ABSTRACT

There has been incessant collapse of buildings in Nigeria which has led to the loss of many live( s.o odeyemi
2019). Building failure often results to collapse if not discovered and addressed. (Chukuemeka o. 2018). This
study identified and evaluates the causes of building collapse, and the preventive measures that can avert
such occurrences. Building collapse in Nigeria in the last few decades is a growing concern for the citizens and
the government alike. Many of the documented cases of building collapse in Nigeria are due to the use of
defective or substandard building materials, no requisite technical knowledge, non adherence to building
codes and standards, the use of non-professionals and the high level of corruption which has ravaged every
sphere of the construction industry including government and private parastatals. In addition to the
established causes of the collapse of structures, empirical data from developed countries of the world has
shown that many of the recorded cases in this climes are due to the fact that the current codes of practice do
not make provisions for unexpected loads and an unexpected failure of a single member may lead to an all-
round collapse of the entire structure.

INTRODUCTION

The persistent and incessant occurrences of building collapse in various big towns in many states in the
country are very appalling. Many have lost their lives and properties in this avoidable circumstance known as
building collapse. After the first recorded building collapse of a multi-storey building under construction as a
result of excessive loading, at Mokola, Ibadan in 1974 that 27 persons were killed; with the then public
condemnations, reactions from people and government requesting for punitive measures on defaulters. One
would have thought that in the country, such incident would never happen again, but building collapse still
occurred in various towns and cities such as Lagos (mostly), Port Harcourt, Abuja, Kaduna, Abeokuta, Onitsha
and even more incidences of collapse in Ibadan where it was first recorded. In the subsequent years,
progressively, many building collapse cases kept on happening un-abated with diverse reasons and causes.
The number of casualties (killed persons) kept on rising year after year. Properties and valuables worth
millions of Nigerian money that landlords/investors had worked hard to procure kept on going down into
becoming heap of debris or as ruins that must be carted away as worthless collapsed building refuse. The
trauma, psychological and emotional stress each collapsed building case has on the survived victims,
landlords and investors, the victims’ relations, mourners and sympathizers are un-quantifiable. Many
concerned authors with their contemporaries in the world have studied and published works and proffered
recommendations on how to tackle the menace of building collapse that had become a problem not only
peculiar to Nigeria but to the world at large. This suggests why this work had to examine causes of building
collapse in Nigeria and in the globe and also enumerates areas professionals and other stakeholders in the
building industry can be of immense help. The work had to identify and sort out causes of building collapse
globally, as they happened in progressive collapses from 1902 – 2017; with the intention to evaluate and
analyse the reasons towards evolution of the major causes of building collapse globally for use in comparison
purposes with contemporaneous causes from the chronology of recorded building collapse in Nigeria. The
appraisal will establish commonality, consistency and how causes from global analysis compare with the
causes of collapse in Nigeria; or how incidences that have happened globally can be used in warning and
alerting Nigerians of possible dangers; thus creating awareness and consciousness that may result in
avoidance of some bad practices that used to cause collapse. This may help in curbing reoccurrences of
building collapse. The work is to educate you on building collapse and signs you must not ignore when the
building presents them to you the occupant's.
UNDERSTANDING BUILDING FAILURE

Building collapse is a global phenomenon contrary to the commonly held beliefs that is mostly a Nigeria
phenomenon. Different building types are affected just as a wide range of reasons is adduced. It has also
caused huge losses in terms of human life, material and collateral damage (Omenihu, Onundi, and Alkali
2016). Therefore, it has remained a matter of concern for Professionals and Regulatory Agencies. Zanzan
(2014) categorized building collapse in Nigeria according to building types and causes (Zanzan 2014). Based
on type, residential and commercial buildings both have 38%, followed by educational 15% and religious
buildings 9%. The author identifies unspecified reasons as the main cause with 65% followed by faulty
construction 25% and faulty structural design as 10%. More recently, Lagos is leading with 24%, Abuja 19%,
Kaduna 8% and Ibadan 6%. In late 20th Century theatres, churches and stadiums are affected. The trend
appears to be shifting to multi-storey residential buildings. Buildings undergoing construction collapse more
in developing countries compared with developed countries (Windapo and Rotimi 2012; Ayeni and Adedeji
2015)

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to explore the major causes of building collapse in Nigeria with a view of proffering
effective solutions for mitigation. The objectives are:

i. To identify the major causes of building collapse.

iI. To explore the roles of professionals, policy makers and public for mitigating building collapse.

iii. To identify the use of technology for mitigating building collapse.

