RUAHIS402 ASSIGNMENT

History Assignment for 2020-21

Year

Semester 4

Subject Code RUAHIS402

Subject Title History of Ancient India (From Earliest Times to 1000A.D.)

Topic Pratihara Empire-Origins, Economic and Social life

Name/Class/Roll ➢ Siddharth Bagul/ SYBA-A/ 2108 / siddharthbagul29@gmail.com

no./Email ID
➢ Raj Jadhav/ SYBA-A / 2136 / rajj45211@gmail.com

➢ Vihaan Vadnere/ SYBA-B / 2376/ vihaanvadnere1@gmail.com

Date of Submission 23rd March 2021

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Sr no. INDEX Page Contribution

no.

1 Introduction 3-4 Raj Jadhav

2 Origins of Pratihara Empire 5-9 Raj Jadhav and
Theories Siddharth Bagul
Important Rulers

3 Economic Life During Pratihara Empire 10- Vihaan Vadnere

➢ Agriculture and Trade 14
➢ Currency and Coinage
➢ Administration
➢ Army

4 Social Life During Praitihara Empire 15- Siddharth Bagul

➢ Religion 18
➢ Art and Architecture

5 Conclusion 19 Vihaan Vadnere

6 Bibliography 20

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Introduction
The Gurjara-Pratiharas, or simply, the Pratiharas (8th
century CE - 11th century CE) held their sway over
western and northern India. This dynasty saw its fortunes
raising under Nagabhata I (730–760 CE) who successfully
defeated Arab invaders. Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja (c. 836-
885 CE) was the most well-known king of this dynasty.
The Pratiharas were known chiefly for their patronage of
art, sculpture and temple-building, and for their
continuous warfare with contemporary powers like the
Palas (8th century CE - 12th century CE) of eastern India
and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty (8th century CE - 10th
century CE) of southern India. The Pratiharas rose to fame
in the late 8th Century C.E after successfully resisiting
Arab invaders. The origin of the Gurjara-Pratihara
dynasty of India is a topic of debate among historians. The
rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara"
for their clan, but have been described as "Gurjara" by their neighbouring kingdoms. Only one
particular inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva mentions him as a "Gurjara-
Pratihara".
According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory originally ruled by the
Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that
Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this
tribe. Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are
disagreements over whether they were native Indians or a foreign tribe who had migrated to India
somewhere around 5th century. A related question is whether the modern Gurjars are representatives
of the ancient Gurjara tribe or not. The Gurjara-Pratiharas as well as the Pratiharas of Mandor used
the self-designation "Pratihara". They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is
described as the brother of king Rama in the Sanskrit epic Ramayana. The 837 CE Jodhpur
inscription of the Mandor Pratihara ruler Bakuka states that the younger brother of Ramabhadra
(Rama) served as a pratihari (door keeper) to his elder brother, because of which his descendants
came to be known as Pratihara. The Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of the Gurjara-Pratihara king
Mihira Bhoja says that Saumitri ("son of Sumitra", that is, Lakshmana) acted as a door-keeper for his
elder brother as he defeated the enemies in a battle with Meghanada. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri theorized
that the ancestors of the Pratiharas served the Rashtrakutas, and the term "Pratihara" derives from the
title of their office in the Rashtrakuta court.
Identity of the Pratiharas: Gurjara: Tribe vs Country
The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" in the Rajor inscription of Mathanadeva has been variously interpreted
as "Pratihara clan of the Gurjara tribe" and "Pratihara of the Gurjara country". It contains a phrase:
"all the fields cultivated by the Gurjaras". Scholars such as Rama Shankar Tripathi believe that this
phrase makes it clear that the term "Gurjaras" here refers to a tribe or a group of people, rather than a
region. Tripathi further argues that in Pampa's description of Mahipala as a Gurjara king can only
refer to Mahipala's ethnicity, and not territory, since the Pratiharas ruled a much larger area of which
Gurjara country was only a small part. Burjor Avari, a historian of South Asia, believes that the

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Gurjara and Pratihara were two clans among a larger tribal grouping in Rajasthan and that some
elements of that larger federation later became known as Rajputs.
Critics of this theory, such as D. C. Ganguly, argue that the term "Gurjara" is used as a demonym in
the phrase "cultivated by the Gurjaras". In his support, Ganguly cited a verse from Bana's
Kadambari, which uses the term "Malavi" ("women of Malva") to describe the women of Ujjain,
which was located in the Malva region. K. M. Munshi similarly argued that the people residing in the
Gurjaradesa (Gurjara country), whenever they migrated to other parts of the country, were known as
Gurjaras. V. B. Mishra similarly argues that the expression Gurjara Pratihārānvayah may very
reasonably be taken to mean the Pratihara family of the Gurjara country. Ganguly further points out
that several ancient sources clearly mention "Gurjara" as the name of a country or lists it among
territories. These sources, according to him, include the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, the
Ragholi plates, and the Al Baladhuri's chronicle of Al Junayd's expeditions (723-726 CE). Several
other ancient sources mention Gurjara as the name of a country. The Gurjara country is mentioned in
Bana's Harshacharita (7th century CE). It is described in detail as a beautiful country in Udyotana
Suri's Kuvalayamala (8th century CE, composed in Jalore), whose residents are also referred to as
Gurjaras. Xuanzang also names Gurjara (Ku-che-lo) as a country with its capital at Bhinmal (Pi-lo-
mo-lo). The fourth book of Panchatantra contains the story of a rathakāra (charioteer) who went to a
Gurjara village in the Gurjara country in search of camels. A 795 CE inscription of Gallaka states
that Nagabhata I, the founder of the Imperial Pratihara dynasty, conquered the "invincible Gurjaras".
According to historian Shanta Rani Sharma, this makes it unlikely that the Pratiharas were
themselves Gurjaras.

