ANTENNA AND MICROWAVE

ENGINEERING
 COURSE OUTLINE
1. Transmission line:Transmission Lines: Basics, types of
transmission lines, Line characteristics impedance and physical
parameters. Signal propagation, Waveform distribution and
frequency dispersion, Transmission line of finite Lengths,
Reflection, Transmission and Propagation constants of
transmission line, Transmission line couplers.
2. Smith Chart and Scattering Parameters: Smith chart
Impedance, Admittance manipulation on the chart, Smith chart
theory and applications, Reflection coefficient, Impedance of
distributed circuits, Impedance matching, S-Parameters
3. Basic Features of Radio Communication Systems: Radio
communication systems, Radiowave propagation techniques,
Antenna properties and measurement of antenna
characteristics.
 COURSE OUTLINE (cont…..)
4. Array Antennas : Uniform linear array of Isotropic elements,
Polar diagram, Broadside array of equally spaced, equal
amplitude radiators, Endfire array of equally spaced, equal
amplitude radiators, Scanned line array beamwidth, Optimum
element spacing, Array design using the theory of polynomials.
Optimum spacing for broadside and end-fire arrays, Harsen
Condition, The binomial array, Supergain array, Chebysev array,
Pattern synthesis
5. Microwave Engineering: Strip Lines, Microstrip Lines, Coupled
Striplines/Coupled microstriplines, Microwave Filter Design,
Microwave Amplifier design, Power dividers, Directional
Couplers and Circulators
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
CLO TO PLO MAPPING:
S.No. CLO PLO Domain Taxonomy
(refer Level
Annexure A) (refer
Annexure
A)
1 Mismatch condition will be avoided. Impedance 1 cognitive C2
of load & line will be calculated.

2 Improvement in knowledge & understanding of 3 cognitive C2

phenomenon of Radio Communication.
Differentiate & design antennas. Design
Microwave Amplifier & Filter.
3 Knowledge & skill for calculation using the 5 Psychomotor P3
setup (instruments).
 BOOKS
1. Antenna Theory Analysis & Design, Latest Edition, Constantine A
Balanis
2. Electronic Communication Systems, 5th Edition, WayneTomasi
3. Antenna from Theory to Practice, Latest Edition, Kevin Boyle
4. RF & Microwave Engineering, 1st Edition, By Frank Gustrau, Wiley
 CHAPYER 1

TRANSMISSION LINES
 Waveguiding Structures
A wave guiding structure is one that carries a signal
(or power) from one point to another.

There are three common types:

▪ Transmission lines
▪ Fiber-optic guides
▪ Waveguides

7
 Transmission Line
Properties
▪ Has two conductors running parallel
▪ Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
▪ Becomes lossy at high frequency
▪ Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
▪ Does not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
▪ May or may not be immune to interference
▪ Does not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)

Twin lead
Coaxial cable (coax) (shown connected to a 4:1
impedance-transforming balun)
8
 Transmission Line (cont.)

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)

The two wires of the transmission line are twisted to reduce interference and
radiation from discontinuities.

9
 Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines commonly met on printed-circuit boards

w
er
h
er h w

Microstrip Stripline

w w w

er h er h

Coplanar strips Coplanar waveguide (CPW)

10
 Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines are commonly met on printed-circuit boards.

Microstrip line

A microwave integrated circuit

11
 Fiber-Optic Guide
Properties
▪ Uses a dielectric rod
▪ Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
▪ Can be made very low loss
▪ Has minimal signal distortion
▪ Very immune to interference
▪ Not suitable for high power
▪ Has both Ez and Hz components of the fields

12
 Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)
Two types of fiber-optic guides:

1) Single-mode fiber
Carries a single mode, as with the mode on a
transmission line or waveguide. Requires the fiber
diameter to be small relative to a wavelength.

2) Multi-mode fiber
Has a fiber diameter that is large relative to a
wavelength. It operates on the principle of total internal
reflection (critical angle effect).

