Common Disorders of Amazons, Australian
Parakeets, and African Grey Parrots
Bruce S. Levine, DVM, ABVP-Avian and Companion Animal Practice
Amazons, Australian Parakeets, and African Grey Par-
rots are more and more becoming popular pets. In
order to provide better service to these species, the
veterinary practitioner must become familiar with their
common medical problems. In this article, w e will dis-
cuss the common medical disorders seen in these spe-
cies.
9 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Key words: Avian, medicine, husbandry, psittacine,
Amazon, African Grey, Grass parakeets, rosellas,
Neophema, Amazona.
A m a z o n Parrots
mazona are probably the best known among
A the public of the New World Psittacines.
Medium to large sized, with heavy bills and
slightly r o u n d e d tails, there are 27 members of
this genus found t h r o u g h o u t Central America,
South America, and the Carribean, 12 of which
are considered threatened or endangered. The
naked cere is prominent, with a distinct notch in
the u p p e r mandible. Immature Amazon Parrots
have dirty grey-brown irises, which change at 2 to
3 years to red, red-orange, or chestnut-brown.
The most popular species kept as pets are the
Blue-Fronted Amazon, A m a z o n a aestiva, the
Green-Cheeked Amazon, A m a z o n a viridigenalis,
the Lilac-Crowned Amazon, A m a z o n a woodi, the
Yellow-Naped Amazon, A m a z o n a auropalliata,
and the Double Yellow-Headed Amazon, Ama-
zona oratrix (Figs 1 and 2). With the exception of
the Yellow-Lored Amazon, A m a z o n a xantholora,
and the White-Fronted Amazon, A m a z o n a albin-
frons, which are sexually dimorphic, all require
endoscopic examination or DNA probes to de-
termine gender.
These are relatively long-lived birds with life
spans of up to 60 years. T h o u g h prized as good
talkers, these species, and particularly the males,
tend to be strong willed and aggressive, often
bonding to only one m e m b e r of the household
on reaching sexual maturity. ~
Respiratory disease is probably the most com-
m o n complaint seen in pet Amazons. 2,3 The up-
per a n d / o r lower respiratory tract can be ef-
Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol 12, No 3 (July), 2003: pp 125-130
fected with symptoms such as nasal discharge,
conjunctivitis, periof'bital edema, coughing, dys-
pnea, and sneezing. Gram-negative enteric bac-
teria (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter
sp., Pseudomonas sp., etc.) and Chlamydophilia
psittaci are the most frequent offending organ-
isms, though Aspergillus sp. and Mycobacterium sp.
infections can occur on occasion. Squamous
metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium due to
hypovitaminosis A may predispose pets on p o o r
diets to these infections. Bacterial culture, chla-
mydial polymerase chain reaction, radiography,
and cytology are useful for determining p r o p e r
antimicrobial therapy. In cases of abscessation of
the respiratory tract, surgical d e b r i d e m e n t may
be necessary to resolve the problem.
Another c o m m o n presentation of infectious
disease is septicemia. 4 Clinical signs range from
mild lethargy to severe shock and depression.
Diarrhea, respiratory symptoms, polyuria, and
even feather loss may be present. Diagnosis can
be made via complete blood count (CBC), blood
chemistries, radiology, a n d / o r cloacal bacterial
culture and sensitivity.
Obesity is a frequent complaint in these spe-
cies. 5-7 Inactivity combined with a high fat intake
(in particular, an all-seed diet) is the etiology of
this syndrome. Avian obesity can result in such
problems as fatty liver, lack of stamina due to
impingement of fat on the air sacs, atherosche-
rosis of the coronary arteries and other blood
vessels, and even stroke due to fat emboli from
hypercholesteroemia. 8-13 In addition to institut-
ing a p r o p e r diet and a more active lifestyle,
hypolipenfic agents such as pravastitin (Prava-
From the Bird and Exotic Animal Practice of Orange Courtly,
Tustin, CA.
Address correspondence requests to: Bruce S. Levine, DVM,
ABVP, Avian and Companion Animal, 1142 El Camino Real,
Tustin, CA 92780.
