B.Sc. Electronics - II Semester - Paper-2 Electronic Devices and Circuits

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B.Sc. Electronics - II Semester – Paper- 2

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
UNIT I
PN JUNCTION DIODES
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-state (hard crystal
structure) electronic device or integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor
material of the highest quality.
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having conductivity between
that of a good conductor and that of an insulator. The three semiconductors used
most frequently in the construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si.
Semiconductors are two types
1. Intrinsic semiconductors,
2. Extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure semiconductors. A semiconductor
material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic
semiconductor.
There are two extrinsic materials, n -type and p -type materials.
n -Type Material
Both n -type and p -type materials are formed by
adding a impurity atoms to a silicon base. An n -type
material is created by introducing impurity elements that
have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as
antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus because each has
five valence electrons and shown in figure. Note that the
four covalent bonds are still present. There is, however,
an additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom,
which is unassociated with any covalent bond. This
remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent
(antimony) atom, is relatively free to move within the n -type material. Diffused
impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
p -Type Material
The p -type material is formed by doping a pure
germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms
having three valence electrons. The elements most
frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium,
and indium because each has three valence electrons
and shown in figure. Note that there is now an
insufficient number of electrons to complete the
covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The
resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented
by a small circle or a plus sign, indicating the absence
B.Sc. Electronics R L V P rasad, Sr. Lect., Dept of Electronics, SGCSR College, Rajam.
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of a negative charge. Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron.
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
Majority and Minority Carriers
In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is equal to the
number of holes. In an n -type material, the number of electrons is greater than
number of holes. The electron is called the majority carrier and the hole is the
minority carrier. For the p -type material the number of holes is greater than number
of electrons. The hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.
The n - and p -type materials represent the basic building blocks of semiconductor
devices. The “joining” of a n -type material with a p -type material will result in a
semiconductor element of considerable importance in electronic systems.
PN JUNCTION
When a P type semiconductor material is suitably
joined to an N type PN junction forms at the boundary
between the two regions and a diode is created, shown in
Figure. The p region has many holes (majority carriers)
and only a few free electrons (minority carriers). The n
region has many free electrons (majority carriers) and only
a few holes (minority carriers). a boundary called the PN junction is formed
between the resulting p-type and n-type portions.
The PN junction is the basis for diodes, certain transistors, solar cells, and
other devices
DIODE
The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the
simplest of semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role in electronic systems,
having characteristics that closely match to a simple switch. The diode was
discovered in 1939 and the transistor was in 1947.
When a P type material is suitably joined to N type semiconductor, the
contact surface is called PN junction. The region of uncovered positive and
negative ions is called the depletion region. The p region is called the anode and is
connected to a conductive terminal. The n region is called the cathode and is
connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode structure and
schematic symbol are shown in fig. The arrow on the diode points the direction of
conventional current.
The important characteristic of diode is current passing in one direction only.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the
applied voltage.
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Formation of depletion layer in PN diode

PN junction is formed as shown
in Fig. P region has a high
concentration of holes and N region
contains a large number of electrons.
As soon as the junction is
formed, free electrons and holes cross
through the junction by the process of
diffusion. During this process, the
electrons crossing the junction from N-region into the P region recombine with
holes in the P-region very close to the junction. Similarly holes crossing the junction
from the P-region into the N-region, recombine with electrons in the N-region very
close to the junction. Thus a region is formed, which does not have any mobile
charges very close to the junction. This region is called depletion region, space-
charge region or transition region. In this region, on the left side of the junction, the
acceptor atoms become negative ions and on the right side of the junction, the
donor atoms become positive ions (Fig).
An electric field is set up, between the donor and acceptor ions in the
depletion region. The potential at the N-side is higher than the potential at P-side.
Therefore electrons in the N-side are prevented to go to the lower potential of P-
side. Similarly, holes in the P-side find themselves at a lower potential and are
prevented to cross to the N-side. Thus, there is a barrier at the junction which
opposes the movement of the majority charge carriers. The difference of potential
from one side of the barrier to the other side is called potential barrier. The potential
barrier is approximately 0.7V for a silicon PN junction and 0.3V for a germanium PN
junction. The distance from one side of the barrier to the other side is called the
width of the barrier, which depends upon the nature of the material.
Biasing in PN junction diode
The PN junction connected to an external voltage source is called biasing in
PN junction.
There are two biases, namely
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
Forward biased PN junction diode
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When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-side and negative
terminal to the N-side, so that the potential difference acts in opposite direction to
the barrier potential, then the PN junction diode is said to be forward biased.
When the PN junction is forward biased (shown in Fig), the applied positive
potential repels the holes in the P-region, and the applied negative potential repels
the electrons in the N-region, so the charges move towards the junction. If the
applied potential difference is more than the potential barrier, some holes and free
electrons enter the depletion region.
Hence, the potential barrier as well as the width of the depletion region is
reduced. The positive donor ions and negative acceptor ions within the depletion
region regain electrons and holes respectively. As a result of this, the depletion
region disappears and the potential barrier also disappears. Hence, under the
action of the forward potential difference, the majority charge carriers flow across
the junction in opposite direction and constitute current flow in the forward direction.
Reverse biased PN junction diode
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side and
negative terminal to the P-side, so that the applied potential difference is in the
same direction as that of barrier potential, the junction is said to be reverse biased.
When the PN junction is reverse biased (shown in Fig), electrons in the N
region and holes in the P-region are attracted away from the junction. Because of
this, the number of negative ions in the P-region and positive ions in the N-region
increases. Hence the depletion region becomes wider and the potential barrier is
increased.
Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge carriers, it acts
like an insulator. Therefore, no current should flow in the external circuit. But, in
practice, a very small current of the order of few microamperes flows in the reverse
direction. This is due to the minority carriers flowing in the opposite direction. This
reverse current is small, because the number of minority carriers in both regions is
very small. Since the major source of minority carriers is, thermally broken covalent
bonds, the reverse current mainly depends on the junction temperature and is
called reverse saturation current. The word saturation implies that the reverse
current can’t be increases by increasing reverse bias voltage.
VI characteristics of PN diode
VI characteristics of PN diode is a curve between voltage across the diode
and current flows through the diode. There are two parts in VI characteristics of
diode
 Forward VI characteristics curve
 Reverse VI characteristics curve
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Forward VI characteristics of PN diode
The circuit for the study of forward bias characteristics of PN junction diode
is shown in Fig a. The voltage between Anode and Cathode is increased from zero
in suitable equal steps and the corresponding currents are noted down. Fig b
shows the forward bias characteristic curve of the diode. Voltage is the
independent variable. Therefore, it is plotted along X–axis. Since, current is the
dependent variable, it is plotted against Y–axis.
From the characteristic curve, the following conclusions can be made.
1. The forward characteristic is not a straight line. Hence the ratio V/I is not a
constant (i.e) the diode does not obey Ohm’s law. This implies that the
semiconductor diode is a non-linear conductor of electricity.
2. It can be seen from the characteristic curve that initially, the current is very
small. This is because, the diode will start conducting, only when the external
voltage overcomes the barrier potential (0.7V for silicon diode). As the voltage is
increased to 0.7 V, large number of free electrons and holes start crossing the
junction. Above 0.7 V, the current increases rapidly. The voltage at which the
current starts to increase rapidly is known as cut-in voltage or knee voltage of
the diode.
Reverse VI characteristics of PN diode
The circuit for the study of reverse bias characteristics of PN junction diode
is shown in Fig a. The voltage is increased from zero in suitable steps. For each
voltage, the corresponding current readings are noted down. Fig b shows the
reverse bias characteristic curve of the diode.
From the characteristic curve, the following conclusions can be made.
1. With the reverse bias, practically the diode current is zero (0). When the voltage
is further increased, the current is almost independent of the reverse voltage up
to a certain critical value. This reverse current is known as the reverse
saturation current or leakage current. This current is due to the minority charge
carriers, which depends on junction temperature.
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2. When the reverse voltage is increased to large value, the diode current
increases gradually as show in fig. The voltage at this point is known as reverse
breakdown voltage.
Breakdown mechanisms
There are two mechanisms which give rise to the breakdown of a PN
junction under reverse bias condition.
They are
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown
When both sides of the PN junction are lightly doped and the depletion layer
becomes large, avalanche breakdown takes place. In this case, the electric field
across the depletion layer is not so strong. The minority carriers accelerated by the
field, collide with the semiconductor atoms in the crystal. Because of this collision
with valence electrons, covalent bonds are broken and electron hole pairs are
generated. These charge carriers, so produced acquire energy from the applied
potential and in turn produce more and more carriers. This cumulative process is
called avalanche multiplication and the breakdown is called avalanche breakdown.
Zener breakdown
When both sides of the PN junction are heavily doped, consequently the
depletion layer is narrow. Zener breakdown takes place in such a thin narrow
junction. When a small reverse bias is applied, a very strong electric field is
produced across the thin depletion layer. This field breaks the covalent bonds,
extremely large number of electrons and holes are produced, which give rise to the
reverse saturation current (Zener current). Zener current is independent of applied
voltage.
Diode resistance
A p-n junction diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks
electric current in another direction. It allows electric current when it is forward
biased and blocks electric current when it is reverse biased. The depletion region
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present in a diode acts like barrier to electric current. Hence, it offers resistance to
the electric current.
When forward biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width
of depletion region is decreases. However, the depletion region cannot be
completely vanished. There exists a thin depletion region or depletion layer in the
forward biased diode. Therefore, a thin depletion region offers some resistance to
electric current. This resistance is called forward resistance.
When the diode is reversed biased the width of depletion region increases.
As a result, a large number of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) flowing
through the diode will be blocked by the depletion region.
In a reverse biased diode, only a small amount of electric current flows.
Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the electric current. This
resistance is called reverse resistance.
The two types of resistance takes place in the p-n junction diode are:
 Forward resistance
 Reverse resistance
Forward resistance
Forward resistance is a resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it
is forward biased.
In a forward biased p-n junction diode, two type of resistance takes place based on
the voltage applied.
The two types of resistance takes place in forward biased diode are
 Static resistance or DC resistance
 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
Static resistance or DC resistance
Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across
diode to the DC current or direct current flowing through the diode.
The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased
condition is denoted as R f.
DC voltage
Rf 
DC current
Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode
when AC voltage is applied. It is defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the
change in current. It is denoted as rf.
Change in voltage
rf 
Change in current
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Reverse resistance
Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when
it is reverse biased. It is very large compared to the forward biased diode. The
reverse resistance is in the range of mega ohms (MΩ).
Diode junction capacitance
In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are,
 Transition capacitance (C T)
 Diffusion capacitance (C D)
Transition capacitance (CT)
We know that capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field.
This charge storage is done by using two electrically conducting plates (placed
close to each other) separated by an insulating material called dielectric.
Just like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores
electric charge at the depletion region. The depletion region is made of immobile
positive and negative ions.
In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have
low resistance. Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or
conducting plates of the capacitor. The depletion region of the p-n junction diode
has high resistance. Hence, the depletion region acts like the dielectric or insulating
material. Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor.
The capacitance of the reverse bias p-n junction diode decreases when voltage
increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the
transition capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence,
transition capacitance is neglected in forward biased diode.
The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called
transition capacitance. The transition capacitance is also known as depletion region
capacitance, junction capacitance or barrier capacitance. Transition capacitance is
denoted as CT.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the
change in electric charge per change in voltage.
dQ
CT 
dV
Where, CT = Transition capacitance
dQ = Change in electric charge
dV = Change in voltage
The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W
Where, ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region
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Diffusion capacitance (CD )

Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode.
Diffusion capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is
denoted as CD.
In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the
transition capacitance. Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward
biased diode.
The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons
and minority holes near the depletion region.
When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons
(majority carriers) in the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with
the holes. In the similar way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-region and
recombines with electrons. As a result, the width of depletion region decreases.
The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter
into the p-region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes
(majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the n-region will
become minority carriers of the n-region.
A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will
be accumulated near the depletion region before they recombine with the majority
carriers. As a result, a large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the
depletion region.
The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region is
separated by a very thin depletion region or depletion layer. This depletion region
acts like dielectric or insulator of the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of
the depletion layer acts like conducting plates of the capacitor.
Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied
voltage. If large electric current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is
accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion capacitance
occurs.
In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a
small amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small
diffusion capacitance occurs.
When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance
increases. The diffusion capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads (nF)
to micro farads (μF).
The formula for diffusion capacitance is
dQ
CD 
dV
Where, CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the
depletion region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode
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Diode current equation

The diode equation gives an expression for the current through a diode as a
function of voltage and is given by
Ve
 ηkT 
I  I0 e  1

 
 
Where, I = the net current flowing through the diode
I0 = Re verse saturation current
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode
e= electron charge (1.6 X 10-19columbs)
n = Constant which depends upon the material of the diode. it is 1 for
Ge and 2 for Si.
k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 X 10-23Joule/K )
T = absolute temperature (K).
For a forward biased junction V is positive. For large forward biased
Ve Ve
ηkT ηkT
voltage e  1 . Hence, diode current eqn is If  I0 e
Thus, If forward current is increases exponentially with voltage V.
 