13
Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)
Higher index core region

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
14
 Waveguides
Properties
▪ Has a single hollow metal pipe
▪ Can propagate a signal only at high frequency:  > c
▪ The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength
▪ Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case
▪ Immune to interference
▪ Can handle large amounts of power
▪ Has low loss (compared with a transmission line)
▪ Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or TEz)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide_(electromagnetism) 15
 Transmission-Line Theory

▪ Lumped circuits: resistors, capacitors,

inductors
neglect time delays (phase)

▪ Distributed circuit elements: transmission lines

account for propagation and

time delays (phase change)

We need transmission-line theory whenever the length of

a line is significant compared with a wavelength.

16
 Transmission Line
2 conductors

4 per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [/m] Dz

G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m] 17
 Transmission Line (cont.)
i ( z, t )

B x x x +++++++
----------
v ( z, t )

Dz

i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

18
 TRANSMISSION LINE

LECTURE 2
 Transmission Line (cont.)
i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

i ( z , t )
v( z , t ) = v( z + Dz , t ) + i ( z , t ) RDz + LDz
t
v( z + Dz , t )
i ( z , t ) = i ( z + Dz , t ) + v( z + Dz , t ) G Dz + C Dz
t
20
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence

v( z + Dz , t ) − v( z , t ) i ( z , t )
= − Ri ( z , t ) − L
Dz t
i ( z + Dz , t ) − i ( z , t ) v ( z + Dz , t )
= −Gv( z + Dz , t ) − C
Dz t

Now let Dz → 0:

v i
= − Ri − L
z t “Telegrapher’s
Equations”
i v
= − Gv − C
z t
21
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

v2
i   i 
= −R − L  
z 2
z z  t  Switch the
order of the
i   i  derivatives.
= −R − L  
z t  z 
 v 
= − R  −Gv − C 
 t 
 v  v2

− L  −G − C
 t t  2

22
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

v
2
 v   v  v 2

= − R  −Gv − C  − L  −G − C
z 2
 t   t t  2

Hence, we have:

v
2
v  v
2

− ( RG ) v − ( RC + LG ) − LC  =0
z 2
t  t 
2

The same equation also holds for i.

23
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Time-Harmonic Waves:

v 2
v  v
2

− ( RG ) v − ( RC + LG ) − LC  =0
z 2
t  t 
2

2
dV
− ( RG )V − ( RC + LG ) jV − LC (− )V = 0
2
2

dz
24
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
2
dV
= ( RG )V + j ( RC + LG )V − ( LC )V
2
2

dz

Note that

RG + j ( RC + LG ) −  LC = ( R + j L)(G + j C )
2

Z = R + j L = series impedance/length

Y = G + jC = parallel admittance/length

2
dV
Then we can write: = ( ZY )V
2
dz
25
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
2

 = ZY dV
= ( )V
2 2
Let Then
2
dz

Solution: V ( z ) = Ae − z
+ Be + z

 is called the "propagation constant."

 =  ( R + j L)(G + jC )
1/ 2
Convention:
z= z e j /2
= principal square root
−    

 =  + j  = attenuation contant
  0,   0  = phase constant
26
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive z direction):

V + ( z) = V0+ e− z = V0+ e− z e− j z


v + ( z , t ) = Re (V0+ e − z e − j  z ) e jt 
= Re ( V 0
+
e j e − z e − j  z )e 
jt

= V0+ e − z cos (t −  z +  )

The wave “repeats” when:

 = 2
g
t =0
g
+ − z Hence:
V e0

2
z =
g

27
 Phase Velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant phase), e.g., the
crest.

vp (phase velocity)

v+ ( z, t ) = V0+ e− z cos(t −  z +  )

28
 Phase Velocity (cont.)

Set t −  z = constant
dz
− =0
dt
dz 
=
dt 

 In expanded form:
Hence v = 
p
 v =
p


Im  ( R + j L)(G + jC ) 
1/ 2


29
 Characteristic Impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the positive z direction.

V + ( z)
Z0  +
I ( z)

+
V0
+
V ( z ) = V0 e + − z so Z0 = +
I0
I + ( z ) = I 0 + e− z
(Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)
30
 Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

Use Telegrapher’s Equation:

v i
= − Ri − L
z t

dV
so = − RI − j LI
dz
= − ZI

+ − z + − z
Hence − V0 e = −ZI0 e

31
 Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

V0+ Z  Z 
1/2

From this we have: Z0 = + = =  

I0  Y 

Using
Z = R + j L
Y = G + jC

1/2
We have  R + j L 
Z0 =  
 G + j C 

Note: The principal branch of the square root is chosen, so that Re (Z0) > 0.
32
 General Case (Waves in Both Directions)
V ( z ) = V0+ e +  z + V0− e +  z
j + + z − j  z j −
=V e e
0
+
e + V e e + z e + j  z
0
−

wave in +z
wave in -z
direction
Note: direction

v ( z , t ) = Re V ( z ) e jt 
= V0+ e− z cos (t −  z +  + )
+ V0− e+ z cos (t +  z +  − )

33
 Backward-Traveling Wave
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V − ( z) V − ( z)
−
= Z0 so = −Z0
−I ( z) −
I ( z)

Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same as
for the forward wave.

34
 General Case
I (z)
+
V (z)
- z

Most general case: A general superposition of forward and

backward traveling waves:

V ( z ) = V0 + e − z + V0 − e +  z Note: The reference

directions for voltage
1 and current are the
I ( z) = V0 + e − z − V0 − e +  z  same for forward and
Z0 backward waves.

35
 Summary of Basic TL formulas
I(z)
+ V(z)
-
z
V (z) = V e
0
+ − z − + z
+V e
0

V0+ − z V0− +  z
I ( z) = e − e
Z0 Z0 guided wavelength  g
 =  + j  = ( R + j L )( G + jC ) 
1
2
2

g =  m
 R + j L 
1
2 
Z0 =  
 G + j C 
phase velocity  vp

vp = [m/s]

36
 Lossless Case
R = 0, G = 0

 =  + j  = ( R + j L)(G + j C )
1/ 2

= j LC

 =0 
so vp =
 =  LC 

1/2
 R + j L  L 1
Z0 =   Z0 = vp =
 G + jC  C LC
(real and indep. of freq.) (indep. of freq.)
37
 Lossless Case (cont.)
1
vp =
LC
In the medium between the two conductors is homogeneous (uniform)
and is characterized by (e, ), then we have that

LC = e (proof given later)

1
The speed of light in a dielectric medium is cd =
e

Hence, we have that v p = cd

The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is always the
speed of light (in the material).
38
 TRANSMISSION LINE

LECTURE 3
 Terminated Transmission Line
Terminating impedance (load)
V ( z ) = V0+ e− z + V0−e+ z
I(z)
+ V(z)
ZL
Ampl. of voltage wave -
z
propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0. z=0
Ampl. of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
direction at z = 0.

Where do we assign z = 0?

The usual choice is at the load.

Note: The length l measures distance from the load: = −z

40
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)
V ( z) = V e0
+ − z
+V e
0
− + z

I(z)
What if we know + V(z)
ZL
-
V + and V − @ z = − z
Can we use z = - l as z=0
a reference plane?

V0+ = V + ( 0 ) = V + ( − ) e− V − (− ) = V − ( 0 ) e−

 V0− = V − ( 0 ) = V − ( − ) e
Hence

V ( z) = V + (− )e +V − (− )e
− ( z + )  ( z+ )

41
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

I(z)
+ V(z)
ZL
-
z
z=0
Compare:

V ( z ) = V + ( 0 ) e − z + V − ( 0 ) e +  z

V ( z) = V + (− )e +V − (− )e
− ( z −( − ) )  ( z −( − ) )

Note: This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0 to z = -l.

42
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

V ( z ) = V0+ e− z + V0−e+ z Terminating impedance (load)

I(z)
+ V(z)
What is V(-l )? ZL
-
z
V (− ) = V0+e + V0−e− z=0

propagating propagating
forwards backwards

The current at z = - l is then

V0+  V0− −
I (− ) = e − e
Z0 Z0 l  distance away from load
43
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Total volt. at distance l
from the load
 V −
−2 
V (− ) = V0+ e + V0− e− + 
= V0 e 1 + + e 
0

Ampl. of volt. wave prop.
towards load, at the load
position (z = 0).
 V0 
Ampl. of volt. wave prop. L  Load reflection coefficient
away from load, at the
load position (z = 0). l  Reflection coefficient at z = - l

= V0+ e (1 +  L e−2 )
Similarly,
V0+ 
I (− ) = e (1 −  L e −2 )
Z0 44
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z (− )

V (− ) = V0+ e (1 +  e )
L
−2

V0+ 
I (− ) = e (1 −  L e −2 )
Z0
V (− ) = Z  1 +  L e−2 
Z (− ) = 0 
I (− )  1 −  L e −2


Input impedance seen “looking” towards load

at z = -l . 45
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
At the load (l = 0):

 1+ L  Z L − Z0
Z ( 0) = Z0    ZL  L =
 1− L  Z L + Z0

 1 +  L e−2 
Recall Z ( − ) = Z0  −2 
 1 −  L e 

Thus,   Z L − Z 0  −2 
 1+  e 
  Z L + Z0  
Z ( − ) = Z0
  Z − Z  −2 
 1 −  L 0
e 
  Z L + Z0  
46
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Simplifying, we have
  Z L − Z 0  −2 
 1+  e 
Z ( − ) = Z0   L
Z + Z 0  =Z  ( Z + Z ) + ( Z − Z ) e −2

0 
L 0 L 0
  Z − Z  −2   ( Z + Z ) − ( Z − Z ) e −2
 1 −  L   L 0 L 0 
e
0

  Z L + Z0  
 ( Z L + Z 0 ) e +  + ( Z L − Z 0 ) e − 
= Z 0  
 ( Z L + Z0 ) e − ( Z L − Z0 ) e
+ −

 Z cosh (  ) + Z 0 sinh ( ) 
= Z 0  L 
 Z 0 cosh (  ) + Z L sinh ( ) 

Hence, we have

 Z L + Z 0 tanh (  )
Z ( − ) = Z 0  
 Z 0 + Z L tanh (  )
47
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
 =  + j = j

V (− ) = V0+ e j (1 +  eL
−2 j 
)
Impedance is periodic
+
e (1 −  L e −2 j ) with period g/2
V j
I (− )= 0

Z0
tan repeats when
 1 +  L e−2 j  
Z ( − ) = Z0  −2 j  
 1 − Le 
 =
2
=
 Z L + jZ 0 tan (  ) g
Z ( − ) = Z 0  
 Z 0 + jZ L tan (  )
 = g / 2
Note: tanh ( ) = tanh ( j ) = j tan (  )
48
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
For the remainder of our transmission line discussion we will assume that the
transmission line is lossless.
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z (− )
V (− ) = V0+ e j (1 +  e
L
−2 j 
) Z L − Z0
V0+ j 
L =
I (− ) = e (1 −  L e −2 j  ) Z L + Z0
Z0
2
g =
Z (− ) =
V (−
)  1 +  L e −2 j 
= Z0 
 

I (− )  1 −  Le
−2 j 


 Z + jZ 0 tan (  ) vp =
= Z 0  L 
)  
 Z 0 + jZ L tan (  49
 Matched Load
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z (− )

A Matched load: (ZL=Z0)

