Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
B.Tech II semester (IARE-R16)
Prepared
By
Course Instructors:
Dr. D Shobha Rani, Professor, EEE
Mr. T Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, EEE
Mr. K Raju, Associate Professor, EEE
Mr. T Vigneysh, Assistant Professor, EEE
Ms. S Swathi, Assistant Professor, EEE
Mr.G Hari krishna, Assistant Professor, EEE
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
Potential Difference =Voltage=EMF
In a battery, a series of chemical
reactions occur in which electrons
are transferred from one terminal to
another. There is a potential
difference (voltage) between these
poles.
1. A source of energy
2. A closed path
3. A device which uses the energy
If ANY part of the circuit is open the device will not work!
Electricity can be symbolic of Fluids
Circuits are very similar to water flowing through a pipe
A pump basically works on TWO
IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES concerning its
flow
R Resistance 7
Voltage(V)
6
V IR 5 Voltage(V)
e IR 3
V ( series ) Total
V1 V 2 V 3
As the current goes through the circuit, the charges must USE ENERGY to get
through the resistor. So each individual resistor will get its own individual potential
voltage). We call this VOLTAGE DROP.
V ( series ) Total
V1 V 2 V 3 ; V IR
Note: They may use the
( I T R T ) series I 1 R 1 I 2 R 2 I 3 R 3 terms ―effective‖ or
―equivalent‖ to mean
R series R 1 R 2 R 3 TOTAL!
Rs Ri
Example
A series circuit is shown to the left.
a) What is the total resistance?
R(series) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6W
Regarding Junctions :
I IN I OUT
Junctions
Parallel Circuit
Notice that the JUNCTIONS both touch the
POSTIVE and NEGATIVE terminals of the
battery. That means you have the SAME
potential difference down EACH individual
V branch of the parallel circuit. This means
that the individual voltages drops are equal.
V ( parallel ) Total
V1 V 2 V 3
I ( parallel ) Total
I 1 I 2 I 3 ; V IR
VT V1 V2 V3
( ) Parallel
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
This junction This junction RP
R1
R2
R3
touches the touches the 1 1
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE RP Ri
terminal terminal
Example
To the left is an example of a parallel circuit.
a) What is the total resistance?
1 1 1 1
RP 5 7 9
1 1 2.20 W
0 . 454 R P
Rp 0 . 454
V IR
b) What is the total current?
8 I ( R ) 3.64 A
8 V each!
c) What is the voltage across EACH resistor?
1 1 1
; R P 33 . 3 W
RP 100 50
R s 80 33 . 3 113 . 3 W
Compound (Complex) Circuits
1 1 1
; R P 33 . 3 W
RP 100 50
R s 80 33 . 3 113 . 3 W
Suppose the potential difference (voltage) is equal to 120V. What is the total
current?
VT IT RT
120 I T (113 . 3 )
I T 1.06 A
V 80 W I 80 W R 80 W
V 80 W (1 . 06 )( 80 )
84.8 V
Compound (Complex) Circuits
R T 113 . 3 W
V T 120 V
I T 1 . 06 A
V 80 W 84 . 8 V
35 . 2
V T ( series )
V1 V 2& 3 I 100 0.352 A
W
100 Add to
120 84 . 8 V 2 & 3
35 . 2 1.06A
V 2& 3 35.2 V Each! I 50 W 0.704 A
50
UNIT II
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Star-Delta Transformation
Equivalence
• Equivalence can be found on the basis that the resistance
between any pair of terminals in the two circuits have to be
the same, when the third terminal is left open.
• First take delta connection: between A and C,
there are two parallel paths, one having a
resistance of R2 and other having a resistance
of ( R1+R3)
Hence resistance between terminal A and C is
= R2.(R1+R3)/[R2+( R1+R3)]
• Now take the star connection
Now subtracting 2 from 1 and adding the result to 3, we will get the following values
for R1,R2 and R3.
How to remember?
Resistance of each arm of star is given by the product of the
resistance of the two delta sides that meet at its ends divided by
the sum of the three delta resistance
STAR to DELTA
Multiplying 1 and 2, 2 and 3 , 3 and 1 and adding them together and
simplifying, we will have the following result.
How to remember: The equivalent delta resistance between any two point is
given by the product of resistance taken two at a time divided by the opposite
resistance in the star configuration.
Problem
• A delta-section of resistors is given in figure.
Convert this into an equivalent star-section.
Ans . : R A 3 W ; R B 1 .0 W ; R C 1 .5 W .
Problem
The figure shows a
network. The number
on each branch
represents the value of
resistance in ohms.
Find the resistance
between the points E
and F.
Solution
Ans. : 5.6 Ω
Problem
Find the current drawn from the 5 volt battery in the
network shown in figure.
Solution :
Ans. : 0.974 A
Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
• It is only applicable to planar circuits (a circuit that
can be drawn on a plane with no branches crossing
each other).
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other
loops.
• The current through a mesh is known as the mesh
current.
• Assume for simplicity that the circuit contains only
voltage sources.