 1 
For a reverse biased junction V is negative and eqn is I  I0  Ve  1
 ηkT 
e 
For large reverse bias voltage the exponential term is negligible.
Then I  I0
Thus, the reverse current is constant and independent of applied reverse biased
voltage.
Effect of temperature on PN diode
PN junction diode parameters like reverse saturation current, bias current,
reverse breakdown voltage and barrier voltage are dependent on temperature.
Ve
 ηkT 
Mathematically diode current is given byI  I0 e  1

 
 
Hence from equation we conclude that the current should decrease with
increase in temperature but exactly opposite occurs there are two reasons.
Rise in temperature generates more electron-hole pair thus conductivity
increases and thus increases in current
Reverse saturation current of diode increases with increase in the
temperature the rise is 7%ºC for both germanium and silicon and approximately
doubles for every 10ºC rise in temperature. Thus if we kept the voltage is constant,
as we increase temperature the current increases.
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Barrier voltage is also dependent on temperature it decreases by 2mV/ºC for

germanium and silicon.
Reverse breakdown voltage (VR) also increases as we increase the
temperature.
Zener diode
The characteristics of a PN junction diode will show that it is designed
primarily for operation in the forward direction. Forward biasing will cause a large
IF with a rather small value of VF. Reverse biasing will generally not cause current
conduction until higher values of reverse voltage are reached. If VR is great enough,
however, breakdown will occur and cause a reverse current flow. Junctions diodes
are usually damaged when this occurs.
Special diodes like zener diodes are designed, manufactured to operate in
the reverse direction without being damaged
Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it
has very thin depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current
than the normal p-n junction diodes.
Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode
but also allows electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage
is greater than the zener voltage. Zener diode is always connected in reverse
direction because it is specifically designed to work in reverse direction. symbol is
shown in fig.
VI characteristics of Zener diode.

 In the forward bias direction, the Zener diode
behaves like an ordinary PN diode.
 In the reverse bias direction, there is practically
no reverse current flow until the breakdown
voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a
sharp increase in reverse current.
 Varying amount of reverse current can pass
through the diode without damaging it. The breakdown voltage or Zener voltage
(VZ) across the diode remains relatively constant.
 The maximum reverse current is limited, however, by the wattage rating of the
diode.
 In the reverse direction, once this value has been reached, the VZ remains
constant over a wide range of IZ.
Application of Zener diode
 Zener Diode as a voltage regulator.
 Zener Diode as a voltage reference in biasing circuits.
 Zener Diode as a voltage clamper
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Zener Diode as a voltage regulator

Zener diode is operated in the
breakdown region, the voltage
across the diode remains almost
constant (equal to VZ) for the large
change of the reverse current. The
voltage across a Zener diode thus
serves as a reference and the diode is used as a voltage reference device for
stabilizing a voltage at a predetermined value.
A simple Zener diode voltage stabilizer circuit is shown in fig. This circuit is
used to maintain a constant voltage across a load resistor R L inspite of variations in
either the supply voltage or load resistance varies.
In the circuit, the P-junction of the Zener diode is connected to the negative
of the input voltage and N-junction to the positive of the input voltage, Thus the
Zener diode is in reverse biased.
Operation:
Let I be the current from supply, IZ is current through the Zener diode and IL
is current through the load RL.
Applying kirchhoff’s laws
I  IZ  IL     1
V  IR  IL RL      2
V0  ILR L      3
V0  V  IR      4
Case1:
When supply voltage V remains constant and load resistance RL varies.
From 4, the output voltage V0 is constant since V and R are constant.
Then ΔI=0
Now eqn 1 gives
ΔI= ΔIZ+ ΔIL
0= ΔIZ+ ΔIL
ΔIZ= -ΔIL
Thus, if the load resistance increases, when the supply is constant, the load
current IL decreases and the Zener diode current IZ by an equal amount. Thus the
Voltage V0 across the load will tend to remain constant.
Case 2 :
When load resistance R L remains constant and supply voltage V varies.
Since V constant, from above eqns
ΔV= ΔIRS and ΔI L=0
Now from eqn 1 ΔI = ΔIZ
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Thus, when the supply voltage varies and load R L remain constant, the total
current I and the Zener current IZ change equally to keep the load current IL
constant.
So, the output voltage V0 is constant
Varactor Diode
The varactor, also called a varicap, tuning or voltage variable capacitor
diode, is also a junction diode with a small impurity dose at its junction, which has
the useful property that its junction capacitance is easily varied electronically.
When any diode is reverse biased, a depletion region is formed. The larger
reverse bias is applied across the diode, the width of the depletion layer becomes
wider .Conversely, by decreasing the reverse bias voltage, the depletion region
becomes narrower. This depletion region is devoid of majority carriers and acts like
insulator preventing conduction between the N and P regions of the diode, just like
a dielectric between two plates of a capacitor.
As the capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the
plates, the transition capacitance varies inversely with the reverse bias voltages.
Consequently, an increase in reverse bias voltage will result in an increase in the
depletion region width and a subsequent decrease in transition capacitance. At
zero volts, the varactor depletion region is small and capacitance is large. Thus the
A
reverse bias PN junction has effective capacitance and is given by C 
w
Where, A is area of cross section.
w is width of the depletion layer.
ε is permittivity of dielectric material.
 These diodes significantly generate less noise

compared to other diodes.
 There is no useful when it is operated in forward
bias.
 In reverse bias mode, Varactor diode enhances
the capacitance as shown in the graph.
Fig shows varactor diode characteristics
curve. Here diode capacitance is maximum at very
low reverse voltage and is decreases with increasing in reverse voltage.
Applications:
 Used in FM radio and TV receivers.
 Used in AFC circuits, self-adjusting bridge circuits and adjustable band pass
filters.
 Used in tuning of LC resonant circuit in microwave frequency multipliers and in
very low noise microwave parametric amplifiers.
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Tunnel Diode
Tunnel was invented in 1958 by Dr. Leo Esaki. So, it is also known as Esaki
diode.
The Tunnel or Esaki diode is a junction diode which exhibits negative
resistance under low forward bias conditions. An ordinary PN junction diode has an
impurity concentration of about 1 part in 10 8 with this amount of doping the width of
the depletion layer is of an order of 5 microns. This potential barrier restrains the
flow of carriers from majority carrier side to the minority carrier side. If the
concentration of impurity atoms is greatly increased to the level of 1 part in 103, the
device characteristics are completely changed. The width of the junction barrier
reduced to very small. For such thin potential energy barriers, the electrons will
penetrate through the junction rather than surmounting them. This quantum
mechanical behaviour is referred to as tunneling and hence, these high-impurity PN
junction devices are called tunnel diodes.
Tunneling effect
A particle must have an
energy at least equal to the height of
the potential energy barrier if it is to
move from one side of the barrier to
the Other. Thus a particle with an
energy E and situated on the left
hand side of the potential barrier W,
can’t pass to right hand side of the
potential barrier (E < W), the charge
carrier must have 0 3 eV energy for Ge and 0.7 eV for Si to overcome the potential
barrier.
There is a small finite probability of the sub atomic particles (electrons) of
energy E, penetrating through the potential barrier W, even when they does not
have sufficient energy to overcome the potential barrier. This type of penetration of
a higher potential barrier with sub atomic particles is known as tunnel effect.
The probability of penetration through the potential barrier decreases with
increasing the width the barrier.
Circuit symbol of tunnel diode
VI characteristics
The Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristic of tunnel
diode is quite different from ordinary PN diode.
If the diode is in reverse bias, it conducts and
there is low resistance due to heavily doping. So, the
reverse current is increases with increase in voltage
shown in fig by 0D.
As the applied forward voltage increases, the
diode current increases till it reaches its maximum
value known as peak point (A) corresponding to
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voltage VP. if the applied forward voltage is increased beyond VP, the depletion
layer becomes less and diffusion of charge carriers will easily takes place at the
junction, consequently , the tunneling current decreases. Thus the current
decreases with increase in applied voltage between peak point A and valley point
B. it causes –ve slope in the VI characteristics curve and the tunnel diode exhibits a
–ve resistance property.
When the forward voltage is increased beyond the valley point B, the current
is increases as in as normal P-N diode indicated with BC in fig.
Applications
 A tunnel diode, having -ve resistance region, will generate power over this
region.
 A tunnel diode can function as an amplifier, oscillator or a relaxation oscillator.
 Since the tunneling mechanism takes place at speed of light, it is used as a
switching device in computers. It has switching time in order of nanosecond.
 A tunnel diode as microwave oscillator
Merits
 High frequency response
 Low power consumption
 Wide temperature range of operation
Drawbacks
 Instability due to negative resistance.
 Low voltage range.
 Unwanted signal feed through it.
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UNIT II
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR AND ITS BIASING (DC)
INTRODUCTION
During the period 1904 to1947, the vacuum tube was the electronic device
of interest and development. On December 23, 1947, however, the electronics
industry was to experience the advent of a completely new direction of interest and
development. Transistor was invented by Dr. S. William Shockley, Walter H.
Brattain, and John Bardeen of the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
The advantages of this three-terminal semiconductor device over the tube are
 It is smaller and lightweight.
 It had no heater requirement or heater loss
 It is more efficient since less power was absorbed by the device itself
 Instantly available for use
 Requiring no warm-up period
Transistor Construction
A bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer “sandwich” of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or N-P-N as shown in figure. Each layer
forming the transistor has a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire
contact for connection to a circuit name as E for emitter, C for collector, and B for
base. The BJT means bipolar junction transistor.
The emitter layer is heavily doped, with the base and collector only lightly
doped. The outer layers have widths much greater than the sandwiched p - or n -
type material.
The schematic symbols are shown in Figure
NPN transistor PNP transistor

Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current regulators. The main
current goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the
type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to the standards of
semiconductor, the arrow always points against the direction of electron flow.
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the flow of electrons through
them takes place in two types of semiconductor material, P and N. In other words,
two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes are both participate in current
conduction.
The important rule in the use of transistors is that all currents must be going
in the proper directions for the device to work as a current regulator. The controlling
current is usually referred to simply as the base current because it is the only
current that goes through the base wire of the transistor. Conversely, the large,
controlled current is referred to as the collector current because it is the only current
17
that goes through the collector wire. The emitter current is the sum of the base and
collector currents; in agree with Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
IE = IB + IC
No current through the base of the transistor, shuts it OFF like an open
switch and prevents current through the collector. A base current, turns the
transistor ON like a closed switch and allows current through the collector. Collector
current is primarily limited by the base current.
Transistor Biasing
A transistor in which 3 terminals are left open is called an unbiased
transistor. A unbiased transistor is never used in actual practice. Its terminals are
always connected to a voltage source for proper operation.
The application of suitable DC voltages across the transistor terminals called
transistor biasing. Each junction may be forward bias or reverse bias individually.
There are 3 types of transistor biases, are also known as operating modes of
transistor.
Forward active mode
Saturation mode
Cut off mode
Forward active mode
In this mode emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased.
Saturation mode
In this mode both emitter base junction and collector
base junction are forward biased.
Cut off mode

In this mode both emitter base junction and collector
base junction are reverse biased.
Transistor Operation
Fig A Fig B
18
Fig C
The basic operation of the transistor will now be described using the PNP
transistor shown in fig A. The operation of the NPN transistor is exactly the same if
the roles played by the electron. In Fig B the PNP transistor has been redrawn
without the base-to collector bias. The depletion region has been reduced in width
due to the applied bias, resulting in a heavy flow of majority carriers from the p - to
the n -type material. Let us now remove the base-to-emitter bias of the PNP
transistor as shown in fig B. the flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in only a
minority-carrier flow.
In Fig C both biasing potentials have been applied to a PNP transistor, these
resulting majority- and minority-carrier flows in transistor and is indicated in Fig C. A
large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the forward biased P-N junction
into the N -type material. Since the sandwiched N -type material is very thin and
has a low conductivity, a very small number of hole combine with electronics in
base region and constitutes small base current IB, it is in order of microamperes.
The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased
junction into the p -type material (collector) and constitute collector current IC.
Minority carriers cross reverse-biased PN junction between collector and base and
constitutes minority carrier current ICO.
therefore the emitter current is given by
IE = IC + I B
That is the emitter current is the sum of the collector and base currents.
The collector current having two components, that is majority and the
minority carriers current. The minority-current component is called the leakage
current ICO ( IC current with emitter terminal Open). The collector current is given
by
IC = IC majority + ICOminority
Transistor connections or configurations
There are 3 terminals in a transistor, namely Emitter, Base and Collector
However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit we required 2
terminals for input and 2 terminals for output. This difficulty is overcome by making
one terminal taken as a common to both input and output ports. Basing on this,
there are 3 configurations, namely
19
Common Base Configuration

Common Emitter Configuration
Common Collector Configuration
Common Base Configuration
In this mode, the emitter is the input terminal,
collector is the output terminal and base is the
common terminal to both the input and output circuits.
In this mode, the base is the input terminal, collector
is the output terminal and emitter is the common terminal
to both the input and output circuits.

