Aircraft Design 2018 Smaller

Aircraft Design
Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Coverage
Aircraft design overview
Aircraft configuration
Pertinent regulation
an intellectual
engineering process...
AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc
...or on a
computer
screen

...to (1) meet certain
specifications and
requirements
...and/or (2)
pioneer
innovative,
new ideas and
technology.
NASA - http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/Fleet/Large/E-2889.jpg NASA Dryden Flight Research Center Photo Collection (Photo E-2889)
A "group photo" of first generation U.S. experimental aircraft. In the center, the Douglas X-3 Stiletto; around it, clockwise from bottom left: Bell *this definition is based on:
X-1A, Douglas D-558-1 Skystreak, Convair XF-92A, Bell X-5, Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket, Northrop X-4 Bantam John D. Anderson, Jr. (1999). Aircraft Performance and Design

control
performance
others
payload
navigation
materials
reliability
stabilitycrashworthiness
regulation aesthetics
stealth
size Requirements
function environmental footprint
cost
repairability maintainability
communication

Requirements
performance design
requirements requirements

requirements
John D. Anderson, Jr. Aircraft Performance and Design
intellectual pivot points
initial weight estimates
critical performance parameters
CLmax, L/D, W/S, T/W or W/P
configuration
improved weight estimates
performance analysis
optimization
mission specification
classical method
performance requirements,
design goals
parameters describing the aircraft

performance analysis
next...
in a nutshell...

phases of aircraft design
output of
conceptual
design output of
preliminary
design output of
"fuzzy" detail
configuration design
definition precise
configuration
definition
rivet size
and location
John D. Anderson, Jr. Aircraft Performance and Design

Dream Airplanes by C.W. Miller
There's no perfect airplane, only the best compromise.

Aircraft Configuration
Why do aircraft look like they do?
What are the merits and drawbacks of certain wing,
empennage, fuselage, and landing gear configurations?
Wing Design
Considerations
dihedral angle
high wing
multiplane
compund
monoplane
sweep angle
size (area)
mid wing
cantillver
thickness ratio
twist angle
airfoil
strutted simple
aspect ratio
triplane
incidence angle tandem
taper ratio low wing
planform others
Daniel Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Ch.4. p. 48
1
2 2
S
b
A b/2
S

CR Given W , W / S , A, 
S  W / (W / S )
b AS
2S
CR 
b(1   )
CT   CR
CT
aircraft centerline
C
L
 LE
1 
tan  LE  tan  c / 4 
A(1   ) c / 4

y
 y
C  CR 1  2 1     C
 b

Locating the mean X CR CT
aerodynamic chord
1    2
C  CR
2 Y
3
1  C
b  1  2 
Y   
6  1  
X  Y tan  LE  0.25C
CR CT
Locating the mean
aerodynamic center
mean mean
aerodynamic aerodynamic
center chord
AC  0.25C (subsonic) C
AC  0.4C (supersonic)

Wing Planform
aft-swept delta
rectangular tapered
compound elliptical
Flying Wing (BWB)
Vertical Position

High Wing
 adapted by most cargo aircraft
C130 Hercules
 fuselage closer to the ground; easier loading/unloading
C130 Hercules
 Sufficient ground clearance for engine
nacelle or propeller
C130 Hercules
 Wing tips less likely to strike the ground
C17 Globemaster
 less landing gear height needed
 landing gear is installed to the fuselage rather
than the wing to reduce strut length
 fuselage needs stiffening; means more weight
 External blisters (landing gear housing) might
be necessary; means added weight and drag
 fairing where wing connects to the circular
fuselage - reduce interference drag
fairing

 flattened bottom will provide desired floor
height but means more weight

flattening

 weight savings for placing wing box at the top;
no fuselage stiffening necessary; however,
increased frontal area adds to drag

added frontal area

 For a STOL aircraft, a
high wing provides
ground clearance for
the large flap necessary
for high CL
 STOL aircraft are
usually designed to
operate in unimproved
fields; High wing places
engines and propellers
away from rocks and
debris
High Wing
 Prevents floating (ground effect is reduced)
which makes it hard to land on desired spot
16h b 
2

1  16h b 
2
 CL  2
D  q S  CD ,0   
  eAR 
Low wing aircraft
places wing closer
to the ground;
increased ground
effect
16h b 
2

1  16h b 
2

 a strutted wing usually presents less
weight but struts adds to drag.
 struts below the wing, offer less drag
compared to struts above the wing.
low wing:
struts above wing, more drag
fairing
no fairing
more drag
High Wing
 Better visibility towards the ground
 Restricted visibility towards the rear
 Obscures pilot vision in a turn
 Blocks upward visibility in a climb

Mid Wing
Mid Wing
 Least interference drag
 To a degree, has the ground clearance

advantage of the high wing
 Superior aerobatic maneuverability due to

absence of actual or simulated/effective
dihedral which will act in the wrong direction
in inverted flight
Mid Wing
 Needs fuselage stiffening; means more
weight
 Carry-through structure will limit space for a

passenger or cargo aircraft; difficult to
incorporate in a fighter aircraft in which most
of the fuselage is occupied by the jet engines
and inlet ducts
F15 Eagle
engines
in fuselage
F4 Phantom
inlets
Low Wing
 Landing gear can be attached to (and
retracted into) the wing which is already
strong with no stiffening (and no external
blisters) necessary
 Allows for a shorter landing gear strut which

means less weight; however there still must
be enough ground clearance
Low Wing
 Given enough ground clearance, aft-fuselage
upsweep can be reduced, reducing drag
significant upsweep
encourages flow separation,
hence pressure drag
upsweep
FRL angle
flow discontinuities
generates drag

Low Wing
 Commonly adapted by large commercial
transports which normally operate in well-
equipped airfields; loading and unloading is
not a problem
 Ground clearance problems may be

alleviated by a dihedral; but too much
dihedral can cause Dutch roll tendencies.
A330-300
Low Wing
 Placing the propellers higher above the wing
increases interference effects and cruise fuel
consumption.

Effects of Vertical Position
Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch. 4. p.174

Other Wing Configurations
Parasol Wing
Parasol Wing
Parasol Wing
Gull Wing
Inverted Gull Wing
Inverted Gull Wing
Inverted Gull Wing
Inverted Gull Wing
Inverted Gull Wing
Number of Wings
Monoplane
Biplane
Triplane
Multiplane

Biplane
Biplane
 Pass
 Low structural weight
 Does not require high-lift devices for low
speed flight
 Compact: relatively short wing span
 Half induced drag compared to monoplane
producing same lift (in theory)
Di  L 2
2
 L  KL 2
Di  qSCD ,i  qSKCL 2
 qSK   
 qS  qS
2
L
Di 
 eARqS
1 2
( L)
Di ,upper wing   Di ,lower wing
2
 eARqS
Di ,biplane  Di ,lower wing  Di ,upper wing
1 2 2
L 1 L 1
Di ,biplane 2  4
 Di ,monoplane
 eARqS 2  eARqS 2
Decalage, Stagger, Gap, Span Ratio
Gap the vertical distance between the two wings
Span Ratio the ratio between the shorter to the longer wing
Stagger the longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to each

other (positive, when upper wing is closer to the nose; negative,
otherwise)
Decalage relative incidence between the two wings (positive,

when upper wing has a larger incidence; negative, otherwise)

staggerwing
Triplane
Manfred von Richthofen
aka The Red Baron
Cantilevered vs Strutted
 Strutted wings are lighter

 Struts cause profile and interference drag

Strutted
Cantilevered
Cantilevered
Monoplane, Biplane, Joined Wing
Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.183

Wing Size (S) and Wing Loading (W/S)
 Wing size or wing loading primarily affects
the following characteristics:
[a] take-off and landing field length,
[b] cruise performance (L/D),
[c] ride through turbulence, and
[d] weight
Wing Size and Wing Loading
 For a short field length, a large wing / low

wing loading is required
 Wing can be kept small by using flaps
1.44W 2
sLO 
Take-off Roll g  SC L ,max {T  [ D   R (W  L)]ave }
1.69W 2
Landing Roll sL  
g  SCL ,max [TR  D   R (W  L)]0.7VT
 For cruise at (L/D)max, a high wing loading is
required
L  eAR
  
 D  max 4CD ,0
e b 2
W W2
e b S 2
 2
S 2  2
4CD ,0 S W S 4CD ,0 W
L W
  
 D  max S
 For flight at high altitudes and at low speeds,
a large wing is required.
 Of course a large wing means more weight
L  V SCL 1
2
2
small should be big

to compensate
 A low wing loading translates to a high load
factor and thus poor ride qualities
qCL
n 
W /S
n q(C L /  )

 W /S
Poor ride quality!
Poor ride quality!
Extreme Turbulence!!!
Poor ride quality!
Effects of Wing Loading

Typical Values for Take-Off Wing Loading

Aspect Ratio
2
b
AR 
S
Low Aspect Ratio

High Aspect Ratio
Moderate Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio
 High aspect ratio means reduced induced
drag; increased (L/D)max
 The higher the AR, the higher the span, the
heavier
CL 2
L  eAR
CD , i    
 eAR  D max 4CD ,0

low pressure
high pressure

L L'
 i
V
i w Di
V'
90
 eff     i
from Prandtls lifting line theory
2
CL
CD , i 
 eAR
Aspect Ratio
 High aspect ratio also means high lift curve
slope; good approach attitude; bad ride
through turbulence
high
L W qCL
   AR  n 
 D  max S W /S
high
high
Aspect Ratio and Lift Curve Slope

Aspect Ratio and Approach Attitude

Antonov An-28
Antonov An-28
Antonov An-28
Dassault Rafale
Dassault Rafale
Dassault Rafale
Effect of Aspect Ratio

Thickness Ratio
max thickness
t/c 
chord
 Higher thickness ratio means:
higher profile drag (wave drag if supersonic)
lower weight
If up to 12-14%, higher CL,max
greater fuel volume
Thickness Ratio, Drag, Mach Number
Jan Roskam. Airplane Design, PART III. Ch. 4. p.188

Thickness Ratio, Wing Weight, Sweep

Effect of Thickness Ratio

Sweep Angle
 Delays drag divergence effects

 Used for balance
 Used for stability (dihedral effect)
 Better ride through turbulence characteristics

Drag
Divergence:
drastic increase
in drag near
John Anderson, Jr. Introduction to Flight, 5th Ed. Ch.5. p.294

sonic speed

Critical Mach
Number: the
freestream
Mach no. at
which sonic
flow is first
achieved
somewhere
in a body.
Sweep reduces
effective Mach no.,
increasing the
critical Mach no.

Is Mcr = 0.808 the critical Mach number for the wing?
NO! Because of 3D effects.
M cr for airfoil
M cr for airfoil  actual M cr for swept wing 
cos

Sweep reduces
effective thickness

 The thicker the airfoil, the less is the critical
Mach no.
 Again, sweep delays drag divergence effects

by increasing the critical Mach no.

Pressure Coefficient
p  p
cp 
q
Dynamic Pressure
q  V 1
2
2
1  p  1 p
q     M  a   M   RT
2 2
2  RT  2 RT
q   p M 1
2
2

Pressure Coefficient
p  p p  p
cp  1 
 V
2  
2 1
2  p M 
2

Pressure Coefficient: incompressible flow
p  V  p  V
1
2
2 1
2
2
1
2
 (V  V )  p  p
2 2
p  p  (V  V ) 1 2 2
cp  1  2
2  V 2  V
2 1 2
2
V 
cp  1   
 V 
Prandtl-Glauert compressibility correction

c p ,0
cp 
1 M 2
0.3  M   0.7

Critical pressure coefficient

The thicker the airfoil,
the less is the critical
Mach no.

p  p
cp  1
2  p M 
2
What is Cp,cr = f(M∞)?

p  p p  p 
cp     1
q q  p 
 
p0    1 2   1 p0    1 2 
 1
 1  M   1  M 
p  2  p  2 

 1
p  1  M 
2  1
 2
 1

2 
p  1  2 M 

  1 
p  1  2 M  
2  1

cp    1
q  1  2 M 
 1 2 
 

  1 
p  1  2 M  
2  1

cp   2 
 1
  1
q  1  2 M  
 
critical sonic

  1 
 1  2 M    1
2  1
p
 1
 1   1 
c p ,cr
 2 
 
p M
2   2


 
  2  (  1) M   
2  1
2
c p ,cr     1
 M 2
  1  
 
c p , cr

 
2   2  (  1) M  
2  1

c p ,cr  2    1
 M    1  
 

 
c p ,0 2   2  (  1) M cr 
2  1

     1
1  M cr 2  M cr  
2
 1  
 
c p ,0
cp 
1 M 2
M cr M
Sweep Angle
 Contributes to pitch up characteristics

 Performs less during take-off and landing
 Reduces subsonic lift
 Significant weight penalty

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Sweep Angle, Aspect Ratio and Lift Curve Slope

Sweep Angle
 A large wing loading and a small lift curve

slope (wing sweep) results in small changes
in load factor, thus good ride through
turbulence characteristics.
qCL
n 
W /S
sweep =
good ride through
turbulence
Forward VS Aft Sweep
 Both delay drag divergence or compressibility effects the
same way
 Forward swept wing is usually heavier
 Forward swept wing has superior stall characteristics;
outboard-mounted lateral controls maintain effectiveness
well into a stall

Grumman X-29A
Oblique Wing: forward AND aft sweep
NASA AD-1
NASA AD-1
Variable Sweep
 A solution ton constant sweep problems

 Attendant balance problems
 Weight penalty due to pivot mechanism
 Complexity

F14 Tomcat
Effects of Wing Sweep

Taper Ratio
  CT / CR
 More taper (smaller taper ratio) means less weight
 More taper (small tip chord), more conducive to tip

stall
 Less taper means more fuel volume
 Tapered wings cost more than untapered wings

Taper Ratio
 A wing with taper is a trade-off between elliptical

(least induced drag, difficult to manufacture) and a
rectangular wing (more induced drag, easy to
manufacture).
 More taper is needed for a swept wing

 Very low taper (<0.2) promotes tip stall
 Low taper is inherent for a delta wing

Geometry for minimum induced drag

Supermarine Spitfire
Effect of taper on lift distribution

Effect of taper on lift distribution

Effect of sweep on desired taper ratio

Effects of Taper Ratio

Reverse Taper
 Improved tip stall characteristics
 Improved cross-sectional area distribution;

allows for a smaller fuselage
 Weight penalty

Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor

Variable Taper

Wing Twist
Wing Twist
 Geometric Twist: one type of airfoil used,
incidence is changing relative to root chord.
 Linear Twist: incidence is proportional to

distance from root airfoil.
 Aerodynamic Twist: difference in the zero-

lift angles of the root and tip airfoil. Same as
geometric twist if one type of airfoil is used.
Wing Twist
 Note: It is possible for a wing without
geometric twist to have an aerodynamic
twist. This can happen, for example, when
the root and the tip are using different airfoil.
 Wash-out: tip airfoil has negative incidence

relative to root airfoil.
 Wash-in: opposite of wash-out.

Wing Twist

Wing Twist
 Washout delays tip stall
 May increase induced drag
 Less-loaded tip; less strength requirements;

less weight
 Wing twist will only be optimal relative to lift

distribution for one value of coefficient of lift.
Effect of Wing Twist

Wing Incidence
Wing Incidence
 Used to minimize drag at some operating
condition, usually cruise.
 Used to improve attitude
 Fuselage angle of attack for minimum drag

and optimal wing angle of attack for the
same condition usually differ.

Wing Incidence

Dihedral

Dihedral

Harrier S/VTOL
Ski Jump
Effect of Dihedral

Wing Tip Devices
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Wing Tips
 A sharp tip is more effective than a rounded
tip in alleviating tip vortex effects
 The Hoerner tip is the most widely used low-

drag wingtip
 Tip curved upwards/downwards increase

effective span without increasing actual span
relatively round
relatively sharp
Hoerner
Hoerner
Hoerner
drooped
upswept
Wing Tips
 A swept wing tip addresses the condition that
vortices tend to be located at the trailing
edge of the wing tip; increases torsional load
 Cut-off forward swept is used for supersonic

aircraft; part with little lift is cut-off; reduced
torsional load

aft-swept
aft-swept
Wing Tips
 The endplate is an intuitive solution to the
leakage of the high pressure flow below the
wing to the low pressure flow above it.
 Adds to wetted area, and therefore drag
 Might be better to just add to the span
instead
 Solution to a short span requirement
Wing Tips
 The winglet is an advanced version of the
endplate. It offers less drag.
 Works better for low AR wings; less effective

for an already working high-AR wing
 Adds weight behind wing elastic axis; can

aggravate flutter tendencies
Wing Tips
 Works best for only one speed - the design
speed
 Trade study needed: increase aspect ratio

(span) or use winglet?
 Usually an "add on" device for obtaining

some more efficiency
winglet types
A319
"sharklet"
"sharklet"
Winglet: Boeing 747-400

A330
Challenger 600 winglet
split scimitar
tip turbine
tip tank
High-Lift Devices
Trailing-Edge Devices
Leading-Edge Devices
(1) airfoil only
(2) plain flap
(3) split flap
(4) leading-edge slat
(5) single-slotted flap
(6) double-slotted flap
(7) double-slotted flap in
combination with a leading-
edge slat
(8) addition of boundary-layer
suction (BLC) at the top of
the airfoil.

flaps + spoilers
flaps + spoilers + winglet
Plain Flap
 Rear section of the airfoil is hinged so that it
can be rotated downward.
 With a simple plain flap, CLmax can be almost
doubled
 Creates more lift simply by mechanically
increasing the effective camber of the airfoil
 Increases the drag and pitching moment.
Split Flap
 Only the bottom surface of the airfoil is

hinged
 Causes a slightly higher CLmax than that for a
plain flap.

Split Flap
Split Flap
Split Flap
Split Flap
Split Flap
 Performs the same function as a plain flap,
mechanically increasing the effective
camber.
 However, the split flap produces more drag

and less change in the pitching moment
compared to a plain flap.
Split Flap
 Invented by Orville Wright in 1920
 Employed on many of the 1930s and 40s

airplanes because of its simplicity
 However, because of the higher drag

associated with split flaps, they are rarely
used on modern airplanes.
Leading-Edge Slat
 A small, highly cambered airfoil located
slightly forward of the leading edge of the
main airfoil
 Essentially a flap at the leading edge, but

with a gap (slot) between the flap and the
leading edge
Leading-Edge Slat
 Functions primarily to modify the pressure
distribution over the top surface of the airfoil.
 The slat itself, being highly cambered,

experiences a much lower pressure over its
top surface; but the flow interaction results in
a higher pressure over the top surface of the
main airfoil section.
Leading-Edge Slat
 This mitigates to some extent the otherwise
strong adverse pressure gradient that would
exist over the main airfoil section, hence
delaying flow separation over the airfoil.
 In the process CLmax is increased with no
significant increase in drag
 Produces about the same increase in CLmax
as the plain flap
Leading-Edge Slat
 The slat can be controlled by the pilot or it
can move automatically depending on the
pressure distribution at the leading edge.
 The slat (fixed slot) can also be fixed.

Single-Slotted Flap
 The slot allows the higher-pressure air on the

bottom surface of the airfoil to flow through
the gap, modifying and stabilizing the
boundary layer over the top surface of the
airfoil.

Single-Slotted Flap
 Flow through the slot creates a low pressure

on the leading edge of the flap, and
essentially a new boundary layer is formed
over the flap which allows the flow to remain
attached to very high flap deflections.

Double-Slotted Flap
 If one slot is good, two are even better
 Higher CLmax compared to a single-slotted

flap
 This benefit is achieved at the cost of

increased mechanical complexity.
Double-Slotted Flap + LE Slat
 If one type of a high-lift device is good, two

may complement each other
 Mutual benefit is obtained by employing both

leading- and trailing-edge devices in
combination on the same airfoil

STOL aircraft, Zenith CH 750
Single-Slotted Flap + LE Slat
Boundary Layer Suction
 The low-energy boundary layer flow over the

top surface of the airfoil is the culprit, in
combination with the adverse pressure
gradient, which causes flow separation and
hence stall.

 By mechanically sucking away a portion of

the boundary layer through small holes or
slots in the top surface of the airfoiI, flow
separation can he delayed

 Increased mechanical complexity and cost of

this device, along with the power
requirements on the pumps, diminish its
attractiveness as a design option.

 Active boundary layer suction has not yet

been used on standard production airplanes.
It remains in the category of an advanced
technology item.

Passive BLC
Vortex Generators
Passive BLC:
Vortex generators
Fowler Flap
 Does not only deflect downward to increase
the effective camber, but also translates or
tracks to the trailing edge of the airfoil to
increase the exposed wing area and further
increase lift.

Leading-Edge Flap
 Pivots downward, increasing the effective

camber.
 But unlike the leading-edge slat, the leading-

edge flap is sealed, with no slot

Krueger Flap
Krueger Flap
 Essentially a leading-edge slat which is

thinner, and which lies flush with the bottom
surface of the airfoil when not deployed
 Hence, it is suitable for use with thinner

airfoils.

The Kruger flap rotates
down and about the
leading edge
LERX
LERX
snag/dog tooth
snag/dog tooth
Effect of High-Lift Devices on Lift Curve

Effect of High-Lift Devices on Camber and AOA

Empennage Design
Considerations
Function of the Empennage
 The empennage exists
mainly for trim, stability and
control.
 The way the tail provides
stability is pretty much same
as for the fins or feathers of
an arrow.

 For the horizontal tail, trim is usually

achieved through setting it at a negative AOA
such that it will produce negative lift causing
a pitch up moment that will counter the pitch-
down tendency of the wing with a positively
cambered airfoil.

 Trim in the yaw direction is usually not a
problem due to the aircraft symmetry.
 The role of the vertical tail is more important
for multi-engine aircraft.
 Propwash may cause the vertical tail to
produce a nose-left moment; the vertical tail
can be offset by a few degrees.
Corsair
prop contrails
Douglas A-1 Skyraider
Longitudinal control (pitch)

Directional control (yaw)

Empennage Configurations

Conventional
Conventional
 It works! Adapted by about 70% or more of

aircraft in service (Raymer)
 Relatively lightweight
 Horizontal tail is in the wake of the wing
 Does not allow for an aft-mounted engine
 Low horizontal tails are best for stall recovery

T-Tail
T-Tail
T-Tail
T-Tail
T-Tail
 Heavier than conventional due to strengthening
of the vertical tail to support the horizontal tail
 Allows for a smaller vertical tail due to end
plate effect
 Horizontal tail is clear of wing wake and
propwash
 Allows for an aft-mounted engine
 Stylish!
blanketing/shadowing/deep stall/superstall

Cruciform Tail (Cross Tail)
Cruciform
Cruciform
 Compromise between conventional & T-tail

 Less weight penalty compared to T-tail
 Undisturbed flow in lower part of rudder at
high angles of attack
 No endplate effect

Aft Tail Positioning

A10 Warthog as featured in Transformers
Antonov AN 225
Antonov AN 225
Antonov AN 225
H-Tail
 Undistrubed flow in vertical tails at high

angles of attack
 May enhance engine out control in
multiengine aircraft with the rudders
positioned in the propwash
 Endplate effect on the horizontal tail;
reduced size possible
H-Tail
 Heavier than conventional
 Hides hot exhaust from heat seeking

missiles (as in the A-10 Warthog)
 Allows for smaller/shorter vertical tail (area is

distributed between the two vertical tails
Triple Tail
V-Tail (Butterfly)
V-Tail
V-Tail (Butterfly)
 May allow for a reduced wetted area
 Reduced interference drag
 Control/Actuation complexity
 Adverse roll-yaw coupling
 Surfaces are out of the wing wake
Ruddervators

Adverse Roll-Yaw Coupling
 Aircraft yaws right with tendency to roll left (counter-clockwise)

Inverted V-Tail
 Proverse Roll-Yaw Coupling
 Reduced spiralling tendencies
 Ground clearance problems

parasol wing, inverted v-tail pusher
inverted V with dedicated rudder
Y-Tail
 Avoids complexity of ruddervators
 V surfaces provide pitch control only
 Rudder in third surface

Inverted Y-Tail
Twin Tails
Twin Tails
 Avoids blanketing of the rudders due to wing
and forward fuselage at high angles of
attack.
 Reduces height; area is distributed between
the two vertical tails.
 Usually heavier than a single centerline-
mounted vertical tail.
Boom-Mounted Tails
twin boom pusher (jet) H-tail, low horizontal stabilizer
twin boom pusher H-tail, low horizontal stabilizer
twin boom pusher H-tail, low horizontal stabilizer
twin boom tractor, high horizontal stabilizer
twin boom pusher, inverted V horizontal stabilizer
twin boom tractor, inverted V horizontal stabilizer
Boom-Mounted Tails
 Allows for a pusher propeller configuration
 Tailbooms are typically heavier than a

conventional fuselage construction
 May be connected or not; high-, mid-, or low-

mounted horizontal tail, which can have a V
configuration.
Ring Tail
Ring Tail
Ring Tail
 Doubles as a propeller shroud.
 Conceptually appealing, however proven

inadequate in application.

All-Moving Tail
Wing-Tail
Configurations
Control Canard

Control Canard
 Negligible contribution to lift
 Used to control angle of attack of wing
 Used to balance pitching moments due to

flaps

Lifting Canard

Lifting Canard
 Contributes to lift; higher aspect ratio for
reduced induced drag; greater camber for
increased lift
 Theoretically more efficient than an aft-tailed
aircraft; wing lift reduced - smaller wing; in
aft-tailed aircraft, tail produces negative lift
for stability - wing must produce more lift -
bigger wing.
Lifting Canard
 Pushes wing aft; bigger pitching moments
due to flaps
 Canard is closer to CG; less effective pitch

control; surface must be increased; resulting
in more trim drag
 Pitch up tendencies are avoided

Tandem Wing

Tandem Wing
 Extension of the lifting canard concept
 50% theoretical reduction in induced drag
because lift is distributed between the two
wings
 Aft wing experiences downwash and
turbulence caused by the forward wing
 Wings must be separated (horizontally and
vertically) as far as possible
Three Surface

Three Surface
 Theoretically offers minimum trim drag
 Additional weight; more interference drag;

complexity

Engine Disposition
Mounting
 Wing-mounted
 Fuselage-mounted
 Empennage-mounted
 Any combination of the above

Powerplant Disposition Considerations
 Effect of power changes or power failures on

stability and control: longitudinal, lateral and
directional. The vertical and/or lateral
location of the thrustline(s) are critically
important in this respect.
 Drag of the proposed installation

 Weight and balance consequences of the

proposed installation
 Inlet requirements and resulting effect on
'installed' power and efficiency
 Accessibility and maintainability
 Acceptable FOD characteristics

 Geometric clearance when static on the
ramp: no nacelle or propeller tip may touch
the ground with deflated landing gear struts
and tires
 Geometric clearance during take-off rotation:
no scraping of nacelles or of propeller tips is
allowed with deflated landing gear struts and
tires
 Geometric clearance during a low speed
approach with a 5 degrees bank angle
 No gun exhaust gasses may enter the inlet of

a jet engine. Such gun exhaust gasses are
highly corrosive to the fan, compressor and
turbine blades.

Wing-Mounted
Wing-Mounted
Wing-Mounted (above wing)
Fuselage-Mounted
Fuselage-Mounted
Tail-Mounted (single)
Tail-Mounted
Tail-Mounted (x4)
Ilyushin IL-62
Tail-Mounted (x3)
testbed
testbed
Tractor VS Pusher

Tractor VS Pusher
 Tractor - the propeller or inlet plane is
forward of the CG; tend to be destabilizing
with respect to static longitudinal and
directional stability
 Pusher - the propeller or the inlet plane is

located behind the CG; tend to be stabilizing;
may save empennage area
Tractor
 The heavy engine is at the front, which helps
to move the center of gravity forward and
therefore allows a smaller tail for stability
considerations.
 The propeller is working in an undisturbed
free stream.
 There is a more effective flow of cooling air
for the engine.
Tractor
 The propeller slipstream disturbs the quality
of the airflow over the fuselage and wing
root.
 The increased velocity and flow turbulence

over the fuselage due to the propeller
slipstream increase the local skin friction on
the fuselage.
Pusher
 Higher-quality (clean) airflow prevails over
the wing and fuselage.
 The inflow to the rear propeller induces a
favorable pressure gradient at the rear of the
fuselage, allowing the fuselage to close at a
steeper angle without flow separation. This in
turn allows a shorter fuselage, hence smaller
wetted surface area.
Pusher
 Engine noise in the cabin area is reduced.
 The pilot's front field of view is improved.

Pusher
 The heavy engine is at the back, which shifts
the center of gravity rearward, hence
reducing longitudinal stability.
 Propeller is more likely to be damaged by

flying debris at landing.
 Engine cooling problems are more severe.

Landing Gear
Design Considerations
Landing Gear Configurations

Single Main
 Employed by many sailplanes for its
simplicity

Bicycle
 Flat attitude take-off and landing; aircraft
must have high lift at low AOA (high AR with
large camber and/or flaps)
 Used by aircraft with narrow fuselage and

wide wing span (e.g. B-47, U2)

Bicycle
 CG should be aft of the midpoint of the 2
wheels

Boeing B-47E Stratojet
Conventional or Taildragger
 More propeller ground clearance
 Less drag and weight
 Easier lift production due to attitude, hence
initial AOA
 Inherently unstable (ground looping)
 Limited ground visibility from cockpit
 Inconvenient floor attitude
Conventional or Taildragger

Longitudinal Tip-Over Criterion

ground looping
Tricycle
 Stable on the ground; can be landed with a
large crab angle (nose not aligned with
runway)
 Improved forward ground visibility
 Flat cabin floor for passenger and cargo

loading
Longitudinal Tip-Over Criterion

Lateral Tip-Over Criterion

Longitudinal Ground Clearance Criterion

Lateral Ground Clearance Criterion

crabbed
landing
landing gear fairings
Quadricycle
 Flat take-off and landing attitude
 Permits a very low cargo floor

Multi-Boogey
 For extra heavy aircraft (200-400 kips)
 Redundancy for safety

De HavillandTwin Otter
twin otter
win otter
Convair Sea Dart
Regulations
Pertinent regulations
that have bearing on aircraft design
FAR Part 23 Airplane Categories
Normal - limited to airplanes that have a seating
configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less,
a maximum certificated take-off of 12,500 pounds
or less, and intended for non-acrobatic operation.
Non-acrobatic operation includes:
(1) Any maneuver incident to normal flying;
(2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
(3) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, in which the angle
of bank is not more than 60 degrees.
Utility - limited to airplanes that have a seating
configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less,
a maximum certificated take-off weight of 12,500
pounds or less, and intended for limited acrobatic
operation.
Airplanes certificated in the utility category may be
used in any of the operations covered under the
normal category and in limited acrobatic operations.
Limited acrobatic operation includes:
(1) Spins (if approved for the particular type of

airplane); and
(2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, or

similar maneuvers, in which the angle of bank is
more than 60º but not more than 90º.
Acrobatic - limited to airplanes that have a

seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of
nine or less, a maximum certificated take-off
weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended for
use without restrictions, other than those shown
to be necessary as a result of required flight tests.

Commuter - limited to propeller-driven, multiengine
airplanes that have a seating configuration,
excluding pilot seats, of 19 or less, and a maximum
certificated take-off weight of 19,000 pounds or
less. The commuter category operation is limited to
any maneuver incident to normal flying, stalls
(except whip stalls), and steep turns, in which the
angle of bank is not more than 60º.
Except for commuter category, airplanes may be

type certificated in more than one category if the
requirements of each requested category are
met.

Limit Maneuvering Load Factor (Part 23)
The positive limit maneuvering load factor n may not
be less than
24,000
n  2.1 
W  10,000
for normal and commuter category airplanes, where
W = design maximum take-off weight, except that n
need not be more than 3.8; 4.4 for utility category
airplanes; or 6.0 for acrobatic category airplanes.
The negative limit maneuvering load factor may
not be less than:
(1) 0.4 times the positive load factor for the

normal, utility, and commuter categories; or
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor for the

acrobatic category.

Maneuvering load factors lower than those

specified in the preceding slides may be used if the
airplane has design features that make it
impossible to exceed these values in flight.

Limit Maneuvering Load Factor

The positive limit maneuvering load factor n for any
speed up to VD may not be less than
24,000
n  2.1 
W  10,000
where W = design maximum take-off weight,
except that n may not be less than 2.5 and need
not be more than 3.8.
The negative limit maneuvering load factor
a) May not be less than -1.0 at speeds up to VC; and
b) Must vary linearly with speed from the value at VC to

zero at VD.
c) Maneuvering load factors lower than those specified

above may be used if the airplane has design features
that make it impossible to exceed these values in flight.
Design Airspeeds, KEAS (FAR 23.335)
Design cruising speed, VC
For normal, utility, and commuter category airplanes,
VC  33 W / S
For acrobatic category airplanes,
VC  36 W / S
Where W/S is the wing loading at the design maximum
take-off weight.
For W/S  20
VC  k W / S
where k must vary linearly
from 33 at W/S  20, to 28.6 at W/S  100

 VC need not be more than 0.9VH at sea level.
 At altitudes where an MD is established, a

cruising speed MC limited by compressibility
may be selected.

Design dive speed, VD
VD  1.25VC
Using the required minimum design cruising speed VC min ,
VD  1.4VC min (normal, commuter)
VD  1.50VC min (utility)
VD  1.55VC min (acrobatic)
For W/S  20
the multiplying factor must vary linearly
from 1.40, 1.50 or 1.55 at W/S  20, to 1.35 at W/S  100

 Compliance with requirements in the

preceding slide need not be shown for
reasons specified in FAR Part 23.335(b4).

Design maneuvering speed, VA
VA  VS n
 VS is a computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the
design weight, normally based on the maximum airplane
normal force coefficients, CAN
 n is the limit maneuvering load factor used in design
 The value of VA need not exceed the value of VC used in

design.
Design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB
 VB may not be less than the speed determined by the

intersection of the line representing the maximum positive
lift, CN MAX, and the line representing the rough air gust
velocity on the gust V-n diagram, or , VS ng whichever 1
is less

Design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB
VB  VS1 ng
 ng is the positive airplane gust load factor due to gust, at
speed VC and at the particular weight under consideration
 VS1 is the stalling speed with the flaps retracted at the

particular weight under consideration.
 VB need not be greater than VC

V-n Diagram aka Flight Envelope (FAR 23.333)

V-n Diagram without gust effect
1
L
 V2 SCL
n  2
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W
S
VC VD
VB VA

Gust V-n Diagram

Gust V-n Diagram

Load factor increment due to gust
When an aircraft in level equilibrium flight encounters
a gust, its load factor of 1 is incremented.

Vg
V' tan    
Vg V

Vg
C L  C L   C L
V
V
(1 / 2) V SCL Vg
2
L  qSC L n  1  n  1 
WV
L qSCL (Vg / V ) VSCL Vg
n   n  1
W W 2W

VSCL Vg k gU deVa
n  1 n  1
2W 498(W / S )
C L is the same as a - airplane lift curve slope

Vg , the gust velocity, is the same as U de , or rather Vg  k gU de
More about the slope a
 a is the slope of the airplane normal force coefficient

curve CNA per radian if the gust loads are applied to the
wings and horizontal tail surfaces simultaneously by a
rational method.
 The wing lift curve slope CL per radian may be used when
the gust load is applied to the wings only and the
horizontal tail gust loads are treated as a separate
condition.
CL vs CN
CL CN

k gU deVa
How does our result compare with n  1
498(W / S )
VSCL Vg Vak gU de
n  1 n  1
2W 2(W / S )
Let   0.002378 slug/ft 3
Let V have units of knots (1knot  1.68781 ft/s)
(0.002378)V (1.68781)ak gU de k gU deVa

n  1  1
2(W / S ) 498(W / S )

k gU deVa
n  1
498(W / S )
Note that because we used sea level density, V is

now equivalent airspeed (knots), that is KEAS.
Wing loading (W/S) should be in lb/ft2

Lift curve slope, a, should be per radian
Ude, the derived gust velocity should be in ft/s
The fact that a gust is usually not sharp-edged is
accounted for by the so-called gust alleviation factor,
kg.
0.88 g
kg 
5.3   g
2(W / S ) 2m
g  
cag caS
Where μg is the airplane mass ratio, c is the mean
aerodynamic chord (ft), m is the air mass (kg), and g
is the gravitational acceleration (ft/s2).
The following gust shape is assumed (as per FAR)
U de 2s
U (1  cos )
2 25c
where s is the distance in feet penetrated into the

gust, and c is the mean aerodynamic chord, also in
feet.
Also, gust load factor is assumed to vary linearly
from VC to VD.
About the derived gust velocity, as per FAR 23.333,
 50 ft/s at VC (sea level to 20,000 ft)

 50 to 25 ft/s at VC (20,000 to 50,000 ft)
 25 ft/s at VD (sea level to 20,000 ft)
 25 to 12.5 ft/s at VD (20,000 t0 50,000 ft)
 Rough air gust of 66 ft/s at VB (sea level to 20,000 ft)
(commuter aircraft) and,
 66 to 38 ft/s at VB (20,000 to 50,000 ft)
k gU deVa
n  1  1  constant x V
1 498(W / S )

Combined V-n Diagram / Flight Envelope

Types of Airspeeds
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument,

uncorrected for instrument or system errors.
Above is FAA definition. With JAR, IAS is considered to include instrument error correction.

Types of Airspeeds
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving

through the air, which is found by correcting IAS for
instrument and position errors.
Also called RAS, Rectified Airspeed

Types of Airspeeds
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside

the pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard
atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure
altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it
should be, and a correction for compression must be
subtracted from the CAS.

Types of Airspeeds
True Airspeed (TAS)
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and

temperature. TAS and CAS are the same in standard
atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard
conditions, TAS is found by applying a correction for
pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.

Types of Airspeeds
Ground Speed (GS)
GS or G/S is the rate at which the aircraft travels

over the ground and is equal to TAS +/- the along-
track wind component.

Take-Off Speeds (V-Speeds)
Vstall Vmcg Vmca V1 VR Vmu VLO
sg sa

Stalling Speed
 VS0 - flaps-down stall speed (minimum steady-flight
speed), KCAS
 VS1 - flaps-up stall speed (minimum steady-flight

speed), KCAS
VS0  61 knots
See FAR 23.49 for details.

Stalling Speed

Minimum Control Speed on the Ground, VMCG
 VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground,
and is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run
at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
airplane using the rudder control alone (without the
use of nosewheel steering), as limited by 150 pounds
of force, and using the lateral control to the extent of
keeping the wings level to enable the take-off to be
safely continued. -FAR 23.149(f)
 In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the
path of the airplane accelerating with all engines
operating is along the centerline of the runway, its
path from the point at which the critical engine is
made inoperative to the point at which recovery to
a direction parallel to the centerline is completed
may not deviate more than 30 feet laterally from the
centerline at any point. -FAR 23.149(f)
 The minimum speed at which the aircraft will remain
controllable, in the event of an engine failure on
ground
 Rudder must be able to counteract asymmetrical
thrust
 "Controllable" means at most 30 ft lateral excursion
(without use of nose wheel steering)
 If failure occurs before VMCG, take-off must be aborted
 FAR 25.107
Minimum Control Speed, VMC
 VMC is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the

critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of the airplane with that
engine still inoperative, and thereafter maintain
straight flight at the same speed with an angle of
bank of not more than 5 degrees. -FAR 23.149(a)

Minimum Control Speed in the Air, VMCA
 VMCA is the minimum speed at which the aircraft will
remain controllable, in the event of an engine failure
in the air.
 Rudder must be able to counteract asymmetrical
thrust
 "Controlable" means constant heading with level
wings can be maintained at full rudder.
 Bank angle reduces required minimum control speed.
Compliance must be shown at 5 degrees bank angle.
 FAR 25.107
Take-Off Decision Speed, V1
 The take-off decision speed, V1, is the calibrated

airspeed on the ground at which, as a result of
engine failure or other reasons, the pilot is
assumed to have made a decision to continue or
discontinue the take-off.
 See FAR 23.51(c) for details.

Take-Off Decision Speed, V1
 The speed at which the pilot can successfully continue
the take-off even though an engine failure (in a
mulitengine aircraft) would occur at that point. This
speed must be equal to or larger than VMCG in order to
maintain control of the airplane.
 A more descriptive name for V1 is the critical engine

failure speed. If an engine fails before V1 is achieved,
the take-off must be stopped. If an engine fails after V1
is reached, the take-off can still be achieved.
Rotation Speed, VR
 For normal, utility, and acrobatic category

airplanes, rotation speed, VR, is the speed at
which the pilot makes a control input, with the
intention of lifting the airplane out of contact with
the runway or water surface.
 See FAR 23.51(a) for details.

Rotation Speed, VR
 Lift-Off does not happen at rotation because lift is
not yet greater than the weight
 Lift has to be increased by increasing angle of
attack further.
 But maximum angle of attack is limited by tail
ground clearance and stall.
 Lift must be increased by increasing velocity
further.
VR  1.05VMC or 1.10VS1 see FAR 23.51(a)
Minimum Unstick Speed, VMU
 If the angle of attack is increased such that tail

ground clearance is pushed to the limit, and the
aircraft lifts-off, the velocity at that point is called
VMU.
 VMU > VR

Lift-Off Speed, VLOF
 Tail ground clearance is really not pushed to the

limit, thus the aircraft has to accelerate further to
increase lift.
 The velocity at the exact point the aircraft lifts-off

the ground is called VLOF.

Never-Exceed Speed, VNE
 FAR 23.1505(a)
 The never-exceed speed VNE must be established
so that it is --
 (1) Not less than 0.9 times the minimum value of
VD allowed under Sec. 23.335; and
 (2) Not more than the lesser of --
 (i) 0.9 VD established under Sec. 23.335; or
 (ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed shown under
Sec. 23.251.
Maximum Structural Cruising Speed, VNO
 FAR 23.1505(b)
 The maximum structural cruising speed VNO must
be established so that it is:
 (1) Not less than the minimum value of VC allowed
under Sec. 23.335; and
 (2) Not more than the lesser of:
 (i) VC established under Sec. 23.335; or
 (ii) 0.89 VNE established under paragraph (a) of
this section.
Flap Extended Speed, VFE
 FAR 23.1511
 The flap extended speed VFE must be established
so that it is--
 [(1) Not less than the minimum value of VF allowed
in Sec. 23.345(b); and
 (2) Not more than VF established under Sec.
23.345(a), (c), and (d).]
 See FAR 23.1511 for details

Wakas!

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Aircraft Design

Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

parameters describing the aircraft

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

John D. Anderson, Jr. Aircraft Performance and Design

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

There's no perfect airplane, only the best compromise.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Daniel Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Ch.4. p. 60

Daniel Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Ch.4. p. 60

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Daniel Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Ch.4. p. 60

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

 Restricted visibility towards the rear

 Obscures pilot vision in a turn

 Blocks upward visibility in a climb

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

 To a degree, has the ground clearance

 Superior aerobatic maneuverability due to

 Carry-through structure will limit space for a

 Allows for a shorter landing gear strut which

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

 Ground clearance problems may be

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch. 4. p.174

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Di ,biplane  Di ,lower wing  Di ,upper wing

Stagger the longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to each

Decalage relative incidence between the two wings (positive,

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

 Strutted wings are lighter

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.183

 For a short field length, a large wing / low

small should be big

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.169

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.169

Low Aspect Ratio

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

Daniel Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Ch.4. p. 50

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.177

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design. Part III. Ch.4. p.183

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design, PART III. Ch. 4. p.188

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design, PART III. Ch. 4. p.188

Jan Roskam. Airplane Design, PART III. Ch. 4. p.188

 Delays drag divergence effects

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

John Anderson, Jr. Introduction to Flight, 5th Ed. Ch.5. p.294

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

John Anderson, Jr. Introduction to Flight, 5th Ed. Ch.5. p.330

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc

John Anderson, Jr. Introduction to Flight, 5th Ed. Ch.5. p.331

 Again, sweep delays drag divergence effects

AIRCRAFT DESIGN | AERO BOARD PREP 2018 | Lemuel F. Banal, MSc