
the receipt of a call of a fire incident to the arrival of the firefighting service to the
incident site. Dedman (2005) found the cost of property damage by response time per fire
to be $27,000 for less than 3 min, $34,000 for 5 min, $41,000 for 7 min and $61,000 for
greater than 9 min. The authors argued that if a 6-min standard response time is achieved
in the province of service, approximately $1 billion per year of property loss
could be prevented (Dedman, 2005). Many research efforts as in Huang et al. (2005),
Indriasari et al. (2008), Erden and Coskun (2010) and Wei and Juncheng (2012), who
conducted studies on optimal siting of FP in Singapore, South Jakarta, Istanbul and
China, respectively, agreed on a response time of 5 min or less for firefighting services.
Tzeng and Chen (1999), on the other hand, who conducted their study in Taipei’s
international airport in Taiwan, aimed for a response time of no longer than 3 min for
aircraft fire accidents, while Yang et al. (2007) established response time ranges based on
the fire risk category, ranging from 4 min to 5 min for high-risk fires to 10–20 min for
low-risk ones, in the Derbyshire region, UK. Murray and Tong (2009) conducted their
study in North Boston, USA, aimed for a response time of 6 min, broken down as
follows: 1 min for the dispatcher to handle the call of service, 1 min for a fire company to
get into their gear and depart, and 4 min of travel time. Determining the proper response
time is critical to beat flashovers. Flashovers is defined as the point in time at which a
structure fire is fully developed, so people are not likely to survive and property is
unsalvageable (Murray and Tong, 2009).

4 Model constraints

In terms of constraints, Yang et al. (2007) and Murray and Tong (2009) shared the
constraint of specifying the total number of FP to site. Moreover, Murray and Tong
(2009) shared in their two proposed models, the maximal coverage location problem
(MCLP) and the threshold coverage problem – subregions (TCP-S), the constraint of
accounting for the coverage of an area when appropriate stations are sited, which are
capable of providing the service.
Other constraints were also considered in the proposed models. Yang et al. (2007)
considered the constraint that FP should not be located within any obstacles such as
296 E. Aleisa

waterways and reserved areas. Alternatively, Murray and Tong (2009) added in their
TCP-S, the constraint of ensuring that the targeted service standard percentage is
maintained for each sub-region or town considered in the study.

5 Travel speed and maximum distance

To accurately estimate the response time of firefighting services, travel speed has to be
measured precisely based on historical data and traffic conditions. Schreuder (1981)
estimated the travel speed to be 40 km/h from historical data. However, the speed of
36 km/h was used in the study to account for the congested traffic and to test the
sensitivity of the obtained solution. Murray and Tong (2009), on the other hand,
estimated the average observed travel speed to be 15 mph (which is about 24 km/h). This
travel speed corresponds to a maximum distance between the fire station and farthest
point in the service area of 1.5 miles, given the response time allowance of 6 min.

6 Methodologies adopted for locating FP

The problem of locating FP is a complex one. This section discusses different

methodologies perused to find optimum location given criteria discussed in the previous
section. These are shown in Table 2.

6.1 Methods-based operations research

Schreuder (1981) used a road network approach to find the set of possible location areas
for FP, then modelled the problem as an integer programming problem, known as the set-
covering problem. Here, the aim is to select from all possible location areas, the station
with smaller attributes that fulfils service and response time requirements. Huang et al.
(2005), on the other hand, modelled the problem as a linear feature covering problem
(LFCP) with distance constraints, which is a type of multi-objective optimisation
problem, where the problem simultaneously considers linear feature coverage
maximisation and distance balancing. Alternatively, Murray and Tong (2009) modelled
the problem as a TCP-S, given that each city/town is considered separately for locating
FP and there cannot be any overlap of fire station services between cities/towns.