In this mode, the base is the input terminal,
emitter is the output terminal and collector is the
common terminal to both the input and output circuits.
COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
Consider a n-p-n transistor in common
base configuration. In this common base
configuration, emitter current IE is the input
and collector current IC is the output
current.
Current Amplification Factor (α) or current gain

The ratio of the transistor output current to the input current is called current
gain of a transistor.
The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called dc forward
current transfer ratio or the dc current gain. It is designated by α.
IC
Common Base dc current gain, α
IE
Common-base short circuit (ac) current gain is defined as the ratio of a small
change in collector current (ΔIC) to the corresponding change in emitter current
(ΔI E) at constant collector-base voltage. It is denoted by α0.
 IC
Common Base AC current gain α 0 
 IE
For all practical purpose dc current gain is considered equal to the ac current gain.
i.e. α = α0 .
20
Expression for collector current

As the collector current is always less than emitter current, the value of α is
always less than unity. Typical values of α lies in the range of 0.95 to 0.998.
IC
From equation, α , we have IC  α IE
IE
From the configuration, It is clear that with IE=0, a small leakage current
flows in the collector circuit is represented as ICBO. It means that collector to base
current with emitter open
IC = IC( majority) + ICBO(minority)
The above equation can be written as
IC  α IE ICBO      1
We know that IE = IC + I B
IC  α  IB  IC   ICBO
IC  αIC  αIB ICBO
1 αIC  αIB  ICBO
α 1
IC  IB  I  2
1 α 1 α CBO
Relation 1 or 2 can be used to find IC
Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

Transistor characteristics are the cureves that relate transistor currents and
voltages. Then help us in knowing several details and important aspects of a
transistor.
The figure above shows that the experimental arrangement for determining
the static characteristic of an n-p-n transistor in common-base mode.
Two regulated dc power supplies VEE and VCC are connected in the circuit as
shown in the fig. two milli-ammeters and two voltmeters are included in the circuit to
note the required current and voltage to draw characteristic.
21
Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are the cuves
between emitter current IE and emitter to
base voltage VBE for a constant collector
to base voltage VCB. These curves also
known as base curves.
Let the collector to base voltage
VCB (say 2V) be kept constant The emitter
to base voltage VEB is varied in small
steps, and the corresponding values of
emitter current IE are noted for each value
of VEB.
The process is repeated for various values of VCB. It is found that the
increasing levels of VCB results in a reduced level VEB to establish the same current.
The input characteristic of a typical transistor of common-base mode are
shown in fig. the emitter current IE is taken along Y axis and emitter-base voltage
VEB along X a xis.
The input characteristic curves can be used to determine the AC input resistance
value and is given by the ratio of small change in emitter to base voltage ΔVEB to
small change in emitter current ΔIE for constant VCB.
 VEB
R i constant VCB
 IE
Output Characteristic
Output Characteristic curves are the between collector to base voltage VCB
and collector current IC for constant emitter current IE.
The emitter current, IE is kept constant (say 2mA). The collector to base
voltage is varied from zero in suitable steps and corresponding values of IC are
noted. The process is repeated for different values of IE. The output characteristic
curves obtained are shown in fig.
The common base
configuration output characteristics can be
divided into three distinct regions namely
Acti ve region
Saturation region
Cut-off region
The active region is the region that
is located to the right of the line VCB=0 and
above the emitter current, IE=0. In this
region, the collector current is constant
and is almost equal to the emitter current.
The saturation region is the region that located to the left of the line VCB=0
and above the output characteristic if emitter current IE=0. The collector current,
IC increases sharply for a small change in VCB.
In the above figure the emitter current increases above zero, the collector
current increases to a magnitude equal to that of the emitter current as determined
22
by the basic transistor-current relations. The curves clearly indicate that a first
approximation to the relationship between IC and IE in the active region is give by
IC=IE.
When IE=0, IC=ICBO, which is the leakage current of the collector base diode.
IE=0 is called cut-off region.
The output characteristic curve may be used to determine dynamic output
resistance, It is defined as the ration of a small change in collector to base voltage
to the corresponding change in collector current are constant emitter current.
 VCB
Output Resistance R 0 constant IE
 IC

Consider an n-p-
n transistor in common emitter
configuration. In this configuration the
base current IB is the input current and
collector current IC is the output current.
Current Amplification Factor (β) or
current gain
The ratio of the collector current to
the base current is called dc forward current
transfer ratio or the dc current gain. It is
designated by β.
IC
Common Emitter dc current gain β 
IB
Where IC and IB are collector and base current of a particular operating point
in the linear region. As the value of base current is in microamperes and low, the
value of β lies in the range of 10 to 500.
Common emitter ac current gain β0 is defined as the ratio of small change in
collector current ΔIC to small change in base current ΔIB at a constant collector to
emitter voltage VCE.
 IC
0 
 IB
For all practical purpose β is equal to β0
Expression for collector current
We know that IC  α IE  ICBO
And I E = IC + I B
IC  α  IB  IC   ICBO
IC  αIC  αIB ICBO

1 αIC  αIB  ICBO
23
α 1
IC  IB  I     1
1 α 1 α CBO
If IB=0, i.e., base is open. The collector current will be equal to the current
through the emitter. This is known as ICEO. This means collector to emitter current
with base open.
1
ICEO  I  2
1 α CBO
From 1 and 2 eqns
α
IC  I I
1 α B CEO
 α 
IC  βIB  ICEO β  
 1 α 
Relation between α and β
We know that emitter current is sum of base current and collector current.
IE  IB IC
Divide both sides with IC
IE I
 B 1
IC IC
1 1  I I 
 1  α  C , β  C 
α β  IE IB 
1 1 β

α β
β
α
1 β
1 1
Similarly  1
 
1 1 -

 


1
24
Characteristic of Common Emitter Configuration
The figure above shows that the experimental setup for determining the
static characteristic of an n-p-n transistor used in a common emitter configuration
circuit. Two variable dc regulated power supplies VBB and VCC are connected to
base and collector terminals of a transistor.
A micro ammeter and a voltmeter are connected to measure the base
current IB and VBE, and a milli ammeter and a voltmeter are connected to measure
IC and VCE in the circuit.
Input Characteristic
The input characteristic curves are
obtained by plotting base emitter voltage
VBE vs base current IB keeping VCE constant.
The characteristic curves are plotted for
various values of collector to emitter voltage
VCE.
From the input characteristic we observe the
following important points:
There exists a threshold, cut in
voltage Vγ below which the base current IB is very small. The value of cut in voltage
is 0.5 V for Si and 0.1V for GE transistors.
After the cut in voltage the base current IB increases rapidly with small
increase in base-emitter voltage VBE. However, it may be noted that the value of
base current does not increases as rapidly as that of the input characteristic of a
common base configuration. It means that dynamic input resistance is small
in common emitter configuration but it is little higher as compared to the CB
configuration.
Dynamic or ac input resistance can be determined from the input
characteristics curve. It is defined as the ration of a small change in the base to
emitter voltage to the resulting change in the base current at constant to emitter
voltage.
 VBE
Input Resistance R i  constant VCE
 IB
The value of Ri is typically 1KΩ, but can range from 600Ω to 4KΩ.
25
Output Characteristics
The output characteristic of the
common emitter configuration curves
are obtained by plotting VCE vs. IC for
different values of IB. The collector
current varies with VCE for values
between 0V and 1V. After this collector
current IC becomes almost constant
and reaches the saturation values. The
transistors are operated in the region
above knee voltage. This region is called active region.
The output characteristics curves may be divided into three regions. They are
Saturation region
cut-off region
Acti ve region
In the above figure the active region is the area to the right of the ordinate VCE = a
few tenths of a voltage and above of IB = 0.
Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7V, the base collector junction becomes
reverse biased and the transistor goes into the active or linear region of its
operation. Once the base collector junction is reverse biased IC levels off and
remains almost constant for a given value of IB as VCE continues to increases.
Actually IC increases very slight as VCE increases due to widening of the base
collector depletion region. This phenomenon is called a nearly effect.
When the base current IB is zero, a small collector current exists. This is
called leakage current. However, for all practical purposes, the collector current is
zero, when the base current is zero. Under this condition the transistor is said to be
cut-off. The small collector current is called the collector cut-off current.
From the output characteristics, the dynamic output resistance can be determined.
It is given by
 VCE
Dynamic output resistance R 0 constant IB
 IC
The value of R0 ranges from 10KΩ to 50 KΩ.
Consider n-p-n transistor in common
collector configuration as shown in the
figure. The base current IB is in input current
and the emitter current IE is output current.
The common collector configuration is
similar to that of the common emitter
configuration, with the expectation that the
output is taken from emitter lead instead of
the collector.
26
Current Amplification Factor (γ) or current gain

The ratio of the emitter current to the base current is called dc current gain of
a transistor in common collector configuration. It is denoted by γ.
IE
γ
IB
Relation between γ and β
IE
γ
IB
Multiply with IC
IE IC
γ X
IB IC
IE I
γ X C
IC IB
β β  β 
γ   1 β α  
α β  1 β 
1 β
γ  1 β
Relation between γ and α

IE
γ
IB
IE 1 1
γ  
IE  IC I 1 α
1 C
IE
1
γ
1 α
Expression for emitter current
We know that IC  α IE  ICBO
And I E = IC + I B
IC = IE - I B
IE IB  αIE  ICBO
1 αIE IB  ICBO
1 1
IE  IB  I
1 α 1 α CBO
27
1 1
IE  IB  ICBO
β β
1 1
1 β 1 β
1 1
IE  IB  I
1 β - β 1 β - β CBO
1 β 1 β
IE  1  β IB  1  β  ICBO  IE  1 βIB  ICBO 
Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector

Configuration
Input Characteristics
The input characteristics of a
common collector configuration are quite
different from the common base and
common emitter configurations because
the input voltage VBC is largely determined
by VEC le vel. Here,
VEC = VEB + VBC
VEB = VEC – VBC
The input characteristics of a
common-collector configuration are
obtained between inputs current IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output
voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage VEC constant at different levels and vary the
input voltage VBC for different points and record the IB values for each point. Now
using these values we need to draw a graph between the parameters of VBC and
IB at constant VEC.
The input characteristics of common collector transistor is shown in fig.
Because of VCB is large and determined by VCE. It may be noted that when collector
to base voltage VCB is increased from zero(0), the base current IB decreases.
Output Characteristics
The operation of the common
collector circuit is same as that of common
emitter circuit. The output characteristics of
a common collector circuit are obtained
between the output voltage VEC and output
current IE at constant input current IB. In the
operation of common collector circuit if the
base current is zero then the emitter current
also becomes zero. As a result no current
flows through the transistor.
Figure shows output characteristics shown in fig are same as that of
common emitter output characteristics, because of IC is approximately equal to IC.
28
h – Parameter Model
Let us consider transistor amplifier as a
block box as shown in the Fig.
Here, Ii : is the input current to the
amplifier
Vi : is the input voltage to the amplifier
I0 : is the output current to the amplifier and
V0 : is the output voltage to the amplifier
As we know transistor is a current operated device, input current is an
independent variable. The input current Ii and output voltage V0 depends on the
input voltage Vi as well as the output current I0. Hence input voltage Vi and output
current I0 are the dependent variables, whereas input current Ii and output voltage
V0 are independent variables. Thus we can write
Vi = f1 (Ii, V0) ... (1)
Io = f2 (Ii, V0) … (2)
This can be written in the equation form as follows
Vi = h 11 Ii + h12 V0 ... (3)
I0= h 21 Ii + h22 V0 ... (4)
The above equations can also be written using alphabetic notations,
Vi = hi . Ii + hr . Vo ... (5)
I0 = hf . Ii + h 0 . V0 ... (6)
Definitions of h – parameter
The parameters in the above equation are defined as follows
With output terminal are short circuited, then V0 = 0
Vi
h11  hi  V0  0 Input resistance with output short circuited.
Ii
I0
h21  hf  V0  0 Forward current transfer ratio or current gain with output short
Ii
circuited.
With input terminal are open circuited, then Ii = 0
Vi
h12  hr  I  0 Reverse voltage transfer ratio with input open circuited.
V0 i
I0
h22  h0  I 0 Output admittance with input open-circuited.
V0 i
29
H- parameter equivalent circuit for transistor is shown in the figure.
H – parameters equivalent circuit for CE configuration

let us consider the common emitter
configuration as shown in the above figure. The
variables Ib, IC, Vb and VC represent total
instantaneous currents and voltages.
Ib = input current
IC = output current
Vbe = input voltage
Vce = output voltage.
The following figure shows the h-parameter equivalent circuit for the common
emitter configuration.
H-parameter equivalent circuit for the common emitter configuration
From the h-parameter equivalent circuit of the common emitter configuration we

can write,
Vbe = hie I b + hre Vc e
Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vc e
Where
Vbe
h11  hie  Vce is constant
Ib
Ic
h21  hfe  Vce is constant
Ib
Vbe
h12  hre  I is constant
Vce b
Ic
h22  h0e  I is constant
Vce b
30
Transistor biasing
The basic function of transistor is to do amplification. The weak signal is
given to the base of the transistor and amplified output is obtained in the collector
circuit. One important requirement during amplification is that only the magnitude of
the signal should increase and there should be no change in signal shape. This
increase in magnitude of the signal without any change in shape is known as
amplification. In order to achieve this, that input circuit (i.e. base-emitter junction) of
the transistor remains forward biased and output circuit (i.e. collector base junction)
always remains reverse biased. This is known as transistor biasing.
The transistor amplifier must satisfy three basic conditions,
1. Proper zero signal collector current.
2. Proper base-emitter voltage at any instant.
3. Proper collector-emitter voltage at any instant.
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper
collector-emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.
Need for biasing
It may be noted that transistor biasing is very essential for the proper
operation of transistor in any circuit.
 To turn on the device and to place it in a region where it operates linearly.
 For proper operation of transistor, the biasing is to keep the base-emitter
junction properly forward biased and collector-base junction properly reverse
biased during the application of signal.
 To provide a constant voltage gain.
If transistor is unbiased properly then it would produced, 1. Distortion in output
signal, 2. Works inefficiently (non linearly)
Stabilisation
The collector current in a transistor changes rapidly when
1. The temperature changes
2. The transistor is replaced by another of the same type. This is due to the
inherent variations of transistor parameters.
When the temperature changes or the transistor is replaced, the operating point
(i.e. zero signal IC and VCE) also changes. However, for faithful amplification, it is
essential that operating point remains fixed.
The process of making operating point independent of temperature changes
or variations in transistor parameters is known as stabilisation.
Once stabilisation is done, the zero signal IC and VCE become independent of
temperature variations
Need for stabilisation- Stabilisation of the operating point is necessary due to the
following reasons:
1. Temperature dependence of IC.
2. Individual variations.
31
3. Thermal runaway.
Temperature dependence of IC
The collector current IC for CE circuit is given by:
IC = βIB + (1+ β) ICBO
The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature
changes. A rise of 10°C doubles the collector leakage current. It results in an
increase of collector current IC. This causes the operating point shift towards
saturation. Due to this reason, have to stabilise the operating point independent of
temperature variations.
Individual variations
The value of β and VBE are not e xactly the same for any two transistors even
of the same type. Further, VBE itself decreases when temperature increases. When
a transistor is replaced by another of the same type, these variations change the
operating point. Due to this reason, have to stabilise the operating point i.e. to hold
IC constant irrespective of individual variations in transistor parameters.
Thermal runaway
The collector current for a CE configuration is given by:
IC = βIB + (1+ β) ICBO
The collector leakage current ICBO is strongly dependent on temperature. The
flow of collector current produces heat within the transistor. This raises the
transistor temperature and if no stabilisation is done, the collector leakage current
ICBO also increases. It is clear from eqn that if ICBO increases, the collector current IC
increases by (1+ β) ICBO. The increased IC will raise the temperature of the
transistor, which in turn will cause ICBO to increase. This effect is cumulative and in
a matter of seconds, the collector current may become very large, causing the
transistor to burn out.
The self-destruction of an unstabilised transistor is known as thermal
runaway.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and consequent destruction of trans istor, it is
very essential that operating point is stabilised.
Stability Factor
It is desirable and necessary to keep IC constant in respect of variations of
ICBO (sometimes represented as ICO)
The extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in achieving this goal is
measured by stability factor S.
It is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC w.r.t. the collector
leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called stability factor.
dIC
Stability factor S 
dICO
High value of S indicates poor stabilisation
Low value of S indicates good stabilisation
32
Methods of Transistor Biasing