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Origin of the Pratiharas –

Theories
Foreign Origin Theory: A. M. T. Jackson first proposed a foreign origin of the Gurjaras. This view
was later endorsed by other historians, including Indian scholars such as D. R. Bhandarkar.
Proponents of this theory point out that:
➢ The Gurjara-Pratiharas suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around 6th
century CE, shortly after the Huna invasion of that region. They are not mentioned in earlier
Indian literature.
➢ The word Gurjar has an ending similar to the word "Khazar" (the name of an ancient Turkic
group of Central Asia and Caucasus). The ancient Gurjaras might have been Khazars who
invaded India as part of a Huna confederacy. Jackson argued that the ancient records do not
mention them while describing the Hunas, because they might have been a subordinate to the
Hunas. A related hypothesis is that the Gurjaras were a distinct Central Asian tribe who
arrived in India soon after the Huna invasion, following the decline of the Gupta Empire.
➢ Bana names Hunas and Gurjaras together in a verse, among rivals subjugated by the king
Prabhakaravardhana.
Another argument in favour of the foreign origin theory is the prevalence of seemingly non-Indo-
Aryan names among the Pratiharas of Mandavyapura. This is the earliest known Pratihara dynasty,
and according to some scholars such as R. C. Majumdar, the Gurajara-Pratiharas may have branched
from this dynasty. Its earliest known member Harichandra was also known as "Rohilladhi"; another
ruler Narabhatta had a second name "Pellapelli".
According to the Agnivansha legend given in the later manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso, the Pratiharas
and three other Rajput dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu.
Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties.
According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the Hindu caste system after performing a
fire ritual. However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of Prithviraj Raso. The
legend was probably invented by the 10th century Paramara court-poet Padmagupta, whose Nava-
sahasanka-charita uses it to describe the origin of the Paramaras. The 16th century Rajput bards
probably extended this legend to include other dynasties including the Pratiharas, to foster Rajput
unity against the Mughal emperor Akbar.
Indigenous Homeland Theory: Critics of the foreign origin theory, such as Baij Nath Puri, argue
that:
➢ The word "Gujjar" or "Gurjar" is a modern derivative of "Gurjara" (resulting from schwa-
deletion). The ancient Sanskrit term was "Gurjara", which does not have same ending as
"Khazar". Since -jara and -zar cannot be considered as similar endings, the Khazar origin
theory is invalid.
➢ The rise of Gurjaras after Huna invasion does not itself suggest a foreign origin for the
Gurjaras. The Mahabharata mentions the Hunas (in Bhishma Parva) as well as several other
foreign tribes, but does not mention the Gurjaras or the Khazars. At the same time, the
absence of Gurjaras in earlier literature does not prove their foreign origin. They might have
been an obscure group, who came to power only after the fall of the Gupta Empire.

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➢ It seems unlikely that a tribe occupying a position subordinate to the Hunas (as suggested by
Jackson) could establish several important kingdoms. For example, Xuanzang's writings
suggest that Kiu-che-lo (Gurjara) was a sovereign kingdom ruled by a Kshatriya. It does not
name any Huna overlord of this kingdom.
➢ The 899 CE (956 VS) Una inscription states that the Gurjara-Pratihara feudatory Balavarman
had "freed the earth from the Huna race" through his battle victories. This again suggests that
the Gurjaras were not considered subordinate to the Hunas.
➢ Bana makes a clear distinction between the Hunas and the Gurjaras, and describes several
other kingdoms in the same sentence (such as Malava and Lata). His writings do not prove
that these two groups were related in any way.
➢ The theory about the Gurjaras being an independent Central Asian tribe is pure conjecture, as
there is no historical evidence of their clash with any Indian power. Moreover, they would
have invaded India through the north-west: it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle
in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain.
The supporters of the native origin theory argue that the Gurjaras were well-assimilated in the Indo-
Aryan society, unlike the well-known foreign tribes. For example, historical records mention Gurjara
Brahmins; such a high varna status was not accorded to foreigners. There is no record of a Brahmin
from Huna, Shaka or Yavana groups. But the 1250 CE Tasgaon inscription of the Yadava king
Krishna mentions a Gurjara Brahmin from north India. The Pratiharas worshipped the native gods
Shiva and Vishnu, and also patronized Jainism. For example, the Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of
Mihira Bhoja begins with a salutation to Vishnu. The Gwalior inscription specifically describes the
Pratihara king Vatsaraja as a Kshatriya from the Ikshvaku dynasty. The Pratihara court-poet
Mahendrapala also supports this claim by describing him as a descendant of Raghu in Viddhasala-
Bhanjika and Bala-bharata.
Pratihara Dynasty and It’s Important Rulers
The Gurjara Pratiharas were one of the most powerful dynasties of early medieval India. They
occupied western India, an area frequented by Arab travelers. The Gurjara Pratihara dominion was
known as Al‐Jurz to the Arabs, who regarded them as one of the three most powerful Indian ruling
dynasties, the other two being the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. All these powers came to be engaged
in a conflict known as the “tripartite struggle” for the possession of the city of Kanauj in the Ganga‐
Jamuna doab, the region between these two important rivers in northern India. In this conflict the
Pratiharas ultimately emerged as the most successful, establishing their authority over the city and
the area. The Pratiharas ruled over Kanauj for a longtime are also called GurjaraPratiharas. Most
scholars consider that they originated from the Gurjaras who were pastoralists and fighters, like the
Jats. The Pratiharas established a series of principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan. Epigraphic
helps us to trace the origin of the Pratiharas . Pratiharas were descendants of Lakshamana of the solar
race of the great epic, the Ramayana. Some scholars opine that they were a branch of the Gurjara
race. They are mentioned in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II, the records of Hieun Tsang and
the Hashacharita of Bana. It is known from the Rashtrakuta record that the Pratiaharas belonged to
the Gurjara stock. It is also held by some scholars that the Gurjras were central Asiatic nomads who
accompanied the Hunas into India. Some others are of the opinion that the Gurjaras were of
indigenous origin. Another opinion is that the Pratiharas were a tribe of the land called Gurjaradesa.
The expression Gurjara-Pratihara family of the Gurjara country was possessed by the Pratiharas
since the time of Vatsaraja. The Gurjaras came into prominence about the second half of the 6th
century C.E. They took advantage of the downfall of the Gupta Empire to establish their political