6.1.1 Maximal coverage location problem (MCLP) and maximal service area
problem (MSAP)
The MCLP tries to find the maximum population that can be served by a limited number
of facilities within a stated service area. Here, the service area of a facility is defined as
the area that is closer in distance, time or cost to that facility than to any other facility. In
other words, it is the area that can be reached from the facility within a specified distance,
time or cost (Indriasari et al., 2008). The MCLP is built under the assumption that it may
not be possible to serve all demands, which makes it one of the fundamental potential
modelling approaches for fire station site selection (Murray and Tong, 2009).
 The fire station location problem: a literature survey 297

Table 2 Modes used in fire stations location models

298 E. Aleisa

A modification to the MCLP is the maximal service area problem (MSAP), used by
Indriasari et al. (2008). Its objective is to maximise the total service area of a fixed
number of facilities. It uses GIS to generate service areas of facilities as travel time
zones, which is what distinguishes it from the original MCLP.

6.2 Fuzzy multi-objective approach

The fuzzy multi-objective approach to address the fire station location problem was
adopted for different reasons. Tzeng and Chen (1999) and Yang et al. (2007) declare that
they have used the fuzzy multi-objective approach owing to its simplicity and efficiency
when compared with traditional weighting methods. Specifically, Tzeng and Chen (1999)
claimed that this methodology enabled the simultaneous optimisation of multiple
objectives. On the other hand, Yang et al. (2007) applied it because of the fuzzy nature of
FP requirements with respect to time and travel speed instructed or recommended by
authorities, which typically suggest a range of acceptable time and distance limits rather
than precise values. Finally, Huang et al. (2005) applied the fuzzy multi-objective
approach to describe a large-scale LFCP, where the continuous problem was first
transformed into a discrete one using GIS.

6.3 Genetic algorithm (GA)

Another common method of solving the models of the problem of optimally locating FP
is genetic algorithm (GA), which is based on the mechanism of the natural selection of
genetics (Indriasari et al., 2008). According to Tzeng and Chen (1999), GA was chosen
for solving the problem because it is easy to follow, its developed model is fully
transferable to similar problems, and it has proved its effectiveness in solving
combinatorial optimisation problems. In addition, GA used less computing time in the
study than did the enumeration method. Indriasari et al. (2008), on the other
hand, compared the performance of GA with that of two other heuristics, tabu search
(TS) and simulated annealing (SA), in terms of computing time and solution
quality. Although GA exhibited good results in these two categories, the results that TS
displayed appeared to be the most superior of the three heuristics. Finally, as mentioned
earlier, Wei and Juncheng (2012) combined GA with GIS to obtain optimal locations
of FP that can provide necessary firefighting services within the targeted response time
of 5 min.

6.4 Tabu search and simulated annealing

Another solution method used by Indriasari et al. (2008) is tabu search (TS), which is
aimed to solve the problem of a local search being trapped in a local optimum by
allowing non-improving moves whenever a local optimum is reached and recording the
recent history of searches in a tabu list. Moreover, simulated annealing (SA) is also
considered for solving the fuzzy MO problem and its performance, when compared with
that of TS and GA, is proven to be superior in terms of both solution quality and
computing time.
 The fire station location problem: a literature survey 299

6.5 Ant algorithm

Other methods were also used for solving the site selection problem of FP. Huang et al.
(2005) used the ant algorithm to solve a fuzzy MO model characterised by a large-scale
LFCP, by first transforming the continuous problem into a discrete one using GIS as
mentioned previously. The ant colony optimisation meta-heuristic (the ant algorithm) is
an adaptive construction heuristic that is inspired by nature, which mimics the natural
selection where the fittest survive. It simulates the behaviour of an ant colony that finds
the shortest route between the food source and its formicary location. The ant algorithm
was chosen because it is designed to solve novel multi-objective problems and because of
its excellence in solving large-scale location problems owing to its new local search
measure (Huang et al., 2005).