43
Mesh Analysis Steps
44
Example
R1 R2
+ v1 - + v2 -
+
DC
Vs2 i1 v7 R7 i2
-
+ v5 - + v6 -
R5 R6
- +
R3 v3 Vs1 v4 R4
i3 DC
i4 -
+
- v +
8
R8
Number of nodes, n = 7 Number of loops, l = 4
Number of branches, b = 10 l b n 1
45
R1 R2
Example
+ v1 - + v2 -
+
DC
Vs2 i1 v7 R7 i2
-
+ v5 - + v6 -
R5 R6
- +
R3 v3 Vs1 v4 R4
i3 DC
i4 -
+
Apply KVL to each mesh - v +
8
R8
Mesh 1: V s v1 v 7 v 5 0
2
Mesh 2: v2 v6 v7 0
Mesh 3: v5 v s v3 0
1
Mesh 4: v 4 v8 V s v6 0
1 46
R1 R2
Mesh 1: V s v1 v 7 v 5 0
2
+ v1 - + v2 -
+
Mesh 2: v2 v6 v7 0 DC
Vs2 i1 v7 R7 i2
-
+ v5 - + v6 -
Mesh 3: v5 v s v3 0
1
R5 R6
Mesh 4: v 4 v8 V s v6 0 R3
- +
1
v3 i3 DC
Vs1 i4 v4 R4
-
Express the voltage in terms of the mesh +
- v +
currents: 8
R8
Mesh 1: V s i1 R 1 ( i1 i 2 ) R 7 ( i1 i 3 ) R 5 0
2
Mesh 2: i 2 R 2 ( i 2 i 4 ) R 6 ( i 2 i1 ) R 7 0
Mesh 3: ( i 3 i1 ) R 5 V s i 3 R 3 0
1
Mesh 4: i4 R 4 i4 R 8 V s ( i4 i2 ) R 6 0
1
47
Mesh 1: V s i1 R 1 ( i1 i 2 ) R 7 ( i1 i 3 ) R 5 0
2
Mesh 2: i 2 R 2 ( i 2 i 4 ) R 6 ( i 2 i1 ) R 7 0
Mesh 3: ( i 3 i1 ) R 5 V s i 3 R 3 0
1
Mesh 4: i4 R 4 i4 R 8 V s ( i4 i2 ) R 6 0
1
Mesh 1: ( R 1 R 5 R 7 ) i1 R 7 i 2 R 5 i 3 V s
2
Mesh 2: R 7 i1 ( R 2 R 6 R 7 ) i 2 R 6 i 4 0
Mesh 3: R 5 i1 ( R 3 R 5 ) i 3 V s
1
Mesh 4: R 6 i2 ( R 4 R 6 R 8 ) i4 V s
1
48
Mesh 1: ( R 1 R 5 R 7 ) i1 R 7 i 2 R 5 i 3 V s
2
Mesh 2: R 7 i1 ( R 2 R 6 R 7 ) i 2 R 6 i 4 0
Mesh 3: R 5 i1 ( R 3 R 5 ) i 3 V s
1
Mesh 4: R 6 i2 ( R 4 R 6 R 8 ) i4 V s
1
R1 R 5 R 7 R7 R5 0 i1 V s2
R7 R2 R6 R7 R6 0
0 i
2
R5 0 R3 R5 0 i3 V s
1
0 R6 0 R 4 R 6 R 8 i4
V s1
49
R1 R 5 R 7 R7 R5 0 i1 V s2
R7 R2 R6 R7 R6 0
0 i
2
R5 0 R3 R5 0 i3 V s
1
0 R6 0 R 4 R 6 R 8 i4
V s1
Ri = v
R is an l x l symmetric resistance matrix
50
Writing the Mesh Equations by Inspection
R1 R2
+ v1 - + v2 -
V s2
+ R1 R 5 R 7 R7 R5 0 i1
DC
Vs2 i1 v7 i2
R7
- R7 R2 R6 R7 R6 0
0 i
+ v5 - + v6 - 2
R5 0 R3 R5 0 i3 V s
1
R5 R6 0 R6 0 R 4 R 6 R 8 i4
- + V s1
R3 v3 Vs1 v4 R4
i3 DC
i4 -
+
- v +
8
R8
•The matrix R is symmetric, rkj = rjk and all of the off-diagonal terms are negative or
zero.
The rkk terms are the sum of all resistances in mesh k.
The rkj terms are the negative sum of the resistances common to BOTH mesh k
and mesh j.
The vk (the kth component of the vector v) = the algebraic sum of the independent
voltages in mesh k, with voltage rises taken as positive.
51
MATLAB Solution of Mesh Equations
R1 R 5 R 7 R7 R5 0 i1 V s2
R7 R2 R6 R7 0 R6 i 0
2
R5 0 R3 R5 0 i3 V s
1
0 R6 0 R 4 R 6 R 8 i4
V s1
Ri = v
1
i R v
52
R1 R2
Test with numbers
2W 3W
4V i1
DC
4W R7 i2
1W 2W
R5 R6
R3 3W DC
2V i4 4W R4
i3
1W
R8
2 4 1 4 1 0 i1 4
4 3 2 4 0 2 i 0
2
1 0 31 0 i3 2
0 2 0 2 4 1 i4 2
53
Test with numbers
2 4 1 4 1 0 i1 4
4 3 2 4 0 2 i 0
2
1 0 31 0 i3 2
0 2 0 2 4 1 i4 2
7 4 1 0 i1 4
4 9 0 2 i 0
2
1 0 4 0 i3 2
0 2 0 7 i4 2
Ri = v
54
Steps of Nodal Analysis
1. Choose a reference (ground) node.
2. Assign node voltages to the other nodes.
3. Apply KCL to each node other than the reference
node; express currents in terms of node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting system of linear equations for
the nodal voltages.
56
Common symbols for indicating a reference node,
(a) common ground, (b) ground, (c) chassis.