In the transistor amplifier circuits the biasing was done with the two power
supplies VBB and VCC. However, in actual practice one power supply is used for
biasing the both junctions of a transistor. The following are the most commonly
used methods of obtaining transistor biasing from one source of supply (i.e. VCC).
1. Base bias (fixed bias) method
2. Emitter bias method
3. Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
4. Voltage-divider bias
In all these methods, the same basic principle is employed i.e. required value of
base current (and hence IC) is obtained from VCC in the zero signal conditions.
Base bias Method (fixed-bias method)
In this method, a high resistance RB is
connected between the base and +ve end of
supply for npn transistor. Here, the required
zero signal base current is provided by VCC and
it flows through RB. It makes that base is
positive w.r.t. emitter i.e. base-emitter junction is
forward biased. The required value of zero
signal base current IB by selecting the proper
value of base resistor RB.
It is required to find the value of RB so
that required collector current flows in the zero
signal conditions. IC  β IB
applying KVL ABEGA, we get,
VCC = IB RB + VBE
or IB RB = VCC VBE
VCC  VBE
RB 
IB
Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the VBE can be neglected
VCC
 RB 
IB
It may be noted that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some
suitable value. Hence, RB can always be found directly, and for this reason, this
method is sometimes called fixed-bias method.
Advantages
 This biasing circuit is very simple as only one resistance RB is required.
 Biasing conditions can easily be set and the calculations are simple.
Disadvantages
 This method provides poor stabilisation.
33
 The stability factor is very high. Therefore, there are strong chances of
thermal runaway.
 Due to these disadvantages, this method of biasing is rarely employed.
Biasing with Collector Feedback Resistor
In this method, one end of RB is connected to the base
and the other end to the collector as shown in Fig. Here, the
required zero signal base current is determined not by VCC but
by the collector base voltage VCB. It is clear that VCB forward
biases the base-emitter junction and hence base current IB
flows through RB. This causes the zero signal collector current
to flow in the circuit.
Circuit analysis
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal
current IC can be determined as follows.
VCC  I CRC IBRB  VBE
VCC  VBE  ICRC V  VBE  βIB RC
RB   CC IC  βIB 
IB IB
In another way VCE  VBE  VCB
VCB  VCE  VBE
VCB V  VBE IC
RB   CE where IB 
IB IB β
It can be shown mathematically that stability factor S for this method of
biasing is less than (1+β) i.e. Stability factor, S < (1+β)
Therefore, this method provides better thermal stability than the fixed bias.
Advantages
 It is a simple method as it requires only one resistance RB.
 This circuit provides some stabilisation of the operating point as follows
VCE = VBE + VCB
Suppose the temperature increases. This will increase collector leakage
current and hence the total collector current. But as soon as collector current
increases, VCE decreases due to greater drop across RC. The result is that VCB
decreases i.e. lesser voltage is available across RB. Hence the base current IB
decreases. The smaller IB tends to decrease the collector current to original value.
Disadvantages
 The circuit does not provide good stabilisation because stability factor is
fairly high, though it is lesser than that of fixed bias.
 This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the
amplifier.
34
Voltage Divider Bias Method

This is the most widely used method of
providing biasing and stabilisation to a transistor.
In this method, two resistances R1 and R2 are
connected across the supply voltage VCC as
show in fig and provide biasing. The emitter
resistance RE provides stabilisation. The name
‘‘voltage divider’’ comes from the voltage divider
formed by R1 and R2. The voltage drop across R2
forward biases the base-emitter junction. This
causes the base current and hence collector
current flows in the zero signal conditions.
Circuit analysis
Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current
IB is very small; therefore, it can be assumed that current flowing through R2 is also
I1.
Collector current IC
From above circuit
VCC
I1 
R1  R2
The voltage drop across R 2 is
 V 
V  I1 R2   CC  R2
 R1  R2 
Applying KVL to base circuit
V  VBE  VE  VBE IERE
V  VBE
IE 
RE
V  VBE
Since IE  IC IC     1
RE
Collector-emitter voltage VCE. Applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law to the collector
circuit,
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE
= IC RC + VCE + IC RE (since IE ≈ IC)
= IC (RC + RE) + VCE
VCE = VCC -IC (RC + RE) ------ 2
It is clear from eqns 1 and 2 that IC and VCE does not at all depend upon β.
That means IC and VCE are independent of transistor parameters and hence good
stabilisation is ensured. So that voltage divider bias has become universal method
for providing transistor biasing.
35
UNIT III
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS, UJT & SCR
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS
Introduction
In the bipolar transistors, both holes and electrons take part. Such transistors
have two main drawbacks namely low input impedance because of forward biased
emitter junction and considerable noise level. Both of these drawbacks have been
overcome in the field effect transistor (FET), which is a voltage controlled device.
Because of this, FETs are replacing both the vacuum tubes and BJTs in
applications.
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal (namely drain, source and
gate) semiconductor device in which current conduction is by only one type of
majority carriers (electrons in case of an N-channel FET or holes in a P-channel
FET). It is also sometimes called the uni-polar transistor. Unlike a bipolar transistor
a FET requires virtually no bias signal current and gives an extremely high input
resistance. Either BJT or FET devices can be used to operate in amplifier circuits or
other similar electronic circuits, with different bias considerations.
There are two categories of FET’s namely:
1. Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFET)
JFETs are of two types, namely N-channel JFETs and P-channel JFETs.
Generally N-channel JFETs are more preferred than P-channel.
2. Insulated-gate field-effect transistors (IGFET), commonly known as the
metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET).
MOSFETs are of two types namely
1. Depletion MOSFET
2. Enhancement type MOSFET
Each type further classified as N-channel and P-channel.
Construction of JFET
JFET’s are of two types, namely N-channel JFETs and P-channel JFETs.
Generally N-channel JFETs are more preferred than P-channel. Constructional of
N-channel and P-channel JFETs are shown in the figures below.
With the gate terminal open, and a potential applied (+ ve at the drain and – ve at
the source), a current called the drain current, ID flows through the channel located
36
between the two P-regions. This current consists of only majority carriers-electrons
in N-channel JFET.
P-channel JFET is similar in construction to N-channel JFET except that P-
type semiconductor material is sandwiched between two N-type junctions, as
shown in figure. In this case majority carriers are holes.
Source – The terminal through which the majority carriers enter the channel, is
called the source terminal S
Drain – The terminal, through which the majority carriers leave the channel, is
called the drain terminal D and the conventional current leaving the channel at D is
designated as ID.
The drain-to-source voltage is called VDS, and is positive if D is more positive than
source S
Gate – There are two internally connected heavily doped impurity regions at center,
and terminal taken out is called Gate. A voltage VGS is applied between the gate
and source in the direction to reverse-bias the P-N junction. Conventional current
entering the channel at G is designated as IG.
Channel – The region between the source and drain, sandwiched between the two
gates is called the channel and the majority carriers move from source to drain
through this channel.
The circuit symbols for N-type and P-type JFETs are shown in the figure.
The vertical line in the symbol may be thought as channel and source S and drain
D connected to the line.
Note that the direction of the arrow at the gate indicates the direction in
which the gate current flows. Thus for the N-channel JFET, the arrow at the gate
points into the channel and in P-channel JFET, it is away from the channel.
JFET Polarities
The polarities for N-channel and P-channel JFET’s are shown in figures. In
both of the cases the voltage between the gate and source is such that the gate is
reverse biased.
37
Working of J FET
Let us consider an N-channel JFET for discussing its operation.

When neither any bias is applied to the gate (i.e. when VGS = 0) nor any
voltage to the drain w.r.t. source (i.e. when VDS = 0), the depletion regions around
the P-N junctions , are of equal thickness and symmetrical.
When positive voltage is applied to the drain D w.r.t. source S without gate voltage.
The electrons flow from S to D whereas conventional drain current ID flows through
the channel from D to S.
let us assume that the gate is negative biased with respect to the source
while the drain is positive with respect to the source. This is shown in the figure
above. The P-N junctions are then reverse biased and depletion regions are
formed. P regions are heavily doped compared to the N-channel, so the depletion
regions widen into the channel. The result is that the channel is narrowed, the
resistance is increased and drain current ID is reduced. If the negative voltage at
the gate is again increased, depletion layers meet at the centre as shown in fig and
the drain current cut-off completely. If the negative bias to the gate is reduced, the
width of the depletion layers gets reduced causing decrease in resistance and ,
therefore, increase in drain current ID.
The gate-source voltage VGS at which drain current ID is cut-off completely
(pinched off) is called the pinch-off voltage Vp .
The working of P-channel JFET is similar to that of N-channel JFET except
that current carriers are holes and gate is positive with respect to source.
FET Characteristics
There are two types of static characteristics viz
1. Output or drain characteristic
2. Transfer characteristic
38
Output or Drain Characteristic

The curve drawn between drain
current ID and drain-source voltage
VDS for gate to source voltage VGS is
called the drain or output characteristic.
The circuit diagram for
determining the drain characteristic for
an N-channel JFET is given in figure.
The voltage VGS applied to the
Gate controls the current flowing
between the Drain and the Source
terminals. VGS refers to the voltage applied between the Gate and the Source
while VDS refers to the voltage applied between the Drain and the Source.
The characteristic curves shown in the figure for different values of VGS.
Initially when drain-source voltage VDS is zero, there is no attracting potential
at the drain, so no current flows inspite of the fact that the channel is fully open.
This gives drain current ID = 0. For small applied voltage VDS, the N-type bar acts as
a simple semiconductor resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with the
increase in VDS, up to the knee point. This region, (to the left of the knee point) of
the curve is called the channel ohmic region, because in this region the FET
behaves like an ordinary resistor.
When voltage VDS is reached to pinched off voltage, the drain current ID no
longer increases with the increase in VDS. i.e., ID is a constant value. The region of
the characteristic in which drain current ID remains constant is called the pinch-off
region or saturation region. In this region the JFET operates as a constant
current device.
If drain-source voltage, VDS is continuously increased, a stage comes when
the gate-channel junction breakdown. At this point current increases very rapidly
due to an avalanche effect and the JFET may be destroyed.
Transfer Characteristic of JFET
The transfer characteristic for a JFET can be
determined experimentally, keeping drain-source
voltage VDS constant and determining drain current,
ID for various values of gate-source voltage VGS. The
circuit diagram is shown in fig. The curve is plotted
between gate-source voltage VGS and drain current ID
as shown in fig. It is also called transconductance
characteristic.
Drain current decreases with the increase in
negative gate-source voltage.
Drain current, ID = IDSS when VGS = 0.
Drain current, ID = 0 when VGS = VD
2
 V 
ID  IDSS1 GS 
 VP 
39
Parameters of FET
A FET has certain parameters which determine its performance in the circuit.
These parameters can be obtained from its two characteristics.
The main parameters of FET are
 AC Drain resistance (RD)
 Trans conductance (g m)
 Amplification factor (µ)
 DC drain resistance (R DS)
AC Drain resistance (RD)
It is the resistance of the JFET when operates in pinch off region. It is
defined as the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage VDS to small change
in drain current ID for constant VGS
 VDS
RD  VGS constant
 ID
It is also called dynamic resistance.
RD ranges from 100KΩ to 1MΩ fro JFET and 10kΩ to 100KΩ for MOSFET.
Trans conductance (gm)
It is defined as the ratio of small change in drain current ID to small change in
gate to source voltage VGS at VDS constant.
 ID
gm  VDS constant
 VGS
The units for gm is A/V or mho (ohm -1)
Amplification factor (µ)
It is defined as the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage VDS to
small change in gate to source voltage VGS
 VDS
μ
 VGS
For JFET, the value of µ is at most 100.