6.6 Geographic information system (GIS)

A fast-emerging method for solving the problem of FP is GIS. Huang et al. (2005)
defined GIS as a computer system designed to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyse and display all forms of geographically referenced information.
Many studies used GIS along with other optimisation methods to make use of the
capability of GIS to precisely consider geographical data of large datasets, while also
gaining the optimisation benefits of other methods. Wei and Juncheng (2012), for
example, used GA combined with GIS, to gain the capability of GA to solve large-scale
problems within reasonable time while still making use of the capability of GIS to
accurately consider spatial data based on network distance rather than straight-line
distance and considering actual traffic conditions, so as to obtain accurate results of
locations of FP that can provide the necessary firefighting services within the targeted
response time of 5 min. Huang et al. (2005), on the other hand, used GIS to transform the
continuous LFCP into a discrete one in a raster map (grid map), then solved the
discretised problem using Ant Algorithm. Indriasari et al. (2008) used GIS along with
three heuristics, GA, TS and SA, whereas Erden and Coskun (2010) used GIS with AHP
to accurately assign weights to the GIS layers considered in the study.
Finally, Nisanci (2010) used GIS alone to reduce the damaging effects of fire through
fire risk management. The authors argued that the capability of GIS to analyse large data
volumes and to respond to spatial queries, along with other features, make establishing a
system based on GIS relatively economic when compared with the economic loss that
results from the fire. GIS can help determine the optimal location of FP and the
classification of fire regions according to the possible types of fire. Moreover, when a fire
incident occurs, GIS can help determine the places of fire accidents in the shortest time
by matching address information with coordinate information. Additionally, in case of a
fire incident, the GIS database can be used to obtain information about the inhabitants
living in the building on fire as well as architectural information about the building to
help the fire team accelerate the rescue mission as well as work with greater safety.
Dedman (2005) used a computer simulation trial and error approach based on GIS to
determine the number of FP needed to respond to 86 structure fires within a six-minute
response time. The analysis showed that 24 additional FP were needed. However, after
applying the TCP-S and combining it with GIS, the analysis found that only 14 additional
FP are needed. Assuming that the setup cost per fire station is $2 million, the total
monetary difference of the two approaches is $20 million, which is significant.
300 E. Aleisa

7 Conclusion

The problem of locating FP is a multi-objective optimisation problem with complex

constraints. The criteria considered usually are a result of general standards or is due to
types of incidents common to the region under study: earth quakes, traffic accidents, etc.
Typical considerations are population density, proximity to main roads, distance from the
existing FP, distance from hazardous material facilities, etc. Travel speed is another
critical attribute that is also dependent on the region of study and the time of the accident.
Again, adopted methodology differs according to the criteria considered, the scale of the
problem and the type of standards issued by authorities. For instance, fuzzy theory was
adopted owing to its ability to optimise multiple objectives, ability to handle fuzzy nature
of requirements instructed by authorisers and capacity to handle large-scale problems. On
the other hand, the MCLP (as well as its modification the MSAP), address the problem of
maximising the service coverage of a facility, while assuming that it might not always be
possible to cover all demand, which is the case for FP. Most methods of solving the
problem and the proposed models were conducted in association with the GIS and
genetic algorithm (GA). GIS was used in different studies for its capability to present
spatial data and its capability to acquire large datasets with complicated data structures.
GIS, with its capabilities of data acquisition, storage, retrieval, manipulation, analysis and
visualisation, is an effective tool for supporting spatial decision-making. Although the
role of GIS in determining the optimal locations of fire stations is very valuable, using it
alone as a computer simulation approach for trial and error analysis does not give the
minimal number of FP that fulfils the response time and response distance requirements,
and therefore, it does not guarantee minimising the total setup cost of FP while
minimising the total loss cost of fire incidents. Therefore, GIS is of paramount
importance when combined with other optimisation methods as it can help in more
accurately determining the minimal number of FP needed to fulfil response time and
distance requirements. However, using GIS as a trial and error approach does not
guarantee the optimal solution.
GA, on the other hand, was used for its ease of use, its transferability to problems of
similar nature and its effectiveness in solving combinatorial optimisation problem.
Combining GA with GIS has improved handling large spatial datasets and led to more
accurate results based on network distance rather than straight-line distance. Finally,
other optimisation methods were used like ant algorithm, tabu search (TS), simulated
annealing (SA) and TCP-S to enhance the solution properties.
It can be noted that the different models used for formulating the problem
significantly depend on the objectives of the study. For instance, the studies that were
concerned about providing the maximal service coverage of fire station services modelled
the problem as an MCLP or an MSAP or as an LFCP. This is because these models pay
special attention to coverage maximisation. On the other hand, the studies that were
concerned primarily about other objectives (such as minimising setup cost of FP and loss
cost of fire accidents) and had to pay equal attention to several conflicting objectives
modelled the problem as a fuzzy multi-objective optimisation model.
It is worth noting that the most important objective that was shared amongst all
studies, and is directly or indirectly related to a lot of the other objectives, is maintaining
a response time of firefighting services of a value that is set by responsible authorities.
Most authors agreed on a response time of 5 min.
 The fire station location problem: a literature survey 301