57
1. Reference Node
500W 500W
I1 V 1kW 500W I2
500W
–
59
2. Node Voltages
500W 500W
V V V
11 2 2 33
I1 1kW 500W I2
500W
60
Steps of Nodal Analysis
1. Choose a reference (ground) node.
2. Assign node voltages to the other nodes.
3. Apply KCL to each node other than the reference
node; express currents in terms of node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting system of linear equations for
the nodal voltages.
61
Currents and Node Voltages
V1 500W V2 V1
V1
500 W
500W
V1 V 2
500 W
62
3. KCL at Node 1
V1 500W V2
I1 V1 V 2 V1
500W I1
500 W 500 W
63
3. KCL at Node 2
V1 500W V2 500W V3
1kW
V 2 V1 V2 V2 V3
0
500 W 1k W 500 W
64
3. KCL at Node 3
V2 500W V3
V3 V2 V3
500W I2 I2
500 W 500 W
65
Steps of Nodal Analysis
1. Choose a reference (ground) node.
2. Assign node voltages to the other nodes.
3. Apply KCL to each node other than the reference
node; express currents in terms of node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting system of linear equations for
the nodal voltages.
66
4. Summing Circuit Solution
500W 500W
I1 V 1kW 500W I2
500W
–
67
Typical circuit for nodal analysis
68
I 1 I 2 i1 i 2
I 2 i 2 i3
v higher v lower
i
R
v1 0
i1 or i1 G 1 v 1
R1
v1 v 2
i2 or i2 G 2 ( v1 v 2 )
R2
v2 0
i3 or i3 G 3 v 2
R3
69
v1 v1 v 2
I1 I 2
R1 R2
v1 v 2 v2
I2
R2 R3
I 1 I 2 G 1 v1 G 2 ( v1 v 2 )
I 2 G 2 ( v1 v 2 ) G 3 v 2
G1 G 2 G2 v1 I1 I 2
G 2 G 2 G 3 v 2 I 2
70
• Calculus the node voltage in the circuit shown
in Fig. 3.3(a)
71
• At node 1
i1 i 2 i 3
v1 v 2 v1 0
5
4 2
PSUT 72
• At node 2
i 2 i 4 i1 i 5
v 2 v1 v2 0
5
4 6
73
• In matrix form:
1 1 1
v1 5
2 4 4
1 1
1 v
2 5
4 6 4
74
Practice
75
Determine the voltage at the nodes in Fig. below
76
• At node 1,
3 i1 i x
v1 v 3 v1 v 2
3
4 2
77
• At node 2
i x i 2 i3
v1 v 2 v2 v3 v2 0
2 8 4
78
• At node 3
i1 i 2 2 i x
v1 v 3 v2 v3 2 ( v1 v 2 )
4 8 2
PSUT 79
• In matrix form:
3 1 1
4 2 4 v1 3
1 1
7
v2 0
2 8 8
3 9 3 v 3 0
4 8
8
80
3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Sources
PSUT 81
3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Sources
A circuit with a supernode.
i1 i 4 i 2 i 3
v1 v 2 v1 v 3 v2 0 v3 0
2 4 8 6
v2 v3 5
PSUT 82
A supernode is formed by enclosing a
(dependent or independent) voltage source
connected between two nonreference nodes
and any elements connected in parallel with it.
The required two equations for regulating the
two nonreference node voltages are obtained
by the KCL of the supernode and the
relationship of node voltages due to the
voltage source.
83
Example 3.3
• For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.9, find the
node voltages. 2 7 i1 i 2 0
v1 v2
2 7 0
2 4
v1 v 2 2
i1 i2
84
Find the node voltages in the circuit below.
85
• At suopernode 1-2,
v3 v2 v1 v 4 v1
10
6 3 2
v 1 v 2 20
86
• At supernode 3-4,
v1 v 4 v3 v2 v4 v3
3 6 1 4
v 3 v 4 3 ( v1 v 4 )
87
3.4 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis: another procedure for
analyzing circuits, applicable to planar circuit.
• A Mesh is a loop which does not contain any
other loops within it
88
(a) A Planar circuit with crossing branches,
(b) The same circuit redrawn with no crossing branches.
89
A nonplanar circuit.
90
• Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, .., in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to
get the mesh currents.
91
Fig. 3.17
A circuit with two meshes.
92
• Apply KVL to each mesh. For mesh 1,
V 1 R 1 i1 R 3 ( i1 i 2 ) 0
( R 1 R 3 ) i1 R 3 i 2 V 1
• For mesh 2,
R 2 i 2 V 2 R 3 ( i 2 i1 ) 0
R 3 i1 ( R 2 R 3 ) i 2 V 2
93
• Solve for the mesh currents.
R1 R 3 R3 i1 V1
R 3 R 2 R 3 i 2 V 2
94
• Find the branch current I1, I2, and I3 using
mesh analysis.
95
For mesh 1,
15 5 i1 10 ( i1 i 2 ) 10 0
3 i1 2 i 2 1
For mesh 2,
6 i 2 4 i 2 10 ( i 2 i1 ) 10 0
i1 2 i 2 1
We can find i1 and i2 by substitution method
or Cramer’s rule. Then,
I 1 i1 , I 2 i 2 , I 3 i1 i2
96
Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the
circuit.
