CHAPTER 10 (SEKARAN) – DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Sources of Data
● Primary Data - info obtained firsthand (e.g. individuals, focus group discussions)
● Secondary Data - info gathered from sources already existing (e.g. company records,
government publications)
Primary Sources of Data
● Focus Group
○ 8-10 members discussing a particular topic once for about 2 hours
○ Members are generally chosen based on their expertise
○ Aim: obtaining respondents’ opinions, impressions and interpretations
○ Role of the Moderator
■ Introduces the topic, observes, and takes not of the discussion
■ Never becomes an integral part of the discussion
■ Ensures all members participate and no member dominates the group
○ The Nature of Data Obtained Through Focus Groups
■ Least expensive data collection method, and is quick to analyze
■ Provides only qualitative information
■ Opinions of members cannot be considered as truly representative
■ Used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations, and (3)
conducting sample surveys
○ Videoconferencing
■ Used when variations in responses are expected and several focus groups
could be formed
● Panels
○ Meets more than once
○ Very useful where effects of certain interventions or changes are to be studied
over a period of time
○ Individuals are randomly chosen to be members of the panel
○ Static and Dynamic Panels
■ Static - same members on the panel over extended periods of time
● Advantage: offers a good sensitive measurement of the changes
● Disadvantage: panel members may become aware of the changes
and may not become representative
■ Dynamic - panel members change from time to time (advantage and
disadvantage is opposite of static)
○ Source of direct information
● Unobtrusive Measures - does not involve people (e.g. wear and tear of journals may
indicate its popularity or frequency of use, soft drink cans in trash bags may provide a
measure on consumption.

Secondary Sources
 ● Advantage of using secondary sources is savings in time and cost of acquiring
information
● Using secondary sources as the only source may not meet the specific needs of the
research
Data Collection Methods
● Integral part of research design
● Choosing the right method enhances the value of the research
● Three Main Data Collection Methods: Interviewing, Administering Questionnaires, and
Observing People
● Choosing the appropriate method depends on facilities available, the degree of accuracy
required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study, and other costs and
resources associated with and available for data gathering
Part 1: Interviewing
Unstructured and Structured Interviews
● Unstructured Interviews
○ Interviewer does not have a planned sequence of questions; the succeeding
questions depend on the answer of the respondent
○ Objective: to bring some preliminary issues in order to determine what needs in-
depth investigation
○ Sets the stage for the interviewer to conduct further structured interviews
● Structured Interviews
○ Conducted when it is known what information is needed
○ Interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to ask
○ Visual Aids are sometimes used
○ Information gathered in these interviews will be tabulated and analyzed
● Information from interviews should be as free as possible of bias (errors or inaccuracies
in data collected)
● Possible ways to minimize bias
○ Establish Credibility and Rapport, and Motivate Individuals to Respond
■ State the purpose of the interview and assure confidentiality
■ Be pleasant, sincere, sensitive, and non-evaluative
○ The Questioning Technique
■ Funneling - starting with broad open-ended questions and going into a
more narrow and focused questions
■ Unbiased Questions
■ Clarifying Issues - restating/rephrasing important information given
■ Helping the Respondent to Think through Issues
■ Taking Notes - interviewer should not rely on memory
● Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews
○ Unstructured Interviews - usually face-to-face
○ Structured Interviews - may be face-to-face or through telephone
 ○ Face-to-Face Interviews
■ Advantages - researcher can adapt the questions as necessary; researcher
may pick up nonverbal cues
■ Disadvantages - geographical limitations; cost of training interviewers to
minimize bias is high
○ Telephone Interviews
■ Advantages - a number of different people may be reached in a short time
period; can eliminate discomfort of respondent
■ Disadvantages - respondent may just end the interview without warning;
researcher will not see nonverbal communication
Computer Aided Interviewing (CAI)
● Questions are flashed onto the computer screen
● Prevents interviewers from asking wrong/out of sequence questions
CATI and CAPI
● CATI - Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
○ Responses to surveys can be obtained from people all over the world
● CAPI - Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
○ Can be self-administered (respondents use their own computers)
Computer-Aided Survey Services
● Being offered to companies engaged in occasional data gathering
● Advantages:
1) Researcher can start analyzing the data even as the field survey is in progress,
results can be transmitted through modem in raw or tabulated form
2) Data is automatically “cleaned up” and errors are fixed while being collected
3) Biases due to ordering questions in a particular way can be eliminated since
meaningful start patterns can be incorporated in the questioning process
4) Skip patterns can be programmed into the process
5) Questions can be customized to incorporate the respondent’s terminology of
concepts into subsequent questions
Advantages of Software Packages
● Automatic indexing of data can be done using special programs
● 2 modes of operation:
○ Indexing - specific responses coded in a particular way
○ Retrieval of data with a fast search speed
● Text-oriented database management retrieval program allows user to go through text,
inserting mark that link related units of text
○ Once links created, program allows user to activate them by opening multiple
windows on the screen
Review of Interviewing
● Can be structured or unstructured
 ○ Unstructured Interviews - conducted in order to have an idea about what is, and is
not, important and relevant to particular problem situations
○ Structured Interviews - gives more in-depth information about specific variables
of interest
● Can be conducted face to face, over the telephone, or over the medium of PC
● Computer assisted interviewing, which entails heavy initial investment, is an asset for
interviewing and analyses of qualitative, spontaneous responses.
Part II: Questionnaires
- Preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually
within rather closely defined alternatives
Personally Administered Questionnaires
● When survey is confined to a local area, and the organization is willing and able to
assemble groups of employees to respond to questionnaires
● Advantages:
○ Research team can collect all the completed responses within a short period of
time
○ Doubts of respondents can be clarified on the spot
○ Researcher afforded the opportunity to introduce topic and motivate respondents
to offer frank answers
○ Less time and less time compared to interview; does not require much skill to
administer
● Employees may be given blank questionnaires to be collected personally or mailed back
after a few days
Mail Questionnaires
● Wide geographical area can be covered in the survey
● Disadvantages:
○ Return rates are typically low (30% response rate is considered acceptable)
○ Difficult to establish the representativeness of the sample because those
responding may not at all represent the population
● Techniques for improving rates of response:
○ Send follow-up letters
○ Enclosing monetary amounts as incentives
○ Providing respondent with self-addressed stamped envelopes
○ Keep the questionnaire brief
○ Respondents are notified in advance of the forthcoming survey
○ Restricted if the researcher has to reach subjects with very little education
Guidelines for questionnaire design:
● Focused on three areas:
○ Wording of the questions
○ Planning of issues of how variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after
receipt of the responses
 ○ General appearance of the questionnaire