Finally, multiple as well as conflicting objectives have to be considered when finding

the optimal locations and number of FP to achieve a certain response time requirement. It
is worth noting that all methods proposed for solving the problem gave the considered
objectives equal weights, except those that used the AHP to assign weights to criteria that
are considered for locating FP and used these weights to find the optimal locations using
GIS. Assigning weights to criteria could improve the final results of the studies and by
making them more realistic, since giving different weights to criteria could lead to
considering more lifelike concerns and making fewer assumptions.

References
Badri, M.A., Mortagy, A.K. and Alsayed, C.A. (1998) ‘A multi-objective model for locating fire
stations’, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 110, pp.243–260.
Wu, C-H. and Chen, L-C. (2012) ‘3D spatial information for fire-fighting search and rescue route
analysis within buildings’, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 48, February, pp.21–29.
Dedman, B. (2005) Slower Arrival at Fires in US is Costing Lives, Boston Globe, http://www.
bonston.com/news/specials/fires/fire_departments_struggle_as_towns_grow (Accessed 31
January, 2005).
Erden, T. and Coskun, M. (2010) ‘Multi-criteria site selection for fire services: the interaction with
analytic hierarchy process and geographic information systems’, Natural Hazards and Earth
System Sciences, Vol. 10, pp.2127–2134.
Huang, B., Liu, N. and Magesh, C. (2005) ‘A GIS supported Ant algorithm for the linear feature
covering problem with distance constraints’, Decision Support Systems, Vol. 42,
pp.1063–1075.
Indriasari, V., Mahmud, A., Ahmad, N. and Shariff, A. (2008) ‘Maximal service area problem for
optimal siting of emergency facilities’, International Journal of Geographical Information
Science, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.213–230.
Karter Jr., M.J. and Stein, G.P. (2008) US Fire Department Profile Through 2007, Fire Analysis
and Research Division National Fire Protection Association, http://www.doi.idah.gov/
Sfm/FDProfile_2007.pdf
Murray, A. and Tong, D. (2009) ‘GIS and spatial analysis in the media’, Applied Geography,
Vol. 29, pp.250–259.
Nisanci, R. (2010) ‘GIS based fire analysis and production of fire-risk maps: the Trabzon
experience’, Scientific Research and Essays, Vol. 5, No. 9, pp.970–977.
Saaty, T. (1982) ‘How to structure and make choices in complex problems’, Human Systems
Management, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp.255–261.
Saaty, T. (2000) Analytic Hierarchy, http://www.accessscience.com (Accessed November, 2008).
Savsar, M. (2014) ‘Fire station location analysis in a metropolitan area’, International Journal of
Industrial and Systems Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp.365–381.
Schreuder, J.A.M. (1981) ‘Application of a location model to fire stations in Rotterdam’, European
Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 6, pp.212–219.
Tzeng, G.H. and Chen, Y.W. (1999) ‘The optimal location of airport fire stations: a fuzzy multi-
objective programming and revised genetic algorithm’, Transportation Planning and
Technology, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.37–55.
Wei, Z. and Juncheng, J. (2012) ‘Research on the location of fire station based on GIS and GA’,
Applied Mechanics and Materials, Vols. 130–134, pp.377–380.
Yamashita, K. (2000) Understanding Urban Fire Modeling Fire Incidence Using Classical and
Geographically Weighted Regression. Master of Arts, Western Washington University, USA.
 302 E. Aleisa

Yang, L., Jones, B.F. and Yang, S-H. (2007) ‘A fuzzy multi-objective programming for
optimization of fire station locations through genetic algorithms’, European Journal of
Operational Research, Vol. 181, No. 2, pp.903–915.
Zhang, G., Lee, A., Lee, H. and Clinton, M. (2006) ‘Fire safety among the elderly in Western
Australia. Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 41, pp.57–61.

View publication stats