Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1001

Chapter 10 Anti-differentiation (Integration)

d
 f ( x) dx  F ( x) 
dx
[ F ( x)]  f ( x).

10.1 Existence of constant of integration:

If f   F (where f  f ( x), F  F ( x))

Then also, [ f  C ]  F . . . . . (R)
For this reason (R), constant of integration C exists.
Note:
By definition,
e x  e x
sinh x  ,
2
e x  e x
cosh x  ,
2
sinh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1),
cosh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1),
1 1 x
tanh 1 x  ln( ),
2 1 x
1 x 1
coth 1 x  ln( ),
2 x 1
1 1  x2
sec h 1 x  ln( ),
x
1
1 1  x2
csc h x  ln( ).
x

10.2 Formulae For Integration:

 0 dx  c, . . . . . (1)
 c dx  c x (if c is constant), . . . . . (2)
f c 1
 f f  dx  c  1
c
(if c is constant), . . . . . (3)

bf
  (if f , b both are constants), . . . . . (4)
f
b dx
f  ln b
 c f dx  c f dx (if c is constant), . . . . . (5)
 e [ a f  f ] dx  e f (if a is constant). . . . . . (6)
ax ax

 (u  v) dx  u dx  v dx, . . . . . (7)
 (u  v) dx  u dx   v dx, . . . . . (8)
 uv dx  u ( v dx)   [( v dx) u] dx (Integration by parts), . . . . . (9)
u
v dx ? . . . . . (10)

(a) Using formulae (if a and f  are both constant): . . . . . (10a)

1 1 1 f 1 1 f
 a2  f 2 dx  f  sin ( a ) or  f  cos ( a ),
1 1 1 1 f 1 1 1 f
 a2  f 2 dx  a f  tan ( a ) or  a f  cot ( a ),
1 1 1 1 f 1 1 1 f
 f f 2  a 2 dx  a f  sec ( a ) or  a f  csc ( a ),
1 1 f
 f a
2 2
dx 
f
sinh 1 ( ),
a
Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1002
1 1 f
 f 2  a2
dx  cosh 1 ( ),
f a
1 1 f
a tanh 1 ( ) if f a
1  f a 1 1 a f
 a2  f 2 dx  
a f
ln
a f
,
1 1 f
coth 1 ( ) if f a
 a f a
1 1 1 f
f a2  f 2
dx 
a f
s ech 1 ( ),
a
1 1 1 f
f a2  f 2
dx 
a f
csch 1 ( ).
a

u f
(b) v dx ln v only if u  v
f 
dx  ln f ). . . . . . (10b)
(i.e.

(c) Using division algorithm before integration if

degree of numerator  degree of denominator. . . . . . (10c)

(d) Using partial fraction before integration if the denominator can be written as a product of
linear or and quadratic polynomials (i.e. factorization of the denominator). . . . . . (10d)
(e) Using substitution before integration. . . . . . (10e)

 sin x dx   cos x, . . . . . (11)

 cos x dx  sin x, . . . . . (12)
 tan x dx   ln  cos x   ln(sec x), . . . . . (13)
 cot x dx  ln(sin x)   ln(csc x), . . . . . (14)
 x
 sec x dx  ln(sec x  tan x)  ln[tan( 4  2 )], . . . . . (15)
x
 csc x dx  ln(csc x  cot x)  ln[tan( 2 )], . . . . . (16)

 sec x dx  tan x, . . . . . (13)

2

 csc x dx   cot x, . . . . . (14)

2

 (sec x tan x) dx  sec x, . . . . . (15)

 (csc x cot x) dx   csc x, . . . . . (16)
csc f
 csc f cot f dx  
f
(if f  is constant) where f  f ( x)

etc. . . . . . (11g-16g)
1
 1 x 2
dx  sin 1 x (or)  cos 1 x, . . . . . (21, 22)

1
 1  x2 dx  tan x (or)  cot x, . . . . . (23, 24)
1 1

1
 x x2  1 dx  sec x (or)  csc x. . . . . . (25, 26)
1 1

The more general forms of the above formulae when there is


 a 2 instead of 12
& 2 2
in the denominator (if a and f  are both constant), are,

 or
f instead of x
1 1 1 f 1 1 f
 a2  f 2 dx  f  sin a (or)  f  cos a , . . . . . (21g, 22g)
1 1 1 f 1 1 f
a 2
f 2
dx 
a f
tan 1
a
(or) 
a f
cot 1 , . . . . . (23g, 24g)
a
Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1003
1 1 1 f 1 1 f
f f 2  a2
dx 
a f
sec1
a
(or) 
a f
csc1 . . . . . . (25g, 26g)
a

 sinh x dx  cosh x, . . . . . (31)

 cosh x dx  sinh x, . . . . . (32)
 tanh x dx  ln  cosh x  , . . . . . (33)
 coth x dx  ln(sinh x), . . . . . (34)
 sec h x dx  ?, . . . . . (35)
 csc h x dx  ?, . . . . . (36)
 sec h x dx  tanh x, . . . . . (33)
2

 csc h x dx   coth x, . . . . . (34)

2

 (sec h x. tanh x) dx   sec h x, . . . . . (35)

 (csch x. coth x) dx  -csch x, . . . . . (36)
csch f
 (cschf. cothf dx  - f  (if f  is constant) where f  f(x)

etc. . . . . . (31g-36g)
1
 x 1
2
dx  sinh -1x, . . . . . (41)
h 1
1
 2
x -1
dx  cosh -1x, . . . . . (42) x
.
 1
  1- x 2 dx  tanh x if x  1
-1
1 1 x .
  .ln( ), . . . . . (43, 44) .
 1 dx  coth -1x if x  1 2 1- x
  1- x 2 .
1 .
 x 1- x 2 dx  -sech x, . . . . . (44)
-1
1
1
 x 1  x 2 dx  -csch x, . . . . . (45)
-1

1 1 x -1
 x 2 -1 dx  2 .ln( x  1). . . . . . (46)

 a 2 instead of 12
The more general forms of the above formulae when there is  in
& f 2 instead of x 2

 or
the denominator (if a and f  are both constant), are,
1 1 -1 x
 f 2  a 2 dx  f  sinh ( a ), . . . . . (41g)
1 1 -1 x
 f 2 - a 2 dx  f  cosh ( a ), . . . . . (42g)
 1 1 1 -1 x
  a 2 - f 2 dx  a . f  .tanh ( a ) if x  1
1 1 1 ax
  . . .ln( ),
 1 1 1 x a f 2 ax

 a - f
2 2
dx  . .coth -1 ( )
a f a
if x  1

. . . . . (43g, 44g)
1 1 1 x
f a2 -f 2
dx  - . .sech -1 ( ), . . . . . (44g)
a f a
1 1 1 -1 x
 f a 2  f 2 dx  - a . f  .csch ( a ), . . . . . (45g)
Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1004
1 1 1 1 x -a
 f 2 - a 2 dx  a . f  . 2 .ln( x  a ). . . . . . (46g)
If a is constant,
x a2 - x2 a2 x
 a - x dx   .sin-1 ( ), . . . . . (51)
2 2

2 2 a
x x2  a2 a2 x
 x 2  a 2 dx 
2
 .sinh -1 ( )
2 a
x x2  a2 a2 x  x2  a2
  .ln ( ), . . . . . (52)
2 2 a
x x2 - a2 a2 x
 x 2 - a 2 dx 
2
- .co sh -1 ( )
2 a
x x2 - a2 a2 x  x2 - a2
 - .ln ( ). . . . . . (53)
2 2 a

The more general forms of these formulae when there is f 2 instead of x 2 (when a and f  both
are constants), are,
1 f a2 -f 2 a2 f
 a 2 - f 2 dx 
f
[
2
 .sin-1 ( )], . . . . . (51g)
2 a

1 f f 2  a2 a2 f
 f 2  a 2 dx 
f
[
2
 .sinh -1 ( )]
2 a
1 f f 2  a2 a2 f  f 2  a2
 [  .ln ( )], . . . . . (52g)
f 2 2 a
1 f f 2 - a2 a2 f
 f 2 - a 2 dx 
f
[
2
- .co sh -1 ( )]
2 a
1 f f 2 - a2 a2 f  f 2 - a2
 [ - .ln ( )]. . . . . . (53g)
f 2 2 a

Reduction Formulae
For n, p, q  Z+ :
-cosx. sin n-1x n -1
 sin x dx    sin n-2 x dx, . . . . . (61)
n

n n
n-1
sin x. cos x n -1
 cos x dx  
n 
cos n-2 x dx, . . . . . (62)
n

n
tan n-1 x
  -  tan n-2 x dx, . . . . . (63)
n
tan x dx
n -1
- cot n-1 x
  -  cot n-2 x dx, . . . . . (64)
n
cot x dx
n -1
tanx. secn-2 x n - 2
 sec x dx  n -1  n -1  sec x dx, . . . . . (65)
n n-2

-cotx. cscn-2 x n - 2
  
n -1 
cscn-2 x dx. . . . . . (66)
n
csc x dx
n -1
-sin p-1x. cosq 1x p -1
  
p  q
sin p-2 x. cosq x dx
p q
sin x.cos x dx
p  q
cosq-1 x. sin p 1x q -1

pq

pq  cos q-2 x. sin p x dx. . . . . . (P)
Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1005
π π
2 2

 sin x dx   cos n x dx
n

0 0

(n -1)(n - 3)(n - 5)(n - 7) . . . . . to last integer > 0 π

 ( )
(n)(n - 2)(n - 4)(n - 6) . . . . . to last integer > 0 2
. . . . . (61L, 62L)
π
where, is written only when n is an even integer.
2
π
2

 sin x. cos x dx
p q

[(p -1)(p - 3)(p - 5)..........][(q -1)(q - 3)(q - 5) . . . . . to last integer > 0] π

 ( )
(p  q)(p  q - 2)(p  q - 4)(p  q - 6) . . . . . to last integer > 0 2
. . . . . (PL)
π
where, is written only when p & q both are even integers.
2
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS
b

 f(x) dx  F(b) - F(a) where,  f(x) dx  F(x).

a

The Definite Integral as Area:

 y = f(x) (the curve)


x = a 
b

 f(x) dx Area bounded by   (the lines parallel to y axis)

a x = b
 x-axis
y  axis
xb

xa (b, f(b))

y  f (x)

(a, f(a))

(a, 0) (b, 0) x  axis

10.3 Definite Integral as a Limit of a Sum:

b
 n 
 f(x) dx = lim   f(ci ).x i   lim S(P, f ) 
a
P 0
 i 1  P 0
n
where, S(P, f )   f(ci ).x i  Riemann's Sum
i 1

for the partition P: a  x 0 , x1 , x 2 , , xi-1 , xi , xn  b

such that, a  x 0  x1  x 2   xi1  xi   xn  b
of [a, b]
n
& x i  x i  x i 1 and P  Max{x i }
i =1
Lectures on Integration by Ghulam Farid 1006
y  axis
xb
y  f (x)

xa
(b, f(b))
(a, f(a))

f (cr )

cr
a
x0 x1 x 2 x 3 x r-1 xr x n-1 b
xn x  axis

10.4 General Theorems:

b b

 f(x) dx   f(z) dz . . . . . (71)

a a
b a

 f(x) dx  - f(x) dx . . . . . (72)

a b
b c b

 f(x) dx   f(x) dx   f(x) dx where c  a, b , . . . . . (73)

a a c
a a

 f(x) dx   f(a - x) dx, . . . . . (74)

0 0
2a a a

 f(x) dx   f(x) dx   f(2a - x) dx . . . . . (75)

0 0 0

 a

  0
2 f(x) dx if f(2a - x)  f(x), . . . . . (75a)

0 if f(2a - x) - f(x), . . . . . (75b)
na a

 f(x) dx  n. f(x) dx if f(a  x) f(x). . . . . . (76)

0 0