Principles of Wording - refers to factors such as:

● Content and Purpose of the questions
○ Nature of the variable tapped will determine what kinds of questions will be asked
(subjective: beliefs, perceptions, attitudes; objective: age, educational levels)
● Language and Wording of the Questionnaire
○ Should approximate the level of the understanding of the respondents
○ Choice of words should be based on educational level, usage of terms, and idioms
in the culture
● Type and form of questions
○ Open ended vs. Closed questions
■ Open ended questions - allow respondents to answer in any way they
choose
■ Closed question - would ask respondents to make choices among set of
alternatives given by researcher; helps researcher to code easily
■ Many questionnaires end with a final open-ended question that invites
respondents to comment on topics that might not have been covered fully
or adequately
○ Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
 ■ Good questionnaire includes both positive and negatively worded
questions
■ Uninterested respondent is more likely to stay involved and remain alert
when positive and negatively worded questions are interspersed (shaken
out of tendency to mechanically respond)
○ Double-barreled Questions
■ Lends itself to different possible responses
■ Such questions should be avoided as it would confuse the respondents
○ Ambiguous questions
■ Responses to ambiguous questions have built-in biases inasmuch as
different respondents might interpret such items in the questionnaire
differently
○ Recall-Dependent Questions
■ Questions might require respondents to recall experience from the past
that are hazy in their memory
■ Better source of obtaining these information are from records
○ Leading Questions
■ Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the
respondents to give responses that the researcher would like or want them
to give
○ Loaded Questions
■ Bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally charged
manner
○ Social Desirability
■ Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable
responses
■ Sometimes, certain items are deliberately introduced at various points in
the questionnaire and an index of each individual’s social desirability
tendency
○ Length of questions
■ Simple short questions > Long ones
■ Rule of thumb: a question SHOULD NOT exceed 20 words, or exceed
one full line in print
● Sequencing of questions
○ GENERAL to SPECIFIC
○ RELATIVELY EASY to PROGRESSIVELY MORE DIFFICULT
○ Facilitate the easy and smooth progress of respondent through the items in the
questionnaire
● Classification Data or Personal Information
○ Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the name of the respondent
 ■ If questionnaire has to be identified with the respondent for any reason,
the questionnaire could be numbered and connected by the researcher in a
separate, private document to ensure anonymity
○ Asking personal info at the beginning vs. at the end
■ By the time respondent reaches the end, he is convinced of the legitimacy
and genuineness of the questions
■ If at the beginning, respondent may have psychologically identified
themselves with the questionnaire and may feel a commitment to respond
○ Wise policy to ask personal info by providing a range of responses
Principles of Measurement
● Appropriate scales have to be used depending on the type of data that need to be obtained
● “Goodness of data” is assessed through test of validity and reliability
○ Validity - how well a technique, instrument, or process measures a particular
concept
○ Reliability - indicates how stably and consistently the instrument taps the variable
● Data have to be obtained in a manner that makes for easy categorization and coding
General Appearance or “GETUP” of the Questionnaire
● Necessary to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks
● A good introduction
○ Discloses identity of researcher and conveys the purpose of the survey
○ Establish some rapport with respondents
○ Assurance of confidentiality
○ Should end on a courteous note, thanking the respondent
● Organizing Questions, Giving Instructions and Guidance, and Good Alignment
○ Questions aligned neatly to allow respondent expending the least time and effort
and without straining the eyes
● Information on Income and Other Sensitive Personal Data
○ Such questions should be justified by explaining how this information might
contribute to knowledge and problem solving
● Open-Ended Questions at the End
○ Allows respondent to comment on any aspect they choose
● Concluding the Questionnaire
○ Should end on a courteous note, reminding the respondent to check that all the
items have been completed
● Review of Questionnaire Design
○ Relates to how the questions are worded and measured, and how the entire
questionnaire is organized
● Pretesting of Structured Questions
○ Important to pretest the instrument to ensure questions are understood by the
respondents
 ○ Use small number of respondents to test the appropriateness of the questions and
their comprehension and obtain additional information on their general reactions
to the questionnaire and how they felt about completing the instrument

Electronic Questionnaire Design and Surveys

CAPPA System
● Facilitates the preparation and administration of questionnaire – particularly useful for
marketing research.
● Includes 10 programs enabling the user to design a sophisticated computerized
questionnaire, computerize the data collection process, and analyze the data collected.
● A program is designed into this system to check for syntactical or logical errors in coding
● Includes data analytic programs such as cross-tabs, ANOVA, multiple regression, etc.

Software programs of SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

1. SPSS Data Entry Builder for creating surveys that can be administered over the web,
phone or mail;
2. SPSS Data Entry Enterprise Server for entering the responses;
3. 11.0 for data analysis and charts
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews and Questionnaires

Part III: Other Methods of Data Collection

Observational Surveys
● People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their
activities and behaviors or other items of interest can be noted and recorded.
● Movements, work habits, the statements made and meeting conducted by them, facial
expressions, and body language can be observed.
● Other environmental factors such as layout, work-flow patterns, the closeness of the
seating arrangement, and the like, can also be noted.

Two roles that a researcher may play while gathering field observational data:
Nonparticipant Observer
● The researcher collects the needed data in that capacity without becoming an integral part
of the organizational system (Example: the researcher might sit in the corner of an office
and watch and record how the manager spends her time.)
● It is necessary that observers are physically present at the workplace for extended periods
of time and makes observational studies time consuming.
Participant-Observer
● The researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part of the
work team. (Example: if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in work
organizations, then she may join the organization as an employee and observe the
dynamics in groups while being a part of the work organization and work groups)

Structured versus Unstructured Observational Studies

A. Structured Observational Studies
a. Non-participant observer
b. Participant observer type
*both of these can be structured or unstructured
- Observer has a predetermined set of categories planned to be studied
- Formats can be specifically designed to suit each goal of that research
- Important matters
- Duration and frequency
- Activities that precede or follow it
- Relevant environmental conditions
- Task relevant behaviors (emotion, communication)
- Observations are recorded, analyzed, minimal personal inferences
B. Unstructured Observational Studies
○ Possible no definite ideas
○ Observer records practically everything
○ Hallmark of qualitative research
○ Set of tentative hypotheses as a guide
○ Patterns can be traced
○ pave the way for theory building and hypotheses testing

1. Advantages of Observational Studies

a. Generally more reliable and free from bias
b. Easier to note the effects of environmental influence on specific outcomes
c. Easier to observe certain groups of individuals
2. Disadvantages of Observational Studies
a. Necessary to be physically present
b. slow, tedious, expensive
 c. Observer fatigue which can lead to bias
d. Moods, feelings, attitudes can be guess but cognitive thought process cannot
e. Training needed to know what and how to observe and avoid bias
Biases in Observational Studies
● Researcher’s POV are prone to observer bias
● Reading errors, memory lapse, error in interpreting activities, behaviors, events, and
nonverbal cues
● Ennui (listlessness// boredom) can cause bias
● Interobserver reliability (agreements divided by disagreements) = reliability coefficient
● Respondent bias can also be a threat (act differently under observation)

Summary of Observational Studies

● Have a formulated research purpose
● Systematically planned
● 2 kinds
○ Structured
○ Unstructured
● Investigator can be
○ Participant
○ Non-participant