9 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
10554937X/03/1203-0131530. 00/0
doi:l O.1053/saep.2003.00020-3
125
126 Bruce S. Levine

A chronic ulcerative dermatitis of the un-

feathered skin of the legs is a frequently seen
syndrome in A m a z o n a Y 5 Histopathology is highly
suggestive of allergic dermatitis, and anecdotal
evidence indicates these birds are often exposed
to heavy tobacco smokers. In addition to chang-
ing the environment, antihistamines, nonsteri-
odal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticorticoste-
roids, and recently celecoxib (Celebrex, Pfizer,
New York, NY, USA) can be effective in control-
ling this syndrome. Because corticosteroid ther-
apy can cause systemic infections secondary to
lowering of the i m m u n e system in avian species,
care must be taken in their use. Both a pretreat-
merit cloacal G r a m stain and culture should be
screened for Gram-negative enteric bacteria,
Figure 1. Yellow-Naped Amazon (Amazona ocracephala and the patient should be closely m o n i t o r e d for
auropalliata) . any symptoms of systemic infection during the
course of therapy.
Constrictive toe syndrome is characterized by
an annular b a n d of tissue encircling o n e or
chol Tablets, Birstol-Myers Squibb Products,
m o r e digits, causing swelling and even necrosis
New York, NY, USA) can help lower the inci-
of the digit distal to the band. 26 Surgically
dence of heart failure and stroke.
transecting the longitudinal b a n d can restore
Tuberculosis is occasionally seen in Amazons
distal circulation if the disorder is p r e s e n t e d
with mycobacterial tubercles involving the skin,
early enough. In cases involving necrosis, ampu-
subcutis, liver, skeleton, a n d / o r kidney. Mycobac-
tation of the digit is necessary.
terium a v i u m is the most c o m m o n species impli-
Papillomatosis can occur as either discreet
cated. Diagnosis is m a d e by d e m o n s t r a t i o n of
polyps or a small raised hyperemic area on the
the acid-fast positive bacteria in aspiration
cloacal or choanal mucosa. 27-32A viral etiology is
smears or biopsy of effected tissues. 14-19 Combi-
suspected, although n o n e has yet b e e n d e m o n -
nation c h e m o t h e r a p y with clarithromycin
strated on tissue culture or electron microscopy.
(Bioxan Oral Suspension, Abbott Laboratories,
Abbott Park, IL, USA), e t h a m b u t o l (Myambutol
Tablets, Elan Pharmaceuticals, San Diego, CA,
USA), and rifampin (Rifadin Capsule, Aventis
Pharmaceuticals, Bridgewater, NJ, USA) has
b e e n successful in m a n y casesY ~ T h e veterinar-
ian should take into account the risk of shedding
the organisms to the h u m a n s and o t h e r animals
of the household before attempting treatment.
Feather loss is one of the most c o m m o n rea-
sons for veterinary presentation of Amazons.
The etiology can be multifactorial a n d complex,
such as septicemic alopecia, allergic dermatitis,
infectious bacterial and fungal dermatitis ovar-
ian cysts, sexual frustration, and psychosis. CBC,
blood chemistries, radiology, and skin biopsies
may be necessary to determine the cause of the
feather loss. No Amazon should ever be called a
psychological feather picker without first run-
ning the a p p r o p r i a t e workup. 22-24 Figure 2. Blue-Fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva).
 Amazons, Australian Parakeets; African GreyParrots
In the cloaca, these growths can u n d e r g o neo-
plastic transformation to carcinoma. In addi-
tion, papillomatosis has also b e e n associated
with a high incidence of biliary and pancreatic
adenocarcinoma. 3s Surgical removal can be ac-
complished with silver nitrate cautery, electro-
cautery, or laser abalation, but the reoccur-
rencerate is high. 34,35
Epilepsy is a syndrome seen a m o n g Red-
Lored Amazons, A. autumnalis. T h o u g h the eti-
ology remains unknown, seizures can be con-
trolled when necessary with pentobarbital and
other anticonvulsives. 36
A viral tracheitis has b e e n observed a m o n g
A m a z o n s F ,~8 The disease is often fatal via as-
phyxiation f r o m the resultant obstruction f r o m
necrotic debris and tracheal edema. Diagnosis is
m a d e by demonstration of viral intranuclear in-
clusion bodies on histological examination of
tissues.