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authority. The Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I in the region of Malwa in the
eighth century C.E. He belonged to a Rajput clan.
Nagabhatta I: Pratihara dynasty gained importance during the reign of Nagabhatta I, who ruled
between 730-756 C.E. He was successful against the Arabs. The Pratiharas who first had their capital
at Bhinmal gained prominence under Nagabhatta I who offered stout resistance to the Arab rulers of
Sind who were trying to encroach on Rajasthan, Gujarat, the Punjab, etc. The Arabs made a big
thrust towards Gujarat but were decisively defeated by the Chalukyan ruler of Gujarat in 738. The
efforts of the early Pratihara rulers to extend their control over the upper Ganga valley and Malwa
were defeated by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III.He established an empire extending
from Gujarat to Gwalior and defied the Arab invasions towards further east of Sindh. He fought
against Dantidurga the Rashtrakuta ruler as well and was defeated. Conversely the success of
Dantidurga was short-term and Nagabhatta left for his successors a far-reaching empire which
included Gujarat, Malwa and parts of Rajputana. Nagabhatta I was succeeded by his brother's sons,
Kakkuka and Devaraja.
Vatsaraja: Devaraja was succeeded by his son Vatsaraja who proved to be an influential ruler. He
ruled from C.E 775 to 805. Vatsaraja extended his rule over to a large part of North India and made
Kannauj in western Uttara Pradesh his capital. Vatsaraja‘s policy of expansion brought him in
conflict with Dharamapala, the Pala King of Bengal and Bihar. He succeeded in defeating
Dharmapala in the Doab region and vanquished Northern India including the Ganga Yamuna valley.
Dhurva defeated him later on and captured Kannauj. Soon, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva from south
India jumped into the fight. And thus began what is known as Tripartite Struggle‘ i.e struggle among
three powers. It continued for about the next hundred and fifty years under various succeeding kings
with ups and downs. The Gurjara-Pratiharas, however, could continue to maintain their hold over
Kannauj till the last.’
Nagabhata II: Vatsraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II. Nagabhatta II who succeeded Vatsaraja
revived the lost prestige of the empire by conquering Sindh, Andhra, Vidarbha. After the defeat of
Vatsaraja by Dhruva the Pratihara empire was limited only to Rajputana. Nagabhatta II revived the
policy of conquest and extension of the empire. He defeated the rulers of Andhra, Saindhava,
Vidarbha and Kalinga. He subdued Matsayas in the North, Vatsas in the East and Turuskka
(Muslims) in the West. Dharmapala had defeated Indrayudh and made Chakrayudh, his brother, the
ruler of Kannauj. Nagabhatta attacked Kannauj and after defeating Chakrayudha occupied it. He also
succeeded in defeating Dharmapala and entered into his territories as far as Munger in Bihar. But he
could not enjoy his success for long. Nagabhata II was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler
Govinda III, but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas. He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at
Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh. Kannauj became the
center of the Gurjar Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their
power. Rambhadra, the son and successor of Nagabhatta II proved incapable and lost some of his
territories, probably, to Pala ruler, Devapal.
Mihirbhoj: Nagabhata II was succeeded by his son Mihirbhoj who proved to be an ambitious ruler.
Mihirabhoja started to expand the empire from 836 C.E. A magnificent chapter of the history of the
Pratiharas begins with the accession of Mihirabhoja. He conquered a vast area. Varaha, Daulatpur
and Kahala inscriptions specify that he had brought Rajputana and several other provinces under his
control. It can also be stated that king Kakkata of Mandsor branch of the Pratiharas who was the
samanta of Nagabhata again became the ruler of this region. Kakkata had fought against the Gaudas