DC drain resistance (RDS)
It is also called static or ohmic resistance of the channel and is given by
VDS
RD 
ID
40
Differences between JFET and BJT

JFET BJT
In a JFET, there is only one type of1. In an ordinary BJT, both electrons
carrier, i.e. holes in p-type channel and and holes play role in conduction.
electrons in n-type channel. For this Therefore, it is called as bipolar
reason it is also called unipolar transistor.
transistor. 2.
As the input circuit of a JFET is reverse3. The input circuit of a BJT is forward
biased, therefore, it has a high input biased and hence has low input
impedance. impedance.
A JFET uses voltage on the gate4. A BJT uses the current into its base to
terminal to control the current between control a large current between
drain and source. collector and emitter.
Noise level in JFET is very small. 5. Noise level in BJT is more.
Advantages of JFET
A JFET is a voltage controlled, constant current device in which variation in
input voltage control the output current. Some of the advantages of JFET are
1. It has very high input impedance. This permits high degree of isolation
between the input and output circuits.
2. The operation of a JFET depends upon the bulk material current carriers that
do not cross junctions. Therefore, the noise is not present in a JFET.
3. A JFET has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This avoids
the risk of thermal runaway.
4. A JFET has a very high power gain. This eliminates the necessity of using
driver stages.
5. A JFET has a smaller size, longer life and high efficiency
The main drawback of JFET is
1. Its relative small gain-bandwidth product in comparison with that of a
conventional transistor.
2. Greater susceptibility to damage in its handling.
3. JFET has low voltage gains because of small trans conductance.
4. Costlier when compared to BJT’s.
Applications
1. FETs are used in tenures of radio and TV receivers
2. Because of its high input impedance, FET acts as an excellent buffers
amplifier and used in electric voltmeters
3. FETs are used in large scale integration (LSI) and computer memories
because of its small size.
4. The high input impedance of FET is valuable in phase shift oscillator to
minimize loading effect.
41
MOSFET-Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is an important
semiconductor device and has wide applications in electronics. Since it is
constructed with the gate terminal insulated from the channel, it is also
called insulated gate FET (IGFET). Like, a JFET, a MOSFET is also a three
terminal (source, gate and drain) device and drain current in it is also controlled by
gate bias.
MOSFETs are of two types namely
1. Depletion MOSFET
2. Enhancement MOSFET
In the depletion-mode construction a channel is physically constructed and a
current between drain and source is due to voltage applied across the drain-source
terminals. The enhancement MOSFET structure has no channel formed during its
construction. Voltage is applied to the gate, in this case, to develop a channel of
charge carriers so that a current results when a voltage is applied across the drain-
source terminals.
Depletion MOSFET
The device that exhibit channel
conductance with zero gate bias is known as
depletion type and those that have no
channel conductance at zero bias is known
as the enhancement type.
Figure shows the construction of an N-
channel depletion MOSFET. It consists of a
highly doped P-type substrate into which two blocks of heavily doped N-type
material are diffused forming the source and drain. An N-channel is formed by
diffusion between the source and drain. Now a thin layer of SiO2 dielectric is grown
over the entire surface. A metal plate is deposited. This layer constitutes the gate.
Si02 layer results in an extremely high input impedance.
A P-channel DE-MOSFET is constructed like an N-channel DE-MOSFET,
starting with an N-type substrate and diffusing P-type drain and source blocks and
connecting them internally by a P-doped channel region.
Operation of DMOSFET
D MOSFET can be operated with either a positive or a negative gate. When
gate is positive with respect to the source it operates in the enhancement mode
and when the gate is negative with respect to the source it operates in depletion
mode.
42
When the drain is made positive with

respect to source, a drain current will flow,
even with zero gate potential and the
MOSFET is said to be operating in E-mode.
In this mode of operation gate attracts the
negative charge carriers from the P-
substrate to the N-channel and thus
reduces the channel resistance and
increases the drain-current. The more
positive the gate is made, the more drain
current flows.
On the other hand when the gate is made negative with respect to the substrate,
the gate repels some of the negative charge carriers out of the N-channel. This
creates a depletion region in the channel, therefore, increases the channel
resistance and reduces the drain current. The more negative the gate, the less the
drain current. In this mode of operation the device is referred to as a depletion-
mode MOSFET. Here too much negative gate voltage can pinch-off the channel.
Thus operation is similar to that of JFET.
Characteristics of DMOSFET
D MOSFET Static or output or drain
characteristics
Typical drain characteristics, for
various levels of gate-source voltage, of an N-
channel MOSFET are shown in figure. The
upper curves are for positive VGS and the
lower curves are for negative VGS. The bottom
drain curve is for VGS = V GS(OFF). For
VGS between VGS (0FF)and zero, the device
operates in depletion-mode while for
VGS e xceeding zero the device operates in enhancement mode. These drain curves
display an ohmic region, a constant-current source region and a cut-off region.
MOSFET has two major applications: a constant current source and a voltage
variable resistor.
D MOSFET-transfer characteristics
The transfer (or transconductance) characteristic
for an N-channel DE-MOSFET is shown in figure. IDSS is
the drain current with a shorted gate(VGS=0). The drain
current ID is decrease with increasing in VGS.
Enhancement MOSFET
E-MOSFET has become enormously important, in digital electronics and. In
the absence of E-MOSFET’s the personal computers (PCs) that are now so
widespread would not exist.
Construction of an EMOSFET
Figure shows the construction of an N-channel E-MOSFET. The main
difference between the construction of D-MOSFET and that of E-MOSFET is that
43
no channel is doped between the source

and the drain in E MOSFET. Channels
are electrically induced in the MOSFETs,
when a positive gate-source voltage
VGS is applied to it.
For zero value of VGS, the E-
MOSFET is OFF because there is no
conducting channel between source and
drain. Each of circuit symbols shown in
figures, has broken channel line to
indicate this normally OFF condition (no
continues channel).
Operation of an EMOSFET
As its name indicates, this MOSFET
operates only in the enhancement
mode and has no depletion mode. It
operates with large positive gate voltage
only. It does not conduct when the gate-
source voltage VGS = 0. This is the reason
that it is called normally-off MOSFET.
When drain is applied with positive
voltage with respect to source and no
potential is applied to the gate. So, a very small drain current (which is reverse
leakage current) flows.
When the gate is made positive with respect to the source, negative (i.e.
minority) charge carriers within the substrate are attracted to the positive gate and
accumulate close to the-surface of the substrate. As the gate voltage is increased,
more and more electrons accumulate under the gate. Since these electrons can not
flow across the insulated layer of silicon dioxide to the gate, so they accumulate at
the surface of the substrate just below the gate. These accumulated minority
charge carriers N -type channel stretching from drain to source. When this occurs,
a channel is induced and now a drain current starts flowing. Thus drain current is
controlled by the gate potential.
Since the conductivity of the channel is enhanced by the positive bias on the
gate so this device is also called the enhancement MOSFET or E MOSFET.
Characteristics of an E MOSFET
Drain characteristics of an N-channel E-
MOSFET
Drain characteristics of an N-channel E-
MOSFET are shown in figure. The lowest curve is
the VGST curve. When VGS is lesser than VGST, ID is
44
approximately zero. When VGS is greater than VGST, the device turns- on and the
drain current ID is controlled by the gate voltage. The characteristic curves have
almost vertical and almost horizontal parts. The almost vertical components of the
curves correspond to the ohmic region, and the horizontal components correspond
to the constant current region. Thus E-MOSFET can be operated in either of these
regions i.e. it can be used as a variable-voltage resistor or
as a constant current source.
Transfer Characteristics of E MOSFET
Figure shows a typical transconductance curve.
The current IDSS at VGS <=0 is very small, being of the
order of a few nano-amperes. When the VGS is made
positive, the drain current ID is increase slowly at first, and
then much more rapidly with an increase in VGS.
Advantages
1. The insulated gate in MOSFET gives high input resistance than that of JFET
2. The inner electrode capacitances are independent of bias voltage & these
capacitances are smaller than JFET.
Applications
1. Because of its high input resistance MOSFETs are used as micro resistance.
2. MOSFETs are used in digital circuitry
FET acts as a variable resistor
In ohmic region FET can be used as voltage controlled resistor. From output
characteristics in ohmic region at constant VDS , ID increases with increasing in VGS.
That means the channel resistance varies with input voltage variations. Hence, FET
acts like variable resistor in ohmic region.
MOSFET as a switch
The MOSFET acts as a ON switch with
gate is positive voltage and as a OFF switch
with gate zero voltage. In this circuit
arrangement an Enhancement-mode N-channel
MOSFET is being used to switch a simple lamp
“ON” and “OFF”. The gate input voltage VGS is
positive voltage, the lamp “ON”, ( VGS = +ve ) or the gate input voltage VGS at a
zero voltage level that turns the device “OFF”, ( VGS = 0 ).
45
UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Introduction to Uni-Junction Transistor
Uni-junction transistor is also known as double-base diode because it is a 2-
layered, 3-terminal solid-state switching device. It has only one junction so it is
called as a uni-junction device.
Construction of UJT
UJT is a three-terminal, single-junction, two-
layered device, and it is similar to a transistors.
The N type silicon bar has two Ohmic contacts
designated as base1 and base2 as shown in the fig.
The function of the base and the emitter are different
from the base and emitter of a bipolar transistor.
The emitter is of P-type, and it is heavily doped.
Thus, a PN junction is formed between emitter and base. The resistance between
B1 and B2 when the emitter is open-circuited is called an inter-base resistance. The
emitter junction is usually situated closer to the base B2 than
the base B1.
The symbol for uni-junction transistor is shown in the fig.
When the device is forward-biased, it is active or is in the
conducting state.
Operation of UJT
Fig shows the basic circuit operation of a uni-junction transistor.
Fig.1 Fig.2
The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t. B1. If voltage VBB is applied
between B2 and B1 with emitter open, a voltage gradient is established along the n-
type bar. Since the emitter is located nearer to B2, more than half of VBB appears
between the emitter and B1. The voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes a
reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current is cut off. Of course, a small
leakage current flows in the emitter circuit due to minority carriers.
If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter, the pn junction will remain
reverse biased as long as the input voltage is less than V1. If the input voltage to
the emitter exceeds V1, the pn junction becomes forward biased. So, holes are
injected from p-type material into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by
positive B2 terminal and they are attracted towards B1 terminal of the bar. This
46
accumulation of the holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the decrease of

resistance in this section of the bar. Hence, the emitter current IE is increases.
At this point, the emitter current is limited by emitter power supply only. The
device is now in the ON sate.
If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the PN junction is reverse biased
and the emitter current is cut off. The device is then said to be in the OFF state.
Equivalent Circuit of a UJT

Fig shows the equivalent circuit of a UJT. The N-
type channel basically consists of two
resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with the p-n junction
connected to their center point.
Resistance RB1 is given between the Emitter and
terminal B1, while resistance RB2 is given between the
Emitter and terminal B2. As the physical position of the
p-n junction is closer to terminal B2 than B1 the resistive
value of RB2 will be less than RB1.
The total resistance of the silicon bar RBB = RB1 + RB2
RB1 is variable resistance because of R B1 varies inversely with emitter current.
Working
The resistance of the silicon bar is called the inter-base resistance R BB. The
inter-base resistance is represented by two resistors in series such as R B2 is the
resistance of silicon bar between B2 and emitter and RB1 is the resistance of the bar
between B1 and emitter junction. This resistance is shown variable because its
value depends upon the bias voltage across the pn junction.
The pn junction is represented in the emitter by a diode D.
The circuit action of a UJT can be explained more clearly from its equivalent circuit.
1. With no voltage applied to the UJT, the inter-base resistance is given by ;
RBB = RB1 + RB2
2. If a voltage VBB is applied between the bases with emitter open, the voltage
will divide up across RB1 and RB2.
Voltage across R B1
V1  IB RB1
VBB
V1  R 
RB1  RB2 B1
47
VBB
V1  R 
RBB B1
V1 R
 B1
VBB RBB
The ratio V1/ VBB is called intrinsic stand-off ratio and is represented by η.
RB1 RB1
Hence, η  
RBB RB1  RB2
The value of η lies between 0.5 and 0.8.
So voltage across R B1 is V1 = η VBB
The voltage ηVBB appearing across R B1 reverse biases the diode. Therefore, the
emitter current is zero.
3. If voltage is applied to the emitter, the diode will become forward biased
when input voltage exceeds ηVBB + VB , the forward voltage drop across the
diode is given by
VP = η VBB + VB
Where VP = Peak point voltage
VB = forward voltage drop across silicon diode (≈0.7 V)
V-I characteristics of UJT
The V-I characteristics of UJT is shown in fig. It
is the curve between emitter voltage (VE) and
emitter current (IE) of a UJT at a constant
voltage VBB between the bases.
The following points may be noted from
the characteristics:
 Initially, in the cut-off region, as VE
increases from zero, leakage current
flows. This current is due to the minority
carriers in the reverse biased diode.
 if the VE reaches the peak voltage VP
(point P), the emitter starts to flow. After
the peak point P, sudden increase in emitter current IE with a corresponding
decrease in VE. This is a negative resistance portion of the curve because
with increase in IE, VE decreases.
 After the valley point, the device is driven to saturation.
Cutoff region- This is the region left side of point P, where the uni-junction
transistor doesn't yet receive enough voltage to turn on. The emitter current is
equal to zero. In this region UJT is in off state.
Negative Resistance Region- After the transistor has reached the triggering
voltage VP , UJT now will turn on. Negative resistance region is the region between
Peak point and Valley Point, in this region the current increases but the voltage
decreases.
48
Saturation- saturation region is the region after the negative resistance region
(Valley point). In this region emitter voltage remains constant and emitter current
increases and UJT is in ON state.
UJT as a Relaxation Oscillator
Fig shows UJT relaxation oscillator circuit. When
supply VBB is switched ON, the capacitor C charges
through R 3 until the voltage across it reaches the peak
point. At this voltage UJT turned in to ON and The
emitter current then rises rapidly, discharging C through
the base 1 region and R 1. The sudden rise of current
through R 1 produces the voltage pulse. When the
capacitor voltage drops to a level VV voltage (Valley
point), UJT is switch off and allowing the capacitor to charge again. The cycle is
repeated.
The time t between successive pulses (oscillations) is given by
T
 
