CH 04

CHAPTER 4
Metal Alloys: Their Structure and

Strengthening by Heat Treatment
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 4-1
Induction-Hardened Surface
Figure 4.1 Cross-section of

gear teeth showing
induction-hardened
surfaces. Source: TOCCO
Div., Park-Ohio Industries,
Inc.
Chapter 4 Outline
Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.
Two-Phase System
Figure 4.3 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout
the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid
solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-
phase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have
separate compositions and properties.
Cooling Curve
Figure 4.4 Cooling curve for
the solidification of pure
metals. Note that freezing takes
place at a constant temperature;
during freezing the latent heat
of solidification is given off.
Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram
Figure 4.5 Phase
diagram for nickel-
copper alloy system
obtained at a slow
rate of solidification.
Note that pure nickel
and pure copper each
has one freezing or
melting temperature.
The top circle on the
right depicts the
nucleation of
crystals. The second
circle shows the
formation of
dendrites (see
Section 10.2). The
bottom circle shows
the solidified alloy,
with grain
boundaries.
Mechanical Properties of Copper-Nickel and
Copper-Zinc Alloys
Figure 4.6 Mechanical
properties of copper-nickel
and copper-zinc alloys as a
function of their
composition. The curves
for zinc are short, because
zinc has a maximum solid
solubility of 40% in copper.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack;
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram
Figure 4.7 The
lead-tin phase
diagram. Note that
the composition of
the eutectic point for
this alloy is 61.9%
Sn-38.1% Pb. A
composition either
lower or higher than
this ratio will have a
higher liquidus
temperature.
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
Figure 4.8 The iron-iron
carbide phase diagram.
Because of the
importance of steel as an
engineering material, this
diagram is one of the
most important of all
phase diagrams.
Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite
Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of
carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position
of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content;
this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.
Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below Eutectoid
Temperature
Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration

of the microstructures for an iron-
carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (0.77% carbon), above
and below the eutectoid temperature
of 727 °C (1341 °F).
Pearlite Microstructure
Figure 4.11 Microstructure of

pearlite in 1080 steel, formed
from austenite of eutectoid
composition. In this lamellar
structure, the lighter regions are
ferrite, and the darker regions are
carbide. Magnification: 2500X.
Source: Courtesy of USX
Corporation.
Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Figure 4.12 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead
of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version
of Fig. 4.8.
Microstructures for Cast Irons
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.13 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b)
Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron
solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.
Source: ASM International.
Figure 4.14 (a) Austenite-
to-pearlite transformation
of iron-carbon alloy as a
Austenite to functionof time and
temperature. (b)
Pearlite Isothermal transformation
diagram obtained from (a)
Transformation for a transformation
temperature of 675 °C
(1247 °F). (continued)
Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.)
Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures

obtained for a eutectoid iron-carbon
alloy as a function of cooling rate.
Source: ASM International.
Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function of carbide
shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate. The
spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease
after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.
Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note
(in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with
increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 4.17 Microstructure

of eutectoid steel.
Spheroidite is formed by
tempering the steel at 700 °C
(1292 °F). Magnification:
1000X. Source: Courtesy of
USX Corporation.
Martensite
(b)
Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite
containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the
original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
Hardness of Tempered Martensite
Figure 4.19 Hardness

of tempered
martensite, as a
function of tempering
time, for 1080 steel
quenched to 65 HRC.
Hardness decreases
because the carbide
particles coalesce and
grow in size, thereby
increasing the
interparticle distance
of the softer ferrite.
Figure 4.20 (a)
End-quench test
and cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability
curves for five
different steels, as
obtained from the
end-quench test.
Small variations in
composition can
change the shape of
End-Quench these curves. Each
curve is actually a
Hardenability band, and its exact
determination is
Test important in the
heat treatment of
metals, for better
control of
properties. Source:
L. H. Van Vlack;
Materials for
Engineering.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.
Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram
Figure 4.21 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various micro-
structures obtained during the age-hardening process. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for
Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Age Hardening
Figure 4.22 The effect of aging

time and temperature on the yield
stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy.
Note that, for each temperature,
there is an optimal aging time for
maximum strength.
Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for
Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1
Process Metals hardened Element added to Procedure General Characteristics Typical applications
surface
Carburizing Low-carbon steel C Heat steel at 870–950 °C (1600–1750 A hard, high-carbon surface is Gears, cams, shafts,
(0.2% C), alloy °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous produced. Hardness 55 to 65 bearings, piston pins,
steels (0.08–0.2% gases (gas carburizing) or carbon- HRC. Case depth < 0.5–1.5 mm sprockets, clutch plates
C) containing solids ( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some
(pack carburizing). Then quench. distortion of part during heat
treatment.
Carbonitriding Low-carbon steel C and N Heat steel at 700–800 °C (1300–1600 Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC. Bolts, nuts, gears
°F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm
gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil. (0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less
distortion than in
carburizing.
Cyaniding Low-carbon steel C and N Heat steel at 760–845 °C (1400–1550 Surface hardness up to 65 HRC. Bolts, nuts, screws, small
(0.2% C), alloy °F) in a molten bath of solutions of Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm gears
steels (0.08–0.2% cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and (0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some
C) other salts. distortion.
Nitriding Steels (1% Al, N Heat steel at 500–600 °C (925–1100 °F) Surface hardness up to 1100 Gears, shafts, sprockets,
1.5% Cr, 0.3% in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm valves, cutters, boring
Mo), alloy steels mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to bars, fuel-injection pump
(Cr, Mo), stainless further treatment. 0.07 mm (0.001 parts
steels, high-speed to 0.003 in.) for high speed
tool steels steel.
Boronizing Steels B Part is heated using boron-containing Extremely hard and wear Tool and die steels
gas or solid in contact with part. resistant surface. Case depth
0.025– 0.075 mm (0.001–
0.003 in.).
Flame hardening Medium-carbon None Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC. Gear and sprocket teeth,
steels, cast irons torch, then quenched with water spray or Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030 axles, crankshafts, piston
other quenching methods. to 0.25 in.). Little distortion. rods, lathe beds and
centers
Induction Same as above None Metal part is placed in copper induction Same as above Same as above
hardening coils and is heated by high frequency
current, then quenched.
Heat Treatment Processes
Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges for
plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron
carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM
International.
Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and

normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content.
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel
Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties of
oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a function
of tempering temperature. Source:
Courtesy of LTV Steel Company
Induction Heating
Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.

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CHAPTER 4

Metal Alloys: Their Structure and

Figure 4.1 Cross-section of

Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.

Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration

Figure 4.11 Microstructure of

Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures

Figure 4.17 Microstructure

Figure 4.19 Hardness

Figure 4.22 The effect of aging

Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and

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