Electricity

Electricity 101
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON COMPANY

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What is Electricity?
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 Movement of charges
 Electron flow
 Secondary energy source
 Conversion from other sources of energy
 Circuits
The Circuit
The path a current takes
Must be a complete loop
An incomplete circuit will not conduct electricity

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 Circuits cont.

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 Energy Units - Voltage

 Voltage is electromotive force. It is the force or push

on electrons in the circuit
 It is referred to as potential difference
 Has the potential to do work, but does nothing by itself
 It’s measured in volts (V or E)

Note: The # of
electrons is the
same

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 Energy Units - Current

 Current is the amount of electricity that flows in the circuit

 Current is measured in amperes or amps (I)
 The more current, the higher the amps
 Pushed and pulled by voltage
 Produces heat

Lightning is current
flowing through air
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 Energy Units - Resistance

 Resistance is the opposition to current flow in the circuit

 Resistance is measured in ohm ()

Trivia: What is the units for

electrical conductivity?
mho
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Energy Units - Power
 Power is the amount of work that is done in the circuit
 It is measured in Watts (P)
 Depends on the amps and volts
 Watts = Volts x Amps

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 Ohm’s Law

 Ohm’s law is the relationship between voltage, current, and

resistance V=IxR
 Amount of current that can be pushed through a conductor
depends on resistance and voltage I=V/R
 Greater distance means increased resistance R=V/I
 Therefore
 Voltage = current x resistance
 Current = Voltage / Resistance

 Resistance = Voltage / Current

 Power = I x V = I² x R
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 Water System Analogy
Electrical Function
Water System System
The prime mover. Supplies energy to the system.
Pump Generator Converts motion to electrical energy

Object on which the electrical current flows. The larger

Pipe Conductor the pipe or conductor the more water or current will flow.
The pressure or the push that moves the water or
Water Pressure Voltage electrical impulse in the system.

Water Flow Current The amount of water or electricity that is flowing.

Restriction of the Resistance The characteristic that restricts water and current
flow.
water pipe
Amount of water This is the rate at which electrical energy is changed
Power into useful work. The quantity of water delivered.
delivered

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(a) Series Circuits (b) Parallel Circuits
 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Instead of resistance, the corresponding parameter in an ac

circuit is impedance, which is (also) measured in ohms.
Depending upon the circuit load, impedance can be markedly
different from the dc resistance.
For an ac circuit, Ohm’s law is
 Transmission – AC/DC

Direct Current
Electrons move in one direction
Alternating Current
• Wire rotate past magnet causing a shift in direction
• Happens many times each second
• Cycles per second = Hertz

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 AC/DC
(not the band)

 Alternating Current  Direct Current

 Large-scale generators produce AC  Batteries, Photovoltaics, fuel cells, small

 Follows sine wave with n cycles per DC generators

second  Charge in ONE direction

 1, 2, 3-phase?  Negative, Positive terminals

 US:120 V,60 Hz  Easy conversion AC to DC, not DC to AC

 Europe: 240 V,50Hz

 Transforming ability
Phase of Electricity
Single phase AC circuit:
• Two wires connected to
electricity source
• Direction of current
changes many times per
second
3-phases of an electric system
(Wikipedia contributors, 2005)
Three phase systems:
• 3 lines with electricity from 3 circuits
• One neutral line
• 3 waveforms offset in time: 50-60 cycles/second

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 ELECRICAL CIRCUITS

 Electrical circuits can be in one of 4 basic operating conditions.

 Operating normally: No excess resistance or current flow

12 volts
3 Ohms
4 Amps
 ELECRICAL CIRCUITS

 Short Circuit: In a short circuit current by-passes the load and finds
a low resistance path to ground.

In a shorted circuit
Point of resistance drops to below 0
Short
Amperage can increases to
dangerous levels.
 ELECRICAL CIRCUITS

 Open Circuit: In an open circuit no current will flow.

Point of open

In this circuit the lamp will

not illuminate because there
is no complete pate for
current to flow.
 ELECRICAL CIRCUITS

 Shorted to ground: A circuit shorted to ground will operate even

when the control switch is opened.

In this circuit
current will by-pass
the switch

Point of ground
Electricity
Phase of Electricity

Star connection

Delta connection

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© UNEP 2006
  cycle time: The time it takes for the oscillation (Hz : 60 or 50 Hz)
 rms = 0.707 peak value
Capacitor is like an open switch in a dc circuit once steady-state is reached

The alternating voltage

simply allows the
capacitor to charge,
then discharge, then
charge again.
The capacitor causes a time delay in the current. It takes time
to charge and discharge the capacitor plate

•As current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is

created around it
•spiral, creating a strong magnetic field in the center
(solenoids, relays, and electromagnets)
changing magnetic field passes through
a conductor, it induces an electromotive
force perpendicular to the magnetic
field.

in ac circuits: The ability of the inductor to resist changes in current is measured in terms of its inductance L.
voltage and current oscillations out of phase: current to lead voltage

PF: account for the phase offset

120 out of phase

it is convenient for motors
reduces the amount of current required for
the same amount of power
 ELECTRICAL LOAD TYPES
 Electrical load types:
 Resistive Load (heaters and incandescent lights)
 The voltage and current peaks coincide and are therefore in phase and the
power factor is in unity.
 Inductive Load (Motors and transformers)
 With an inductive load the current waveform is lagging behind the voltage
waveform, therefore, the voltage peaks and current peaks are not in phase. The
amount of phase delay is given by the cosine of the angel (Cos) between the
vectors representing voltage and current.
 Capacitive Load (Capacitors, wiring, cable)
 The capacitive load has a current waveform which is leading the voltage
waveform, therefore the voltage peaks and current peaks are not in phase. The
amount of phase delay is given by the cosine of the angle between the vectors
representing voltage and current.
ELECTRICAL LOAD TYPES
Impedance and Admittance. A circuit can have resistance and inductive reactance, or resistance and
capacitive reactance, or resistance and both inductive and capacitive reactance. Resistance is present in all
circuits. When there is any inductive or capacitive reactance, or both, in a circuit, the relation of the voltage E and
current I, A, is given by
E = IZ
where Z is the impedance, the vector sum of the resistance, and the inductive and capacitive reactances.
The reciprocal Y = I/Z is called the admittance.
 In September of 1831, Michael Faraday
made the discovery of Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday attached two wires to a disc and

rotated the disc between the opposing
poles of a horseshoe magnet creating
an electric current.
 Generation
 Electricity is produced in
generators
 Generators require other
sources of energy
 Conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy
 Electromagnetic Induction
 Turbine turns coils of wire
in a magnetic field to
produce a current
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If you place a magnet and a conductor (copper wire), in a room together there will be no electric current generated.
This is because motion, from our equation for electricity, is missing!

An electric current is not generated unless the magnetic field is moving relative to the copper wire, or the copper
wire is moving relative to the magnetic field.
 So simple electric generators found in power plants contain, magnets
and copper wire that when put into motion relative to one another
create the electric current that is sent out to homes.

The major problem in

electricity generation
Is where does the
Motion come from
that keeps the
copper wire and
magnets moving
relative to one
another.

In this case, wind power applies a force to the blades that turns them.
The spinning blades, spin an armature that turns the copper wire
relative to the magnetic field. As long as the blades spin, electricity
will be generated!
At home, electric current
that was generated by
generators in the power
plant is used to power
electric appliances.

The electric current,

running through the
copper wire causes
the armature to spin
which is how most
motors generate
motion.
 Electric Power System

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 Electric Generation Basics

 Electricity is produced when a conductive wire passes

rapidly through a magnetic field

 Bulk Electricity cannot be stored - it must be produced to

match customer needs

 Generation that matches load demand is the most valuable

to the system (midday peaks and summertime)

 Generating electricity closer to the users load reduces line

loses.
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 Motors and Generators

Image courtesy of DOE / NREL

Small DC Motor
Geothermal Generator

Generator in a Hydro
Plant

Electric Turbine
Generator
 Generation - Fuel Types

Thermal Power

Coal

Oil Natural Gas

Nuclear
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 Generation - Renewable

Hydro Electric Wind

Solar Geothermal
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Energy Conversion Options for Electricity
Non-Thermal Paths
Energy Conversion Options for Electricity Thermal Paths
 SCE Power Mix

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 Where do we get our Electricity?

• Fossil – Coal, Natural Gas, Oil – 550

Gigawatts (GW)
• Nuclear – 200 GW
• Hydro – 75 GW
• Geothermal – 2.3 GW
• Other Renewable – Wind, Solar, OTEC – 13.6
GW
 Oil Resources
Have Oil… Use Oil…

Saudi Arabia 26% U.S. 26%

Iraq 11% Japan 7%
Kuwait 10% China 6%
Iran 9% Germany 4%
UAE 8% Canada 4%
Venezuela 6% Russia 3%
Russia 5% Brazil 3%
Libya 3% S. Korea 3%
Mexico 3% France 3%
China 3% India 3%
Nigeria 2% Mexico 3%
U.S. 2% Italy 2%
 Energy Usage Per Capita (1999)
9

6
TOE/person-year

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*TOE - Tons of Oil Equivalent (~40 Million Btus)
 Peak Demand

 Energy Cannot
be stored
 Must be available
when needed
 Programs to
reduce peak
demand
 Peaker plants
built

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- AC of 60 Hz produced by generator
- Resistance losses are smallest at high voltages and low currents
 SCE’s Power Delivery System
Construct & Maintain Distribution
 43,776 Switches
 670,496 Transformers
 1,448,794 Poles
 94,854 Circuit Miles
 317,820 Underground Structures
Plan Distribution Facilities  1,300,000 Trees
 Reliability  11,873 Cap Banks
 Load Growth  760,000 Street Lights
 Automation

Transmission/Substation
Construct & Maintain
Operate  16,945 Circuit Breakers
 904 Substations (16 manned)
 4,459 Transformers
 890 Transmission Circuits
 13,585 Circuit Miles
 4,166 Distribution Circuits
 42,000 Relays
Plan Grid Facilities  Protect & Test
 15 UPS Sites
 Reliability
 Automate
 4,000 Miles Communication
 Load Growth Administrative Contracts
 Interconnections
Circuits
 Over 300 Grid Contracts

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 Transmission Substation
Transmission Power Reduced to 66 KV

Step Up transformer Transmission Lines

13 kv to 200 or 500 kv Large Lines on Metal Frames
Electricity Freeways

Sub Transmission Lines

Taller Wooden or Metal Poles

Sub-Transmission
to
Distribution Station
Transformers reduce to 4, 12, or 16 kv

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 Transmission Lines

 Distribution lines:
 Transmission lines:
 33 kV down
 500 kv to 161 kV
 Subtransmission lines:
 55 kV to 138 kV

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 Transmission Lines

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 Distribution Devices
 Distribution transformers
 A device that is used to change one value of
voltage and current to another value of
voltage and current (33kV to 220 volts)

 Field capacitor banks

 Capacitive devices located on distribution
circuits that raise voltage

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 Environmental Protection
“The Company shall pursue the protection of endangered, threatened, and rare biological
species and their critical habitat and sensitive and unique ecosystems during all phases of
facility construction and operation and during management of Company-owned land.”

 Biological Resources
 Endangered Species
 Approximately 275 endangered
species occur within SCE’s
service territory
 Raptors
 Wetlands
 Cultural Resources
 Culture
 History & Pre-history
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 SCE’s Electric System Voltage Classifications

Classification Voltages Voltage Range

Typical

Transmission 161 kV and above 220 kV and 500 kV

Subtransmission 55 kV to 138 kV 66 kV and 115 kV

Distribution 33 kV and below 12 kV and 16 kV

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 ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION
 The power supply is provided basically from main substations of 400/132 kV
 which in turn supply many substations of 132/33 kV (or 132/33/11 kV) distributed geographically
throughout the region .
 These 132/33 kV substations in turn provide power supply to a very large number of 33/11 kV
substations as show.
 Most of these 33/11 kV substations are equipped with two transformers of 31.5 MVA each (or
2x16 MVA) as shown in Fig.3. To the 11 kV bus bars of these substations (which is divided into
two sections) several 11 kV feeders are connected using underground cables and/or overhead line
systems.
 Each circuit branch is served by a draw-out circuit breaker mostly by using one of these types :
 SF6 Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit breaker
 Minimum-Oil Circuit Breaker
 Each 11 or 33 kV feeder provides the supply to large number of 11/0.433 or 33/0.433 kV
distribution transformers installed using one of the following systems:
 Each 11 or 33 kV feeder provides the supply to large number of 11/0.433 or 33/0.433 kV
distribution transformers installed using one of the following systems
 Each 11 or 33 kV feeder provides the supply to large number of 11/0.433 or 33/0.433 kV
distribution transformers installed using one of the following systems:
 i. Pole-mounted transformers supplied directly from 11 kV overhead
 lines through manually operated fused switches.
 The transformer size in this system is mostly 100 up to 250 kVA.
 ii. Compact type unit substations installed usually at street
 pavements, in industrial, residential, and commercial areas.
 These substations are provided with three compartments:
 High Voltage Compartment
 It is placed at one side of the substation, and has an independent access through a double-sided
door with a specially designed lock. It has the capacity to hold up to three cubicles.
 Transformer Compartment
 This compartment occupies the middle of the substation and designed to accommodate standard
transformers of sizes 300 up to 1500 kVA (in some cases up to 2000 kVA). The cover of this
compartment is removable to enable transformer installation on site.
 Low Voltage Compartments.
 The low voltage compartment is placed at the other side of the substation and it is provided with
all required protective and control devices.
 To the low voltage bus bars several outgoing 0.433 kV feeders are installed. Each low voltage
feeder provides the power supply to various numbers of consumers.
 A single line diagram of a typical such substation is shown in Fig.6.
 The compact type unit substations has the following advantages :
 a) Reduction in civil engineering work (only a small excavation is required)
 b) Can be easily transported by a truck due to its small size
 c) Remarkable reduction in the installation cost (all internal connections are made at the factory)
 d) Minimum space requirement
 e) Adaptation to any application using different standard schemes.
 f) Designed for operation outdoors ( weatherproof )
 g) High operation safety for both the operator and the equipment
 h) Reduction in the maintenance cost as compared with open installations
 i) Special sandwich construction of walls prevent quick and direct heating of equipment caused
by direct sunshine conditions.
 iii. Privately owned substations installed at consumer's premises in
 building basements or in conventional brick-wall rooms. Transformer
 sizes used in this case vary from 100 to 1000 kVA and in accordance
 with load size.
Choice of power-supply sources
The importance of maintaining a continuous supply raises the question of the use of standby-power plant.
For the main source of supply the choice is generally between a connection to the MV or the LV network of the
power-supply utility.
In practice, connection to a MV source may be necessary where the load exceeds (or is planned eventually to
exceed) a certain level - generally of the order of 250 kVA, or if the quality of service required is greater than that
normally available from a LV network.
Supplies at MV can have certain advantages:
 Is not disturbed by other consumers, which could be the case at LV
 Is free to choose any type of LV earthing system
 Has a wider choice of economic tariffs
 Can accept very large increases in load
It should be noted, however, that:
The consumer is the owner of the MV/LV substation and, in some countries, he must build and equip it at his
own expense. The power utility can, in certain circumstances, participate in the investment, at the level of the
MV line for example
A part of the connection costs can, for instance, often be recovered if a second consumer is connected to the MV
line within a certain time following the original consumer’s own connection
The consumer has access only to the LV part of the installation, access to the MV part being reserved to the
utility personnel (meter reading, operations, etc.). However, in certain countries, the MV protective circuit-
breaker (or fused load-break switch) can be operated by the consumer
The type and location of the substation are agreed between the consumer and the utility
MV circuit configuration
The main possible connection configurations are as follows
 single feeder, one or several transformers
 open ring, one MV incomer
 open ring, 2 MV incomers
The basic configuration is a radial single-feeder architecture, with one single transformer.
In the case of using several transformers, no ring is realised unless all of the transformers are located in a same
substation. Closed-ring configuration is not taken into account.
Number and distribution of
MV/LV transformation substations
 Main characteristics to consider to
determine the transformation
substations:
 Surface area of building or site
 Power demand, (to be compared with
standardized transformer power),
 Load distribution
The preferred basic configuration
comprises one single substation.

Certain factors contribute to increasing

the number of substations (> 1):
 A large surface area (> 25000m2),
 The site configuration: several
buildings,
 Total power > 2500kVA,
 Sensitivity to interruption: need for
redundancy in the case of a fire.
Choosing MV equipment
Switchgear and equipment shall conform to the following international standards:
IEC 62271-1, 62271-200, 60265-1, 62271-102, 62271-100, 62271-105
Substations can be implemented in line with local standards and practices using equipment such as:
a) Modular units to support all types of layout and any subsequent expansion work (whilst ensuring there is
sufficient space)
b) Compact arrangements based on the ring-main unit where the supply is provided via a loop (single assembly
comprising 3 functions). These are particularly suitable where:
Climatic conditions and/or pollution are very bad (integrated insulation)
There is not enough space for a modular solution
Choice of MV switchgear panel for a transformer circuit
Three types of MV switchgear panel are generally available:
1) Load-break switch and separate MV fuses in the panel
2) Load-break switch/MV fuses combination
3) Circuit-breaker
Parameters influence the optimum choice:
1. The primary current of the transformer
2. The insulating medium of the transformer
3. The position of the substation with respect to the load centre
4. The kVA rating of the transformer
5. The distance from switchgear to the transformer
6. The use of separate protection relays (as opposed to direct-acting trip coils).
Distribution Transformers
INTRODUCTION:

Distribution Transformers are used in order to reduce the voltage from that of the primary distribution systems
(usually 11 kv or 13.8 kv, nowadays 20 kv is also used) to the service voltage level of the secondary distribution
network.
Transformers are rated from 5KVA up to 1000KVA and there are ratings up to 2500KVA and more.

Construction Specifications:
Core:
Is formed of cold rolled silicon sheets or. Grain oriented steel.

windings:
High tension turns are built up of electrolytic copper wires of either Circular cross sections varnish isolated or
rectangular cross section isolated by high quality sililose paper.
Low tension turns are built up of either non insulated copper foils with insulating paper in between or of
rectangular wires insulated by cylindrical paper sheets.

Tank:
The transformer tank is made of corrugated steel. The corrugated tank Surface is itself the cooling surface,
sometimes the cooling surface is Provided by radiators welded to the tank sides.Transformers with nitrogen air
bag are equipped with tanks without.oil Conservators and with welded cover plate.
Terminals:
H.V. and L.V. terminals are brought out through porcelain bushes according to the rated voltage. The insulators
are fixed to the tank cover in such a way to ensure Replacement with dismantling the transformer cover.
Cables and boxes on either H.T. or L.T. side or both can be made.
0ff load tap-changing switch:
Tap change arc installed externally for allowing voltage regulation With ±5% of the rated value in 5 equal steps
of ±2.5% each.
The Tap changer is manually operated while the current is off.

insulator and coolant:

Insulation could be dry (i.e. by air) ^Mineral oil or silicon liquid the Method of cooling could be forced air
cooled or self cooled.
Silica-gel and de-hydrating breathers:
silica-gel is considered the simplest way for oil Protecting against humidity.
Silica-gel color must usually be observed and changed when it become Completely saturated with water Vapor
and its color is changed from blue to reddish one.
It Usually used with transformers of small ratings up to 5MVA
Choice of MV/LV transformer Characteristic parameters of a transformer
A transformer is characterized in part by its electrical parameters, but also by its technology and its conditions of
use.
Electrical characteristics
i. Rated power (Pn): the conventional apparent-power in kVA on which other design parameter values and the
construction of the transformer are based. Manufacturing tests and guarantees are referred to this rating
ii. Frequency: for power distribution systems of the kind discussed in this guide, the frequency will be 50 Hz or
60 Hz
iii. Rated primary and secondary voltages: For a primary winding capable of operating at more than one voltage
level, a kVA rating corresponding to each level must be given. The secondary rated voltage is its open circuit
value
iv. Rated insulation levels are given by overvoltage-withstand test values at power frequency, and by high
voltage impulse tests values which simulate lightning discharges. At the voltage levels discussed in this
guide, over voltages caused by MV switching operations are generally less severe than those due to lightning,
so that no separate tests for switching-surge withstand capability are made
v. Off-circuit tap-selector switch generally allows a choice of up to ― 2.5% and ― 5%, level about the rated
voltage of the highest voltage winding. The transformer must be de-energized before this switch is operated
vi. b Winding configurations are indicated in diagrammatic form by standard symbols for star, delta and inter-
connected-star windings; (and combinations of these for special duty, e.g. six-or twelve-phase rectifier
transformers, etc.) and in an IEC-recommended alphanumeric code. This code is read from left-to-right, the
first letter refers to the highest voltage winding, the second letter to the next highest, and so on:
vii. Capital letters refer to the highest voltage winding
D = delta
Y = star
Z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
N = neutral connection brought out to a terminal
v Lower-case letters are used for tertiary and secondary windings
d = delta
y = star
z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
n = neutral connection brought out to a terminal
A number from 0 to 11, corresponding to those, on a clock dial (“0” is used instead of “12”) follows any pair of
letters to indicate the phase change (if any) which occurs during the transformation.
A very common winding configuration used for distribution transformers is that of a Dyn 11 transformer, which
has a delta MV winding with a star-connected secondary winding the neutral point of which is brought out to a
terminal. The phase change through the transformer is +30 degrees, i.e. phase 1 secondary voltage is at “11
o’clock” when phase 1 of the primary voltage is at “12 o’clock”.
All combinations of delta, star and zigzag windings produce a phase change which (if not zero) is either 30
degrees or a multiple of 30 degrees. IEC 60076-4 describes the “clock code” in detail.
Characteristics related to the technology and utilization of the transformer
The insulating medium is:
Liquid (mineral oil) or Solid (epoxy resin and air)
b For indoor or outdoor installation
 Altitude (<= 1,000 m is standard)
 Temperature (IEC 60076-2)
o Maximum ambient air: 40 °C
o Daily maximum average ambient air: 30 °C
o Annual maximum average ambient air: 20 °C

Description of insulation techniques

There are two basic classes of distribution transformer
presently available:
b Dry type (cast in resin)
b Liquid filled (oil-immersed)

Dry type transformers

The windings of these transformers are insulated by resin
between turns and by resin and air to other windings and
to frame. The resin is usually cast under vacuum process
(which is patented by major manufacturers).
It is recommended that the transformer be chosen
according to the IEC 60076-11, as follows:
b Environment class E2 (frequent condensation and/or
high level of pollution)
 Climatic conditions class B2 (utilization, transport and
stockage down to -25 °C)
 Fire resistance (transformers exposed to fire risk with low
flammability and self extinguishing in a given time)
Liquid-filled transformers
The most common insulating/cooling liquid used in
transformers is mineral oil. Mineral oils are specified in IEC
60296. The insulating fluid also acts as a cooling medium; it
expands as the load and/or the ambient temperature increases,
so that all liquid-filled transformers must be designed to
accommodate the extra volume of liquid without the pressure
in the tank becoming excessive.
There are two ways in which this pressure limitation is
commonly achieved:
i. Hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank (up to 10 MVA at the
present time) Expansion of the liquid is compensated by
the elastic deformation of the oil-cooling passages attached
to the tank.
ii. Air-breathing conservator-type tank at atmospheric
pressure. Expansion of the insulating liquid is taken up by a
change in the level of liquid in an expansion (conservator)
tank, mounted above the transformer main tank
Dry type transformers of small ratings has the advantages of being:
•The cheapest fire proof transformers.
• It can be easily installed in buildings with complete security.
• It needs less maintenance
• It needs no accessories, such as valves, breather-admeasuring devices of fluid immersed transformers.
• Light, so can be easily installed on the roof of the building. Complete secure from the view of fire, explosion or
environment pollution.
• It can with stand an acceptable amount of overload and of high efficiency with good voltage regulation and
noiseless.
• Large reliability indexes, and nowadays is used in the form of complete substation inside a metallic enclosure
having cable-connecting box in both the H.V and L.V. sides.
Two important points must be taken into consideration when using dry air transformers:
The transformer must not be unloaded for large duration, since the transformers will be exposed to humidity,
under such conditions the transformer must be loaded for certain periods so that to remove humidity so formed
inside the insulating materials.
The air paths inside the transformer lead to large surge impedance, these cause a large increase of the transient
voltage when switches off circuit specially when using vacuum C.B (L dI/dt is very large for fast interruption of
the current) so precaution must take place.
-In highly polluted area the turns and core are completely enclosed inside a tank to prevent air or humidity
sealing to the transformer.
Sometimes when there are constrains on using fluid immersed transformer, and it is a basic insulation level
(BIL) similar to that of fluid immersed transformers, gas filled transformers are used in order to increase the
BIL.
TRANSFORMER COOLING
The process of cooling transformer is of different ways:

For liquid immersed transformer:

Liquid immersed transformer, using self cooling liquid, here cooling takes places by nature air circulating over
the cooling surface, with the sue of radiators to increase the cooling area.
Liquid immersed transformer cooled by both forced Air ventilation and by means of oil forced circulation
through a heat exchanger between oil and air.
Liquid immersed transformer using self-cooling liquid As well as forced ventilation and forced liquid
circulation.
Liquid immersed transformer using water cooled liquid this take place by passing the oil over cooling surface
cooled by means of water outside the transformer.
Liquid immersed transformer, using a liquid self Cooled as well as water.

ONAN, OFAF, ONAF, OFWF

For dry transformers cooled liquid:

Dry transformer self cooled by normal air circulation.
Dry transformer self and forced was air-cooling.
Dry transformer forced air-cooling.
 Choice of transformer rating:
When an installation is to be supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer and the maximum apparent-power
loading of the installation has been determined, a suitable rating for the transformer can be decided, taking into
account the following considerations:
1-The possibility of improving the power factor of the installation.
2- Anticipated extensions to the installation.
3- Installation Constraints e.g. Temperature).
4- Standard transformer ratings.
Standard apparent powers for MV/LV transformers and related nominal output currents “IEC 60076”
Preferred kVA Distribution transformers ratings according to BS 171 are :
5 - 6.3 – 8 – 10 - 12.5 – 16 – 20 – 25 - 31.5 – 40 – 50 – 63 – 80 – 100 – 125 – 160 – 200 – 250 – 315 – 400 –
500 – 630 – 800 – 1000 – 1250 – 1600 - 2000 etc….
l = VA rating/(√3. VL)
Example
Select the suitable transformer and the cable size
accordingly for 65 KV.A total maximum Load of a workshop.
Solution
The transformer size nearest to this value is 100 KVA ,In
current =141Amp
So, the suitable tabulated cable size from the (cable table) is
35 mm²
The determination of optimal power
Oversizing a transformer It results in:
 Excessive investment and unnecessarily high no-load losses, but
 Lower on-load losses
Undersizing a transformer It causes:
 A reduced efficiency when fully loaded, (the highest efficiency is attained in the range 50% - 70% full load) so
that the optimum loading is not achieved
On long-term overload, serious consequences for The transformer, owing to the premature ageing of the
windings insulation, and in extreme cases, resulting in failure of insulation and loss of the transformer
Definition of optimal power
In order to select an optimal power (kVA) rating for a transformer, the following factors must be taken into
account:
i. List the power of installed power-consuming equipment
ii. Decide the utilization (or demand) factor for each individual item of load
iii. Determine the load cycle of the installation, noting the duration of loads and overloads
iv. Arrange for power-factor correction, if justified, in order to:
 Reduce cost penalties in tariffs based, in part, on maximum kVA demand
 Reduce the value of declared load (P(kVA) = P (kW)/cos ϕ)
i. Select, among the range of standard transformer ratings available, taking into account all possible future
extensions to the installation. It is important to ensure that cooling arrangements for the transformer are
adequate
Transformers Overloading

K1: Normal load percentage to

the nominal capacity of the
transformer at 30 C.

K2: Over loading percentage to

the nominal capacity of the
transformer at 30 C.

T: Time of overloading
hours per day.
EXAMPLE:

Determine the ONAN Type Transformer Capacity for a building with loading of 450 KVA for 4 hours
And the normal loading is 250 KVA.

S1= 250 kVA , t1 = 20h

S2= 450 kVA , t2 = 4h
S2/ S1 = 450 / 250 = 1.8 = k2 / k1

At the Line that represent K2/K1 = 1.8 and t= 4 hours

We can find that K1 = 0.633 and K2 =1.14

Use ONAN Transformer with capacity of 400 KVA

Substation Ventilation
Substation ventilation is generally required to dissipate the heat produced by transformers and to allow drying
after particularly wet or humid periods.
However, a number of studies have shown that excessive ventilation can drastically increase condensation.
Ventilation should therefore be kept to the minimum level required.
Furthermore, ventilation should never generate sudden temperature variations that can cause the dew point to
be reached.
For this reason:
Natural ventilation should be used whenever possible. If forced ventilation is necessary, the fans should operate
continuously to avoid temperature fluctuations.
Calculation methods
A number of calculation methods are available to estimate the required size of substation ventilation openings,
either for the design of new substations or the adaptation of existing substations for which condensation
problems have occurred.
The basic method is based on transformer dissipation.
The required ventilation opening surface areas S and S’ can be estimated using the following formulas:

where:
S = Lower (air entry) ventilation opening area [m²] (grid surface deducted)
S’= Upper (air exit) ventilation opening area [m²] (grid surface deducted)
P = Total dissipated power [W]
P is the sum of the power dissipated by:
 The transformer (dissipation at no load and due to load)
 The LV switchgear
 The MV switchgear
H = Height between ventilation opening mid-points [m]

Example:
Transformer dissipation = 7,970 W
LV switchgear dissipation = 750 W
MV switchgear dissipation = 300 W
The height between ventilation opening mid-points is 1.5 m.
Calculation:
Dissipated Power P = 7,970 + 750 + 300 = 9,020 W
LV distribution networks

Medium to large-sized towns and cities have underground cable distribution systems.
MV/LV distribution substations, mutually spaced at approximately 500-600 metres, are typically equipped
with:
I. A 3-or 4-way MV switchboard, often made up of incoming and outgoing loadbreak switches forming part of
a ring main, and one or two MV circuit-breakers or combined fuse/ load-break switches for the transformer
circuits
II. One or two 1,000 kVA MV/LV transformers
III. One or two (coupled) 6-or 8-way LV 3-phase 4-wire distribution fuse boards, or moulded-case circuit-
breaker boards, control and protect outgoing 4-core distribution cables, generally referred to as
“distributors”.
The output from a transformer is connected to the LV busbars via a load-break switch, or simply through
isolating links.
Configuration of LV circuits
LV & MV Equipments Selection Technological characteristics

The technological solutions considered concern the various types of MV and LV equipment, as well as Busbar
Trunking Systems .
The choice of technological solutions is made following the choice of single-line diagram and according to
characteristics given below.
Environment, atmosphere
A notion taking account of all of the environmental constraints (average ambient temperature, altitude,
humidity, corrosion, dust, impact, etc.) and bringing together protection indexes IP and IK.
Different categories:
 Standard: no particular environmental constraints
 Enhanced: severe environment, several environmental parameters generate important constraints for the
installed equipment
 Specific: atypical environment, requiring special enhancements

Service Index
The service index (IS) is a value that allows us to characterize an LV switchboard according to user requirements
in terms of operation, maintenance, and scalability.
The different index values are indicated in the following table
There are a limited number of relevant service indices
The types of electrical connections of functional units can be denoted by a three letters code:
 The first letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the main incoming circuit,
 The second letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the main outgoing circuit,
 The third letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the auxiliary circuits.
 The following letters are used:
 F for fixed connections,
 D for disconnectable connections,
 W for withdrawable connections.
SWITCHBOARDS AND SWITCHGEAR
 A switchboard is a large, free-standing assembly of switches and fuses (and/or circuit breakers), which
normally provides switching and overcurrent protection to a number of circuits connected to a single electric
source. Metering and other instrumentation are also often included.
 A switchboard may be represented in a single-line diagram, as shown in Fig. 26.23. This equipment serves to
distribute, with adequate protection, bulk power into smaller “packages.” Thus, in a hydraulic analogy, the
main buswork of the switchboard is equivalent to a main water supply header, the switches to on/off valves,
the fuses to flow-limiting devices, and the feeders to subpiping connected to the main header.
 Modern switchboards (Figs. 26.24 to 26.27) are all deadfront; that is, they have all circuit breakers, switches,
fuses, and live parts completely enclosed in a metal structure. The operator controls all devices by means of
pushbuttons and insulated handles on the front panel.
 Circuit breakers equipped with bayonet-type contacts, each mounted in a movable drawer (like the drawers of
a standard letter file) in a switchboard, are described as the drawout type. This drawout arrangement
facilitates emergency replacements, inspection, and repairs and is illustrated in Fig. 26.26.
 No clear distinction is made between the terms switchboard and switchgear, although the terms suggest a
sense of scale. Generally, low voltage switchboards with large circuit breakers and all high-voltage equipment
(above 600 V) are referred to as switchgear.
 When molded-case circuit breakers are utilized in a switchboard, it is often referred to as a building-type
switchboard.
 Recommended minimum space requirements for various types of switchgear are shown in Fig. 26.28.
Working space around all types of electrical equipment must meet the requirements of NEC Article 110.
Main metal-clad switchgear for commercial, industrial, and public buildings is almost invariably located in a
basement and housed in a separate well-ventilated electrical switchgear room. Smaller subdistribution
switchboards require no special room.
A wire screen enclosure to prevent tampering or vandalism plus a large “DANGER— HIGH VOLTAGE” sign are
usually adequate. The architect must provide adequate exits, hallways, and/or hatches for the installation and
removal of all equipment. Specifications for switchgear should state the maximum overall dimensions of sections
that will be transported and installed in one piece.
When switchgear is to be installed outdoors, one of three methods is employed: build a small structure to enclose
normal indoor gear, utilize weatherproof outdoor gear, or utilize switchgear that is built into its own exterior
enclosing structure, as seen in Fig. 26.27. These housings are equipped with heating and lighting and often prove
to be the most economical choice.
UNIT SUBSTATIONS (TRANSFORMER LOAD CENTERS)
An assembly, comprising a primary voltage switch and- fuse or circuit breaker, a step-down transformer, meters,
controls, buswork, and secondary (low-voltage) switchgear, is known as a unit substation or a load-center
substation. Its function is to accept an incoming high-voltage power supply, transform the high voltage to a
voltage that can be utilized in the facility, and distribute the low-voltage power through associated low-voltage
(secondary) switchgear. A dimensional physical sketch of a typical unit substation, along with its electrical
singleline diagram, is shown in Fig. 26.29. Equipment is available for indoor or outdoor installation.
If installed indoors, the location of a unit substation is governed by the type of transformer utilized, as explained
in the discussion on indoor transformer installations. For this reason, almost all indoor unit substations utilize
dry-type (airfilled) transformers. A basement location is most often selected, with ventilation requirements as
detailed previously.
 First SIEMENS Gas-Insulated
Medium-Voltage Switchgear (April 1982)

Kulmbach / Germany
8DA10
16 panels
24 kV / 16 kA (3s) / 1250 A
 Switchgear Type 8DJ
Typical Application Examples
 SafeLink CB
Compact Ring Main Unit for Secondary Distribution

 SF6 insulated switchgear

 12 kV, 630 A, 21 kA Metal Enclosed design
 Cost effective solution for local and global market
 Type tested according to IEC standards
 Extensible on both sides
 Internal Arc classified
 IP54 degree of protection
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker with high mechanical
endurance of 5000 operations
 Maintenance free and safety for user and pedestrian
 Manufactured according to ISO 9001 14001
 Recyclable and very low environmental impact

© ABB Group
Safe-series product evolution
SafeLink CB
Well proven technology – years of experience – global references
36 kV

24 kV

12 kV

1985 2011

© ABB Group
Applicable IEC standards
SafeLink CB

 Type tested as per following relevant latest

IEC standards
 IEC 62271-200 (Switchgear)
 IEC 62271-1 (Common Specifications)
 IEC 62271-100 (Circuit Breaker)
 IEC 62271-102 (Disconnector &
Earthing Switches)
 IEC 60265-1 (Switch)
 IEC 60529 (Degree of Protection)

© ABB Group
 Unit Overall View/Picture
SafeLink CB

Extensible RMU’s in coupled condition Non-extensible CVC RMU

© ABB Group
General Information
SafeLink CB

 SafeLink CB is a Ring Main Unit

for secondary distribution
network up to 12 kV
 Suitable for indoor as well as
outdoor applications
 Extensibility on both sides
 Completely factory assembled,
sealed and ready to use

© ABB Group
 Configurations
SafeLink CB

 Available in non-extensible
V
configurations of CVC and
extensible configurations of
+CVC+, +V+ and +C+ where
 C- Cable/Ring switch module with test
point facility
(3 positions ON-OFF-EARTH)
C C
 V-Vacuum circuit breaker module for
relay transformer protection
(with manually operated
disconnector)

© ABB Group
RMU in Network
SafeLink CB

© ABB Group
 Technical Data
SafeLink CB C Module V Module
Switch Vacuum Circuit Earthing Switch
Disconnector Earthing Switch Breaker /Disconnector
Rated Voltage kV 12 12 12 12
Power frequency withstand voltage kV 38 38 38 38
- across disconnector kV 45 45 45 45
Lightning impulse withstand voltage kV 95 95 95 95
- across disconnector kV 110 110 110 110
Rated normal current1) A 630 630 630 630
Breaking capacities
- active load breaking current A 630 - - -
- closed loop breaking current A 630 - - -
- cable charging breaking current A 25 - 25 (Class C2) -
- line charging breaking current A 1 - 10 (Class C2) -
- earth fault breaking current A 75 - - -
- earth fault cable and line charging A 43.5 - - -
- short circuit breaking current kA - - 21 -
Making capacity kA 52.5 52.5 52.5 see2)
Short time current (3-sec) kA 21 21 21 21
Mechanical Operations nos M1 M0 M1+3000 M0
1)Suitablederating shall be applied for ambient temperatures greater than 40 deg
2)Disconnector is manually opearated, earthing operation is through VI. Hence no making capacity assigned

Internal Arc Classification (IAC) AF 20 kA 1 sec for inside tank

© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions1 ‘CVC’ (in mm)
SafeLink CB
1210
960

1540
1320
Bushing
C-C
100 mm

826
Side View Front View
Height: 1540 mm, Width: 960 mm, Depth 1210 mm
© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions2 ‘CVC’ (in mm)
SafeLink CB.
1830

Bushing
C-C
105 mm

2020
Front Door
Back View Open View

© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions ‘+CVC+’ (in mm)
SafeLink CB.

Side View Front View Back View

© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions ‘+V+’ (in mm)
SafeLink CB.

Side View Front View Back View

© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions ‘+C+’ (in mm)
SafeLink CB.

Side View Front View

© ABB Group
 Switchgear Dimensions in coupled condition (in mm)
SafeLink CB.
1995

Front View

© ABB Group
Switchgear Compartments
SafeLink CB

Breaker

Mechanisms

Switch
Pressure relief

Cable Connection

Cable Compartment

Test Point Bushings

© ABB Group
Front Mimic
SafeLink CB
 Logical user interface
 Clear display of all functions with
appropriate usage of colours for ON-OFF-
EARTH functions and indication
 Mimics – independent of language
 Padlock for switch and disconnector

© ABB Group
 Description of functions
SafeLink CB
1. Manometer
2. Relay
3. Fault Indicator 11
8 4. VPIS for Ring Switch RHS
1 5. Ring Switch RHS
10
6. Cable Box for Ring Switch RHS
7. Test Point Box for Ring Switch RHS
2 8. Operating Handle
9. T-Off Cable Box (For BKR)
3 4 10. Protection CT mounted on BKR Bushing
11. Lifting Hooks for Switch Gear
12. Tank Earthing
13. End Cover Box (Extensible bushing)
13
5 9
6
12
7

© ABB Group
Why SafeLink CB?

Cost efficiency
 High standardized volumes
 Space saving
 Minimal maintenance
 Easy installation

High personnel safety

 Tested acc. To IEC (internal arc fault)
 Interlocking provided for all cable boxes
 Arc proof cable covers

Reliability & Power continuity

 Climate independent & robust structure
 ABB quality (high level production with high quality
components)
 Environment friendly 95% recyclable
 Compact and extensible design with less use material (compared
to AIS)
© ABB Group
Distribution switchboards
A distribution switchboard is the point at which an incoming-power supply divides into separate circuits, each
of which is controlled and protected by the fuses or switchgear of the switchboard. A distribution switchboard is
divided into a number of functional units, each comprising all the electrical and mechanical elements that
contribute to the fulfilment of a given function. It represents a key link in the dependability chain.
The distribution switchboard enclosure provides dual protection:
• Protection of switchgear, indicating instruments, relays, fusegear, etc. against mechanical impacts, vibrations
and other external influences likely to interfere with operational integrity (EMI, dust, moisture, vermin, etc.)
• The protection of human life against the possibility of direct and indirect electric shock
Types of distribution switchboards
Distribution switchboards may differ according to the kind of application and the design principle adopted
(notably in the arrangement of the busbars).
Distribution switchboards according to specific applications
The principal types of distribution switchboards are:
 The main LV switchboard - MLVS
 Motor control centers - MCC
 Sub-distribution switchboards
 Final distribution switchboards
Distribution switchboards for specific applications (e.g. heating, lifts, industrial processes) can be located:
 Adjacent to the main LV switchboard, or
 Near the application concerned
Sub-distribution and final distribution switchboards are generally distributed throughout the site.
The service switches and main distribution panelboards in large buildings are usually assembled in a specially
designed steel frame housed in a separate electrical equipment room. The assembly is usually referred to as
switchgear for large power units and switchboards for smaller assemblies.
A switchboard is defined in the National Electrical Code as a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels,
on which are mounted, on the face or back or both, switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses,
and usually instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and not intended to be installed in
cabinets.

Distribution Board (DB):

An assembly containing switching or protecting devices (e.g fuses, circuit breakers, residual current operated
devices) associated with one or more outgoing circuits fed from one or more incoming Circuits together with
terminals for the neutral and CPC.

Distribution Circuit (sub-main):

A circuit connecting the origin of the installation to an item of switchgear, control gear or a DB. One or more
final circuits or current-using equipment's elements are normally connected to these items. It may also connect
the origin of the installation to a separate installation or building.
PANELBOARDS
 An electrical panel, or panelboard, serves essentially the same function as a switchboard except on a smaller
scale. It accepts a relatively large block of power at some downstream point in a system and distributes it in
smaller blocks. Like a switchboard, it comprises main buses to which are connected circuit- protective devices
(breakers or fuses) that feed smaller circuits.
 The panelboard level of a system usually represents the final distribution point, thence feeding out to the
branch circuits that contain the electrical utilization apparatus and devices, such as lighting, motors, and so
on. Small panels, particularly in residential work, are frequently referred to as load centers.
 The panelboard components—the Fuses, breakers, and so on—are mounted inside an open metal cabinet
called a backbox. The backbox is prefabricated with knockouts at the top, bottom, and sides to permit
connection of conduits carrying circuit conductors (Fig. 26.30). The main feeders that supply power to the
panel’s busbars enter through the large knockouts in the metal backbox, as in Fig. 26.30.
 Details of panelboard construction are presented in Fig. 26.31. A panel may be equipped with a main circuit
breaker whose function is to disconnect the entire panel in the event of a major fault.
 Figures 26.30 and 26.31 show panelboards with only branch circuit devices and no main breaker or switch.
These panels are described as “lugs in mains only,” which means that the panel has only connectors (lugs) on
the main busbars for connection of the main feeder cables and no main protective device. The backbox is
closed with a protective front panel with an access door. Three basic panelboard types are shown in Fig. 26.32.
 The line terminal of each circuit-protective device (breaker or fused switch) is connected to the busbars of the
panelboard. The load terminal of the device then feeds the outgoing branch circuit. This is shown
schematically in Fig. 26.33, which is a linedrawing representation of an electrical panelboard.
 Notice that the circuit breakers are arranged in two vertical rows, corresponding to actual construction
practice. In the illustrated line drawing, a 3-phase panel is shown (i.e., three-phase busbars and a neutral bar).
These are distribution centers that are fed from the service switches and switchgear.
A panelboard is a single panel or a group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single panel in
which are included buses and perhaps switches and automatic overcurrent protective devices for control of light,
heat, or power circuits of small capacity. It is designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against
a wall or partition and accessible only from the front. In general, panelboards are similar to but smaller than
switchboards.
The following items should be taken into consideration in determining the number and location of panelboards:
1. No lighting panelboard should exceed 42 single-pole protective devices.
2. Panelboards should be located as near as possible to the center of the load it supplies.
3. Panelboards should always be accessible.
4. Voltage drop to the farthest outlet should not exceed 3%.
5. Panelboards should be located so that the feeder is as short as possible and have a minimum number of bends
and offsets.
6. Spare circuit capacity should be provided at the approximate rate of one spare to every five circuits originally
installed.
7. At least one lighting panelboard should be provided for each floor of a building.

Panelboards basically fall into two categories:

• Lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboards
• Power panelboards
 The busbars of the panelboard are energized by a feeder from a switchboard or large power distribution panel.
 Panelboards are described and specified by type, bus arrangement, branch breakers, main breaker, voltage,
and mounting—although not necessarily in that order. A typical description might be: lighting and appliance
panel, 3-phase, 4-wire; 200A mains; main c/b, 225A frame, 150A trip. Branch breakers—all 100A frame; 8 ea.
SP-20A, 4 ea. 2P- 20A, 4 ea. 3P-20A; flush with hinged locked door.
INTELLIGENT PANELBOARDS
 The idea behind an intelligent panelboard is straightforward. If many of the necessary electric load control and
switching functions are incorporated into the panelboard by use of a compact, centralized, programmable
microprocessor, the corresponding external devices and associated wiring are eliminated.
 The switching function is made possible by the use of motor- or solenoid operated panel circuit breakers, thus
taking advantage of their switching capability and eliminating the need for relays, contactors, and switches.
The internal central controller permits local programmable control of each panel circuit breaker individually.
 This central panel-mounted controller can also accept signal data from individual remote or network sources
and can provide status reports, alarm signals, operational logs, and local bypass and override functions.
 Control cards in an adjacent cabinet, connected to the controller, can provide local switch override, daylight
dimming and on–off control, telephone override energy control, electric demand control, and networking.
 With careful planning, the high initial cost of an intelligent panelboard can be offset by elimination of remote
relays, relay panels, programmable time switches, remote-control switches, and all of their associated wiring.
 Simplified and improved facility operation, plus reduced maintenance costs and electric bills, are additional
benefits that can be achieved with proper application and careful design.
 Figure 26.36 shows the essential elements of an intelligent panelboard and a typical network arrangement
using the remote-control capabilities of such panels.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Motors are frequently supplied along with the equipment they drive (such as fans, blowers, and so on) as part of
a complete package. The actual choice of motor is left to the driven-equipment supplier, because the supplier is
presumed best qualified to select a motor that will optimally match the driven-equipment requirements for
whose proper operation the supplier is responsible. In practice, however, a supplier is frequently guided
primarily by price—low first cost being a recurring theme in building design and construction, very often to the
detriment of low life-cycle cost. The designer, therefore, should be sufficiently knowledgeable so that the best
motor for the application can be specified.
The following sections are written with that purpose in mind, and are primarily concerned with application.
(a) Direct-Current Motors
These motors are not normally used in building work. The fine speed control (for which they were primarily
used) is now available, more economically, with ac motors, as explained previously.
(b) Alternating-Current Motors
These motors fall into three general classifications: poly-phase induction motors, poly-phase synchronous
motors, and single-phase motors. Within these categories there are further subdivisions. Of these many types,
most motors used in building equipment are squirrel-cage induction machines; therefore, this type is studied in
some detail.
(c) Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors
This type of induction motor owes its interesting name to an early design in which the rotor consisted of a group
of bars welded together into a cylindrical cage-type shape. The design, invented by Nikola Tesla, is basically
unchanged today except for refinements. Squirrel-cage motors are manufactured in four different NEMA designs
to meet different application requirements
 Of these the most common are:
Type B: standard design, high efficiency and power factor, normal torque; applicable to fans, blowers, & pumps
Type C: high starting torque, fair efficiency and power factor; applicable to compressors, conveyors, and other
devices that start under load
A motor nameplate gives important information on a motor that is not self-evident:
1. Type: This is the manufacturer’s designation and indicates primarily the enclosure. Common enclosures are
open drip-proof, totally enclosed, fan-cooled, and weather-protected.
2. Duty (time rating): Continuous or intermittent.
3. Service factor: Permissible overload; generally 15%.
4. kVA code: Indicates by a letter the maximum starting current per horsepower. This is useful in selecting
motor-protective devices. More recently, actual locked rotor amperes have been given.
5. Frame: A NEMA standard number that indicates the motor’s physical dimensions.
6. Motor voltage: The standard motor voltages are 208, 230/460, and 575 V. Induction motors generally
operate satisfactorily at +/− 10% voltage. Only 208-V motors should be used on 208-V systems because the
actual line voltage may be as low as 200 V. Using a 230-V motor on a 200-V circuit will result in sharply reduced
torque, increased temperature rise, and poor overload capacity.
7. Motor nominal full-load efficiency: As stated; a requirement of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 and
EPACT.
8. Design letter: Indicates inherent motor design characteristics.
MOTOR CONTROL
 A conventional ac motor controller is basically a contactor designed to handle the heavy inrush currents
involved in starting an ac motor. Its function is twofold: to start and stop the motor and to protect it from
overload. These two separate and distinct functions are accomplished by combining a set of contacts for on/off
control with a set of thermal overload elements for overload protection in a single unit.
 When the contacts are operated by hand, the controller is called a manual starter; when the contacts are
operated by a magnetic coil controlled by pushbuttons, thermostats, or other devices, the unit is known as a
magnetic controller or, simply and more commonly, a magnetic starter.
 Motors of 1 hp (0.75 kW) or less are generally controlled by a manual switch that contains an overload
protection device. It is advisable to utilize such a device for all fractional horsepower (low kW) motors.
 Most starters are of the full-voltage across the- line (ATL) type; that is, the contacts place the motor directly
onto the line, and the motor starts up immediately. When such a procedure is undesirable because of voltage
dip and flicker caused by the large inrush current or because of utility company limitations, a reduced-voltage
starter, sometimes called a compensator, is used. These units initially apply reduced voltage to the motor, thus
reducing the starting inrush current and line voltage drop.
 This in turn reduces dimming of lights, flicker, and other undesirable effects. Older reduced-voltage starters
use a stepping arrangement whereby voltage is increased incrementally, thus limiting inrush current.
 Unfortunately, starting torque is also limited, thus restricting the application of these starters. Solidstate
starters that have been available since the late 1980s provide continuous (stepless), controlled motor starting.
 These units not only limit inrush current, but also, by adjusting the acceleration time, allow the required
starting torque of the motor to be maintained.
Such starters provide soft starts (i.e., starts that minimize the mechanical stresses caused by rapid application
of accelerating torque). Additional advantages of these units are reduced size and weight, long life, more
sophisticated motor protection, and additional operating functions such as jogging and reversal. Disadvantages
are higher cost and possible radio frequency noise problems (Fig. 26.37).
(b) Motor Speed Control
 Many applications in HVAC, fluid piping, and industrial systems require speed control of electric motors.
 Until recently, this constituted a problem whose solution was expensive, often space consuming, and rarely
energy-efficient. The reason for this is that the common squirrel-cage induction motor is essentially a
constant-speed device, where speed is determined by power line frequency and motor design. Speed drops
slightly (slips) as the load increases. Until the advent of cheap electronic power equipment, speed control was
usually accomplished by using a wound-rotor motor in lieu of a squirrel-cage unit. This drastically increased
both motor and controller costs while providing only limited speed control.
 Advances in power electronics have made practical a variable-voltage, variable-frequency (VVVF) controller
that gives smooth, continuous speed control over a range exceeding 30 to 1 while maintaining motor torque.
These highly reliable controllers, also known as variable frequency drives (VFD), provide considerable
energy economies that usually result in rapid payback of the relatively high first cost of equipment.
 The essentials of the VVVF control scheme are shown in Fig. 26.38. Voltage control, in addition to frequency
control, is necessary in order to maintain a constant voltage/frequency ratio, which is necessary for efficient,
safe operation. An increase in this ratio results in overheating of the motor, whereas a decrease results in
insufficient torque. Additional advances in power electronics have produced motor speed controllers with
controlled speed ratios approaching 1000:1.
 One disadvantage of these speed controllers has been the production of line harmonics and radio noise of
sufficient strength to constitute a serious engineering problem.
At this writing, these problems have been mitigated, and will undoubtedly be pursued to the point that, except for
highly sensitive areas, the interference will be negligible. At this point, however, the designer must investigate
these effects for the particular application. Typical adjustable- frequency controllers are shown in Fig. 26.39.
MOTOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT
 All the starters discussed previously are available in a wide range of sizes, voltages, and enclosure types. Every
motor controller is required by the NEC to have a disconnecting means for safety reasons.
 Where convenient, this disconnect switch may be combined with the starter into a single unit known as a
combination starter. A circuit breaker or fused switch is often used in such an arrangement, which then
constitutes the branch circuit protection and disconnecting means (Fig. 26.40).
 A typical, brief description of a conventional motor controller would be similar to the following: combination
circuit-breaker type, across-the-line motor controller, NEMA size 2, three O.L. (overload) elements, 208 V, in a
NEMA 1 enclosure. Starter shall contain integral on/off pushbuttons.
 Table 26.6 gives the approximate dimensions of one particular type of combination starter.
 As with other electrical equipment, a current manufacturer’s catalog must be consulted for reliable data on a
particular manufacturer’s products.
 Dimensions vary somewhat among manufacturers (while still meeting NEMA specifications). As noted
previously, physical characteristics for control equipment of similar ratings can vary greatly among items made
to meet IEC specifications and those made to NEMA specifications.
 Where several motors are installed in close proximity to one another, it is often convenient from the control
perspective, as well as economically, to combine the motor starters, disconnect switches, motor controls, and
indicating devices into a single large assembly. Such an assembly is called a motor control center (MCC).
Typical MCC types are shown in Fig. 26.41.
CONTROL GEAR BOARDS
These are an assembly, in one location, of motor controllers, devices that start and stop motors and protect them
against overloads, and of disconnect switches for the motors. For safety reasons, the National Electrical Code
requires that a disconnect switch be located within sight of the motor and its controller. In a motor control
center, the disconnect switch is integral to the controller and may be a fusible switch, circuit breaker, or motor
circuit protector.

Motor Control Centers

These are an assembly, in one location, of motor controllers, devices that start and stop motors and protect them
against overloads, and of disconnect switches for the motors. For safety reasons, the National Electrical Code
requires that a disconnect switch be located within sight of the motor and its controller. In a motor control
center, the disconnect switch is integral to the controller and may be a fusible switch, circuit breaker, or motor
circuit protector.
IK Code definition
Standard IEC 62262 defines an IK code that characterizes the aptitude of equipment to resist mechanical
impacts on all sides .