VP  VBB1 e RC 
 
T T
  V VP
1 eRC   P  eRC  1  1 η
  V VBB
  BB
Take log on both sides

T
 log1 η
RC
T   RC log1 η
 1 
T  RC log 
 1 η 
Where η is the intrinsic stand of ratio.
49
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The silicon controlled rectifier ( SCR ) is a three terminal semiconductor
switching device which can be used as a controlled switch to perform various
functions such as rectification, inversion and regulation of power flow.
SCR is a unidirectional device, i.e. it will only conduct current in one direction
only, but unlike a diode, the SCR can be made to operate as either an open-circuit
switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how its gate is triggered.
In other words, SCR can operate only in the switching mode and cannot be used
for amplification.
Construction of SCR
When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor, the
resulting three pn junctions device is called a silicon controlled
rectifier.
Fig shows the construction of an SCR.
It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary rectifier (pn) and
a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to form pnpn
device.
Three terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type
material called anode A, second from the outer layer of n-type material called
cathode K and the third from the base of transistor section and is called gate G.
In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive
potential w.r.t. cathode and gate at small positive potential w.r.t.
cathode.
Fig shows the symbol of SCR.
Working of SCR
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series
with anode. The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t.
cathode.
The working of SCR can be studied under the following two
cases
When gate is open
Fig shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate.
50
Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and

J3 are forward biased. Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a
npn transistor with base open. Consequently, no current flows through the load
RL and the SCR is cut off.
However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached
when the reverse biased junction J2 breaks down. The SCR conducts heavily and is
said to be in the ON state.
The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called
Breakover voltage.
When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode
The SCR conducts heavily by applying a small positive potential to the gate as
shown in fig.
Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. The

electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left whereas
holes from p-type towards the right. Consequently, the electrons from junction
J3 are attracted across the junction J2 and gate current starts flowing.
As soon as the gate current flows, anode current increases. The increased
current in turn makes more electrons available at junction J2. This process
continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down and the SCR
starts conducting heavily.
Once SCR starts conducting, the gate loses all control. Even if gate voltage
is removed, the anode current does not decrease at all.
The only way to stop conduction i.e. the voltage to SCR has to switched off.
Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR:
1. An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily.
There is no state in between. Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.
2. There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the gate
open and make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The
second method is SCR conducts small triggered voltage applied to the gate.
51
Equivalent Circuit of SCR or two transistor representation of SCR
The equivalent circuit

of SCR is composed of pnp
transistor and npn transistor
connected as shown in fig. It
is clear that collector of each
transistor is coupled to the
base of the other, thereby
making a positive feedback
loop.
V-I Characteristics of SCR

The V-I characteristics of SCR is the curve between anode-cathode voltage
(V) and anode current (I) of an SCR at constant gate current.
Forward Characteristics
When anode is positive w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is called
the forward characteristics.
In fig OABC is the forward characteristics of SCR at IG=0.
If the supply voltage is increased from zero, a point reached (point A) when
the SCR starts conducting.
Under this condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown by
dotted curve AB and most of supply voltage appears across the load resistance RL .
If proper gate current is made to flow, SCR can close at much smaller supply
voltage.
Reverse Characteristics
When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is known
as reverse characteristics.
52
If the reverse voltage is gradually increased, at first the anode current

remains small (i.e. leakage current) and at some reverse voltage, avalanche
breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting heavily in the reverse direction
as shown by the curve DE.
This maximum reverse voltage at which SCR starts conducting heavily is
known as reverse breakdown voltage.
Breakover Voltage
It is the minimum forward voltage, gate being open, at which SCR starts
conducting heavily i.e. turned on.
In practice, the SCR is operated with supply voltage less than breakover
voltage and it is then turned on by means of a small voltage applied to the gate.
Holding Current
It is the maximum anode current, gate being open, at which SCR is turned
OFF from ON condition.
Experimental setup to study the SCR characteristics
Characteristic curve is the curve between VAC and IA at constant IG. There
are two characteristic curves, namely forward and reverse characteristic curves.
Forward characteristic curves may be obtained by using the diagram as
shown in fig. the reverse characteristics may be obtained by reversing the
connection of both DC supplies.
Forward characteristics
First off all adjust the gate
current IG to 0 amp. Then increase the
Anode to cathode voltage VAC in small
suitable steps and record the
corresponding values of anode
current IA at each step. If we plot a
graph with VAC along X-axis and IA
along Y-axis, we shell obtained a
curve as shown in fig.
A similar procedure may be
used to obtained the curves marked
Ig1, Ig2, Ig3,… for different values of
53
gate current as shown in fig.

The following points may be noted.
 As the applied forward voltage is increased from 0 to A, a very little amount
of anode current flows through the SCR and SCR is in OFF.
 As VAC is increased above break over voltage, the SCR turns ON. Under this
condition anode to cathode voltage quickly drops to a point B as shown in
fig. at this stage a large amount of anode current flows through the SCR.
 The region between 0 and A is called forward blocking region. In this region
SCR is in OFF state.
 The region between B and C is called forward conduction region. In this
region SCR is in ON state.
Reverse characteristics
The reverse characteristics of SCR may
be obtained by using circuit shown in fig and
reversing the connections of both DC supplies.
The following points may be noted.
 As the applied reverse voltage is
increased from 0, a very little amount of
current called leakage current flows
through the SCR is in OFF.
 As the applied reverse voltage is
increased above the breakdown voltage,
a large amount of current flows through
SCR and SCR is in ON.
 The region lying between 0 and D is called reverse blocking region. In this
region SCR is in OFF.
 The region lying between D and E is called reverse avalanche breakdown
region. In this region a large amount of current flows through the SCR.
SCR applications
Motor speed control
Heater control
Phase control
Static switches
Regulated power supplies
Inverters and Power Control device
SCR is as a Power Control device
The main application of SCR is as a Power Control device. It is clear that
when SCR is OFF, its current is negligible and when it is ON, its voltage is
negligible consequently, it never dissipates any appreciable amount of power even
when controlling substantial amounts of load power. Fig shows the use of an SCR
to control power. Here load connected in series with the anode of the SCR.
54
The SCR conducts in only the positive

half of the cycle when the Anode is positive and
blocks current flow like a diode when the Anode
is negative, irrespective of the Gate signal.
At the start of each positive half-cycle the
SCR is “OFF”. On the application of the gate
pulse triggers the SCR into conduction and
remains fully latched “ON” for the duration of the
positive cycle. If the SCR is triggered at the
beginning of the half-cycle ( θ = 0o ), the load current flows for the full positive cycle
of the AC wa veform (half-wave rectified AC) as shown in fig.
As the application of the gate trigger pulse at half of the cycle
( θ = 0 to 90o ), the load current flows for the half of positive cycle of the AC
o
waveform as shown in fig.

The SCR conducts in only the positive half of the cycle when the Anode is
positive and blocks current flow like a diode when the Anode is negative,
irrespective of the Gate signal.
Simply, during the positive pulse SCR conducts when gate pulse rises and
continues up to end of the positive pulse. During the –ve pulse the SCR is in OFF
state. This is the process used to phase control.
55
UNIT IV
PHOTO ELECTRIC DEVICES
Introduction
The photoelectric effect was first observed
in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz and was named Photo
Electric Effect. After this it was studied by J. J.
Thomson in 1856.
The electrons are then emitted from the surface of
metal when objected to radiation of light. This
process is known as photo electric effect or also
called photoelectric emission or photoemission. The material which possesses this
property of emission of electrons is called photo-emissive and the emitted electrons
are photoelectrons.
Photoelectric Effect
The Phenomenon was discovered
by Hertz and was experimentally proved
by Thomson and Millikan. Einstein added
his photoelectric equation to support the
phenomenon. The phenomenon is basically
about light energy (photo) converting into
electrical energy.
An e vacuated quartz tube having
photosensitive plate called emitter P and
collector C. Plate P is connected to the negative terminal and plate C is connected
to the positive terminal of a battery. When light of suitable wavelength is incident
on the plate P then electrons are emitted and reaches plate C. thus, measurable
current flows through the circuit.
The amount of current flow (number of electrons) depends upon Applied
Potential difference between the plates, for a given photo metal if the frequency
and intensity of incident light kept constant and if the potential difference between
the plates is increased then photo current also increases.
For a given photo metal if the frequency and applied voltage is kept constant with
increasing intensity, the photo current increases
Photoelectric Effect Applications
The photoelectric effect is used in the photoelectric cell which converts a
light energy into electrical energy.
In street lights for automatic switch on and off.
Traffic signals are using this effect for automatic controls and for count the
machines.
In burglar alarms.
Television transmission is one of the important applications of this
photoelectric effect.
56
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

In Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), electrical energy flowing through it is
directly converted into light energy.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor
diodes and emit either visible light or invisible infrared light when forward biased.
The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for remote controls.
A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits
light when voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor
device that converts electrical energy into light energy.
When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the
conduction band recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases
energy in the form of light.
The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except
that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic materials are used for construction instead of
silicon or germanium materials.
Light emitting diode (LED) symbol
The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n
junction diode except that it contains arrows
pointing away from the diode indicating that light
is being emitted by the diode.
LEDs are available in different colors. The most common colors of LEDs are
orange, yellow, green and red.
LED construction
One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor
layers on the substrate. The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate
are n-type semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region (depletion
region). Active region is present in
between the n-type and p-type
semiconductor layers.
When LED is forward biased,
free electrons from n-type
semiconductor and holes from p-type
semiconductor are pushed towards the
active region.
When free electrons from n-side
and holes from p-side recombine with
the opposite charge carriers (free
electrons with holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or
visible light is emitted.
In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore,
most of the light is emitted by the active region. The active region is also called as
depletion region.
57
Output characteristics of LED

The amount of output light emitted by
the LED is directly proportional to the amount
of forward current flowing through the LED.
The graph between forward current and
output light is shown in the figure.
LEDs are mainly classified into two
types: visible LEDs and invisible LEDs.
Visible LED is a type of LED that emits
visible light. These LEDs are mainly used for
display
Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light (infrared light). These
LEDs are mainly used with photo sensors such as photodiodes.
The material used for constructing LED determines its color. In other words,
the wavelength or color of the emitted light depends on the forbidden gap or energy
gap of the material.
Different materials emit different colors of light.
Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light.
Gallium nitride LEDs emit bright blue light.
Yttrium aluminium garnet LEDs emit white light.
Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow and green light.
Aluminium gallium nitride LEDs emit ultraviolet light.
Aluminum gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light.
Advantages of LED
Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
LEDs are light in weight.
Smaller size.
LEDs have longer lifetime.
LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.
LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent
lamps.
LEDs can emit different colors of light.
Disadvantages of LED
LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
Applications of LED
The various applications of LEDs are as follows
Burglar alarms systems
Calculators
Picture phones
Traffic signals
Digital computers
Multimeters
Digital watches
Automotive heat lamps
Camera flashes
58
Photo diodes
Photo-diode is a two-terminal semiconductor P-N junction device and is

designed to operate with reverse bias. The basic biasing arrangement, construction
and symbols for the device are shown in figure.
When the P-N junction is reverse-biased, a reverse saturation current flows
due to thermally generated holes and electrons being swept across the junction as
the minority carriers. With the increase in temperature of the junction more and
more hole-electron pairs are created and so the reverse saturation current
I0 increases. The same effect can be had by illuminating the junction. When light
energy bombards a P-N junction, it dislodges valence electrons. The more light is
striking the junction the larger the reverse current in a diode. It is due to generation
of more and more charge carriers with the
increase in level of illumination.
This is clearly shown in figure for
different intensity levels. The dark current is
the current that exists when no light is
incident and equal to zero. The reverse
saturation current I0 is increases linearly with
the luminous flux as shown in figure. Thus the
photodiode can be used as
a photoconductive device.
Photodiodes find application in the following:
Cameras
Medical devices
Safety equipment
Optical communication devices
Position sensors
Bar code scanners
Automotive devices
Surveying instruments
Phototransistor
A transistor is like a valve that regulates the amount of electric current that
passes through two of its three terminals. The third terminal controls just how much
current passes through the other two. Depending on the type of transistor, the
current flow can be controlled by voltage, current, or in the case of
the phototransistor, by light.
The fig shows the symbol of the phototransistor. The
brightness of the light shining on the phototransistor’s base (B)
terminal determines how much current it will allow to pass into its
collector (C) to emitter (E). Brighter light results in more current;
59
less-bright light results in less current.