97
• Apply KVL to each mesh. For mesh 1,
24 10 ( i1 i 2 ) 12 ( i1 i 3 ) 0
11 i1 5 i 2 6 i 3 12
• For mesh 2,
24 i 2 4 ( i 2 i 3 ) 10 ( i 2 i1 ) 0
5 i1 19 i 2 2 i 3 0
98
For mesh 3, 4 I 12 ( i 3 i1 ) 4 ( i 3 i 2 ) 0
0
At node A, I 0 I 1 i 2 ,
4 ( i1 i 2 ) 12 ( i 3 i1 ) 4 ( i 3 i 2 ) 0
i1 i 2 2 i 3 0
99
3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current
Sources
A circuit with a current source.
100
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Graph Theory in Circuit Analysis
b c
e f
d g
b c
e f
d g
b c
e f
d g
h
A cut set is a minimal set of edges that, when broken, breaks the
graph into two completely separate parts (two groups of nodes.
Minimal means that a cut set cannot contain another smaller cut
set that would break the graph into the same two parts.
Fundamental Cut Set
b c
e f
d g
h
Suppose I am given a tree.
A fundamental cut set w.r.t. that tree is a cut set that only
contains one branch of the tree.
There may be many fundamental cut sets w.r.t. a given tree.
Finding Fundamental Cut Sets Systematically
1 4 2 5 3
d
How is this used in circuit analysis?
Identifying a tree for a circuit, and all of the
fundamental cut sets that go with it, can be used in
nodal analysis.
Here are the steps simulation software may take to
perform nodal analysis:
1. From user input, make a connectivity matrix (graph)
and record the circuit element on each edge.
2. Choose a tree using the following guidelines:
a) Place an edge in the tree if it contains a voltage source, or if
the voltage over the edge controls a dependent source.
b) Place an edge in the co-tree if it contains a current source,
or if the current in the edge controls a dependent source.
3. Find all of the fundamental cut sets for this tree.
n nodes yields n-1 fundamental cut sets
How is this used in circuit analysis?
4. Each fundamental cut set breaks the circuit into
two pieces: two supernodes. Write a KCL
equation for one supernode in each fundamental
cut set (in terms of node voltages).
– The KCL equations for the two supernodes formed by a
fundamental cut set will be the same.
– This is where the circuit element info comes into play.
– This yields n-1 equations in n node voltage variables.
5. Set one node voltage to zero volts (ground) and
solve .
Notes
0 .7 5 I X
40 W
10 W
IX
20 W
5 W
120 V
E = Emax sin q
time, t
i = imax sin q
Rotating Vector Description
The coordinate of the emf at any instant is the value of Emax sin q.
Observe for incremental angles in steps of 450. Same is true for i.
E E = Emax sin q
Radius
R = E=maxEmax
Effective AC Current
The average current in a cycle is imax
zero—half + and half -. I = imax
i e ff 10 A V e ff 120V
im ax V m ax
0 .7 0 7 0 .7 0 7 0 .7 0 7 0 .7 0 7
The ac voltage actually varies from +170 V to -170 V and the current
from 14.1 A to –14.1 A.
Pure Resistance in AC Circuits
R Vmax
Voltage
A
imax
V Current
a.c. Source
Voltage and current are in phase, and Ohm’s law applies for effective
currents and voltages.
t Time, t
t Time, t
The voltage V peaks first, causing rapid rise in i current which then peaks as
the emf goes to zero. Voltage leads (peaks before) the current by 900.
Voltage and current are out of phase.
A Pure Inductor in AC Circuit
L Vmax
Voltage
A
imax
V Current
a.c.
The voltage peaks 900 before the current peaks. One builds as the other
falls and vice versa.
a.c.
Such losses are temporary, however, since the current changes direction,
periodically re-supplying energy so that no net power is lost in one cycle.
A V X L 2 fL U n it is th e W
a.c. O h m 's la w : V L iX L
The voltage reading V in the above circuit at the instant the ac current is i
can be found from the inductance in H and the frequency in Hz.
XL = 2(60 Hz)(0.6 H) A V
XL = 226 W
120 V, 60 Hz
V e ff 120V
i e ff ieff = 0.531 A
X L
226 W
Show that the peak current is Imax = 0.750 A
AC and Capacitance
q Capacitor i Capacitor
Qmax I
0.37 I
t Time, t
t Time, t
The voltage V peaks ¼ of a cycle after the current i reaches its maximum.
The voltage lags the current. Current i and V out of phase.
A Pure Capacitor in AC Circuit
C
Vmax
Voltage
A
imax
V Current
a.c.
The voltage peaks 900 after the current peaks. One builds as the other falls
and vice versa.
The diminishing current i builds charge on C which increases the back emf
of VC.
Capacitive Reactance
Energy gains and losses are also C
temporary for capacitors due to the
constantly changing ac current.
A V
a.c.
No net power is lost in a complete cycle, even though the capacitor does provide
nonresistive opposition (reactance) to the flow of ac current.
A 1
V XC U n it is th e W
2 fC
a.c. O h m 's la w : V C iX C
The voltage reading V in the above circuit at the instant the ac current is i
can be found from the inductance in F and the frequency in Hz.
i
VL Ohm’s law: VC = ieffXC
2 fL
Frequency and AC Circuits
Resistance R is constant and not affected by f.
R, X
XC XL
f
Series LRC Circuits
VT Series ac circuit
A
a.c.
L R C
VL VR VC
V
V = Vmax sin q
VL
q 1800 2700 3600
VR 450 900 1350
VC
Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage waves for each element R, L, and
C showing phase relations. Current i is always in phase with VR.
Phasors and Voltage
At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC for an ac series circuit. What is the
source voltage VT?