METHODOLOGY

This study is based on group A reasearch and also secondary data from journals, reports, internet, and
previous works of others on the subject matter.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Building collapse is gradually making the headlines in most developing countries today, and this has become
rampant and devastating (Than, 2013). The incidence of these building collapses does show anonymous signs
of reiteration, with each collapse raising tremendous effects that cannot be forgotten by any of its victims.
These include loss of lives, huge loss of money spent on the investment or property, jobs, trust in building
professionals and increasing uncertainty among stakeholders and environmental disaster (Ede, 2010).
Developing countries are porous to building collapse. In the western Cairo suburb of Matariya, 17 people
were killed in the building collapse that occurred on the 25th November 2014. On 4th November 2015 at a
factory in Lahore Pakistan witnessed a building collapse that killed about 45 people. In that vein, the looming
incident of the synagogue church building collapse that claimed 115 lives on the 12 September 2014.
However, these three notable building collapse is believed to have been caused by unauthorised approved
building plan on the number of storeys of the building, structural failure due to no government approval
before construction, poor construction ethics and poor safety standards respectively (Oloyede et al., 2010). In
Nigeria, building collapse has been recognised to be either natural or man-made occurrences. Its resurgence
in the construction industry has become a worry to all and has instigated researches to be carried out in
identifying its predominant causes to date. The recorded incidence of building collapse has occurred in
buildings under construction, buildings undergoing renovation as well as buildings in service (Taiwo and
Afolami, 2011). The frequent increase in the occurrence of building collapse today has spun strings of
researches. By authors such as Matawal et al. (2014); Tanko et al. (2013); Olusola et al. (2011); Olanitori
(2011); Oloyede et al. (2010) and many others. These authors attributed the predominant causes of building
collapse to the non-adherence to approved building plans before construction commencement, non-
compliance with approved standards by developers, the use of substandard materials, inefficient stringent
quality control in material utilisation and management, lack of proper supervision on construction works,
boycotting the professionals, etc. Ojo et al. (2013), estimated that more than 60 percent of building collapse
fall within these listed factors. Bediako (2015) attributed the causes of building collapse to man’s negligence
in some of the vital areas in construction, which brings about a collapse in the building of structures. It
includes soil type/bearing capacity, disregard for building regulations, weak and unapproved building design
(Olusola et al., 2011). The use of inferior building materials (Oloyede et al., 2010), lack of continuing
development, the activities of quacks in the industry, excessive alteration on the original design and
inadequate monitoring and overall poor workmanship (Uzokwe, 2001). These causes can be identified as the
non-compliance to building regulations set by the Government for construction, ineffective monitoring
schemes put in place by the government to check defaulters and low awareness level of clients and
contractors on erecting a sustainable structure fit for purpose. Alamu and Gana (2014) added that the
professionals in the building industry should not bear the burden alone, but should collaborate with the
government and the agencies involved in maintaining a harmoniously built environment wordy of
sustainability. According to “Study of Recent Building Failures in the United States” report: There are a
varying number of causative factors of building collapse. Most failures witnessed can be traced to some
principal causes of building collapse categorised as deficiencies in design, maintenance, detailing,
construction and inadequate consideration of external events and use of materials (Kumalasari and Fabian,
2003). A defect in design has to do with mistakes, lapses, inaccuracies that could have occurred during the
design phase of the building. Detailing deficiency is the gap witnessed in the development and construction
process of the building that leads to discontinuity/ loss of concept and breach of the construction contract.
Construction deficiency eventually occurs as problems with shoddy workmanship and deviation from the
specification. According to Olusola et al. (2011), Taiwo and Afolami (2011), Alamu and Gana (2014) apart
from the causes listed above. There are other technical causes of building collapse, which include the
adoption of the wrong foundation, shallow depth of foundation placement, weak concrete strength, poor
concrete mix ratio, poor building material specifications, improper walling, quick construction methods and
inadequate maintenance schemes put in place by the government. These causes are found to affect the
building construction industry due to its interference in the everyday work schematics of various construction
proceeding on different construction sites. However, these are only some of the factors that can lead to the
collapse of building.The incidence of building collapse can be witnessed when professional bodies do not
create a forum or avenue (Internships) for fresh engineering graduates to be trained and gangster meaningful
experience on the nitty-gritty involved in building/ civil engineering works which are not taught in schools
(Kazeem et al., 2014). This forum also aids the fresh graduates to practice what they were taught in school
before proceeding to practice, and this would help improve the skill and expertise knowledge on construction
projects. Ayininuola and Olalusi in this regard accused the building construction professionals as those
responsible for the incessant building collapse witnessed in the country, due to their negligence to