Figure shows output
characteristics of photo transistor for
different illumination intensities.
The characteristics of
phototransistors are similar to those of
normal transistors except that they have
base current replaced by light intensity.
This means that even these devices
have three operating regions viz., cut-off,
active and saturation. This further implies
that the phototransistors can be used for either switching (cut-off and saturation
mode dependent) applications or for amplification (active mode operation), just like
ordinary transistors.
Assuming that the photo transistor is in dark condition, the collector current
is given by
IC  1 β IC0
When light is illuminated on base, the additional electron hole pairs are generated
and constitutes a additional current and is given by
ICC  1 β IL
Hence, total current is I  1 β IC0  IL 

Advantages of Phototransistor
 Simple, compact and less expensive.
 Higher current, higher gain and faster response times in comparison with
photodiodes.
 Sensitive to a wide range of wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet (UV) to
infrared (IR) through visible radiation.
 Highly reliable and temporally stable.
 Less noisy when compared to avalanche photodiodes.
Disadvantages of Phototransistor
 Cannot handle high voltages if made of silicon.
 Affected by electromagnetic energy.
 Poor high frequency response due to a large base-collector capacitance.
 Cannot detect low levels of light better than photodiodes.
Applications of Phototransistor
 Object detection
 Automatic electric control systems such as in light detectors
 Security systems
 Punch-card readers
 Relays
 Computer logic circuitry
 Smoke detectors
 Laser-ranging finding devices
 Optical remote controls
60
 CD players
 Night vision systems
 Infrared receivers
 Cameras as shutter controllers
Light Dependent Resistor or Photo Resistor
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a
device whose resistance veried with light intensity. These are light
sensitive devices and also called as photo conductors, photo
conductive cells or simply photocells. The symbol is shown in the
figure. The arrow indicates light falling on it.
Characteristics of LDR
When a light dependent resistor is kept in
dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance
is called as dark resistance. It can be as high as
1012 Ω and if the device is allowed to absorb
light its resistance will be decreased drastically.
If a constant voltage is applied to it and intensity
of light is increased the current starts increasing.
Figure below shows resistance vs. illumination
curve for a LDR.
Construction of a Photocell
The structure of a light dependent resistor
consists of a light sensitive material which is
deposited on an insulating substrate such as
ceramic. The material is deposited in zigzag pattern
in order to obtain the desired resistance and power
rating. This zigzag area separates the metal
deposited areas into two regions. Then the ohmic
contacts are made on the either sides of the area. The resistances of these
contacts should be as less as possible to make sure that the resistance mainly
changes due to the effect of light only. Materials normally used are cadmium
sulphide, cadmium selenide, indium antimonide and cadmium sulphonide.
Applications of LDR
 LDR’s have low cost and simple structure.
 They are often used as light sensors.
 Used in street lamps.
 Alarm clock.
 Burglar alarm circuits.
 Light intensity meters.
Infrared Emitter (IR emitter)
An infrared emitter, or IR emitter, is a source of light
energy in the infrared spectrum. It is a light emitting diode
(LED) that is used in order to transmit infrared signals. An IR
emitter generates infrared light that transmits information and
commands from one device to another. Typically the device
61
receives the signal then passes the infrared (IR) signal through the emitter to
another device.
There are several different kinds of infrared emitters and categorized by
wavelength, intensity, forward voltage, packaging type and forward current.
A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a current
limiting resistor and a power supply. The schematic of a typical IR transmitter is
shown in fig.
IR transmitter’s applications
 Some applications require infrared heat and the best infrared source is
infrared transmitter.
 Quartz
 Solar cells IR Receiver
Infrared receivers
Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors. These are used to
detect the radiation from an IR transmitter. IR receivers come in the form of
photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are different from normal
photo diodes as they detect only infrared radiation.
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage,
package, etc. When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the
wavelength of the receiver should match with that of the transmitter.
Principle of Working
The principle of an IR sensor working as
an Object Detection Sensor is shown in figure.
An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR
Photodiode; together they are called as Photo
– Coupler or Opto – Coupler.
When the IR transmitter emits radiation,
it reaches the object and some of the radiation
reflects back to the IR receiver. Based on the
intensity of the reception by the IR receiver, the
output of the sensor is defined.
Opto-isolator (optical coupler or opto-coupler)

An opto-isolator (also known
as optical coupler, opto-coupler) is
a semiconductor device that uses a
short optical transmission path to
transfer an electrical signal between
circuits or elements of a circuit, while
keeping them electrically isolated from
each other. These components are used
in a wide variety of communications,
control and monitoring systems that use
light.
62
In its simplest form, an opto-isolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED),

IRED (infrared-emitting diode) or laser diode for signal transmission and a photo
sensor (or phototransistor) for signal reception. Using an opto-coupler, when an
electrical current is applied to the LED, infrared light is produced and passes
through the material inside the opto-isolator. The beam travels across a transparent
gap and is picked up by the receiver, which converts the modulated light or IR back
into an electrical signal. In the absence of light, the input and output circuits are
electrically isolated from each other.
The opto-isolator is enclosed in a single device, and has the appearance of
an integrated circuit (IC) or a transistor with extra leads. Opto-couplers can be used
to isolate low-power circuits from higher power circuits and to remove electrical
noise from signals.
63
UNIT V
POWER SUPPLIES
Rectification
The process in which alternating voltage or
alternating current is converted into direct voltage
or direct current is known as rectification. The
device used for this process is called as rectifier.
The junction diode has the property of offering low
resistance and allowing current to flow through it, in
the forward biased condition. This property is used in the process of rectification.
Rectifiers are classified in to 2 types
Half wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier
A circuit which rectifies half of the AC wave is called half wave rectifier.
Fig shows the circuit for half wave rectification. The a.c. voltage (Vs) to be
rectified is obtained across the secondary ends S1 S2 of the transformer. The P-
end of the diode D is connected to S1 of the secondary coil of the transformer. The
N-end of the diode is connected to the other end S2 of the secondary coil of the
transformer, through a load resistance RL. The rectified output voltage Vdc appears
across the load resistance RL.
During the positive half cycle of the input a.c. voltage Vs, S1 will be positive
and the diode is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Therefore, current flows through the circuit and there is a voltage drop
across RL. This gives the output voltage as shown in Fig.
During the negative half cycle of the input a.c. voltage (Vs), S1 will be
negative and the diode D is reverse biased. Hence the diode does not conduct. No
current flows through the circuit and the voltage drop across RL will be zero. Hence
no output voltage is obtained. Thus corresponding to an alternating input signal,
unidirectional pulsating output is obtained as shown in fig.
Mathematical analysis
Let the input voltage applied to the PN diode is given by
E  E0 sinwt
The output current is as follows
64
I  I0sinwt when 0 wt  π

I 0 when π  wt  2π
DC value of output current
The average dc current over one complete cycle is given by
1 2π
Idc  I dwt
2π 0
1  π 2π
 1 π
 
2π


Idc  I dwt I dwt I sinwt dwt 0 dwt
2π  0 π  2π  0 0 π
   

I0 π 
   sinwt dwt   I0 - cos wtπ0
2π   2π
0 
I0
 - cos  cos0  I0 1  1  I0
2π 2π π
I0
Idc 
π
The above expression indicates that, the DC value of output current is 31.8% of the
maximum AC input current.
I0 V0 V0
Idc   I0 
π π Rf  RL  Rf  RL 
Rf is the diode forward resistance
RL is the load resistance
The dc or average output voltage across load resistance is given by
I0RL V0 RL
Vdc  Idc XR  
π πRf  RL 
RMS value of output current
The root mean square value of current is given by
1 2π 2 1 π 2 2 2π
 1π 2 2
Irms  I dwt   I sin wt dwt  0 dwt   I0 sin wt dwt
2π 0 2π  0 π  
0
 2π 0
I02 π  1- cos2wt  I02  π π


 dwt   dwt  cos2wt dwt
2π 0  4π  0 0
  
2  
2 π 2 2
I0  sin2wt  I0 I
  wt -   Xπ 0
4π  2 0 4π 4
65
I0
Irms 
2
Rectifier efficiency
Power delivered to load
2 I02
Pdc  Idc X RL  2 XRL
π
Power sullied to the circuit
2 I0 2
Pac  Irms Rf  RL   R  RL 
4 f
The efficiency is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power
supplied to the rectifier.
I0 2
Pdc  X RL
π 2 4 RL
η X 100% 2 X 100% 2 X 100%
Pac I0 π Rf  RL 
Rf  RL 
4
4 1 40.6 %
η 2
X 100% 
π  Rf   Rf 
  1   1
R
 L   RL 
Rf < RL, the efficiency is   40.6 %

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The maximum reverse voltage appearing across the diode during reverse
bias condition is called the ‘Peak Inverse Voltage’ (PIV).
When the diode is reverse biased, during the negative half cycle, there will
be no current flow through the load resistor RL. Hence, there will be no voltage
drop through the load resistance RL which causes the entire input voltage to
appear across the diode. Thus, maximum secondary voltage V0 appears across
the diode. Therefore,
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of half wave rectifier = V0
Ripple factor (r)
The output of rectifier contains DC as well as a part of AC components. A
measure of AC component is given by the ripple factor, and is given by
rms value of allac componentof the output I'rms
r 
dc componentof the output Idc
From the ac circuit theory, the rms value of the total input current Irms, the
dc current Idc and rms value of ac component of the output I’rms are related by
Irms 2  Idc 2  I' rms 2
2
Divide both sides with Idc
66
2 2
Irms I'
2
 1 rms2
Idc Idc
2 2
I' rms I
2
 rms 2  1
Idc Idc
2
I' rms I
 rms 2  1
Idc Idc
2
I'rms I
 Ripple factor r  rms2  1
Idc Idc
I02
4 1  π2
  1  1.21
I02 4
π2
 r  1.21
Thus, for a half wave rectifier r > 1 or I’rms > Idc. i.e., the ac component of
the output is more than dc value.
Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation is ability of a rectifier to maintain a specified output
voltage irrespective of variation in the load resistance.
I0 V0
Idc  
Since in a half wave rectifier π π Rf  RL 
V0
IdcRL  I R
π dc f
V0
Vdc  I R
π dc f
When Idc=0, Vdc has its maximum value V0/π. As Idc increases, Vdc
decreases linearly depending on the value of Rf. therefore the voltage regulation of
a half wave rectifier is poor.
Full wave rectifier
A circuit which rectifies both the cycles of the a.c wave is called full wave
rectifier. There are two types full wave rectifier.
Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier
Bridge type Full-Wave Rectifier
67
Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and
are connected to the opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as
shown in the figure. The centre-tap is usually considered as the ground point or the
zero voltage.
As shown in the figure, an ac
input is applied to the primary coils of
the transformer. This input makes the
secondary ends A and B become
positive and negative alternately. For
the positive half of the ac signal, the
secondary point A is positive and B
will be negative. At this instant diode
D1 will be forward biased and diode
D2 will be reverse biased. The diode
D1 will conduct and D2 will not
conduct during the positive half cycle. Thus the current flows through RL and the
positive half cycle appears across the load resistance RL.
During the negative half cycle, the secondary ends A become negative and
B becomes positive. At this instant, the diode D1 will be reverse biases and D2 will
be forward biased. The diode D2 will conduct and D1 will not conduct during the
negative half cycle. The current flows through RL in same direction as during
positive half cycle. Hence, the positive half cycle appears across the load
resistance RL.
When comparing the current flow due to the positive and negative half
cycles, we can conclude that the direction of the current flow is the same (through
load resistance RL). The output that is rectified consists of a dc component and a
lot of ac components.
Mathematical analysis
Let the input voltage applied to the PN diode is given by
E  E0 sinwt
The output current is as follows
I  I0sinwt when 0 wt  π
DC value of output current
The average dc current of output current is defined by generating current between
0 to π and is given by
68
1 π
Idc  I dwt
π0
π π
1 I I0
 sinwt dwt  π - cos wt 
π
  I0 sinwt dwt  0 0
π0 π 0
I0
 - cos   cos 0  I0 1  1  2I0
π π π
2 I0
Idc 
π
Similarly the output voltage is given by
2 I0RL 2 V0
Vdc  Idc XR  
π π
RMS value of output current
The root mean square value of current is given by
2
1π2 1π 2 2 I0 π 2
I rms   I dwt  π  I0 sin wt dwt  π  sin wt dwt
π0 0 0
2 2
I0 π  1- cos2wt  I0  π π

    dwt   dwt   cos2wt dwt
π 0 2  2π  0 0 
2 π 2 2
I  sin2wt  I I
 0  wt -   0 Xπ  0
2π  2 0 2π 2
I0 V0
Irms  Vrms 
2 similarly 2
Rectifier efficiency
Power delivered to load
2 4 I0 2
Pdc  Idc X RL  2 X RL
π
Power sullied to the circuit
2 I0 2
Pac  Irms Rf  RL   R  RL 
2 f
The efficiency is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power
supplied to the rectifier.
69
2
4 I0
Pdc  X RL
π 2 8 RL
η X 100% 2 X 100%  2 X 100%
Pac I0 π Rf  RL 
Rf  RL 
2
8 1 81.2 %
η 2
X 100% 
π Rf   Rf 
  1   1
 RL   RL 
Rf < RL, the efficiency is   81.2 %

Ripple factor (r)
The output of rectifier contains DC as well as a part of AC components. A
measure of AC component is given by the ripple factor, and is given by
rms value of allac componentof the output I'rms
r 
dc componentof the output Idc
2
I' I
 Ripple factor r  rms  rms2  1
Idc Idc
I0 2
2
 2  1  π  1  0.482
4 I02 8
2
π
 r  0.482
Thus, for a full wave rectifier r < 1 or I’rms < Idc. i.e., the ac component of
the output is smaller than dc value.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier
PIV is the maximum possible voltage across a diode during its reverse
biased period. Let us analyze the PIV of the centre-tapped rectifier from the circuit
diagram. During the positive half of the input ac supply, the diode D1 is positive and
thus conducts and provided no resistance at all. Thus, the whole of voltage Vs
developed across RL. Similar is the case of diode D2 for the lower half of the
transformer secondary.
Therefore, PIV = V0 + V0 = 2 V0.
Bridge type Full-Wave Rectifier
70
A bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. There are four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4
used in the circuit, which are connected to form a network. The input ends A and C
of the network are connected to the secondary ends of the transformer. The output
ends B and D are connected to the load resistance RL.
During positive input half
cycle of the a.c. voltage, the point A
is positive with respect to C. The
diodes D1 and D3 are forward
biased and conduct, whereas the
diodes D2 and D4 are reverse
biased and do not conduct. Hence,
current flows along ABDC through
RL. During negative half cycle, the
point C is positive with respect to A.
The diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and conduct; whereas the diodes D 1
and D3 are reverse biased and they do not conduct. Hence, current flows along
CBDA through RL. The same process is repeated for subsequent half cycles. It can
be seen that, current flows through RL in the same direction, during both half cycles
of the input a.c. signals. The output signal corresponding to the input signal is
shown in Fig. The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is approximately 81.2%.
All the mathematical analysis is same as centre tap full wave rectifier, because
output is same.
Harmonic components in rectifier output
The output current of a full wave rectifier can be analysed by means of
Fourier series which states that any single valued, finite and continuous periodic
function, say f(wt), can be represented by the sum of such simple harmonic terms
whose frequencies are multiples of the frequency of the given periodic function.
Thus
f wt   A0  A 1cos wt  A 2cos 2wt        B1sinwt  B2sin2wt      
 
f wt   A0   A KcosKwt  BK sinKwt
K 1 K 1
Fourier constants are given by the integrals