VL Diagram VL - VC
VT
q
VR VR
VC
VR
V L VC
ta n
VR
VT i R (X XC)
2 2
L
Impedance in an AC Circuit
Impedance
VT i R (X XC)
2 2
L
Z
XL - XC
Impedance Z is defined:
R
Z (X X
2 2
R L C
)
i e ff
VT
120 V 0.5 H
Z 122 W
A 8 mF
ieff = 0.985 A
120 V
Next we find the phase angle:
60 Hz 60 W
Impedance XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 W
Z
XL - XC
R = 60 W X X
ta n
L C
R R
Continued . . .
Example 4 (Cont.): Find the phase angle for the previous
example.
60 W
XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 W
-106 W
R = 60 W X X
Z ta n
L C
106 W = -60.50
ta n
60 W
The negative phase angle means that the ac voltage lags the current
by 60.50. This is known as a capacitive circuit.
Resonant Frequency
Because inductance causes the voltage to lead the current and capacitance
causes it to lag the current, they tend to cancel each other out.
R
XC Z R
2
(X X )
2
R
L C
Resonant fr XL = 1 1
XC 2 fL fr
2 fC 2 LC
Example 5: Find the resonant frequency for the
previous circuit example: L = .5 H, C = 8 mF
1 Resonance XL = XC
fr
2 LC 0.5 H
1
f A 8 mF
2 120 V
-6
(0 .5 H )(8 x 1 0 F
Resonant fr = 79.6 Hz
? Hz 60 W
At resonant frequency, there is zero reactance (only resistance) and the circuit has
a phase angle of zero.
Power in an AC Circuit
No power is consumed by inductance or capacitance. Thus power is a
function of the component of the impedance along resistance:
Z
XL - XC P = iV cos
In terms of the resistance R:
R
0.5 H
Average P = 0.491 W
A 8 mF
The power factor is: Cos 60.50 120 V
The higher the power factor, the more efficient is the circuit in its use
of ac power.
The Transformer
A transformer is a device that uses induction and ac current to step
voltages up or down.
Np Ns
Induced emf’s
are: EP N P
ES N S
t t
Transformers (Continued):
Transformer
EP N P
a.c. t
Np Ns
ES N S
R t
Recognizing that /t is the same in each coil, we divide first relation by
second and obtain:
ES N S
Example 7: A generator produces 10 A at 600 V. The primary
coil in a transformer has 20 turns. How many secondary turns
are needed to step up the voltage to 2400 V?
VP N Np Ns
P
20
VS N S turns R
N PV S ( 2 0 )( 2 4 0 0 V ) NS = 80 turns
N S
VP 600 V
a.c.
Np Ns
iP ES
EP iP ES iS or
R is EP
The above equation assumes no internal energy losses due to heat or flux
changes. Actual efficiencies are usually between 90 and 100%.
Summary
Effective current: ieff = 0.707 imax
1
X L 2 fL U n it is th e W XC U n it is th e W
2 fC
O h m 's la w : V L iX L O h m 's la w : V C iX C
Summary (Cont.)
V L VC
VT V R (V L V C )
2 2 ta n
VR
X X
ta n
L C
Z (X X
2 2
R L C
)
R
VT 1
V T iZ or i fr
Z 2 LC
Summary (Cont.)
Power in AC Circuits:
P = iV cos P = i2R
Transformers:
EP N
P
EP iP ES iS
ES N S
UNIT- IV
151
Series Resonance
Consider the series RLC circuit shown below.
V = VM 0
R L
+
V _ C
I
1
wL
wC
1
wo
LC
153
The magnitude of the current response for the series resonance circuit
is as shown below.
Vm
R
|I|
Vm
2R
Bandwidth:
BW = wBW = w2 – w1
154
The peak power delivered to the circuit is;
2
Vm
P
R
Vm
The so-called half-power is given whenI .
2R
1
2R (wL
2 2
R )
wC
155
After some insightful algebra one will find two frequencies at which
the previous equation is satisfied, they are:
2
R R 1
w1
2L 2L LC
an
d
2
R R 1
w2
2L 2L LC
wo w1 w 2
156
The bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is given by;
R
B W w b w 2 w1
L
wo L 1 1 L
Q
R wo R C R C
wo
BW
Q
157
An Observation:
BW BW
w1 w o and w2 wo
2 2
158
An Observation:
2
1 1
w1 w o
1
2Q 2Q
and
2
1 1
w2 wo 1
2Q 2Q
159
In order to get some feel for how the numerical value of Q influences
the resonant and also get a better appreciation of the s-plane, we consider
the following example.
L LC
In the following example, three cases for the about transfer function
will be considered. We will keep w o the same for all three cases.
The numerator gain,k, will (a) first be set k to 2 for the three cases, then
(b) the value of k will be set so that each response is 1 at resonance.
160
An Example Illustrating Resonance:
Case 1: ks
2 s 400
2
s
Case 2:
ks
5s 400
2
s
Case 3:
ks
10s 400
2
s
161
An Example Illustrating Resonance:
Case 1:
2 s 4 0 0 ( s 1 j 1 9 .9 7 ) ( s 1 j 1 9 .9 7 )
2
s
Case 2:
5 s 4 0 0 ( s 2 .5 j 1 9 .8 4 ) ( s 2 .5 j1 9 .8 4 )
2
s
Case 3:
1 0 s 4 0 0 ( s 5 j 1 9 .3 6 ) ( s 5 j 1 9 .3 6 )
2
s
162
Comments:
R 1
s
2
s
L LC
2 s 400
2
s
2
wo 400 w 20 rad/sec
R wo
BW 2 rad/sec Q 10
L BW
163
Poles and Zeros In the s-plane:
jw axis
( 3) (2)
(1) x 20
x x
s-plane
axis
0
-5 -2.5 -1
Note the location of the poles
0
for the three cases. Also note
there is a zero at the origin.
x x x -20
( 3) (2)
(1) 164
Comments:
The frequency response starts at the origin in the s-plane.