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in Mudoggiri. Bahuka was his son who had killed Nandabala and Mayra and had defeated the kings
of nine Mandals. Bahuka had also become independent but Mihirabhoja again brought him under his
control. Pratapgarh inscription mentions the following words. It also confirms the control of
Mihirbhoja over the southern portion of Rajputana. Chatasu inscription of Jaipur also let the reader
know that Mihirbhoja had compelled Harsha Gupta, who had defeated the gauda King, to accept his
sovereignty. Harsha Guhila had presented many horses to Mihirabhoja. 'Rajatarangini' of Kalahana
and Pahewa inscription indicate that Karnal region of the eastern Punjab was under the control of
Mihirabhoja. However, it is stated that when Mihirabhoja was in the wars of eastern India, king
Sankarvarman of Kashmir had brought thisregion under his control. But even after that some portion
of the Karnal region remained under the control of Mihirabhoja. During the reign of Mihirabhoja,
Amoghavarsa and Krishna II were the Rashtrakuta kings who were ruling over Kannauj. These were
weak rulers and hence Mihirabhoja captured Kannauj and extended his empire up to river Narmada.
In the course of time, however, Dhruva II, the Gujarat samanta of Amonghvarsa defeated
Mihirabhoja in the battle and had driven him away. The war between Rashtrakutas and Bhoja
continued for several years and both tried to bring the province of Avanti under their control. Even
the last years of the reign of Mihirabhoja passed in these wars.
King Devapala of the Pala dynasty was a brave and powerful king during the reign of Mihirbhoja.
His inscriptions refer that he realized tributes and taxes from the Kings of the territories from
Himalaya to Vindyachal and from the eastern frontier to the western frontier of northern India.
Though these descriptions seem to be an exaggeration, yet the power of Devapela was so strong that
it appears that both Bhoja and Palas must have shared victories as well as defeats in their wars with
each other. The historian expresses different views with regard to the final victory. But according to
Gwalior prasasti, in the end, Bhoja has defeated the son of Devapala. Mihirabhoja had also
conquered many other provinces. He had attacked Karnal, western and southern Saurashtra etc. The
Arab travelling Suleman has praised his big army and his efficient administration. Mihirabhoja was
the most powerful ruler of the Pratihara dynasty. His empire extended from the Terai of Himalay to
Bundelkhanda and Kausambhi, to the frontier of Pala kingdom in the east, and Saurashtra in the
west. A large portion of Rajasthan was also under his control. Some of the coins of Mihirabhoja that
are found can be mentioned as alloyed silver which indicates that on account of constant wars his
economic condition had become bad. He was the worshipper of Vishnu and Shiva. It can be said that
Mihirbhoj made Kannauj his capital and succeeded in consolidating Pratihara power and influence in
Malwa, Rajputana and Madhyadesh. He had to face continuously defeats in the hands of Devapal,
King Dhruva and King Kokkalla. These consecutives trounce resulted in weakening his grasp over
Rajputana and even the feudatory Pratihara ruler of Jodhpur became independent. The death of
Devapal, ruler of Bengal and, thereafter, weakness of his successors gave Mihirbhoj an opportunity
to restore his strength towards the east and south due to the policies undertaken by Rashtrakuta ruler.
He conquered part of Western Kingdom by defeating the Pala king Narayanapala. Yet again he took
offensive against the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II and defeated him on the banks of the Narmada.
Subsequently he occupied Malwa and Kathiawar. He had an extensive empire which included
Kathiawar, territories up to the Punjab in the North-West, Malwa and Madhyadesh. He had
consolidated his power in Rajputana and the Kalachuris of Bihar and Chandelas of Bundelkhand had
accepted his sovereignty. He made conquests in Punjab, Oudh and other Northern territories.
Mihirbhoja was not only a great conqueror but also a great lover of art and literature. He was a great
patron of men and letters. Poet Rajasekhara adorned his court. Consequently, his reign was regarded
as the glorious period of Pratihara ascendency.

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Mahendrapala: Mahendrapala succeeded to the throne of his father, Mihirbhoja. He succeeded in

maintaining the empire of his father and also extended it further by annexing Magadha and parts of
Northern Bengal. He lost some parts to the Kings of Kashmir. It is believed that his empire extended
from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from the Eastern to the Western ocean. After death of
Mahendrapala, a war of succession took place which substantially weakened the power of the
dynasty. Mahendrapala was succeeded by his son Bhoja II but his cousin, Mahipala, shortly
dethroned him and became the ruler of Kannauj. During his period, the Rashtrakutas King, Indra III
defeated Mahipala of Kannauj. After Indra III retiring to the south, Mahipala again consolidated his
position. In the period in-between the Pala rulers captured some eastern parts of his empire and
occupied the forts of Kalinjar and Chitrakuta. His period marked the beginning of the decline of the
power of Pratiharas. Mahipala was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala II. He ruled only for a year.
Afterwards, we find no less than four successors during a period of fifteen years. Devapala,
Vinayakapala II, Mahipala II and Vijayapala ruled in succession over the throne of Kannauj but none
of them proved to be a capable ruler. That resulted the decline of the dynasty. Several feudatories of
the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjar Pratiharas during war of
succession and they declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of
Bundelkhand, and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal.
Important Facts On Gurjara Pratihara
➢ The Gurjara Pratihara, often simply called Pratihara Empire, was an imperial Indian dynasty
that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. Kannauj was the capital
of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas. The Gurjara Pratihara rulers in the tenth century was entitled
as Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta. The word "Pratihara" means protector or "who takes over
the enemy or opponent".
➢ Harichandra is said to have laid the foundation of this dynasty in the 6th century C.E. He
created a small kingdom at Bhinmal near about 550 C.E. after the fall of Gupta Empire.
Nagabhata I extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as
Gwalior and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa,
and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in Sind. Nagabhata
I was followed by two weak successors, who were in turn succeeded by Vatsraja (775-805
C.E). Vatsraja ambitions for capturing Kannauj, brought the Pratiharas into conflict with the
Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the northern Deccan, with whom they would
contest for primacy in northern India for the next two centuries.
➢ Vatsraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Danti durga the
Rashtrakuta king for control of Kannauj. Vatsraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II. Nagabhata
II was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III, but later recovered Malwa from
the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the
Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west.
➢ Bhoja I or Mihir Bhoja expanded the Gurjar dominions west to the border of Sind, east to
Bengal, and south to the Narmada. He was the greatest among the Pratihara rulers and was
also a great patron of art and letter.
➢ After Bhoja, many rulers such as Mahenderpal-I, Bhoja II, Mahipala-I, Rajapala,
Trilochanpala ruled as kings. Jasapala, was the last Gurjar ruler of Kanauj, died in 1036.
➢ The Pratihara Empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent, rivalled the Gupta
Empire and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern
India. The Pratihara successfully resisted the foreign invasions from the west, for a long time.

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Economic Life During Pratihara Empire

Economy in Pratihara Empire was mainly dependent on agricultural production. Thus, the major
source of government revenue at that time was the tax derived from the bulk of agricultural
production. The feudal levies due from subordinates to the Gurjara king were supplemented by
standing armies garrisoned on the frontiers. The use of money was strongly implied by such a
system. The maintenance of large permanent military forces required the regular disbursement of pay
or expenses in the form of ready cash. The forms of money needed to fulfil two conditions:
sufficiently high value units to be easily transportable from point of collection to point of
disbursement; yet sufficiently low value units to meet the modest salary or expenditure levels of
individual soldiers.
Agriculture and Trade:
Gurjara Pratiharas ruled over an empire which encompassed at one time or other parts of present-day
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa and the Ganga basin from Punjab to Bihar. The commercial enterprises of
the Gurjara Pratihara kingdom were considered to be both users of money on a regular basis and
source of revenue through taxes. Some historiographers have interpreted the period as one in which
commerce was moribund, with trade highly localised and dispersed to the village level, where barter
relationships replaced monetary exchanges. Historians have further used the term 'feudalism' to
describe the political, economic and social process of the Pratihara Empire. The period was
characterized by the decentralization of governmental authority, devolution of economic activity
from international to local scale, and de-urbanization. This interpretation is heavily reliant upon the
evidence of land-grants, a biased sample which encourages over-estimation of the strength or
prevalence of a trend. Moreover, regarding the economy and trade in Pratihara Empire, Arab
travellers of the ninth and tenth centuries described a number of trade goods originating in various
parts of the subcontinent, which moved to market by a variety of pack animals. Indeed, one of the
most consistently demanded trade item have been the horse itself. Historians have also confirmed
that an active exchange of products internal to Indian kingdoms, as well as between these states, and
outside, existed during the time of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. The Arab geographers have also
mentioned the types of coins used during that period.
Currency and Coinage:
Several archaeological factors confirm that there was a regular and well-used medium of exchange in
the Gurjara-Pratihara dominions during the ninth and tenth centuries. Inscriptional evidence confirms
this surmise. An epigraph from Bharatpur records the distribution of coins called drammas by King
Bhoja in AD 905-6. The Siyadoni inscription from Jhansi District recorded a number of donations by
individuals to temple deities from 902 to 967 AD. Two specific denominations of coins are notable,
the Vigrahapala Dramma and the Adivardha Dramma. There seems to have been no gold coinage in
the Gurjara- Pratihara dominions. The smallest purchases were made not with copper and this was
the major medium of exchange during that period.
They display several stages of evolution and reveal that they were issued over a long period, possibly
50 to 100 years. Inscriptional evidences support the existence of a well-regulated currency during the
Pratihara rule. The coins of Pratihara Empire enjoyed extraordinary longevity in circulation. This
longevity made them an important currency of the succeeding Rajput period. The Gurjara
government had a stable currency system dependent on the agricultural revenue system and the
military department, matched by the concurrent needs of both local and export traders for a medium

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of exchange. The monetary system was rational and there was a standard coinage metrology during
the life of the kingdom. However, there is no practical way of estimating the absolute volume of
money in the Gurjara dominions.
Still, by comparing the rates of recapture in modern Uttar Pradesh versus those of earlier and later
periods, a sense of scale for the relative volume of money can be achieved. The survival rate for
coins belonging to AD 600-1000 period is appropriate for the lapsed time. Hence, it is concluded that
the volume of exchange transactions during this era was comparable to that of other periods in north
Indian history, and probably higher than that of the Gupta era. The distribution of the successive
Gurjara drammas shows that these coins did not circulate in the regions of Kathiawad-Malwa of
southern Rajasthan. Much of this region was administered by feudatory dynasties acknowledging
Gurjara-Pratihara supremacy. The variety of Indo-Sassanian style drammas, which were found in the
regions were different from the major currency of the Ganga basin. In Marwar, the coins were broad,
thin and generally closer in fabric to the Hun prototypes. The coins on average contained 0.65 g of
silver, an amount somewhat lower than the Vinayakapala Dramma. Although the Gurjaras controlled
the seaports of Gujarat, their dramma coinage from the Gangetic plains did not circulate in this area
where a high-value feudatory coinage was well established, and where foreign currencies were
encountered. Further, Gurjara coinage was not a unified fiduciary coinage.

In Gujarat, the feudatory silver coinage was also based on the Indo-Sassanian prototype, although the
coins were not as wide and thin as the Marwar coins. In this period, their minimum precious metal
content was 3.27 g, which was considerably in excess of the value of coins of Marwar or the Ganga
basin. Their stable silver content encouraged their use far beyond coastal Gujarat. This coinage
survived the passing of the issuing dynasty, as indeed the passing of the imperial money-forms of the
Pratiharas. Historians believe that after the Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India from the
central Asian region and settled in Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political importance. The bardic
tradition of Rajasthan claims that the Gurjara Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Parmaras, and Chahmanas were
born out of a yajna done at Mount Abu. Therefore, these four dynasties are also known as
agnikulas(fire-clans).
The four dynasties of Rajputs were created for the protection of the country from external
aggressions. The literary meaning of Pratihara is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed that their ancestor
Lakshmana served as a door keeper to his brother Rama. Therefore, they were called as Pratihara.
The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from Gurjara. The Gurjara-Pratiharas of
North India were one of the first four patrilineal clans of the caste group referred to as the Rajputs.

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Although their significance has largely been overlooked by historians and students of history, their
influence on art and culture and their political sway over the major part of North India from the 9th
to the 11th century cannot be ignored. One of the most debated subjects in relation to the Gurjara-
Pratiharas is their origin and identity, a topic that has, over the years, acquired racial, colonial and
nationalistic tinge. Study of the archaeological sources, however, reveal that the Gurjara-Pratiharas
probably rose from a varied background and not from the “sacrificial fire altar” as their court
historians claim and their contribution to art, especially temple art and architecture was a motif of
legitimation of power.
The emergence of temples in Indic religions was an outcome of the Indo-Greek rule, that was
established as a result of a series of invasions in the north west around 200 BCE. The first temple
structures archaeologically found in the subcontinent, thus, were Indo-Greek in nature, mostly
located in the area around Sindh (modern day-Pakistan) and it is likely that the concept of a place of
worship emerged from the Graeco-Persian influence. Around 300 CE, the concept of Panchayatna
Puja mandala appeared in the religious scenario, where a quincunx pattern of worship was employed
for the purpose of prayer in Hinduism. This pattern was subsequently adopted in Hindu Temple
architecture, with one of the first such specimens appearing in the temple architecture of the Gurjara-
Pratiharas around the 8th century. While investigating into the temple architecture of the dynasty
throuh the archaeological and literary evidence, the author found a definitive pattern and the possible
utilitarian motive of large-scale construction of these structures under the aegis of the Pratiharas.
This work is a result of the analysis of the available sources and attempts to explain how structures
supposedly built for religious purposes acted as a political tool for negotiating identity and wielding
power.
Administration:
In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire's (3rd century CE - 6th century CE) and
Harshavardhana's ideas and practices were retained. The king was supreme and was aided by a
variety of ministers and officials. Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and
were expected to be loyal, pay a fixed tribute to the king, conclude matrimonial alliances with the
royal family and supply troops when needed. Some areas were administered directly by the centre
and were divided into provinces (bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya). They were, respectively,
governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head (vishayapati), who were tasked with collecting
land revenue and maintaining law and order with the help of the army units stationed in their areas.
The village, as in earlier times, remained the basic unit of administration which was carried out by
the headman and other officials, all paid through land grants. However, many vassals always looked
forward to becoming independent and often fought against the king like the Paramaras and the
Chandellas of modern-day Bundelkhand region (lying in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh).

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Bateshwar Group of Temples, India

Despite incessant warfare, the Pratiharas managed to provide stability to their subjects and
patronized arts and literature. Al-Masudi says that Juzr had 18,000,000 villages, cities and towns and
was about 2000 km in length and 2000 km in breadth. The poet Rajashekhara was associated with
Mahendrapala and Mahipala and left behind many works of note. Many Hindu temples and buildings
were built, many of which survive even today. “Under the two centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule till
1019 AD, the city of Kanauj became one of the greatest centres of art, culture and commerce in the
Indian subcontinent” (Sircar, 13). The loss of Gujarat and the subsequent loss of overseas trade
particularly to western Asia affected economic conditions. Billon coins, or coins made from alloys
and a majority of base metal content, were issued in the Ganga valley.
Army:
The incessant warfare during the period indicates the importance of coercive power and military
might in the politics of the time” (Singh, 551). The Pratiharas, like all other kingdoms in the period,
maintained a core army supplemented by mercenaries, allied and feudatory troops.
The Pratiharas were well-known for their cavalry. Horses were imported from Central Asia and
Arabia and constituted an important item of Indian trade in this time period. According to al-Masudi,
the army had four divisions of 7 million to 9 million each. The northern army was deployed against
the Muslims, the southern army against the Rashtrakutas and the eastern against the Palas. The
elephants were only 2000 in number, thus showing that the Pratiharas focused more on their
horsemen.

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The sculpture of the period shows the warriors wearing their long hair in a huge bun at the back of
the head, loose or in varying hairstyles, elaborately done. They are mostly bare above the waist, with
a cloth band tied horizontally across the chest and tied in a knot at the front. The swords are of
various shapes and sizes. Axes, bows, maces and spears were also used. Armours and possibly
helmets were used by elites. The constant losses of the Pratiharas against the Rashtrakutas showed
that their reliance on the cavalry was not always worthwhile. The Rashtrakutas deployed superior
strategies, and their emperors or princes who personally led the armies showed a vigour that their
enemies could not match.

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Social Life during Pratihara Empire

Caste system was prevalent in Indian during Gurjara-Pratihara
period and the reference of all the four caste of the Vedic period is
found in the inscription as well. The inscription refers the
Brahmans as Vipra and several Prakrit wards are used for
Kshatriyas. The people of each caste were divided into different
classes. Chaturveda and Bhatta groups were prominent among the
Brahmans. Among the Vaishyas the Kanchuka and Vakata groups
were prominent.
The Arab writer Ibda Khurdadab has referred seven castes in the
time of the Pratiharas. According to him, there existed the classes
of Savakufria, Brahman, Kataria, Sudaria, Bandalia and Labla.
King was selected from the Savakufria class whereas people of
Brahman class did not take wine and married their sons with the
daughters of the Kataria class.
Rajasekhar

The Kataria classes were regarded as Kshatriyas. The people of Sudaria were regarded as Sudras and
usually did farming or cattle rearing. Basuria class was the Vaishya class whose duty was to serve
other classes. The people of Sandila class did the work of Chandals. Lahuda class constituted of low
and wandering tribe. The above description of the Arab writer indicates that the Vaishyas did the
work of the Sudars and the Sudar did the work of the Vishyas. It appears that the caste system was
slowly and gradually breaking in a nice manner. The Brahmans started marrying kashatriya girls and
the vaishyas performed the work of the sudras as well. The Muslim attacks had begun during this
period and many Hindus of the conquered states had been becoming the followers of Islam. It also
appears that the Hindu society had allowed the purification of such Hindus. Smriti Ghandrayana
Vrat, 'Biladuri' and the writings of Aluberni and other Muslim writers also confirm this fact. Some
references of the inter caste marriage have also been found. The prominent Sanskrit scholar
Rajasekhar had married Kshatriya girl named Avanti Sundari.
Kings and the rich classes practiced polygamy. However, usually men had only one wife. It can also
be known from some reference where on the death of their husbands, women had burnt themselves
along with their husbands. Thus sati pratha was there though it was not very much prevalent. There
was no purdah system among the women of the royal families. According to Rajasekhar women
learnt music, dancing and paintings. Women were very much fond of ornaments and also used oils
and cosmetics. People of the rich families used to wear very thin clothes. The Arab writer Sulaman
has written that in this period, silk used to be so thin and delicate that clothes made of it could pass
through a ring.

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Religion: This age was the age of the progress of the Brahminical
religion. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta and Surya were the important
sects of Brahmanism where the Brahmin enjoyed the first class.
This age was the age of the progress of the Brahminical religion.
Different sects of Brahmanism further progressed during this
period. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta and Surya were the prominent
sects of Brahmanism, which were prevalent during this period. The
people of these sects considered the construction of temples and
statues a sacred duty. The kings and other rich persons gave
donations to the temples for their expenses. The followers of
Shaiva religion worshipped Siva with different names such as
Sculpture of Vishnu – 8th century Indra, Sankar, Pashupati, Yoga swami, Shambhu etc. Kings such
CE as Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala and Trilochanapala were the
worshippers of Siva. The statues of Vishnu, Surya, and Brahma
were also established in the Siva temples. Besides this there were other small sects who worshipped
different goddesses. The most prominent among these goddesses were Durga, Chamunda, Bhagavati
and Kali. Surya and vinayaka were also worshipped at some places.
From the religious point of view the Pratihara kings were tolerant
and had allowed the people to follow any acts they looked. But as a
whole they cannot be said to have followed a 10 policy of religious
toleration. It is because that though within a religion people was free
to follow any sect.
There are also some references of the persecutions of the followers
of other religion. Besides idol worship, Yajanas and giving of
charity at religious places were also prominent. It is always learnt
from an inscription that on the day of Sankranti, Trilochanapala had
given in charity a village to 6,000 Brahman after worshipping Lord
Siva. Milladitya had made a pilgrimage to Haridwar.
Buddhism and Jainism: Buddhism was on the decline during this
period and the number of its followers was diminishing. So was the
Sculpture of Surya case with the followers of Jainism whose followers mostly lived in
Rajputana, Gujarat and Deogarh. Thus, it can be seen that while Jainism and Buddhism were
declining. Brahmanism was progressing during the period of Pratiharas. Besides, the followers of
Islam were also coming to India and were making converts to their religion.

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Art & Architecture: Notable sculptures of this period include Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and
Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj. Beautifully carved
panels are also seen on the walls of temples standing at Osian,
Abhaneri and Kotah. The female figure named as Sursundari
exhibited in Gwalior Museum is one of the most charming
sculptures of the Gurjara-Pratihara art. The most important
groups of architectural works generally credited to the early
Pratiharas are at Osian in the heart of Gurjara, to the east in the
great fort at Chittor and at Roda in the south by the border of
modern Gujarat - which the Pratiharas had absorbed by the end
of the 8th century. They had also reached north-central India,
where several temples around Gwalior are comparable to the
later works at Osian. The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in
Teli Ka Mandir
Gwalior fort is the oldest surviving large-scale Pratihara work.
The early works at Osian have five-bay mulaprasadas with
porch and open hall but no vestibule or ambulatory and several have five-shrine complexes (pancha-
yatana) like Hari-Hara I. In addition to ghana-dwaras for the principal manifestations of the deity in
the central projections there are usually aedicule with purna-kalasha pilasters and high mesh-like
pediments for dikpalas in the outer bays and for subsidiary deities in the intermediate ones, though
occasionally the latter have pillar motifs instead or are left unrelieved - as in a subsidiary shrine of
Hari-Hara I and the Surya Temple respectively. Open halls are surrounded by vedika with 'seat-back'
coping supporting truncated purna-kalasha columns and their internal pillars, square with
projections, often have purna-kalasha for both capital and base to provide the extra height needed in
the centre of halls, as in the Surya Temple and Hari-Hara I. The shrine portal of Hari-Hara III is
typical of non-architectonic compositions with lotus, pearl and mithuna jambs rising from Ganga and
Yamuna and dikpalas, but Surya's richly incised pilasters support a prasada. Porches and the
balconies of Hari-Hara III-have flat roofs and even the later halls have two or three superimposed
slabs without additional superstructure. Early ceilings are flat, later ones corbelled and embellished
with carving, Hari-Hara III's nine-square hall is unique in having curved side vaults. Most of the
works at Roda have five-bay mulaprasadas without ambulatory, like the temples at Osian, but they
generally have only a porch. Sometimes with platform, they have socles unlike those of early
Pratihara works elsewhere. For instance, one piece of architecture in Roda, has a slab-like plinth with
a semi-kumbha, a recessed zone and a festooned floor slab surmounted by a minor padma, all below
a heavy dado which includes khura, kaiasha and kapota. Walls are usually relieved only by ghana-
dwaras. Roda III has a beaded valance all round and fluted padma-kumbha pillars in the intermediate
recessions, which recall north-west Deccani rather than Gupta forms. Shikharas are all of the Latina
variety, similar in their stunted profile and bold central bands to the predominant type at Osian.
Porches sometimes have pitched roofs in superimposed tiers with bold blind dormers, like those of
the Maitrakas. Dedicated to a Shakti cult, the Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior consists of an elevated
rectangular mulaprasada and a double oblong shikhara and a closed portico.

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The sides have three bays, though there are small

intermediate recessions and the central zone steps out in
diminishing planes below the bizarre superimposed
horseshoe window motifs of the shikhara's two levels.
There are two principal projections to the back with
ghana-dwaras bearing tiered kapotas and miniature
lunettes, like those of the sides, flanked by aedicule
with various shikhara-like superstructures. On a simple
platform and stepped base the unorthodox dado has a
double recession with kaiasha and kapota. The stepped Ghateshwara
superstructure over the portico is modern but the
Kameshvara at Auwa - the Teli-ka-Mandir's
contemporary - has one of the earliest surviving examples of a Phamsana roof, for which precedents
may most plausibly be found in the Maitraka tradition. Thus, in these early works the various
elements of the mature northern complex had appeared. Latina mulaprasadas with varied planes
accommodating ambulatories, balconies, open halls with full vedika and closed ones matching the
mulaprasada, Phamsana roofs, richly faceted supports with varied purna-kalasha or padma-kumbha
capitals. In the next phase of their development the Pratiharas turned their attention to the elaboration
of the socle and the superstructure. The Ghateshwara at Baroli has a Phamsana in two registers over
its square, portico with parapets bearing elaborate aedicule and miniature Latina shikharas at the
corners. In this and several other features the Baroli temple anticipates the sumptuous practice of the
Chandellas in particular: the shikhara is taller, more elegantly curved than hitherto, and has central
bands which penetrate up into the zone of the amalaka's base; there is now a vestibule crowned by a
high and elaborate gable composition in which a variety of miniature shrine forms play an important
part; apsaras adorn alternative facets of octagonal pillars whose capitals incorporate graded rings,
stepped friezes and convoluted brackets; undulating arches are suspended from the columns at the
entrance. The partly excavated Gyaraspur Temple is more advanced in plan, with ambulatory as well
as vestibule and closed hall with balconies and porch making it cruciform. Its shikhara, with nine
miniature Latina forms clustered about its base, is perhaps the oldest surviving Sekhari example in
the central domain of the Pratihara Empire. The roofs of both hall and porch are Phamsana. The dado
with kaiasha and kapota is raised on a high podium. The Ambika Matha at Jagat is an early and
exquisite example of the further elaboration and synthesis of the various elements so far encountered:
five-bay mulaprasada, with ambulatory, and equilateral projections suggesting a diagonal as well as
octagonal grouping of facade elements in response to the clustered composition of its Sekhari
shikhara; Phamsana-roofed, cruciform closed hall with richly detailed aedicule matching those of the
mulaprasada; porch with high vedika, seat-like coping and prominent chadya, elaborately carved
purna-kalasha pillars with prominent bracket capitals; five-jamb portal with niches virtually obscured
by the vibrant figures spilling from them; gorgeous ceilings; a base differentiated between the two
main parts of the temple, including major and minor padmas, karnaka or kumbha, and friezes of
elephants and krittimukhas below a dado with superimposed khura, kumbha, kalasha and kapota.
Likewise, the Vishnu and Someshwara Temples at Kiradu may be taken as representative of the still
more sumptuous culmination of the Pratihara tradition.

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Conclusion
After Bhoja, the military power of the Pratiharas declined, and they suffered defeat after defeat under
successive kings. The Rashtrakutas dealt severe blows in the early 10th century CE when Indra III
(915-928 CE) defeated Mahipala and completely devastated Kanyakubja and when Krishna III (939-
967 CE) invaded again in 963 CE. The Rajput feudatories of the Pratiharas were another threat as
“the descendants of Mihira Bhoja had little of Gurjaradesha left in their hands, for every one of the
feudatories was seeking greater power for himself at the cost of his suzerain” (Munshi, 151). Owing
to the political fabric in India at the time, nearly every king when subdued would accept to be a
vassal of the conqueror, but would ceaselessly try to gain independence and go for it at the slightest
opportunity. The Pratiharas were no exception. The weakening of the central power and attacks on
the capital made their feudatories and provincial governors assertive and dying to declare
independence. As a result, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to a kingdom covering only the
area around Kanyakubja.

The Pratihara kingdom continued its existence in a subdued fashion till the early 11th century CE
when it was finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks. Their control was however temporary and
this area was taken over by Indian rulers, most notably of the Gahadavala Dynasty (c. 1080-1194
CE).
Nagabhata I's efforts were crucial in checking the Arab invasion of India. The Pratiharas remained as
strong bulwarks against the Arabs. They also made valuable contributions in the field of art, culture
and commerce. The sculptural styles developed during the period were unique and remained an
influence on later styles. The nagara style of Hindu temple architecture received a big boost under
their rule. According to this style, the temple was built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it,
with many regional variations. The highlight was a shikhara (a mountain-like spire on top, curving in
shape). This style became very popular in northern India in the following centuries.

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Britannica 2009
Jagran Josh 24th https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/palas-pratiharas-
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