2π
1
A0  f wt  dwt
2π 0
2π
1
AK  f wt  cosKwt dwt
π 0
2π
1
BK  f wt  sinKwt dwt
π 0
Taking f(wt)=I0sin wt, in the case of full wave rectifier
f wt   I0 sinwt 0  wt  π
f wt   I0 sinwt π  wt  2π
71
Therefore,
π 2π
1  
A0  I sin wt dwt - I sin wt dwt 
2π  0 π 
0 0

π 2π
I0   I
 sinwt dwt   2π   cos wt   cos wt 
0 π 2π
sinwt dwt -
2π  0
 0 π
π
I0
 1 1  1 1  2 I0
2π π
2 I0
A0 
π
now
2π
1
A K   f wt  cosKwt dwt
π0
π 2π
1 
I sinwt cosKwt  dwt   - I sinwt cosKwt  dwt
π  0 0
 0
π 
π 2π
I  
 0    sinwt cos Kwt  dwt    sinwt cosKwt  dwt
π 0 π
π 2π
I0   sin(K  1)  sin(K 1)   sin(K 1)  sin(K  1)  
     dwt     dwt
π 0  2  π
2  
π π 2π 2π
I0    cos(K  1)wt    cos(K  1)wt      cos(K  1)wt    cos(K  1)wt   
     
       
2π   K 1 0  K 1 0   K 1 π  K 1  π  
AK = 0, when K is odd
But when K is even
I0   1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1 
             
2π   K  1 K  1  K  1 K  1  K  1 K  1  K  1 K  1  

I0  2 2 2 2 
     
2π  K  1 K  1 K  1 K  1
I0  4 4  4 I0  1 1  4 I  2 
        0 2 
2π  K  1 K  1 2π  K  1 K  1 2π  K  1
4 I0  1 
AK    
π  K 2  1
Now
72
2π
1
BK  f wt  sinKwt dwt
π 0
2π
1
BK  I sinwt sinKwt dwt
π 0 0
π 2π
1 
   I0 sinwt sinKwt dwt    I0 sinwt sinKwt dwt 
π0 π 
π 2π
I0  
  sin wt sinKwt dwt   sin wt sinKwt dwt 
π  0 π


π 2π
I0   cos(K  1)wt  cos(K  1)wt   cos(K  1)wt  cos(K  1)wt  
    dwt     dwt 
π0 2  π
2  
π π 2π 2π
I0   sin(K  1)wt   sin(K  1)wt     sin(K  1)wt   sin(K  1)wt   
     
       
2π   K 1 0  K 1 0    K 1 π  K 1  π  
BK  0 , for all values of K
Thus, the output current I can be expressed in the form of a Fourier series as

2 I0 - 4 I0  1 
I  f wt       cosKwt  0
π Keven π  K 2  1
2 I0 4 I0 4I
I  f wt    cos 2wt  0 cos 4wt - - - - - - -
π 3π 15π
Thus, the output current of a full wave rectifier has a dc component 2I0/π
and a series of ac components (even harmonics) or ripples. The first harmonic
frequency term is absent and the lowest term has angular frequency 2w
Filter Circuits
Rectifier circuit is used converting a sinusoidal ac voltage into its

corresponding pulsating dc. This pulsating dc voltage will have unwanted ac
components called ripples. Such supply is not useful for driving complex electronic
circuits. For most supply purposes constant dc voltage is required. Hence, the
rectifier output is smoothened by filter circuit.
The filter is a device that allows passing the dc component and blocks the ac
component of the rectifier output. Thus the output of the filter circuit will be a pure
dc voltage.
The filter circuit can be constructed by the combination of components like
capacitors, resistors, and inductors. Inductor is used for its property that it allows
73
only dc components to pass and blocks ac signals. Capacitor is used so as to block

the dc and allows ac to pass. Some of important filters are
Inductor filter
Capacitor filter
L-section filter
Π – Section filter
Series Inductor Filter or choke input filter
The series inductor filter is shown in fig. The
Inductor L is connected in series between the rectifier
circuit and the load. The inductor carries the property
of opposing the ac current that flows through it.
In other words, the inductor offers high impedance to the ripples and no
impedance to the dc components. Thus the ripple components will be eliminated.
When the rectifier output current increases above a certain value, energy is stored
in it in the form of a magnetic field and this energy is given up when the output
current falls below the average value. Thus all the sudden changes in current that
occurs in the circuit will be smoothened by placing the inductor in series between
the rectifier and the load.
The waveform below shows the use of inductor in the circuit.
The inductor filters high frequency ac ripples, because of the fact that with
the increase in frequency, the reactance of the inductor also increases. A simple
series inductor filter may not be properly used. It is always better to use a shunt
capacitor (C) with series inductor (L) to form an LC Filter.
The ripple factor of an inductor filter is given by
RL
r
3 2wL
Capacitor Input Filter
In this type a capacitor C is connected in shunt with load resistor R.

Capacitor acts as open circuit for dc. Direct current passes through the load.
Capacitor provides low-reactance path to the ac components of current. AC gets
74
bypassed to the ground. Only a small part of the ac component passes through the
load producing a small ripple voltage.
When the rectifier output is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak
voltage VP. When the rectifier voltage becomes slightly less than VP, the capacitor
starts to discharge through the load (point B). This prevents the load voltage from
falling to zero. The capacitor discharges until the rectifier voltage becomes more
than the capacitor voltage (point C). The capacitor again charges to the peak value
VP. The current is maintained through the load all the time.
For getting steadier output voltage, the time constant RC should be large.
Then load current is small and capacitor does not discharge very much and the
average load voltage Vdc, is slightly less than the peak value VP.
The ripple factor of a capacitor filter is given by
1
r
4 3wCRL
LC filter or Choke Input Filter or L-Section Filter

An inductor filter increases the ripple factor with the increase in load
resistance RL. A capacitor filter has an inversely proportional ripple factor with
respect to load resistance. Economically, both inductor filter and capacitor filter are
not suitable for high end purpose
L-C filter consists of an inductor ‘L’ connected in series with a rectifier and a
capacitor ’C’ across the load. This arrangement is also called a choke input filter or
L-section filter. To increase the smoothing action using the filter circuit, just one L-C
circuit will not be enough. Several L-section filters will be arranged to obtain a
smooth filtered output. The circuit diagram and smoothened waveform of a Full
wave rectifier output is shown below.
As shown in the circuit diagram above, the inductor L allows the dc to pass
but restricts the flow of ac components as its dc resistance is very small and ac
impedance is large. After a signal passes through the inductor, if there is any ripple
remaining, it will be fully bypassed by the shunt capacitor. Then ripple free dc
reaches the load RL.
75
Π – Filter or capacitor input filter

The Π - Filter consists of a shunt
capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-
section filter formed by series inductor L and
shunt capacitor C2. The shape of the circuit
diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter
(π), so it calling as π - filter . Since the rectifier
feeds directly into the capacitor so it is also
called capacitor input filter.
The capacitor-input filter operates in three steps:
The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier
output while it offers infinite resistance to the DC component. As a result the
capacitor grounds a large amount of the AC component while the DC component
continues its journey to the inductor L.
The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers
almost zero resistance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows
through the inductor while the AC component is blocked.
The capacitor C2 shunts the AC component which the inductor had failed to
block. As a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.
Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is a voltage stabilizer that is designed to maintain a
constant voltage level. A voltage regulator circuit is also used to change or stabilize
the voltage level according to the necessity of the circuit. Thus, a voltage regulator
is used for two reasons:-
 To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit
 To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of
variations in the supply voltage or in the load current.
Three terminal IC Voltage Regulators

An IC based voltage regulator can be classified in different ways. A common
type of classification is 3 terminal voltage regulator and 5 or multi terminal voltage
regulator.
The regulators are classified as
1. Fixed voltage regulators (positive & negative)
2. Variable voltage regulators (positive & negative)
76
Fixed Voltage Regulators

These regulators provide a constant output voltage. A popular example is
the 7805 IC which provides a constant 5 volts output. A fixed voltage regulator can
be a positive voltage regulator or a negative voltage regulator. A positive voltage
regulator provides with constant positive output voltage. All those IC’s in the 78XX
series are fixed positive voltage regulators. The part XX denotes the regulated
output voltage by IC. Examples:- 7805, 7806, 7809 etc.
A negative fixed voltage regulator is same as the positive fixed voltage
regulator in design, construction & operation. The only difference is in the polarity of
output voltages. These IC’s are designed to provide a negative output voltage.
Example:- 7905, 7906 and all those IC’s in the 79XX series.
The figure above shows the application of IC7805 as a voltage regulator. Pins 1, 2,
and 3 are the input, ground and output.
The figure above shows the application of IC7905 as a voltage regulator. Pins 1, 2,
and 3 are the ground, input and output.
Variable Voltage Regulator
A variable voltage regulator is a kind of regulator whose regulated output
voltage can be varied over a range. There are two types as positive variable e
voltage regulator and negative adjustable regulator. LM317 is an example of
positive variable voltage regulator, whose output voltage can be varied over a
range of 1.2 volts to 57 volts. LM337 is an example of negative adjustable voltage
regulator. LM337 is actually a complement of LM317 which are similar in operation
& design, and the only difference is that polarity of regulated output voltage.
Block diagram of a Power Supply
Figure shows a block diagram of a power supply system which converts a
AC supply into a regulated DC supply.
77
5V Regulated Power Supply

a circuit for the 5V regulated power supply shown in figure.
Switched-mode power supply
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode

power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power
supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
The higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-
mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be smaller and
lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.
Switching regulators are used when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight
are required.
A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the
excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency
is voltage-out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted.
In contrast, a switched-mode power supply regulates either output voltage or
current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors and capacitors, into and
out of different electrical configurations and all input power is delivered to the load,
no power is wasted as dissipated heat.
Input rectifier stage

If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This
is called rectification. A SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. The
rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter
capacitor to remove the AC ripples.
78
Inverter stage
This section refers to the block marked chopper in the diagram.
The inverter stage converts DC to AC by running it through a power oscillator,
whose output is at a frequency in order of kilohertz. The frequency is usually kept
above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans.
Output transformer
If the output is required to be isolated from the input, the inverted AC is fed to the
primary winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or
down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output transformer
in the block diagram serves this purpose.
Output rectifier and filter
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. The
rectified output is then smoothed by a filter.
Chopper controller (feedback circuit)
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference
voltage. If there is an error in output voltage, the feedback circuit compensates by
adjusting the timing with which MOSFETs are switched ON and OFF.
Depending on design and safety requirements, the controller may contain an
isolation mechanism (such as an opto-coupler) to isolate it from the DC output.
Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers to tightly
control the output voltage.
Differences between SMPS and Linear Power Supplies
SMPS Linear Power Supplies
A SMPS is light weight and smaller in Bigger in size due to low operating
physical size due to higher operating frequency (50 HZ)
frequency. (50 Hz to 1 M H z)
An y voltage is available with SMPS, An y voltage is available, if transformer
the voltage varies by varying the load is used
SMPSs are more complicated and Easy to design
difficult to design
Due to the higher frequency, SMPS The low frequency AC needs quite
need much smaller smoothing large capacitors to smooth the rectified
capacitors on the final output output
Output is regulates using duty cycle Output is regulates by dispatching
control, withdraws only power required excess power as a heat
by load
Efficiency is high Efficiency is low

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1

B.Sc. Electronics - II Semester – Paper- 2

Formation of depletion layer in PN diode

Forward VI characteristics of PN diode

Diffusion capacitance (CD )

Diode current equation

Barrier voltage is also dependent on temperature it decreases by 2mV/ºC for

VI characteristics of Zener diode.

Zener Diode as a voltage regulator

 These diodes significantly generate less noise

NPN transistor PNP transistor

Cut off mode

Common Base Configuration

Common Collector Configuration

Current Amplification Factor (α) or current gain

Expression for collector current

Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

Common Emitter Configuration

IC  αIC  αIB ICBO

Characteristic of Common Emitter Configuration

Current Amplification Factor (γ) or current gain

Relation between γ and α

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector

H- parameter equivalent circuit for transistor is shown in the figure.

H – parameters equivalent circuit for CE configuration

From the h-parameter equivalent circuit of the common emitter configuration we

Methods of Transistor Biasing

In another way VCE  VBE  VCB

VCB  VCE  VBE

Voltage Divider Bias Method

Let us consider an N-channel JFET for discussing its operation.

Output or Drain Characteristic

It is also called dynamic resistance.

For JFET, the value of µ is at most 100.

Differences between JFET and BJT

MOSFET-Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

When the drain is made positive with

no channel is doped between the source

accumulation of the holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the decrease of

Equivalent Circuit of a UJT

Take log on both sides

Where η is the intrinsic stand of ratio.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and

Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. The

Equivalent Circuit of SCR or two transistor representation of SCR

The equivalent circuit

V-I Characteristics of SCR

If the reverse voltage is gradually increased, at first the anode current

gate current as shown in fig.

The SCR conducts in only the positive

waveform as shown in fig.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Output characteristics of LED

Photo-diode is a two-terminal semiconductor P-N junction device and is

less-bright light results in less current.

Hence, total current is I  1 β IC0  IL 

Opto-isolator (optical coupler or opto-coupler)

In its simplest form, an opto-isolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED),

I  I0sinwt when 0 wt  π

I02 π  1- cos2wt  I02  π π

Rf < RL, the efficiency is   40.6 %

Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier