CH 3 System of Linear Equations and Matrices

Mettu University Department of Electrical and computer Engineering
Chapter 3
System of Linear Equations and Matrices
3.1 introduction to vectors and matrices
A real N-dimensional vector X is an ordered set of N real numbers and usually written in the
coordinate form X =( x 1 , x 2 , … , x N ) . here x 1 , x 2 , …∧x N are called components of x. The set
consisting of all N-dimensional vectors is called N-dimensional space.
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers that is arranged systematically in rows and columns.
A matrix having M rows and N columns is called an MxN (read “M by N”) matrix. The capital
letter A denotes a matrix, and lowercase subscripted letter a ij denotes one of the numbers
forming the matrix.
a11 a 12 .. . .. . a1 N
⋮[
a21 a 22
A= ⋮
aM 1 aM 2
.. . .. . a2 N
.. . .. . a MN
] ← rowi
↑
column j
Some special properties of vectors and Matrices

The identity matrix of order N is the square matrix given by
I N =[ δ ij ] nxN Where δ ij = 1 wheni= j
{ 0 wheni = j
An NxN matrix A is called non-singular or invertible if there exists an NxN matrix B such that
AB=BA=I
If no such matrix B can be found, A is said to be singular.
An NxN matrix A= [ aij ] is called upper triangular provided that the elements satisfy a ij=0
whenever i> j . The NxN matrix A=[ aij ] is called lower triangular provided that a ij=0 whenever
i< j .
3.2 Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions
Matrix algebra is used to solve a system of simultaneous linear equations.

A general set of m linear equations and n unknowns,
Computational Methods Page 1

Mettu university Department of Electrical Engineering
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯⋯+a1 n x n=c1

a21 x1 +a22 x 2 +⋯⋯+a 2n x n =c 2
……………………………………
…………………………………….
am 1 x 1 +am 2 x 2 +.. . .. .. .+a mn x n =c m
Can be rewritten in the matrix form as
a11 a 12 . . a1 n x1 c1
Denoting the matrices by [ A ] ,

[ a21 a 22 . . a2 n
⋮
⋮
[X]
⋮
⋮
am 1 a m 2 . . a mn
][ ] [ ]
x2
¿
xn
c2
¿ = ¿
¿
cm
[ C ] , the system of equation is [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] ,
, and
where [ A ] is called the coefficient matrix, [ C ] is called the right hand side vector and
[ X ] is called the solution vector. Sometimes [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] systems of equations are written
in the augmented form. That is
a11 a 12 . .. .. . a1 n ⋮c 1
⋮
[
a 21 a 22 . .. .. . a2 n ⋮c 2
[ A⋮C ] = ⋮ ⋮
⋮
am 1 a m 2 . .. .. . a mn ⋮cn
A system of equations can be consistent or inconsistent. What does that mean?

]
A system of equations [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] is consistent if there is a solution, and it is inconsistent if
there is no solution. However, a consistent system of equations does not mean a unique
solution, that is, a consistent system of equations may have a unique solution or infinite
solutions.
How can one distinguish between a consistent and inconsistent system of equations?
A system of equations [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] is consistent if the rank of A is equal to the rank of the

augmented matrix [ A⋮C ]

A system of equations [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] is inconsistent if the rank of A is less than the rank of

the augmented matrix [ A⋮C ] .
But, what do you mean by rank of a matrix?
The rank of a matrix is defined as the order of the largest square sub matrix whose determinant
is not zero.
Example 1
What is the rank of
3 1 2
[ ]
[ A ]= 2 0 5
5 1 7
Solution
?
The largest square sub matrix of [ A] is of order 3 and that is [ A] itself. Since det( A )=0
, the rank of [ A] is less than 3. The next largest square sub matrix would be a 2 ¿ 2 matrix.
One of the square sub matrices of [ A] is
[ B ]= 3 1
[2 0 ]
And det( B)=−2≠0 . Hence the rank of [ A] is 2. There is no need to look at other 2×2
sub matrices to establish that the rank of [ A] is 2.
Example2
How do I now use the concept of rank to find if?
25 5 1 x1 106 . 8
64
[ ][ ] [ ]
8 1 x2 = 177 . 2
144 12 1 x 279 . 2
3
Is a consistent or inconsistent system of equations?
Solution
The coefficient matrix is
25 5 1
[
[ A ] = 64 8 1
144 12 1 ]
And the right hand side vector is