Z L − Z0
L = =0
Z L + Z0
No reflection from the load
 V (− ) = V0+ e+ j
V0+ + j   Z (− ) = Z0
I (− ) = e
Z0 For any l 50
 Short-Circuit Load
B Short circuit load: (ZL = 0)
0 − Z0
L = = −1 Z0 , 
0 + Z0
 Z (− )= jZ 0 tan (  ) l

Note:  = 2
g Always imaginary!  Z (− )= jX sc

XSC X sc = Z0 tan (  )

inductive

/ g
0 1/4 1/2 3/4

capacitive S.C. can become an O.C.

with a g/4 trans. line
51
Using Transmission Lines to Synthesize Loads
This is very useful is microwave engineering.

A microwave filter constructed from microstrip.

52
 Example
d
I(-l)
+ ZTH
+
VTH Z0 =  V(-l) ZL
- -
l
Zin

Find the voltage at any point on the line.

 Z L + jZ 0 tan (  d ) 
Zin = Z ( −d ) = Z 0  
 Z 0 + jZ L tan (  d )  + ZTH
+
VTH V(-d) Zin
 Zin  -
 V ( −d ) = VTH  
 in
Z + Z TH 
53
 Example (cont.)
Note: V (− ) =V 0
+
e j
(1 +  e L
−2 j 
)
Z L − Z0
L =
Z L + Z0
At l = d :
 Zin 
V ( −d ) = V e
0
+ j d
(1 +  e L
− j 2 d
) = VTH  Z + Z 
 in TH 

+  Zin  − j d  1 
 V = VTH  e  − j 2 d 
 Zin + ZTH + 
0
  1 L e 
Hence

 Zin  − j ( d − )  1 +  L e− j 2  
V ( − ) = VTH  e  − j 2 d 
 Z m + ZTH   1 +  Le 
54
 Example (cont.)
 1 +  L e− j 2  d 
Some algebra: Zin = Z ( −d ) = Z 0  − j 2 d 
 1 −  L e 

 1 +  L e− j 2  d 
Z 0 (1 +  L e − j 2  d )
Z0  
Z in  1 −  L e− j 2  d 
 = =
Z in + ZTH  1 +  L e− j 2  d  Z 0 (1 +  L e − j 2  d ) + ZTH (1 −  L e − j 2  d )
Z0  − j 2 d 
+ ZTH
 1 −  L e 
Z 0 (1 +  L e − j 2  d )
=
( ZTH + Z 0 ) +  L e− j 2  d ( Z 0 − ZTH )
 Z0 
=
( 1 +  L e− j 2  d )

 TH
Z + Z 0   Z − ZTH 
1 +  L e− j 2  d  0 
 TH
Z + Z 0 

 Z0 
=
( 1 +  L e− j 2  d )

 TH
Z + Z 0   Z − Z0 
1 −  L e − j 2  d  TH 
 TH
Z + Z 0 

55
 Example (cont.)
Hence, we have

Zin  Z 0  1 +  L e− j 2  d 
=  
Zin + ZTH  Z 0 + ZTH  1 −  S  L e − j 2  d 

ZTH − Z 0
where S =
ZTH + Z 0

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

 Z0  − j ( d − )  1 +  L e− j 2  
V ( − ) = VTH  e  − j 2 d 
 Z 0 + ZTH   1 −  
S L e 

56
 Example (cont.)
d
I(-l)
+ ZTH
+
VTH Z0 =  V(-l) ZL
- -
l
Zin

 Z0  − j ( d − )  1 +  L e− j 2  
V ( − ) = VTH  e  − j 2 d 
 Z 0 + ZTH   1 − S  Le 

Voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from

the load (a semi-infinite transmission line or a matched load).

57
 Example (cont.)
d

+ ZTH
VTH Z0 =  ZL
-

Wave-bounce method (illustrated for l = d):

1 +  L e− j 2  d + (  L e− j 2  d )  S 
 Z0   
V ( −d ) = VTH   + (  L e )  S  (  L e ) + (  L e )  S (  Le )  S 
− j 2 d − j 2 d − j 2 d − j 2 d
 
 Z 0 + ZTH 
 + 
 

58
 Example (cont.)
1 +  L e− j 2  d + (  L e− j 2  d )  S 
 Z0   
V ( −d ) = VTH   + (  L e )  S  (  L e ) + (  L e )  S (  Le )  S 
− j 2 d − j 2 d − j 2 d − j 2 d
 
 Z 0 + ZTH 
 + 
 

1 + (   e − j 2  d ) + (   e − j 2  d )2 + 
 L S L S

 Z0  
V ( − d ) = VTH   +  e − j 2 d 
1 + (   e − j 2 d
) + (   e )+
− j 2 d 2
 
 Z 0 + ZTH
L L S L S
 
 + 
 

Geometric series:

1
 zn = 1+ z + z2 +
n =0
=
1− z
, z 1 z =  L S e− j 2  d

59
 Example (cont.)
Hence
 1 
 − j 2 d 
 Z0  1 −  L  s e 
V ( −d ) = VTH  
 Z 0 + ZTH  +  e− j 2  d  1 
  − j 2 d 
 1 −  L se
L
  

or
 Z0   1 +  L e− j 2  d 
V ( −d ) = VTH   − j 2 d 
 Z 0 + ZTH  1 −  
L s e 

This agrees with the previous result (setting l = d).

Note: This is a very tedious method – not recommended.

60
 Quarter-Wave Transformer

 Z L + jZ 0T tan   Z0 Z0T ZL
Zin = Z 0T  
 0T
Z + jZ L tan  
Zin
g
2 g 
 = = =
4 g 4 2 in = 0  Z in = Z 0
Z 02T
 jZ 0T   Z0 =
 Z in = Z 0T   ZL
 jZ L  This requires ZL to be real.

so
2
Z Hence
Z in = 0T

Z0T =  Z0 Z L 
1/2
ZL
61
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
I(-l )

V (− ) = V0+ e j (1 +  e )
L
−2 j 

Z0 , 
+
V(-l ) ZL
=V e 0
+ j
(1 +  e e )
L
jL −2 j 
-
l

V (− ) = V0+ 1 +  L e jL e− j 2  1+  L
V ( z)
1 V0+

Vmax = V0+ (1 +  L ) 1-  L

Vmin = V0+ (1 −  L ) Dz =  / 2
z
z=0

Vmax
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( VSWR ) =
Vmin
1 + L
VSWR =
1 − L 62
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
CONTINUED
• The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called
the VSWR, “for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the
VSWR value1.2:1 denotes maximum standing wave
amplitude that is1.2 times greater than the minimum
standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in
terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which has the same
numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is
defined as the square of the VSWR.
• A problem with transmission lines is that impedance
mismatches in the cable tend to reflect the radio waves back
toward the source end of the cable, preventing all the power
from reaching the destination end. SWR measures the
relative size of these reflections.
 VSWR COTINUED

• An ideal transmission line would have an SWR of1:1, with all

the power reaching the destination and no reflected power.
An infinite SWR represents complete reflection, with all the
power reflected back down the cable. The SWR of a
transmission line can be measured with an instrument called
an SWR meter, and checking the SWR is a standard part of
installing and maintaining transmission lines.
• The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform
transmission line consists of the forward wave (with
amplitude) superimposed on the reflected wave (with
amplitude).
 VSWR CONTINUED

• Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an

imperfection in an otherwise uniform transmission line, or
when a transmission line is terminated with other than its
characteristic impedance. The reflection coefficient is defined
thus:
• is a complex number that describes both the magnitude
and the phase shift of the reflection. The simplest cases,
when the imaginary part of is zero, are:
•: maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited,
•: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched,
•: Maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.