The degrees of protection IP and IK of an enclosure

must be specified as a function of the different
external influences defined by standard IEC 60364-
5-51, in particular:
 Presence of solid bodies (code AE)
 Presence of water (code AD)
 Mechanical stresses (no code)
 Capability of persons (code BA)
Prisma Plus switchboards are designed for indoor
installation.
Unless the rules, standards and regulations of a
specific country stipulate otherwise,
Meters
It will be appreciated that high-quality instruments and devices are necessary to implement this kind of
metering, when using classical electro-mechanical equipment.
Recent developments in electronic metering and micro-processors, together with remote ripple-control from
an utility control centre (to change peak-period timing throughout the year, etc.) are now operational, and
facilitate considerably the application of the principles discussed.
In most countries, some tariffs, as noted above, are partly based on kVA demand, in addition to the kWh
consumption, during the billing periods (often 3-monthly intervals). The maximum demand registered by the
meter to be described, is, in fact, a maximum (i.e. the highest) average kVA demand registered for succeeding
periods during the billing interval.
Photo of a Panel mounting and DIN rail mounting multifunction meter.
Displays phase sequence, volts, amps, power factor, and system KW,
KVAr, PF, frequency, KWh, and KVArh.
Principle of kVA maximum demand metering
 A kVAh meter is similar in all essentials to a kWh meter but the current and voltage phase relationship has
been modified so that it effectively measures kVAh (kilovolt- ampere-hours). Furthermore, instead of having
a set of decade counter dials, as in the case of a conventional kWh meter, this instrument has a rotating
pointer.
 When the pointer turns it is measuring kVAh and pushing a red indicator before it.
 At the end of 10 minutes the pointer will have moved part way round the dial (it is designed so that it can
never complete one revolution in 10 minutes) and is then electrically reset to the zero position, to start
another 10 minute period.
 The red indicator remains at the position reached by the measuring pointer, and that position, corresponds
to the number of kVAh (kilo-volt-ampere-hours) taken by the load in 10 minutes. Instead of the dial being
marked in kVAh at that point however it can be marked in units of average kVA.
 The following figures will clarify the matter.
 Supposing the point at which the red indicator reached corresponds to 5 kVAh. It is known that a varying
amount of kVA of apparent power has been flowing for 10 minutes, i.e. 1/6 hour.
 If now, the 5 kVAh is divided by the number of hours, then the average kVA for the period is obtained.
 In this case the average kVA for the period will be: 5 x (1/1/6) = 5 x 6 = 30 kVA
 Every point around the dial will be similarly marked i.e. the figure for average kVA will be 6 times greater
than the kVAh value at any given point. Similar reasoning can be applied to any other reset-time interval.
 At the end of the billing period, the red indicator will be at the maximum of all the average values occurring
in the billing period. The red indicator will be reset to zero at the beginning of each billing period.
Electromechanical meters of the kind described are rapidly being replaced by electronic instruments. The
basic measuring principles on which these electronic meters depend however, are the same as those
described above.
Power Interruption Sensitivity
Definition:
The aptitude of a circuit to accept a power interruption.
Different categories:
 “Sheddable” circuit: possible to shut down at any time for an indefinite duration
 Long interruption acceptable: interruption time > 3 minutes *
 Short interruption acceptable: interruption time < 3 minutes *
 No interruption acceptable.
We can distinguish various levels of the criticality of supplying of loads or circuits.
A. Non-critical:
The load or the circuit can be “shed” at any time. E.g.: sanitary water heating circuit.
B. Low criticality:
A power interruption causes temporary discomfort for the occupants of a building, without any financial
consequences. Prolonging of the interruption beyond the critical time can cause a loss of production or lower
productivity. E.g.: heating, ventilation and air conditioning circuits (HVAC).
C. Medium criticality
A power interruption causes a short break in process or service. Prolonging of the interruption beyond a critical
time can cause a deterioration of the production facilities or a cost of starting for starting back up.
E.g.: refrigerated units, lifts.
D. High criticality
Any power interruption causes mortal danger or unacceptable financial losses.
E.g.: operating theatre, IT department, security department.
Disturbance sensitivity
Definition
The ability of a circuit to work correctly in presence of an electrical power disturbance.
A disturbance can lead to varying degrees of malfunctioning. E.g.: stopping working, incorrect working,
accelerated ageing, increase of losses, etc
Types of disturbances with an impact on circuit operations:
• brown-outs,
• overvoltages
• voltage distortion,
• voltage fluctuation,
• voltage imbalance.
Different categories:
 low sensitivity: disturbances in supply voltages have very little effect on operations. E.g.: heating device.
 medium sensitivity: voltage disturbances cause a notable deterioration in operations. E.g.: motors, lighting.
 high sensitivity: voltage disturbances can cause operation stoppages or even the deterioration of the supplied
equipment. E.g.: IT equipment.
The sensitivity of circuits to disturbances determines the design of shared or dedicated power circuits. Indeed it
is better to separate “sensitive” loads from “disturbing” loads. E.g.: separating lighting circuits from motor
supply circuits.
This choice also depends on operating features. E.g.: separate power supply of lighting circuits to enable
measurement of power consumption.
EMERGENCY/STANDBY POWER EQUIPMENT
 The NEC makes a clear distinction between emergency systems and standby systems, covering the former in
Article 700 and the latter in Articles 701 and 702. The equipment, circuitry, and arrangement of both are
similar; the purpose is somewhat different. The reader is also referred to NFPA Standard 110, Standard for
Emergency and Standby Power Systems, which covers equipment requirements for these systems.
 Emergency systems are intended to supply electric power to equipment essential for human safety upon
interruption of the normal power supply.
 Included in this classification are illumination in areas of assembly (to permit safe exiting and prevent panic)
and such other vital functions as fire detection and alarm systems, elevators, fire pumps, public address and
communication systems, and orderly shutdown or maintenance of hazardous processes.
 Standby systems are divided into two categories: those legally required (Article 701) and optional systems
(Article 702). The former are intended to power processes and systems (other than those classified as
emergency systems) whose stoppage might create hazards or hamper firefighting operations.
 This classification goes beyond the emergency systems and could include HVAC systems, water supply
equipment, and industrial processes whose interruption could cause a safety or health hazard.
 It is intended primarily as a safety measure.
 Optional standby systems can cover any or all loads in a facility at the discretion of the owner, and are
normally intended to protect property and prevent financial loss in the event of a normal service interruption.
Examples might include a critical industrial process or equipment for an ongoing research project.
 Health-care facilities are covered by a separate set of regulations: NEC Article 517 and NFPA Standard 99,
both of which are referenced as legally binding in the vast majority of jurisdictional codes.
 It is important to note that for both emergency and legally required standby systems, the provision of the
system must be mandated by the authority having jurisdiction over construction, whether it is a local, state, or
federal agency or a combination of these. The NEC dictates how the system is to be designed and constructed;
its existence depends upon another authority.
 A case in point is the fundamental issue of exit lighting. This is mandated by the NFPA Life Safety Code and
Subpart E of OSHA regulations. It is not required by the NEC, and reference to NEC will not ensure its
provision. The code(s) having authority and jurisdiction must specifically require an emergency and/or
standby system—by that nomenclature— in order for NEC provisions to apply.
 The precise items of equipment to be powered are selected by the designer, keeping in mind the specific and
general requirements of the codes having jurisdiction.
 The majority of codes make the provisions of the NEC and the relevant NFPA standards legally binding. Most
codes require emergency systems; far fewer require standby systems, and then only for essential water and
water-treatment systems and a few other essential uses. The designer must thoroughly investigate the matter
of jurisdictional codes before considering emergency electric power systems and equipment.
 System equipment, which falls into two principal categories—that is, generator and battery installations— is
discussed later. Optional standby systems normally use a fueled prime mover rather than batteries
(a) Alternate Power Source
 For most applications, battery backup is sufficient because only an orderly shutdown is required.
 Where this is not the case, a two-stage transfer can be used—the first transfer being to a battery backup that
can carry the load for up to 1½ hours (or more), depending upon the load magnitude, and a second transfer to
a long-term standby generator set. Thereafter, the availability of generated standby power is limited only by
the fuel supply for the generator. Alternatively, the generator can be maintained on line, and the load picked
up directly upon the first transfer.
 In large industrial installations, the standby source may also be a second utility line. In such cases, only a
single transfer is required. Questions of service reliability and equipment redundancy are both technical and
economic, and must be studied carefully for each individual installation.
(b) Equipment Arrangement: Classic Standby and Online Topologies
 Most UPS systems today are described by their manufacturers as online or simply as UPS rather than standby,
primarily because there is no generally accepted industry-wide definition of online and also because many
systems are hybrid and do not fall easily into either category. Figure 26.66 shows the usual static (nonrotary)
UPS equipment arrangement that applies, in principle, to both standby and online modes.
 In the standby mode (Path A), utility power is normally passed through some power-conditioning equipment
to shield against surges and remove random noise, and then, via position A in the static transfer switch, to the
load. The ac line also provides a small current to the small battery charger that keeps the battery fully charged.
The dc to ac inverter is open-circuited at the transfer switch and delivers no power. In the event of a utility
power failure, the transfer switch moves to position B, and power flows from the battery through the inverter
and transfer switch to the load (Path B).
 With proper equipment design, the transfer is usually accomplished smoothly, although an instantaneous
change from no-load to full load on the inverter can sometimes cause a transfer voltage loss. For this reason,
online schemes are preferred.
 In the straightforward online arrangement shown in Fig. 26.67, Power Path A (normal) is through the rectifier
and inverter to the load via position B in the transfer switch. The battery floats on the dc line. Failure of utility
power causes the power path to change to Path B (i.e., battery to inverter to load). The transfer switch remains
in the B position. As a result, voltage to the load is undisturbed.
 If one of the Path A components fails, the transfer switch moves to position A, and power is supplied directly
from the utility lines via Path C, which is referred to as a utility bypass. The advantage of the online
arrangement is that it eliminates reliance upon the quality of utility power. Power conditioning and surge
suppression are provided by the solid-state equipment.
 The disadvantages of this classic online topology are high cost due to the full load capacity (size) of the
charger/rectifier and an overall efficiency in Path A of about 75% to 80%. The resultant heat production can be
problematic and is certainly expensive in terms of power consumption.
(a) Engine–Generator Sets
 An engine-generator set installation comprises basically three components: a fuel system (including storage, if
necessary); the set itself, plus exhaust facilities; and the space housing the equipment (Fig. 26.69). The
principal advantages of an engine-generator set are unlimited kVA capacity, duration of power limited only by
the size of the fuel tank, use for peak-load shaving, and, if properly maintained, indefinite life.
 The disadvantages are noise, vibration, the nuisance of exhaust piping and exhaust, the need for constant
maintenance and regular testing, and difficulties with fuel storage. Gasoline can be stored for only a year at
most, and subsequent disposal is difficult. Diesel fuel keeps somewhat longer, but disposal is also difficult. Use
of natural gas for an engine obviates the fuel storage problem but poses the alternate problem of availability of
gas service during emergencies. In some large cities, steam is commercially available as an energy source.
 Here too, service reliability, particularly in the event of a widespread electric service failure, must be carefully
investigated.
(b) Battery Equipment
 Storage batteries are often used to supply limited amounts of emergency power for lighting, and for UPS
systems, as detailed previously.
 Batteries are mounted in individual cabinets or in racks for large installations and are always provided with
automatic charging equipment. Battery types are undergoing intensive development.
 At this writing, the types principally in use are lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lead-antimony, leadcalcium cells,
and several alkaline types. The choice depends upon the application. Installation requirements such as
ventilation, gas detection, isolation, and the like depend entirely upon the type of battery, size of the
installation, and battery voltage. Thus, no general guidelines for battery equipment can be given except to
follow NEC Article 480 requirements and consult a battery specialist for other data.
 Batteries have the distinct advantage that they can be installed either in a central system with distribution of
the battery power throughout the facility or in small package units around a building. Central systems are 24 to
125 V, dc or ac, and normally feed emergency lighting only. Individual packs are used often to supply ac power
via built-in inverters.
 The great disadvantage of battery systems is their limited duration of power and their environmental effects
upon disposal. The NEC requires that batteries maintain loads for a 1½-hour minimum, but larger capacity is
frequently installed.

SYSTEM INSPECTION

 Each electric wiring system is inspected at least twice by the local inspection authorities: once after raceways
(roughing) have been installed and before the wiring and closing-in of walls, and once after the entire job is
complete.
 The purpose of these inspections is to determine whether the design, material, and installation techniques meet
the national and local code requirements. Quality of installation is the responsibility of the contractor.
 The designer, however, must be familiar with installation work and the equipment’s physical characteristics in
order to properly design an electrical system that will not present the contractor with unwarranted difficulties.
 The designer must understand and be aware of equipment substitutions by a contractor, who, having submitted
a bid on the basis of plans and specifications, should be required to supply the specified equipment.
Commissioning of electrical systems to the Owner’s Project Requirements is recommended.
Presence of L.V back-up generators
The electrical power supply supplied by a back-up generator is produced by an alternator, driven by a thermal
engine.
No power can be produced until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type of device is therefore not
suitable for an uninterrupted power supply.
According to the generator’s capacity to supply power to all or only part of the installation, there is either total or
partial redundancy.
A back-up generator functions generally disconnected from the network. A source switching system is therefore
necessary.
The generator can function permanently or intermittently. Its back-up time depends on the quantity of available
fuel.
The main characteristics to consider for implementing LV back-up generator:
1. Sensitivity of loads to power interruption,
2. Availability of the public distribution network,
3. Other constraints (e.g.: generators compulsory in hospitals or high-vise buildings)
The presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the opportunity for co-generation.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed for an indefinite duration (long
interruption only acceptable) or if the utility network availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria as determining the number
of transformers, as well as taking account of economic and availability considerations (redundancy, start-up
reliability, maintenance facility).
 Emergency Generators
 Emergency generators are used to provide critical loads with power supply in the case of mains
failure (operating theaters & intensive care units in hospitals, computer buildings, etc…).
 Emergency generators are usually driven by diesel engines, and connected to the load in the
following way :
 a) When the generator is of the same size as the power supply transformer.
 b) When the generator is of a smaller size as compared with the power supply transformer
Presence of an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
The electrical power from a UPS is supplied from a storage unit:
batteries or inertia wheel. This system allows us to avoid any power
failure. The back-up time of the system is limited: from several
minutes to several hours.
The simultaneous presence of a back-up generator and a UPS unit is
used for permanently supply loads for which no failure is acceptable.
The back-up
time of the battery or the inertia wheel must be compatible with the
maximum time for the generator to start up and be brought on-line.
A UPS unit is also used for supply power to loads that are sensitive to
disturbances (generating a “clean” voltage that is independent of the
network).
Main characteristics to be considered for implementing a UPS:
 Sensitivity of loads to power interruptions,
 Sensitivity of loads to disturbances.
The presence of a UPS unit is essential if and only if no failure is
acceptable.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply ( UPS )
 The basic version of the UPS consists of a rectifier, inverter, and batteries.
 During normal operation, the inverter supplies the critical load and ensures that the amplitude
and frequency of the output voltage are stable and precisely controlled.
 The inverter receives its power from mains via the rectifire which, at all times, float charges the
batteries.
 In the event of an interruption in the power supply, the batteries takes over the task of supplying
power to the inverter.
 When the mains power has been restored, the rectifier resumes input power to the inverter and
automatically recharges the battery
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY
 As explained previously, power-conditioning equipment can supply clean utility power; it cannot, however,
supply any power during a utility outage.
 That eventuality is addressed by providing an alternate supply of power. Facilities with desktop computers,
servers, and other data-processing equipment cannot tolerate power outages in excess of about 8 to 50
milliseconds (ms) without serious risk of data loss, and all the negative ramifications of such a loss.
 An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is an arrangement of normal and backup power supplies that transfer
a facility’s critical load from the normal to the backup supply in so short a time that no computer malfunction
results. This transfer time varies somewhat among different schemes and manufacturers but is always less
than 8.3 ms, which is the minimum period of power outage that computers must tolerate without disturbance
to meet the computer industry’s manufacturing guidelines. This time period is double the maximum transfer
time required by IEEE Standard 446, Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for
Industrial and Commercial Applications, of ¼ cycle at 60 Hz, or 4.16 ms. Thus, all computer systems fed
from a UPS that meets this standard have a safety factor of at least 2 with respect to transfer time.
 The period of time after transfer that the equipment will run on the standby source depends upon system
design. In most cases it is 5 to 10 minutes, which is usually enough time to permit an orderly manual or
automatic shutdown. Where shutdown is not a viable alternative, as with computer-controlled manufacturing
processes or critical server equipment, the standby power system can readily be designed to supply power
indefinitely.
 The selection of a UPS system for a facility is a complex process beyond the scope of this book. The material
that follows is intended to provide sufficient familiarity with these systems to permit preliminary selection and
planning.
Schematic Diagram of a Typical UPS Installation
Case (1) : Mains Available ( Normal Operation )

The energy required by the load flow through the

rectifier – inverter chain.
The rectifier-charger also supplies a low current
which is sufficient to maintain the battery in a
charged state (floating)
Case (3) : Return of Mains
When the mains voltage returns, the rectifier-
charger again feed the inverter ( and the load)
and recharges the battery bank.

Case (2) : Mains Failed ( Emergency Operation )

When the mains voltage disappears, the battery bank

immediately supplies the load via the inverter.
During this period the battery voltage decreases
(discharge period).
Parallel Systems
The UPS system may comprise up to six similar parallel chains.
All chains are connected to the load and share it equally.
In the event of a failure in any one chain, its load is immediately transferred to the remaining chains
and it disconnect itself from the load bus.
Additional UPS Topologies
1. A money-saving arrangement called online without bypass is simply the bottom portion of Fig. 26.67. The
first cost is reduced by elimination of the transfer switch and considerable cabling. Because failure of any of
the components disables the system completely, as there is no backup power path, this system is not
recommended for critical loads.
2. A system variously known as line-interactive, standby line-interactive, and hybrid interactive is shown in
Fig. 26.68. In its normal mode (Path A), power flows from the utility lines through power conditioning
equipment and position A of the transfer switch to the load. (This is identical to the normal mode of the
standby system shown in Fig. 26.66.)
 In addition, however, utility ac is tapped at the power-conditioning equipment to feed the inverter that,
operating in reverse as a rectifier (ac to dc), serves as a battery charger.
 In the event of a utility power failure, power is drawn from the battery, which passing through the inverter, is
converted to ac. It then connects to the load via the B connection in the transfer switch.
 The power path is indicated on Fig. 26.68 as Path B. The advantage of this topology is the elimination of a
large rectifier by dual use of the inverter and elimination of transients caused by switching on the inverter at
full load. The system is efficient, produces little heat, and is highly reliable.
(d) System Selection and Comparison
The preceding system descriptions are intended to provide a topical familiarity with UPS equipment
arrangements. Actual selection depends upon the types and magnitudes of the critical loads, detailed outage
histories, space considerations, cost factors, equipment and service redundancy, and overall system efficiency.
The last characteristic can be a major decision factor where large loads are being supplied because overall system
efficiencies vary from a high of about 95+% for classic standby systems (Fig. 26.66) to as low as 65% for some
arrangements. Because all of the power lost to inefficiency turns to heat, a low-efficiency 100-kVA/80-kW
system would produce about 27 kW or about 92,000 Btu/h! Unless this heat can be used effectively, power costs
and ventilation requirements should be factored into the selection process
 Mains Failure panel ( MFP )
 The MFP is intended for automatic operation (Start & Stop) of the emergency generator and in
coordination with the mains incoming supply from the low voltage side of transformer.
 The MFP shall be provided with :-
 Two interlocked 3-phase, 4 pole contactors for the connections of mains and generator supply.
 A set of HRC fuses for output load distribution.
 All the necessary voltage sensing relays, time relays, control switches, light indicator, alarms,
etc…
 The MFP must have the following features :-
 To provide the output load distribution with supply from public mains when it is available.
 To provide the output load distribution with supply from generating set in the case of mains
failure with adjustable time delay (10 - 15) sec.
 It should operate the generating set also when the mains voltage falls in one or more phases
below 80% of the standard value (adjustable).
 It should allow the generator to run up to the correct frequency and voltage before operating
the contactors.
 When the public mains power returns to within acceptable limits, the contactors should change
over positions and the generator stop and reset itself in readiness for further failure.
 A built in time delay unit shall be provided to allow generator running for a short period
(adjustable) after mains have returned to ensure power supply continuity, should further mains
failure or fluctuations occur.
 It should have a duty selector switch with ON, OFF, and TEST positions.
Manual source-changeover system
This is the most simple type. It is controlled manually by an operator and consequently the time required to
switch from the normal to the replacement source can vary.
A manual source-changeover system is made up of two or three mechanically interlocked manually-operated
circuit breakers or switch-disconnectors.
Remote-operated source-changeover system
This is the most commonly employed system for devices with high ratings (above 400 A).
No human intervention is required. Transfer from the normal to the replacement source is controlled
electrically.
A remote-controlled source-changeover system is made up of two or three circuit breakers or switch-
disconnectors linked by an electrical interlocking system that may have different configurations. In addition, a
mechanical interlocking system protects against electrical malfunctions or incorrect manual operations.
Automatic source-changeover systems
An automatic controller may be added to a remote-operated source-changeover system for automatic source
control according to programmable operating modes.
This solution ensures optimum energy management:
transfer to a replacement source according to external requirements management of power sources regulation
emergency source replacement, etc.
The automatic controller may be fitted with an option for communication with a
supervisor.
Automatic Transfer Switch
This device, which is an essential part of all emergency and standby power arrangements, is basically a double
throw switch—generally 3-pole—so arranged that on failure of normal service it automatically transfers to the
emergency service. When normal service is restored, it automatically retransfers to it. (Retransfer can also be
arranged to have a preset minimum delay, or it can be entirely manual.)
The switch control is accomplished by voltage sensors that sense the condition of the service and operate the
switch accordingly. Auxiliary devices can be added to the basic switch, the most common being emergency
generator starting equipment.
Transfer switches used in uninterrupted power supplies are normally solid-state devices because these involve
no switching time lapse.
Normally, ATS is connected the electrical loads to the main power supply source when ATS detects any loss or in
increasing in voltage, the diesel machine will get a signal to start its operation (diesel machine is responsible to
start up the generator set).
When the (E.D.G.S) reaches to its rated output voltage and rated frequency (full speed), the ATS will change is
position to feed the essential loads from the (E.D.G.S) instead of the main supply.
ATS will vary its position in case of the incoming prime source falls below a specified value.
Normally 20% Of rated voltage that means the voltage can vary in an allowable zone with limits 20%.
But more or below these limits the generator set will take of the feeding essential loads.
When the main power source has recovered and ATS is returned back to its previous position, the generator will
continue running at no load for about 30 minutes to be in stand by position throughout the static inverter to
supply the critical load.
 Commercial and service
sector:
 operating rooms in hospitals
 safety systems for tall
buildings
 computer rooms (banks,
insurance companies, etc.)
 lighting systems in shopping
centres…

Industry:
 assembly lines
 engine rooms on ships
 critical auxiliaries in
thermal power stations…
Infrastructures:
 port and railway installations
 runway lighting systems
 control systems on military sites…
REACTIVE POWER PRINCIBLES
All inductive (i.e. electromagnetic) machines and devices that operate on AC systems convert electrical energy
from the power system generators into mechanical work and heat. This energy is measured by kWh meters, and
is referred to as “active” or “wattful” energy. In order to perform this conversion, magnetic fields have to be
established in the machines, and these fields are associated with another form of energy to be supplied from the
power system, known as “reactive” or “wattless” energy.
The reason for this is that inductive circuit cyclically absorbs energy from the system (during the build-up of the
magnetic fields) and re-injects that energy into the system (during the collapse of the magnetic fields) twice in
every power-frequency cycle.
An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with shunt capacitive elements in a power system, such as cable
capacitance or banks of power capacitors, etc. In this case, energy is stored electrostatically. The cyclic charging
and discharging of capacitive circuit reacts on the generators of the system in the same manner as that described
above for inductive circuit, but the current flow to and from capacitive circuit in exact phase opposition to that of
the inductive circuit. This feature is the basis on which power factor correction schemes depend.
It should be noted that while this “wattless” current (more accurately, the “wattless” component of a load current)
does not draw power from the system, it does cause power losses in transmission and distribution systems by
heating the conductors. In practical power systems, “wattless” components of load currents are invariably
inductive, while the impedances of transmission and distribution systems are predominantly inductively reactive.
The combination of inductive current passing through an inductive reactance produces the worst possible
conditions of voltage drop (i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system voltage).
For these reasons (transmission power losses and voltage drop), the power-supply authorities reduce the amount
of “wattless” (inductive) current as much as possible.
 “Wattless” (capacitive) currents have the reverse effect on voltage
levels and produce voltage-rises in power systems.
 The power (kW) associated with “active” energy is usually
represented by the letter P.
 The reactive power (kvar) is represented by Q. Inductively-reactive
power is conventionally positive (+ Q) while capacitively-reactive
power is shown as a negative quantity (- Q).
 The apparent power S (kVA) is a combination of P and Q (see Fig.
L1). Sub-clause 1.3 shows the relationship between P, Q, and S.

Equipement and appliances requiring reactive energy

 All AC equipement and appliances that include electromagnetic
devices, or depend on magnetically-coupled windings, require some
degree of reactive current to create magnetic flux.
 The most common items in this class are transformers and reactors,
motors and discharge lamps (with magnetic ballasts) (see Fig. L2).
 The proportion of reactive power (kvar) with respect to active power
(kW) when an item of equipement is fully loaded varies according to
the item concerned being:
 65-75% for asynchronous motors
 5-10% for transformers
 REACTIVE POWER CONTROL IN DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
 Introduction
 The consumption of active power (kW), is always accompanied by the consumption of a certain
amount of reactive power (kVAR) due to the existence of inductive circuit devices such as
induction motors, transformers, induction furnaces, gas discharge lamps, and all other similar
devices using magnetic field effects.
 An increase in the consumption of reactive power causes obviously lower values of power factor,
which in turn increases active power losses, voltage drop, and reduces the effective capacity of
generating units and other system components.
 For these reasons, the electricity suppliers fix a lower limit on cosØ below which the consumer
must pay for his excess reactive power consumption in the form of panties.
 For example, a load power factor of 0.8 in Spain and 0.7 in Belgium will increase the energy bill
by 10%.
 Power factor improvement in a certain installation is achieved by compensating some (or all) of
the reactive power absorbed by it. This is implemented by injecting a certain amount of reactive
power into the terminals of that installation.
 It is a usual practice to inject most of the reactive power required as close as possible to the load
which requires it; by doing so, the power loss and voltage drop caused by the reactive power flow
in lines and cables are reduced.
 Therefore, shunt capacitors have been applied on distribution feeders at medium voltage levels (
11-33 ) kV as well as at low voltage level by design engineers.
 It is clear that as the amount of injected reactive power is increased the technical merits of
capacitor installations are more pronounced, but the cost of capacitors is also increased.
Therefore, capacitor sizes must offer the best compromise between technical and economical
requirements.
 Also capacitor type (fixed, switched, or automatically controlled ) as well as points of injection to
feeders affect greatly the technical and economical performance of the distribution system.
 As it could be seen from Fig.1
 For the same value of apparent power (S), the active power (P) increases as the value of CosØ
approaches unity. For this reason CosØ is referred to as the “power factor”, which takes into
account the available power.
 The total power that must be supplied increases (for a given value of active power P) as the
value of CosØ decreases.

Kjeld Svidt, Aalborg University 29.11.2002

The power factor
Definition of power factor
The power factor of a load, which may be a single power-consuming item, or a number of items (for example an
entire installation), is given by the ratio of P/S i.e. kW divided by kVA at any given moment.
The value of a power factor will range from 0 to 1.
If currents and voltages are perfectly sinusoidal signals, power factor equals cos ϕ. A power factor close to unity
means that the reactive energy is small compared with the active energy, while a low value of power factor
indicates the opposite condition.
Power vector diagram
 Active power P (in kW)
 Single phase (1 phase and neutral): P = V I cos ϕ
 Single phase (phase to phase): P = U I cos ϕ  where:
 Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3U I cos ϕ  V = Voltage between phase and neutral
 Reactive power Q (in kvar)  U = Voltage between phases
 Single phase (1 phase and neutral): P = V I sin ϕ  I = Line current
 Single phase (phase to phase): Q = U I sin ϕ  ϕ = Phase angle between vectors V and
 Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3 U I sin ϕ I.
 Apparent power S (in kVA)  v For balanced and near-balanced
 Single phase (1 phase and neutral): S = V I loads on 4-wire systems
 Single phase (phase to phase): S = U I
 Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3 U I
Average power factor values for the most
commonly-used equipment and
appliances (see Fig. L6)
Current and voltage vectors, and derivation of the power diagram
 The power “vector” diagram is a useful artifice, derived directly from the true rotating vector diagram of
currents and voltage, as follows:
 The power-system voltages are taken as the reference quantities, and one phase only is considered on the
assumption of balanced 3-phase loading.
 The reference phase voltage (V) is co-incident with the horizontal axis, and the current (I) of that phase will,
for practically all power-system loads, lag the voltage by an angle ϕ.
 The component of I which is in phase with V is the “wattful” component of I and is equal to I cos ϕ, while VI
cos ϕ equals the active power (in kW) in the circuit, if V is expressed in kV.
 The component of I which lags 90 degrees behind V is the wattless component of I and is equal to I sin ϕ, while
VI sin ϕ equals the reactive power (in kvar) in the circuit, if V is expressed in kV.
 If the vector I is multiplied by V, expressed in kV, then VI equals the apparent power (in kVA) for the circuit.
 The simple formula is obtained: S2 = P2 + Q2
 The above kW, kvar and kVA values per phase, when multiplied by 3, can therefore
 conveniently represent the relationships of kVA, kW, kvar and power factor for a total
 3-phase load, as shown in Figure L3 .
 Individual Compensation:
 This method is usually used for one load, a group of loads at the same location, isolated
transformer, and industrial plants with relatively low values of power factor.
 In this method the initial value of power factor (cos Ø1) is usually known and could be improved
to any new required value (cos Ø2).
 The amount of kVAR to be injected (Qc) is found as:

The results of applying the above equations are given in a charts and tables and could be used to
determine the amount of kVAR that should be installed to improve the power factor to the
required value.
Table for Finding the K – factor K = ( tanØ1 - tanØ2 )
 Although the use of this method improves distribution system performance, it does not provide an
optimum solution as it considers each group of loads independently of all other loads connected to the
same distribution feeder.
 Advantages of Reactive Power Compensation:
 There are many benefits to be gained from the application of shunt capacitors to distribution circuit,
some of these benefits are :-
 1. Voltage Drop Reduction
 2. Increasing the Apparent Power Capacity
 3.Reduction in Line & Cable Losses
 4. Reduction in Transformer Losses
Theoretical principles
 An inductive load having a low power factor requires the generators and transmission/distribution systems to
pass reactive current (lagging the system voltage by 90 degrees) with associated power losses and exaggerated
voltage drops, as noted in sub-clause 1.1.
 If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the load, its (capacitive) reactive current will take the same path
through the power system as that of the load reactive current. Since, as pointed out in sub-clause 1.1, this
capacitive current Ic (which leads the system voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct phase opposition to the load
reactive current (IL), the two components flowing through the same path will cancel each other, such that if
the capacitor bank is sufficiently large and Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in the system upstream
of the capacitors.
 This is indicated in Figure L8 (a) and (b) which show the flow of the reactive components of current
only. In this figure:
 R represents the active-power elements of the load
 L represents the (inductive) reactive-power elements of the load
 C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power elements of the power-factor correction equipment (i.e.
capacitors).
 It will be seen from diagram (b) of Figure L9, that the capacitor bank C appears
 to be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are sometimes referred to as
“generators of lagging vars”.
 In diagram (c) of Figure L9, the active-power current component has been added,
 and shows that the (fully-compensated) load appears to the power system as having a power factor of 1.
 In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation.
Figure L9 uses the power diagram discussed in sub-clause 1.3 (see Fig. L3) to illustrate the principle of
compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q to a smaller value Q’ by means of a bank of capacitors having
a reactive power Qc. In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen to reduce to S’.
Example:
A motor consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.75 (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.88). To improve the power factor to 0.93 (i.e.
tan ϕ = 0.4), the reactive power of the capacitor bank must be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor bank depend on the particular
installation. The factors requiring attention are explained in a general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and 7 for
transformers and motors.
Note: Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should be observed. In
particular, oversizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the noloadnrunning of motors. In this latter
condition, the reactive energy consumed by a motor results in a very low power factor (≈ 0.17); this is because
the kW taken by the motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.
By using what equipment?
Compensation at LV
At low voltage, compensation is provided by:
b Fixed-value capacitor
b Equipment providing automatic regulation, or banks which allow continuous adjustment according to
requirements, as loading of the installation changes
Note: When the installed reactive power of compensation exceeds 800 kvar, and the
load is continuous and stable, it is often found to be economically advantageous to install capacitor banks at the
medium voltage level.
 Control Methods
 The amount of capacitors connected should be controlled in accordance with load variations as to
keep the power factor and voltage within the design limits.
 To achieve this, capacitor banks are provided with manual or automatic switching facilities.
 Time Switches
 This method is the simplest and the cheapest and the best in the cases where the load kVAR cycle
can be predicted.
 A timer is set to switch the capacitor bank at times dictated by the kVAR needs. It is normal to fit
a device to prevent switching in at weekends and during holidays.
 Disadvantages :-
 1. Problems arise if holiday periods are irregular.
 2. The switches does not respond to unexpected load variations.
 Time Switches with Voltage Over-ride
 This method was developed to overcome the disadvantage of the simple time switch.
 A voltage sensing relay ( energized by the timer ) is used to switch the bank only if the voltage
condition require it.
 Voltage-Sensitive Control
 In this method a voltage sensing relay is used to switch the capacitor bank in response to
system voltage changes. The disadvantage of this method is that the capacitor bank has other
important functions beside voltage control.
 kVAR Sensitive Control
 In this method a reactive power relay is used to perform switching of capacitors in accordance
with load kVAR variations.
 This method is widely used but it is quite expensive.
 Cos Ø Sensitive Control
 This method is used in special cases where a well-defined power factor conditions occurs
regularly.
Fixed capacitors (see Fig. L10)
This arrangement employs one or more capacitor(s) to
form a constant level of
compensation. Control may be:
b Manual: by circuit-breaker or load-break switch
b Semi-automatic: by contactor
b Direct connection to an appliance and switched with it
These capacitors are applied:
b At the terminals of inductive devices (motors and
transformers)
b At busbars supplying numerous small motors and
inductive appliance for which
individual compensation would be too costly
b In cases where the level of load is reasonably constant
Automatic capacitor banks (see Fig. L11)
This kind of equipment provides automatic control of
compensation, maintaining the
power factor within close limits around a selected level.
Such equipment is applied at
points in an installation where the active-power and/or
reactive-power variations are
relatively large, for example:
b At the busbars of a general power distribution board
b At the terminals of a heavily-loaded feeder cable
 Electricity

PF Correction:
Capacitors
• Act as reactive power
generators
• Reduce reactive power
• Reduce total power generated
by the utilities

Figure: Fixed capacitor banks

Source: Ecatalog
242
© UNEP 2006
243
© UNEP 2006
PF Correction: Capacitors
Advantages for company:
• One off investment for capacitor
• Reduced electricity costs:
• Total demand reduced
• No penalty charges
• Reduced distribution losses
• Increased voltage level at load end, improved motor performance

Advantages for utility:

• Reduced reactive component of network
• Reduced total current in the system from the source end
• Reduced I2R power losses
• Reduced need to install additional distribution network capacity

244
© UNEP 2006
The principles of, and reasons, for using automatic compensation
 A bank of capacitors is divided into a number of sections, each of which is controlled by a contactor. Closure of
a contactor switches its section into parallel operation with other sections already in service. The size of the
bank can therefore be increased or decreased in steps, by the closure and opening of the controlling contactors.
 A control relay monitors the power factor of the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged to close and open
appropriate contactors to maintain a reasonably constant system power factor (within the tolerance imposed by
the size of each step of compensation). The current transformer for the monitoring relay must evidently be
placed on one phase of the incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s) being controlled, as shown in Figure
L12.
 A Varset Fast capacitor bank is an automatic power factor correction equipment including static contactors
(thyristors) instead of usual contactors. Static correction is particularly suitable for a certain number of
installations using equipment with fast cycle and/or sensitive to transient surges.
 The advantages of static contactors are :
o Immediate response to all power factor fluctuation (response time 2 s or 40 ms according to regulator option)
o Unlimited number of operations
o Elimination of transient phenomena on the network on capacitor switching
o Fully silent operation
 By closely matching compensation to that required by the load, the possibility of producing overvoltages at
times of low load will be avoided, thereby preventing an overvoltage condition, and possible damage to
appliances and equipment.
 Overvoltages due to excessive reactive compensation depend partly on the value of
 source impedance.
In the case of certain (common) types of tariff, an
examination of several bills covering the most heavily-
loaded period of the year allows determination of the
kvar level of compensation required to avoid kvarh
(reactiveenergy) charges.
The pay-back period of a bank of power-factor-correction
capacitors and associated equipment is generally about
18 months
The choice between a fixed or automatically
regulated bank of capacitors
Commonly-applied rules

Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less than, or

equal to 15% of the supply transformer rating, a fixed
value of compensation is appropriate. Above the 15%
level, it is advisable to install an automatically-
controlled bank of capacitors.
The location of low-voltage capacitors in an installation
constitutes the mode of compensation, which may be
global (one location for the entire installation), partial
(section-by-section), local (at each individual device),
or some combination of the latter two. In principle, the
ideal compensation is applied at a point of
consumption and at the level required at any instant.
In practice, technical and economic factors govern the
choice
Where to install correction capacitors?
Where a load is continuous and stable, global
Global compensation (see Fig. L13) Principle
compensation can be applied
• The capacitor bank is connected to the busbars of the
main LV distribution board for the installation, and
remains in service during the period of normal load.
Advantages
The global type of compensation:
• Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of
kvars
• Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which
standing charges are usually based
• Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to
accept more load if necessary
Comments
• Reactive current still flows in all conductors of cables
leaving (i.e. downstream of) the main LV distribution
board Compensation by sector is recommended
• For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and when the installation is extensive, and where the
power losses in them, are not improved by the global load/time patterns differ from one part of
mode of compensation. the installation to another
Compensation by sector (see Fig. L14)
Principle
 Capacitor banks are connected to busbars of each local
distribution board, as shown in Figure L14.
 A significant part of the installation benefits from this
arrangement, notably the feeder cables from the main
distribution board to each of the local distribution boards at
which the compensation measures are applied.
Advantages
 The compensation by sector:
 Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
 Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing
charges are usually based
 Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept
more load if necessary
 The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, or will have additional capacity
for possible load increases
 Losses in the same cables will be reduced
Comments
 Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream of the local distribution boards
 For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them, are not improved by
compensation by sector
 Where large changes in loads occur, there is always a risk of overcompensation and consequent overvoltage
problems
Individual compensation
Principle
Capacitors are connected directly to the terminals of inductive circuit (notably motors, see further in Clause 7).
Individual compensation should be considered when the power of the motor is significant with respect to the
declared power requirement (kVA) of the installation.
The kvar rating of the capacitor bank is in the order of 25% of the kW rating of the motor. Complementary
compensation at the origin of the installation (transformer) may also be beneficial.
Advantages
Individual compensation:
b Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
b Reduces the apparent power kVA demand
b Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable losses
Comments
b Significant reactive currents no longer exist in the installation
Individual compensation should be considered when the power of motor is significant with respect to power of
the installation