construction works, poor attitude to work and lacking the required skill and expertise to function in that
capacity. It is clear that buildings built in this manner would be traced to the illegal adoption of foundation,
weak and inadequate concrete mix ratio. When doing your reinforcement, use of crude materials for
construction works, ineffective site supervision, excessive alteration on the original design, bad
communication on site, poor design and climatic conditions (Fakere et al., 2012). Despite the glamorous call
made by the citizens and the government on the frequency of building collapse witnessed, coupled with the
social economic and political practises of Nigerians. To contribute to the collapse of buildings through clients/
contractors willing to cut corners just to achieve a greater profit margin on the project, arising from greed,
negligence tendencies because of external and accentuating seismic forces (Tribune, 2016). In the same vein
(Oloyede et al., 2010) pointed that corruption in the building industry has eaten deep down the sector
causing reluctance to adopt the existing building codes, meant to detect and guide the flow of construction
works with lack of political will to enforce same by the Town Planning Authorities. Adebayo (2000) opined
that construction projects are now more profit driven, thus substituting the need for developing a sustainable
building with the right skill and expertise to achieving personal financial targets to stay afloat in the business.
As stated in the Global Corruption Report (2005), corruption has led to the dramatic increase in the cost of
building materials, thereby increasing the use of inferior grade building materials for construction and this, in
turn, affects the quality and standard of construction in the economy. Corruption is evident in different
stages such as, at contract award, planning and design stage, execution/ construction phase and hand over
on completion phase. Corruption may, however, exist in one or more forms in each of the identified stages
listed above. It includes bribery, deception, and collision, the result of this is reducing the standard of the
construction industry, increasing the cost of repair and maintenance and some defects that may never be
discovered until eventual collapse of the building (Ebehikhalu and Dawam, 2014). There is a high number of
engagement of inexperienced personnel to take charge of construction works. As stated by the Nigerian
Building and Road Research Institute (NBBRI, 2012), about 70% of the building collapse today are caused by
inadequacies in the right balance of experience, skill and expertise. The Nigerian construction industry consist
of the informal and formal sector (Kazeem et al., 2014). The formal sector comprises of all the professionals
in the industry, which include the engineers, architects, builders/ contractors, quantity surveyors, etc. and
these people are guided by strict regulations by the governments and the professional organisations. The
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defined the informal sector as a relaxed and friendly area. This
segment comprises of the bricklayers, iron benders, carpenters, mason, welders, artisans, etc. These are
individuals without any form of certification, training, education or licence, whose professional practises are
not held in high regard by the various organisations but supervised by the professionals to meet the standard
of buildings required. The individuals here only have the practical understanding and concept, but do not
understand the theoretical concept/ approach behind why certain decisions are made and the degree of the
importance of attaining sustainability in construction. According to Ayedun et al. (2012), the collapse of
buildings is primarily attributed to natural occurrences such as a rainstorm, earthquakes, flooding and
typhoons (Fagbenle and Oluwunmi, 2010), (Kumalasari and Fabian, 2003). Falobi (2009) added that collapse
of buildings is chiefly man-made borne out of man’s negligence on some of the basic skill and expertise. In
areas such as building texture and design, soil type, quality of construction materials, planning for external
loads and stress from winds and earthquake for tall buildings, inadequate supervision on construction
projects and poor quality of workmanship. The Dictionary of Architecture and Construction defined building
collapse as that which has a mechanical failure. Even an excellent design and constructed structure would not
stand on a wrong foundation due to the substitution in the processes made by the design professionals.
Dimuna (2010) puts all the blame on the nation's building professionals, saying they are the ones responsible
for providing the structural designs, site scheduling, traffic management plan, health and safety plan and
logistics. However, they are so many sides to this because after the designs are made, it goes for approval by
the government authorities and most of the times clients shun these professionals in other to cut cost and
gain profits in the end. Therefore, the process of approval and designs are not complete. That
notwithstanding, the Architects, Structural Engineers, Surveyors and Builders are not to be the only ones
responsible. According to Adebayo (2000), a conservative way to avert the building collapse that is impeding
the economy’s growth and restore success to the Nigerian construction industry would solely depend on
both the clients and contractor going for quality first instead of looking at the overall project cost. It means
the building developer should consider delivering a sustainable building worthy of merit, and should be ready
to pay the right price for it. However, the use of quality materials for construction, standard tools and
equipment’s, skilled labour and strict supervision should be carried out by the site supervisor, on a daily basis
with the Government performing routine checks periodically, during the project life cycle would help
eradicate this increasing occurrence of building collapse. The right skill is needed for the project to enhance
efficiency and to create valuable workmanship in construction.

CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE

1. Improper supervision

Building professionals both in practice and in government agencies more often are guilty of this practice
either due to negligence or they are not paid to do so, and Even where a structural design is not deficient,
absence of proper supervision on the site by qualified personnel can lead to building failure.
2. Construction errors

This manifest informs poor practice with regards to concrete work, inappropriate foundation, steel
fabrication (especially of long spoons) and inability to construct fine details by contractors. In Nigeria, many
of the building collapses occur during construction with 27.7% cases (Oloyede, Omoogun, and Akinjare 2010).

3. Poor construction

This has been the most important cause of structural failures, the engineer is also at fault. Here, if inspection
has been lax (i.e. not strict, severe or careful enough about work, rules or standard of behaviour). the
substitution of inferior steel for specified one; bad riveting or even improper lightening torque of nuts,
excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line up, bad welds, and other practices well known to the
construction worker.poor construction arises when contractors fail to carry out the works in accordance with
architects and engineers’ specifications. They do this in order to maximize profit. Others areas of concern
include poor concrete mixes, premature removal of formworks.

4. Client undue interference

Sometimes the client makes serious changes and variations at advanced stage of construction with the
contractor without seeking building consultants’ advice. Clients undue interference include clients not ready
to pay for quality jobs, (Biniyat 2013; Odunisi 2019).
5. Client penchant to cut corners

A study of collapsed buildings shows that most of them are residential buildings and owned by individuals.
What this meant is that, one person takes all the decisions concerning the construction; due process is not
followed. Nigerian client (mostly individuals) have a penchant for cutting corners by not employing qualified
personnel to produce the contract documents and supervise the building while under construction, as they
want to spend minimum (not optimum) amount of money on the construction (Madu, 2005). Even where
qualified professionals are employed for design and supervision, most clients insist on having the final say on
what goes on in the site to the detriment of proper execution of the contract. Unfortunately, if there is any
mishap on site, the client put the blames on the consultants and the contractor. It is therefore obvious that
client’s penchant to cut corners is one of the problems in the building production process.

6. Client over reliant on contractor on decision making on site

Most client rely on contractors than consultants on site. This is because most contractors are either their
friends, relations of the clients, or are recommended by friends or relations. The result of this relationship is
that client rely more on the contractors for decision making than on the consultants. What the clients fails to
realize however, is that profit is the prime motive of most contractors and not because the contractor is
saving them some cost. They end up reducing the thickness of floor slabs and foundation and even
foundation depth; sizes of reinforcement rods, head room (height) of structures, all in attempt to maximise
profit to the detriment of the construction, and because most clients cannot read drawings, they are ‘taken
for a ride’ by most contractors. It is only when building falls that these facts come to the surface. Even for big
projects owned by corporate bodies and governments etc., the contractors seem to have special relationship
with agents of the clients, some desperate contractors use blackmail and intimidation to scare away and
discourage consultants from project sites.

7. Commercial dishonesty

Contractors cut corners for profit. The quality of materials is not up to standard, the investor also may be
aware of this but deliberately used these materials. Another angle to this is that the professional might have
been "settled" to test a new material and if the test “fails” this could lead to collapse see figure 5 and 6
(Adeniran 2013).

8. Natural Causes of building failure

These include earthquake, force majeure, wildfires and earth tremor. These may occur without any warning
but sometimes show the signs, which are not adequately addressed at the design and supervision stage
(Olagunju, Aremu, and Ogundele 2013). One of the major natural factors that result into building collapse is
rainfall; others may include temperature, pressure, etc. When there is a heavy downpour of rain, there is a
possibility that one or more buildings (completed or uncompleted), somewhere, would carve in (Chinwokwu,
2000). The fact remain that this is a natural factor that cannot be stopped, buildings therefore need to be
constructed adequately bearing in mind such uncontrollable factors

9. Man-made causes of building failure

These include terrorist activities, Arson, Riots and Wars. The World Trade Centre collapsed as a result of a
terrorist activity; many buildings in Allepo Syria were demolished by bombs (Oke 2011).
10. Wear and tear

This is as a result of additional floors constructed on existing buildings, which were not designed or have
suffered enough wear and tear as not to be able to carry additional loads. The collapse of Synagogue church
building in Lagos was said to have been designed for two floors only but additional four floors were being
constructed illegally. However, the claim was disputed by the church. Wear and tear could take the form of
gradual weakening of structure overtime due to weathering. Weakness could occur if there is a broken pipe
or flooding. Barnawa housing estate collapse in Kaduna was said to be as a result of broken pipe leakage
(Oke2011).

11. Foundation failure

Foundation is one of the major structural members of any building and any problem arising from it will surely
affect the whole building. Fadamiro (2002) averred that the crushing and collapse of concrete footing or
other foundation members are usually due to unequal settlements which may be cause by changing sub-
grade condition or by wrong assumptions in the design, inadequate or unequal support for foundations, soil
and ground water movements as well as expanding soils. Hence, the most common form of abuse of
foundation occurs due to abnormal loading situations especially in structures being converted to new use or
having additional floors The findings show that the top-rated cause of building collapse in Nigeria is
weak/faulty foundations. In the same vein, the research was done on “the empirical ascertainment of the
causes of building collapse in Nigeria” by Ayedun et al. (2012) adduced weak/faulty foundation as the top-
ranked cause of building collapse. This is because strict measures are not put in place to ascertain if the right
foundation is adopted, unlike in the UK where the building control officer from the National House Building
Council (NHBC) comes to ensure that quality and standard specifications are put in place to enhance
sustainability. It was reported (Naija247News, 2016) that the recent fourstorey building collapse in Abuja that
claimed the lives of two persons was a result of a wrong foundation. Therefore, this is no surprise why the
respondents agree that weak and faulty foundation are one of the leading causes of building collapse. A
building structure can collapse if founded on poor sub-soil, or if the building is not uniformly loaded or if
suitable foundation was not specified according to soil nature or due to soil erosion or earth movement
under the foundation. Even an excellently designed and constructed structure will not stand on a bad
foundation. Although the structure will carry its loads, but the earth beneath may not. The living Tower of
Pisa is a famous example of bad foundations, but there are many others. The St. Paul, Minnesota, sink to feet
or more into soft clay, but did not collapse. The displacements due to bad foundation may alter stress
distribution significantly. This was such a problem with railway bridges in America that statically determine
trusses were greatly preferred, since they are not subject to this danger.

12. Extraordinary Loads

These are often natural such as repeated heavy snowfalls, or the shaking of an earthquake or the winds of a
hurricane. A building that is intended to stand for some years should be able to meet these challenges. A
flimsy flexible structure may void destruction in an earthquake, while a solid masonry building would be
destroyed. Earthquake may cause foundation problems when moist filled land liquefies which can cause
building failure.

13. Brief and design deficiency:

The inadequacies in the brief supplied by the clients can bring about defects evenat the inception of the
project when client fail to give all the necessary information on the functional requirements of the building
(Fadamiro, 2002). He further said that design deficiencies also come under calculation errors, bearing support
problems, deformation, secondary stresses, elastic cracking, temperature and shrinkage problems, detailing
and drafting problems, errors in assumed loading, changes and alterations in existing buildings, further more
Bad Design also does not mean only errors of computation, but a failure to take into account the loads the
structure will carry, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate data, ignorance of the effect of repeated
impulsive stresses, and improper choice of material or understanding of their properties. The engineer is
responsible for these failures, which arecreated at the drawing boardall contributing substantially to building
structural failures, disasters and may finally lead to building collapse.

14. Quality management: The need for stringent quality control in material utilization within the construction
industry in Nigeria today cannot be over emphasized (Olusola, 2002). The neglect quality control in the
construction industry has resulted in many defective and ugly looking buildings and the rise in number of
collapse buildings in the past years.

15. Material and Testing Variability.

This has to do with the difficulties that contractors experience in consistently obtaining and/or producing
good quality materials as well as the ability of the client’s representative to understand the correct control
values or make the necessary computation in the field. It goes further into the inability of manufactures to
make products of the same sizes and specified quality at all times. More so, there is difficulty of the client’s
representative in producing or interpreting field test results. It is often that many of them present on the field
are usually no more than clerk of works put there by the architect to record the daily operations.

16. Contractors’ Variability

This is the difficulty a client or his representative experiences on large-scale projects in having all the
contractors produce uniform standards of materials and workmanship. Different contractors have their
different means of production in terms of method of construction, technology involved, etc.
17. Poorly Skilled Workmen

This sometimes in conjunction with contractors’ variability is one of the reasons behind the incidents of
building collapse in Nigeria. The level of competencies of different categories of labour in Nigerian building
industry (though varies from one city and contractor to another), through investigation, is found to be
reducing day after day. It has been noted that even the workmen that went through apprenticeship training
are no better than their master. Poor skill makes it difficult or impossible for workers to perceive and apply
the concepts of quality control and limits of tolerance for building production (Olusola, 2002).
18. Inadequate Maintenance.

Generally, less attention is paid to maintenance in Nigeria as observed by Dare (2002). Normally, the
maintenance of a building should start from the very time excavation is dug. For instance, if the foundation
excavation shares before or after placement of concrete, it must be cleared and maintained because earth
impurities impair the strength of concrete.
19. Unprofessional conduct.

Generally, it is believed that unprofessional conducts contribute in not small measure to the menace of
building collapse in Nigeria. Such unprofessional conduct such as bribe collection from contractors,
professional acting in the capacity beyond the scope of his profession, etc. has a negative effect indirectly on
the building and may finally result into building collapse. The role of professionals in the construction of
buildings in Nigeria is such a fundamental one (Adebayo, 2005). It is therefore a shame that a large
population of building construction in the country still does not have the full participation of the relevant
professionals

20. Inefficient stringent quality control in material utilisation and management

This was the next top rated prevalent cause of building collapse in the industry. According to Lakshmi (2015),
it is essential for monitoring quality control in projects, so that they comply with the standards of the built
environment, facilitate adequate and well-structured buildings that are reliable, with durable materials and
operating systems for long lasting and sustainable buildings. The lack of stringent quality control in the
management of the industry is inefficient, due to the disregard of the professionals who have not earned
themselves some credit because corruption, and design inefficiencies exist concurrently (Adebowole et al.,
2016). The respondents adduced the lack of adequate enlightenment on the consequences of building
collapse while managing cost as the intriguing factor to low-quality material management.

21. Inadequate Maintenance.

Generally, less attention is paid to maintenance in Nigeria as observed by Dare (2002). Normally, the
maintenance of a building should start from the very time excavation is dug. For instance, if the foundation
excavation shares before or after placement of concrete, it must be cleared and maintained because earth
impurities impair the strength of concrete.