At the origin the transfer function is zero because there is a
zero at the origin.
165
Matlab Program For The Study:
166
Program Output
0.9
Q = 10, 4, 2
0.8
0.7
0.6
Amplitude
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
167
w(rad/sec)
Comments: cont.
w1 = w0 – BW = 20 – 1 = 19 rad/sec, w 2 = 21 rad/sec
0.9 Q = 10, 4, 2
0.8
0.7
0.6
Amplitude
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
w(rad/sec)
169
Three dB Calculations:
1
2
1
w ,w w
1 2 o
w o
1
2 Q 2Q
we find,
w1 = 15.62 rad/sec
w2 = 21.62 rad/sec
170
Checking w1 and w2
171
Background
1 1
I R L C I V jwC
R jwL
R L
1
V C V I R jwL
I
jwC
172
Duality
1 1 1
I V jwC V I R jwL
R jwL jwC
We notice the above equations are the same provided:
I V
IfIf we
we make
makethe
theinner-change,
inner-change,
thenone
then oneequation
equationbecomes
becomes
1 the same
the sameas
asthe
theother.
other.
R
R For such
For suchcase,
case,wewesay
saythe
the one
one
circuitisisthe
circuit thedual
dualofof
thethe other.
other.
L C
173
Parallel Resonance
Background
What
Whatthisthismeans
this means
means isisis
that
thatfor
that all
allthe
forfor all equations
thethe
equations we
wehave
equations have
we have
derived
derivedfor
derived forthe
forthe
theparallel
parallel
parallel resonant
resonant
resonant circuit,
circuit,we
wecan
circuit, we use
can can
use use
for
forthe
for theseries
the series
seriesresonant
resonant
resonant circuit
circuit provided
circuitprovided we
providedwemake
make
we make
the
thesubstitutions:
the substitutions:
substitutions:
1
R replaced be
R
L replaced by C
C replaced by L
174
Parallel Resonance Series Resonance
1 1
w O
w
LC O
LC
w L Q w RC
Q O
o
R ww
,w 1
BW w
1 2
BW ( w w ) w BW
2 1 BW
L RC
R 1 1 1
2 2
R 1
w ,w
1 2
w ,w
2L
1 2
2 L LC
2 RC 2 RC LC
1
2
1 1
2
1
w ,w w 1 w ,w w
1 2
o
1
2Q
1 2 o
2 Q 2Q 2 Q
175
Example 1: Determine the resonant frequency for the circuit below.
1
jwL ( R )
( w LRC jwL )
2
jwC
Z
(1 w LC ) jwRC
I N
1 2
R jwL
jwC
176
Analysis
( w LRC jwL )
2
(1 w LC ) jwRC
2
wL wRC
( w LCR ) (1 w LC
2 2
This gives;
w LC w R C 1
2 2 2 2
or
1
w
( LC R C )
o 2 2
177
Example 2:
A series
parallelRLC
RLCresonant
resonantcircuit
circuithas
hasa aresonant
resonantfrequency
frequencyadmittance
admittanceofof
2x10-2 S(mohs). The Q of the circuit is 50, and the resonant frequency is
10,000 rad/sec. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the half-power
frequencies and the bandwidth.
w L
Second, from Q O
, we solve for L, knowing Q, R, and w o to
R
find L = 0.25 H.
Q 50
Third, we can use C 100 m F
w R
O
10 , 000 x 50
178
Example 2: (continued)
4
w 1 x 10
Fourth: We can use w BW
o
200 rad / sec
Q 50
and
179
Peak Voltages and Resonance:
VR _ VL _
+ +
R L
+ +
VS C VC
_ I _
A question that arises is what is the nature of VR, VL, and VC? A little
reflection shows that VR is a peak value at w o. But we are not sure
about the other two voltages. We know that at resonance they are equal
and they have a magnitude of QxVS.
Irwin shows that the frequency at which the voltage across the capacitor
is a maximum is given by;
1
w m ax w o 1 2
2Q
The above being true, we might ask, what is the frequency at which the
voltage across the inductor is a maximum?
181
Series RLC Transfer Functions:
L LC
2
VL (s) s
VS (s) R 1
s s
2
L LC
R
s
VR (s) L
VS (s) R 1
s s
2
L LC
182
Parameter Selection:
6
VC 4 x1 0
s 1 0 0 0 s 4 x1 0
2 6
VS
2
VL s
s 1 0 0 0 s 4 x1 0
2 6
VS
VR 1000s
s 1 0 0 0 s 4 x1 0
2 6
VS
183
Matlab Simulation:
184
Simulation Results
Rsesponse for RLC series circuit, Q =2
2.5
Q=2
2
VC VL
1.5
Amplitude
VR
0.5
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
w(rad/sec) 185
Analysis of the problem:
Given the previous circuit. Find Q, w 0, wmax, |Vc| at wo, and |Vc| at wmax
VR _ VL _
+ +
R=50 W L=5
+ mH +
VS C=5 mF VC
_ I _
1 1
Solution: w
O
2 6
2000 rad / sec
LC 50 x 10 x 5 x 10
3 2
w L 2 x 10 x 5 x 10
Q O
2
R 50
186
Problem Solution:
1
w MAX
w O
1 2
0 . 9354 w o
2Q
| V | at w
R O
Q | V | 2 x 1 2 volts ( peak )
S
Qx | V | 2
| V | at w
C MAX
S
2 . 066 volts ( peak ))
1 0 . 968
1 2
4Q
1.0e+003 *
1.8600000 0.002065141
1.8620000 0.002065292
1.8640000 0.002065411
1.8660000 0.002065501 Maximum
1.8680000 0.002065560
1.8700000 0.002065588
1.8720000 0.002065585
1.8740000 0.002065552
1.8760000 0.002065487
1.8780000 0.002065392
1.8800000 0.002065265
1.8820000 0.002065107
1.8840000 0.002064917
188
Simulation Results:
10 Q=10
8
VC VL
Amplitude
2
VR
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
w(rad/sec)
189
Observations From The Study:
The voltage across the capacitor and inductor for a series RLC circuit
is not at peak values at resonance for small Q (Q <3).
Even for Q<3, the voltages across the capacitor and inductor are
equal at resonance and their values will be QxVS.
For Q>10, the voltages across the capacitors are for all practical
purposes at their peak values and will be QxVS.
+
R
+
C V
I
_ L
_
The transfer function will exhibit resonance when the phase angle
between V and I are zero.
191
The desired transfer functions is;
V (1 / s C ) ( R s L )
I R sL 1 / sC
V R sL
LCs RCs 1
2
I
With s jw
V R jw L
(1 w L C ) jw R
2
I
192
Resonant Condition:
q num q dem
or,
wL 1 wRC
q n u m ta n
1
, q d e n ta n .
2
R (1 w L C )
Therefore;
wL wRC
(1 w L C )
2
R
193
Resonant Condition Analysis:
L (1 w L C ) R C w L C L R C
2 2 2 2 2
or
This gives,
2
1 R
wr 2
LC L
1
wr wo
LC
194
Resonant Condition Analysis:
+
R
+
C V
I
_ L
_
195
Resonant Condition Analysis: Matlab Simulation:
Case 1: Case 2:
R = 3 ohms R = 1 ohms
C = 6.25x10-5 F C = 6.25x10-5 F
L = 0.01 H L = 0.01 H
196
Resonant Condition Analysis: Matlab Simulation:
Case 1:
V 0 .0 0 1 s 3
8 7
s 1 .8 7 5 x 1 0 1
2
I 6 .2 5 x 1 0
Case 2:
V 0 .0 0 1 s 1
8 5
s 6 .2 5 x 1 0 1
2
I 6 .2 5 x 1 0
197
Rsesponse for Resistance in series with L then Parallel with C
18
16
14
R=1 ohm
12
Amplitude
10 2646 rad/sec
6
R= 3 ohms
4
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
198
w(rad/sec)
What can be learned from this example?
199
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields
201
Magnetic
Materials
Iron, Cobalt and Nickel and various other alloys and
compounds made using these three basic elements
202
Electric Current and Magnetic
Field
203
A Few Definitions Related to
Electromagnetic Field
(Unit is Weber (Wb)) = Magnetic Flux Crossing a Surface of
Area ‗A‘ in m2.
mr = Relative Permeability
204
Ampére‘s Law
The line integral of the magnetic field intensity around a closed path is
equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the area enclosed by
the path.
H . dl i
H . dl H dl cos q
205
Example of Ampére‘s Law
Find the magnetic field along a circular path around an infinitely long
Conductor carrying ‗I‘ ampere of current.
B,H
900
r
dl
Since both dl and H are perpendicular to radius ‗r‘ at any point ‗A‘
on the circular path, the angle q is zero between them at all points. Also since all
the points on the circular path are equidistant from the current carrying
conductor is constant at all points on
the circle
H
I
or H
H . dl H dl H 2 r I
2r
magckt 206
Magnetic Circuits
•They are basically ferromagnetic structures(mostly Iron, Cobalt,
Nickel alloys and compounds) with coils wound around them
dl ( q 0 ) Electric Machines
H Transformers,Actuators, Electromagnets,
•Examples:
207
Magnetic Circuits (1)
w
I
d
l= mean length
208
Magnetic Circuits (2)
F =NI= Magneto Motive Force or MMF = # of turns * Current passing
through it
F = NI = Hl (why!)
B
or l NI or l NI
m mA
or NI
l /( m A )
NI
or
209
Analogy Between Magnetic and Electr
Circuits
= Permeance 1 1
P = Analogous to conductance G
R
210
Magnetization Curves
saturation
B knee
B
Linear
H H
211
Magnetization Curves(2)
•One can linearize magnetic circuits by including air-gaps
212
Magnetization Circuits with Air-
gap l w c
lg
N
lc lg Ni d
c
m c Ac
g
m g Ag c g
Ni H c l c H g l g A c A g wd ( Neglecting fringing )
213
Fringing
lc w
i
With large air-gaps, flux tends to leak outside the air –gap. This is
called fringing which increases the effective flux area. One way to
approximate this increase is:
w n w l g ; d n d l g ; A gn w n d n
214
Example of Magnetic Circuits On
Greenboard
215
Magnetization Curves (for examples)
216
Inductance(L)
N
L
I I
I N
NI
2
N
L
217
Example of Inductances On
Greenboard
218
How to find exact Inductances with
magnetic circuit with finite thickness
(say a torroid with finite thickness)
219
Faraday‘s law of Electromagnetic
Induction
The EMF (Electromotive Force) induced in a magnetic circuit is
Equal to the rate of change of flux linked with the circuit
d d(N ) d
e N
dt dt dt
Li N
dLi di
e L
dt dt
220
Lenz‘s Law
The polarity of the induced voltage is given by Lenz‘s law
The polarity of the induced voltage will be such as to oppose the very
cause to which it is due
dLi di
e L
dt dt
221
A precursor to Transformer
=m Sin(t)
V = Vm Cos(t)
i N
e
Ideally
d
e N N m Cos ( t ) E m Cos ( t ) V m Cos ( t )
dt
N N m Sin ( t )
i I m Sin ( t )
L L
222
A Precursor to Transformer(2)
100
50
V
-50
-100
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016
100
50
0
e
-50
-100
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016
60
40
20
phi,i
-20
-40
-60
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016
time
223
Example on excitation of magnetic
circuit with sinusoidal flux On
greenboard
224
Example on excitation of magnetic
circuit with square flux on greenboard
(Important for Switched Mode Power
Supplies)
225
What will non-linearity in magnetic
circuit lead to?
226
Sinusoidal voltage non-
sinusoidal current
227
Iron Losses in Magnetic Circuit
a) Hysteresis losses
228
1
Hysteresis losses
f i
T
f =frequency
of sine source
B
i
B-H or Hysteresis loop
Br saturation
3
knee point
4 5
0
0 2
1 2 1 3 t
Hc H
4 5
229
Hysteresis losses (2)
•The lagging phenomenon of B behind H is called hysteresis
•In each of the current cycle the energy lost in the core is
proportional to the area of the B-H loop
HdB
• Ph = Hysteresis loss = f Vcore = khBnmaxf
HdB
magckt 230
Eddy current loss
Laminations
flux
flux Current
231
Permanent Magnets
• Alloys of Iron, Cobalt and Nickle
232
Using Permanent Magnets for
providing magnetic field
SOFT IRON
lm
PM lg
SOFT IRON
233
Designing Permanent Magnets
•The key issue here is to minimize the volume V m of material
required for setting up a required Bg in a given air gap
•Once Bm, Hm at the maximum Bm, Hm product point are known, lm =length of
permanent magnet, Am =area of permanent magnet can be found as
234
Finding the maximum product point
1.4
1.2
B(Tesla)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0
H(kA/m)
235
Finding the maximum product point (2
B= mH+c, m and c are constants.
236
Finding the maximum product point (3
Answer:
237
UNIT- V
NETWORK THEOREMS
Introduction
RTh:
3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage
sources are replaced by short circuits, and current
sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant
resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the
internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources
is included in the original network, it must remain when
the sources are set to zero.)
Thévenin’s Theorem
ETh:
4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original
position and finding the open-circuit voltage between
the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one
that will lead to the most confusion and errors. In all
cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit potential
between the two terminals marked in step 2.)
Thévenin’s Theorem
Conclusion:
Insert Figure 9.26(b)
5. Draw the Thévenin
equivalent circuit with
the portion of the circuit
previously removed
replaced between the
terminals of the
equivalent circuit. This
step is indicated by the
placement of the
resistor RL between the
terminals of the
Thévenin equivalent
circuit.
Thévenin’s Theorem
Experimental Procedures
Two popular experimental procedures for
determining the parameters of the Thévenin
equivalent network:
Direct Measurement of ETh and RTh
For any physical network, the value of ETh can be
determined experimentally by measuring the open-
circuit voltage across the load terminals.
The value of RTh can then be determined by completing
the network with a variable resistance RL.
Thévenin’s Theorem
Measuring VOC and ISC
The Thévenin voltage is again determined by
measuring the open-circuit voltage across the
terminals of interest; that is, ETh = VOC. To determine
RTh, a short-circuit condition is established across the
terminals of interest and the current through the
short circuit (Isc) is measured with an ammeter.
Using Ohm’s law:
RTh = Voc / Isc
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current and a parallel resistor.
The steps leading to the proper values of IN
and RN.
Preliminary steps:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which
the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal
network.
Norton’s Theorem
Finding RN:
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero
(voltage sources are replaced with short circuits,
and current sources with open circuits) and then
finding the resultant resistance between the two
marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the
voltage and/or current sources is included in the
original network, it must remain when the sources
are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh the procedure and
value obtained using the approach described for
Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value
of RN.
Norton’s Theorem
Finding IN :
4. Calculate IN by first returning all the sources to
their original position and then finding the short-
circuit current between the marked terminals. It
is the same current that would be measured by an
ammeter placed between the marked terminals.
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the
portion of the circuit previously removed replaced
between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
RL = Rint
Millman’s Theorem
Any number of parallel voltage sources can be
reduced to one.
This permits finding the current through or voltage
across RL without having to apply a method such as
mesh analysis, nodal analysis, superposition and so
on.
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2. Combine parallel current sources.
3. Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source
and the desired single-source network is obtained.
Substitution Theorem
The substitution theorem states:
If the voltage across and the current through any
branch of a dc bilateral network is known, this
branch can be replaced by any combination of
elements that will maintain the same voltage
across and current through the chosen branch.
Simply, for a branch equivalence, the terminal
voltage and current must be the same.
Reciprocity Theorem
The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to
single-source networks and states the following:
The current I in any branch of a network, due to a
single voltage source E anywhere in the network, will
equal the current through the branch in which the
source was originally located if the source is placed in
the branch in which the current I was originally
measured.
The location of the voltage source and the resulting current
may be interchanged without a change in current