Pox viral infections were once c o m m o n
a m o n g the Amazona, particularly in newly im-
ported Blue-Fronted Amazon, A. aestiva.39-41
T h r e e forms of the disease are seen with this
highly contagious virus: acute, diptheritic, and
cutaneous. T h e acute f o r m is the most rare, with
affected bird dying suddenly with little prelimi-
nary signs. Diagnosis is m a d e by the demonstra-
tion of Bollinger bodies in affected tissues. The
diptheritic form presents as p s e u d o m e m b r a n e -
ous plaques on the surfaces of the oral, esopha-
geal, a n d / o r crop mucosa. Prognosis for these
birds is generally poor, with diagnosis m a d e by
histopathology. The most c o m m o n form, cuta-
neous, results in proliferative lesions on the skin,
especially involving the head, eyelids, and non-
feathered portions of the legs. T r e a t m e n t is
symptomatic, including topical antibiotics for
secondary infection and to protect the cornea
f r o m eyelid abrasions. T h e disease is self-limited,
often disappearing in 2 to 4 weeks.
With better avian diets and m a n a g e m e n t , Am-
azons are living longer and veterinarians are
seeing m o r e neoplasia in these patients than
ever before. Lipomas, lymphosarcomas, and fi-
brosarcomas are a m o n g the most c o m m o n neo-
plasms seen in Amazona. In addition to surgical
m a n a g e m e n t , modalities such as c h e m o t h e r a p y
and radiation therapy have b e e n utilized with
success in a limited n u m b e r of patients. 42,4a
127
Australian Parakeets
(Grass Parrots and Rosellas)
Due to their bright plumage, small size, a n d
ease of b r e e d i n g in captivity, these Australian
psittacines are gaining in popularity as pets. T h e
Neophema most often seen in captivity are
Bourke's Parrot, N. bourkii, Turquoise Parrot, N.
pulchella, and Rock Parrot, N. pet~vphilia. These
psittacines are called "grass parrots" due to their
semiterrestrial habits in the wild. Lately, there
has b e e n a practical explosion of captive color
mutations a m o n g m e m b e r s of this genus. These
tend to b e high-strung and nervous birds, often
displaying intraspecific aggression or fighting.
Frantic flight with crashing into walls is c o m m o n
in young fledglings a n d can lead to serious in-
jury.
T h e Platycerus or Rosellas most often seen in
practice are the Golden Mantle or Eastern
Rosella (Platycerus eximius) and the Crimson or
P e n n a n t ' s Rosella (Platycerus elegans). Medium-
sized birds with colored cheek patches, these are
gaining in popularity as pets as aviaries b e c o m e
m o r e successful in b r e e d i n g these species. Like
the Neophema, Rosella color mutations are be-
coming m o r e c o m m o n l y seen in our practice. As
pets, these birds tend to be shy and quiet, with
melodious voices. Both Rosellas and grass par-
rots are generally p o o r talkers.
Bacterial and chlamydial respiratory infec-
tions are a c o m m o n complaint in both these
groups. Often presented as acute and fulminat-
ing disease, especially a m o n g grass parrots, sup-
portive care as well as appropriate antimicrobial
therapy is i m p o r t a n t to a successful out-
come.44. 45
Proventricular parasitism is a c o m m o n find-
ing in these species. N e m a t o d e s such as Dys-
pharnx sp. can burrow into the mucosal lining,
resulting in mucosal inflammation, thickening,
ulceration, and nodular formation. T h e chronic
proventriculitis can cause gastrointestinal ob-
struction with chronic vomiting and wasting.
T r e a t m e n t with febendazole (Panacur Paste,
DPT Laboratories, San Antonio, TX, USA) or
levamisole (Levasol Injectable Dewormer Solu-
tion, Schering-Plough, Union, NJ, USA) can be
effective.46. 47
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m seen in Neophema is
Paramyxovirus-3 infection (PM-3).75-77
128 Bruce S. Levine
Figure 3. African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus
erithacus) .
Clinical signs are depression and varying de-
grees of anorexia, but in 1 or 2 days the patient
may manifest neurological signs such as portcul-
lis, opisthonis, head bobbing, a n d / o r unilateral
or bilateral limb paralysis. In some patients,
PM-3 can target the pancreas, causing a pancre-
atic insufficiency syndrome. Affected birds show
symptoms of weight loss, with voluminous stools
containing fat and undigested starch. Diagnosis
is made by demonstration of a nonsupperative
encephalomyelitis on histology and viral isola-
tion. Inclusion bodies may be demonstrated on
endoscopic pancreatic biopsy in birds showing
the pancreatic inefficiency syndrome. Prognosis
is poor.
African Grey Parrots
F o u n d t h r o u g h o u t most of Western Central
Africa, the African Grey Parrot, Psittacus e~tha-
cus, is one of the most popular of caged birds
(Fig 3). T h e r e are two subspecies: the larger and
more c o m m o n Congo Grey, P. erithacus princeps,
and the smaller and more slender-necked Tim-
neh Grey, P. erithacus timneh. These large, stocky
parrots have a characteristic bare facial area with
short, hairlike bristles. Intelligent and even-tem-
pered, these birds are often prized for their
uncanny mimicry abilities. When aroused, they
make a unique growling sound. The Congo grey
is slightly sexually dimorphic, with the male hav-
ing darker wings and red feathers a r o u n d the
vent.
Choanal atresia is a c o m m o n congenital ab-
normality in this species. 48 Signs include chronic
nasal and sinus infections unresponsive to anti-
microbial therapy. Diagnosis is made by demon-
strating a lack of communication between the
nasal cavity and oropharanx with direct or en-
doscopic visualization. A surgical p r o c e d u r e to
create a fistula between the nasal cavity and oro-
p h a r n x has been described in the literature. 49
Respiratory disease is a frequent complaint in
this species. In addition to bacterial and chla-
mydial infectionS, aspergillosis of the u p p e r and
lower respiratory tract is very common, with for-
mation of granulomatous nodules in the nasal
cavity, sinuses, lungs, and air sacs. 5~ Rapid di-
agnosis by serology and biopsy is critical for the
institution of antifungal therapy such as flucon-
azole (Difllucan Oral Suspension, Pfizer Inc.,
New York, NY, USA) and terbinafine (Lamisil
Tablets, Novartis Consumer Health, Summit, NJ,
USA).5a-57 Idiosyncratic reactions to itraconazole
(Sporanox Oral Solution, Janssen Pharmaceu-
tica, Titusville, NJ, USA) have been r e p o r t e d in
this species.
A hypocalcemia syndrome has been de-
scribed in African greys. Symptoms include
tremors, tetanus, and seizures. These are often
seen in birds on low-calcium, all-seed diets.
T r e a t m e n t with supplemental calcium and vita-
min D3, along with dietary correction, will often
resolve signs. 5<59
In most psittacine species, psittacine proven-
tricular disease is a viral neuropathy causing in-
flammation and dysfunction of the visceral
nerves, a~ Gastrointestinal signs such as regur-
gitation and maldigestion are related to atony of
the gastrointestinal tract, especially the proven-
triculus. In the African grey, this disease often
presents as a syndrome involving the central
nervous system, with signs ranging from gener-
alized weakness to seizures. Celecoxib, a nonste-
roidal anti-inflammatory drug, has recently been
shown to control some of the clinical signs of
this disease. Prognosis is guarded to poor, de-
pending on the stage of the disease. ~5
Feather loss is a c o m m o n complaint in Afri-
can greys. 66-6s T h o u g h internal disease, sexual
frustration, allergic atopy, and psittacine beak
and feather disease a9 have all been diagnosed in
this species, psychogenic feather picking is the
diagnosis for approximately half the cases we see
in our practice. After ruling out organic disease
through a full diagnostic workup including
blood chemistries, psittacine beak and feather
 Amazons; Australian Parakeets, African Grey Pa'~rots
disease antigen, and skin biopsy, control of the
problem should include environmental enrich-
m e n t s , s u c h as i n c r e a s e d i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h f a m i l y
m e m b e r s a n d a w i d e v a r i e t y o f "toys" s u c h as
f o o d . 7~ I n m a n y cases, p s y c h o a c t i v e d r u g s s u c h
as n a l t r e x a n e ( D e p a d e T a b l e t s , M a l l l i n c k o d t , St.
L o u i s , M O , U S A ) , 71 h a l o p e r i d o l ( H a l d o l I n j e c -
t i o n , O r t h o - M c N e i l P h a r m a c e u t i c a l , R a r i t a n , iNJ,
U S A ) , 72,73 a n d f l u o x e t i n e ( P r o z a c T a b l e t s , Eli
Lilly, I n d i a n a p o l i s , IN, U S A ) 74 c a n b e u s e d t o
help modify behavior.
References
1. Welle KR: Psittacine behavior. Proc Conf Assoc Avian
Vet 371-377, 1998
2. Antinoff N: Understanding and treating the infraorbital
sinus and respiratory system. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet
339-350, 2000
3. Hillyer EV, Orosz S, Dorrestein GM: Respiratory system,
in Altman RB, Clubb SL, Dorrestien GM, Quesenberry
KE (eds): Avian Medicine and SurgeU. Philadelphia, Saun-
ders, 1997, pp 387-411
4. Jenkins J: Emergency medicine, in Rosskopf WJ, Woer-
pel RW (eds) : Diseases of Cage and Aviary Birds, 3rd ed.
Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins 1996, pp 364
5. Harrison G, Harrison L: Nutritional diseases, in Harri-
son GJ, Harrison LR (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine and
Surgery. Philadelphia, Saunders, 1986, pp 397-407
6. Lothrop C, et al: Miscellaneous diseases, in Harrison GJ,
Harrison LR (eds) : Clinical Avian Medicine and Surgery.
Philadelphia, Saunders, 1986, pp 525-535
7. LaBonde J: Obesity in pet birds the medical problems
and management of the avian patient. Proc ConfAssoc
Avian Vet:l-6 1992
8. Oglesbee BL, Oglesbee MJ: Results of postmortem ex-
amination of psittacine birds with cardiac disease: 26
cases (1991-1995). J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:1737-1742,
1998
9. Phalen DN, et al: Heart failure in a macaw with athero-
sclerosis of the aorta and brachiocephalic arteries. J Am
Vet Med Assoc 209:1435-1440, 1996
10. Vink-Nootboom M, Schoemaker NJ, Kik MJL, et al:
Clinical diagnosis of aneurysm of the right coronary
artery in a white cockatoo (Cacat'ua alba). J Small Anim
Pract 39:533-537, 1998
11. Nichols D, Montali RJ: Atherosclerosis in zoo birds. Lab
Invest 52:48-49, 1985
12. Johnson JH, Phalen DN, Kondik VH, et al: Atheroscle-
rosis in psittacine birds. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet:87-
93, 1992
13. Murphy, J: Psittacine fatty liver syndrome. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet:78-72, 1992
14. Montali RJ, et al: Mycobacterium tuberculosis in zoo and
wildlife species. Rev Sci Tech. 20:291-303, 2001
15. Clippinger TL, et ah Radiographic diagnosis-granulo-
matous pneumonia with intralesional acid-fast bacilli in
an Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). Vet Radiol Ultra-
sound 39:181-184, 1998
129
16. Keymer IF: Mycobacterium infections of birds. Tierarztl
Prax 18:255-258, 1990
17. Britt JO, et al: Psittacine tuberculosis. Cornell Vet 70:
218-25, 1980
18. VanDerHayden N: Clinical Manifestations of mycobacte-
riosis in pet birds. Sere Avian Exotic Pet Med 6:18-24,
1997
19. Ramsay E, Drew ML: Dermatitis associated with Mycoba~
ter'iumspp. in a Blue-Fronted Amazon Parrot. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet:252-254, 1991
20. Rosskopf WJ: Successful treatment of avian tuberculosis
in pet psittacines. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :238-251
1991
21. Lennox A: Successful treatment of mycobacteriosis in
three psittacine birds. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :111-
114, 2002
22. Clubb S, et al: Detection of inflamatory skin disease in
psittacine birds using paired skin biopsies. Proc" Conf
Assoc Avian Vet :193-199, 2002
23. Rosenthal, K: Differential diagnosis of feather-picking in
pet birds. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :108-112, 1993
24. Perry RA: A diagnostic approach to avian self-mutilation
syndromes. Proc ConfAssoc Avian Vet AC:159-178, 1994
25. Cooper J, Harrison G: Dermatology, in Richie B, Harri-
son G, Harrison L (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and
Application. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 632
26. Quesenberry K: Muscolskeletal disease, in Altman R, et
al (eds) Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia,
Saunders, 1997, pp 534-535
27. Graham, DL: Internal papillomatous disease a patholo-
gist's view or cloacal papillomas and then some! Proc
Assoc Avian Vet :141-143, 1991
28. Gallagher A: Internal papilloma disease: an overview.
Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet AC:71-74, 1997
29. Tachezy R, et al: Avian papillomaviruses: the parrot Psit-
tacus erithacus papillomavirus (PePV) genome has a
unique organization of the early protein region and is
phylogenetically related to the chaffinch papillomavirus.
BMC Microbiol 2:19, 2002
30. Phalen DL, et al: Investigations into the etiologic agent
of internal papillomatosis of parrots and ultrasono-
graphic and serum chemical changes in Amazon parrots
with bile duct carcinomas. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet
:53-56 1997
31. Phalen DL: Internal papillomatosis: a herpesviruses con-
nection? Proc ConfAssoc Avian Vet :45-48, 1998
32. Bonda M: Western blot immunoassay and immunohis-
tology supporting a papillomavirus as the etiology of a
cloacal papilloma/adenomatous polyp in a Hyacinth
macaw. Proc ConfAssoc Avian Vet :49-54, 1998
33. SundbergJP: Cloacal papillomas in psittacines. AmJ Vet
Res 47:928-932, 1986
34. AntinoffN: Treatment ofa cloacal papilloma by mucosaI
stripping in an Amazon parrot. Proc Conf Assoc Avian
Vet :97-100, 2000
35. Dvorak L, Bennett RA: Cloacotomy for excision of cloa-
cal papillomas in a Catalina nlacaw. Proc Conf Assoc
Avian Vet :223, 1997
36. Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW: Epilepsy in Red Lored kan-
azons. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :14-16, 1985
37. Gerlach, H: Viruses in, Richie B, Harrison G, Harrison L
130 Bruce S. Levine
(eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake
Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 876-877
38. Lowenstine L: Diseases of psittacines differing morpho-
logically from Pacheco's disease but associated with her-
pes-like particles. Proc West Pouh Dis Conf :105-106,
1982
39. Gerlach H: Viruses, in Richie B, Harrison G, Harrison L
(eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake
Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 865-874.
40. McDonald SE, et al: Avian pox in blue-fronted Amazon
parrots. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1218-1222, 1981
41. Boosinger TR, et al: Psittacine pox virus: virus isolation
and identification, transmission, and cross-challenge
studies in parrots and chickens. Avian Dis 26:437-444,
1982
42. Latimer KL: Oncology, in Ritchie B, Harrison G, Harri-
son L (eds) : Avian Medicine: Principles and Application.
Lake Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 640-672
43. Bauck L: Neoplasms, in Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW
(eds): Diseases of Cage and Aviary Bird, 3rd ed. Balti-
more, Williams and Wilkins, 1996, pp 480-489
44. Forbes AB: Avian respiratory diseases. Proc Conf Assoc
Avian Vet : 277-294, 1995
45. Tully T, Harrison G: Pneumonology, in Richie B, Harri-
son G, Harrison L (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and
Application. Lake Worth, FI., Wingers, 1994, pp 556-
5581
46. Grainer EC, Richi B: Parasites, in Richie B, Harrison G,
Harrison L (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Appli-
cation. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 1023
47. Tachezy R: Dispharynxiasis in a captive princess parrot.
J Wildl Dis 34:390-391, 1998
48. Greenacre CB, Watson E, Ritchie BW: Choanal atresia in
an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacuserithacus) and
an Umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba). J Assoc Avian Vet
7:19-22, 1993
49. Harris, D: Resolution of choanal atresia in African Grey
Parrots. Exotic DVM 1:13, 1999
50. Bauck L: Mycosis, in Richie B, Harrison G, Harrison L
(eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake
Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 1023
51. Jenkins R: Aspergillosis. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :328-
330, 1991
52. Shivaprasad HL: Spectrum of lesions (pathology) of
proventricular dilation syndrome. Proc Conf Assoc
Avian Vet :505-506, 1995
53. Flammer K: Antimicrobial therapy, in Richie B, Harrison
G, Harrison L (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and
Application. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers, 1994, pp 450-456
54. Dahlhausen B, et al: The use of terbinafine hydrochlo-
ride in the treatment of avian fungal disease. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet :35-39, 2000
55. Forbes NA, et ah Diagnosis of avian aspergillosis and
treatment with itraconazole. Vet Ree 6:130:519-520, 1992
56. Parrott T: Clinical treatment regimes with fluconazole.
Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :15-16, 1991
57. Flammer K: Fluconazole in psittacine birds. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet :203-204, 1996
58. Walsh MT: Seizuring in pet birds. Proc ConfAssoc Avian
Vet :121-128, 1985
59. Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW: Psittacine condifions and
syndromes. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :215-217, 1990
60. Graham DL: Infiltrative splanchnic neuropathy, a com-
ponent of the "wasting macaw" complex. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet :275, 1984
61. Mannl A, et al: Neuropathic gastric dialatation in
Psittacitbrmes. Avian Dis 31:214-221, 1987
62. Ritchie B, et al: Documentation of a PBFD virus variant
in Lories. Proc ConfAssoc Avian Vet :263-268, 2000
63. Gregory CR, et ah Progress in understanding proven-
tricular dilatation disease. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet
:269-275, 2000
64. Gregory CR, et al: Advances in understanding proven-
tricular dilatation disease (PDD) : detection of virus and
viral nucleic acid in infected birds. Proc Conf Assoc
Avian Vet :41-44, 2000
65. Dahlhausen B, et ah Resolution of clinical proventricular
dilatation disease by cyclooxygenase 2 inhibition. Proc
Assoc Avian Vet :9-12, 2002
66. Wilson L: Non-medical approach to the behavioral
feather plucker. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :3-10, 1996
67. Welle K: Clinical approach to leather picking. Proc Conf
Assoc Avian Vet :119-124, 1999
68. Oppenheimer J: Feather picking: systematic approach.
Proc Conf Assoe Avian Vet :314-315, 1991
69. Schoemaker NJ, et al: Severe leukopenia and liver ne-
crosis in young African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus
erithacus) infected with psittacine circovirus. Avian Dis
44:470-478, 2000
70. Wilson, L: Non-medical approach to the behavioral
leather plucker. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :3-9, 1996
71. Turner R: Trexan (naltrexone hydrochloride) use in
feather picking in avian species. Proc Conf Assoc Avian
Vet :116-118, 1993
72. Lennox A, VanDerHayden N: Long-term use of Halo-
peridol in two parrots. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :133-
137, 1999
73. Lennox A, VanDerHeyden N: Haloperidol fbr use in
treatment of psittacine self-mutilation and feather pluck-
ing. Proc Conf Assoc Avian Vet :119-120, 1993
74. Welle KR: A review of psychotropic drug therapy. Proc
Conf Assoc Avian Vet :121-124, 1998
75. Simpson VR: Suspected paramyxovirus-3 infection asso-
ciated with pancreatitis and nervous signs in Neophema
parakeets. Vet Rec 132:554-155,
76. VandDerHeyden N, Reed WM: Paramyxovirus group 3
infection of cockatiels. J Assoc Avian Vet 1:53-54, 1987
77. Shivaprasad HL: An overview of paramyxovirus 3
(PMV-3) infection in Psittacines and Passerines. Proc
Assoc Avian Vet 147-149, 1998