22. Unprofessional conduct.

Generally, it is believed that unprofessional conducts contribute in not small measure to the menace of
building collapse in Nigeria. Such unprofessional conduct such as bribe collection from contractors,
professional acting in the capacity beyond the scope of his profession, etc. has a negative effect indirectly on
the building and may finally result into building failure. The role of professionals in the construction of
buildings in Nigeria is such a fundamental one (Adebayo, 2005). It is therefore a shame that a large
population of building construction in the country still does not have the full participation of the relevant
professionals

23. Inefficient Workmanship (Labour)

Inefficient and fraudulent labour input can also contribute to failure of buildings. When a contractor cannot
read drawings, or where he refuses to listen to the instruction of the consultant, anything can happen.
Oyewande (1992) posited that faults on construction sites accounts for (40%) of collapse of
structures.Alteration of Approved Drawings During construction, many contractors either on the directive of
the client or in a bid to cut corners and maximize profit, alter approved building plans without corresponding
amendment to structural drawings to the detriment of the structure.
24. Building Without Approved Building Drawings Building without approved drawings or even no drawings
at all, can result to the collapse of the building. More so, when the drawings were not well vetted by qualified
professionals or relevant authorities before the buildings are erected. Consequently, without working
drawings, all construction is based on assumptions as earlier said, by this, several errors can creep in and can
lead to structural failure.

25. Approval of Technically Deficient Drawings

Town Planning authorities at times approve technically deficient drawings. This may be as a result of
ignorance on the part of Town Planning personnel who vet and approved these drawings or as a result of
outright corruption on their part. Money may at times change hands resulting in the approval of such
drawing

26. Illegal Alteration to Existing Buildings Client at times, on their own, alter existing structures (buildings)
beyond and above the original design without any working drawings, and relevant Town Planning approval
for such development. In some cases, existing bungalows have been converted to either a storey building or
two or threestorey structures without any drawings and supervision by qualified personnel. The result can be
anybody’s guess.

26. Absence of Town Planning Inspection or

Monitoring of Sites In some cases, Town Planning Authority staff seldom visit sites to inspect or monitor
progress of approved work in sites, the result of which is documented in their forms. Unfortunately, in many
cases, this inspections is non-existent. What this means is that buildings are put up without the Authority
knowing anything about the details of the construction. Unfortunately, these details are only known when
such buildings collapse and their elements get exposed for all to see. By that time, lives probably may have
been lost.

27. Use of Substandard Materials

Substandard material especially reinforcement rods, steel sections and cement can contribute immensely to
failure of buildings. Other substandard materials can also contribute to failure of buildings. Hall (1984)
posited that use of low quality materials is one of the major causes of structural failure. Aniekwu and Orie
(2006) in their study, also identified low quality materials as the most important cause of failure of
engineering facilities in Nigeria.

38. Inefficient Workmanship (Labour)

Inefficient and fraudulent labour input can also contribute to failure of buildings. When a contractor cannot
read drawings, or where he refuses to listen to the instruction of the consultant, anything can happen.
Oyewande (1992) posited that faults on construction sites accounts for (40%) of collapse of structures.
39. Use of Acidic and Salty Water
Use of acidic and salty water, as sources from oceans and seas in cities like Lagos and PortHarcourt can affect
the strength of concrete when used to effect the mix of cement, and sand and rods.
40. The Activities of Quacks
The incursion of quacks in the building industry is also a causative factor for building failure. A cursory look at
the building industry in Nigeria today reveals a preponderance of individuals who are ill-equipped to carry
out functions associated with construction. The industry has had more than it fair share of the activities of
quacks and have nothing at stake whenever problems arise. The unsuspecting public is also at a loss
differentiating the real professionals from the quacks until the real harm has been done. Today, it is not
strange to find staff of Town Planning offices who are mainly

Spiritual Attack.

In the Nigerian context, some research also shows that charm and spiritual attack can lead to building
collapse, even if the building is free from any structural defect. If there is an existing problem on land issue or
people fighting on a piece of land, some may go extra mile by using charm or placing charm on the site of
development or while developing the building before completion, it will collapse, and no structural fault will
be trace to it