106 .8
[ ]
[ C ] = 177 .2
279. 2
The augmented matrix is
25 5 1 ⋮ 106.8
[
[ B ] = 64 8 1 ⋮ 177.2
144 12 1 ⋮ 279.2 ]
Since there are no square sub matrices of order 4 as [ B ] is a 3 ¿ 4 matrix, the rank of [ B ]
is at most 3. So let us look at the square sub matrices of [ B] of order 3; if any of these
square sub matrices have determinant not equal to zero, then the rank is 3. For example, a sub
matrix of the augmented matrix [ B ] is
25 5 1
[
[ D ]= 64 8 1
144 12 1
det( D )=−84≠0 .
]
Hence the rank of the augmented matrix [ B ] is 3. Since [ A ]=[ D ] , the rank of [ A] is 3.
Since the rank of the augmented matrix [ B] equals the rank of the coefficient matrix [ A] ,
the system of equations is consistent.
Example 3
Use the concept of rank to find if
25 5 1 x 1 106 . 8
[
64 8 1 x 2 =
89 13 2 x 3 280 .0 ][ ] [ ]
177 .2
Is consistent or inconsistent.
Solution
The augmented matrix is
25 5 1 :106 .8
[
[ B ] = 64 8 1 :177 .2
89 13 2 :280 .0
Since there are no square sub matrices of order 4 ¿
]
4 as the augmented matrix [ B ] is a 4
¿ 3 matrix, the rank of the augmented matrix [ B ] is at most 3. So let us look at square sub
matrices of the augmented matrix (B) of order 3 and see if any of the 3 ¿ 3 sub matrices have
a determinant not equal to zero. For example, a square sub matrix of order 3 ¿ 3 of [ B]

25 5 1
[
[ D ] = 64 8 1
89 13 2 ] det(D) = 0
So it means, we need to explore other square sub matrices of the augmented matrix [ B ]
5 1 106 .8
[
[ E ] = 8 1 177 .2
13 2 280 .0
det( E 0≠12. 0≠0 .
]
So the rank of the augmented matrix [ B] is 3.
Now we need to find the rank of the coefficient matrix [ A] .
25 5 1
[ ]
[ A ] = 64 8 1
89 13 2
det( A )=0
So the rank of the coefficient matrix [ A] is less than 3. A square sub matrix of the coefficient
matrix [ A] is
[ J ]= 5 1
[8 1 ]
det( J )=−3≠0
So the rank of the coefficient matrix [ A] is 2.
Since the rank of the coefficient matrix [ A] is less than the rank of the augmented matrix
[ B] , the system of equations is inconsistent. Hence, no solution exists for [ A ] [ X ]=[C ] .
If a solution exists, how do we know whether it is unique?
In a system of equations [ A ] [ X ]=[C ] that is consistent, the rank of the coefficient matrix
[ A] is the same as the augmented matrix [ A|C] . If in addition, the rank of the coefficient
matrix [ A] is same as the number of unknowns, then the solution is unique; if the rank of the
coefficient matrix [ A] is less than the number of unknowns, then infinite solutions exist.

[A ] [X ] = [B ]
C o n s i s t e n t S y s t e m if I n c o n s is t e n t S y s te m if
r a n k ( A ) = r a n k ( A .B ) r a n k ( A ) < r a n k ( A .B )
U n i q u e s o l u t i o n if I n f i n i t e s o l u ti o n s if
ra n k (A ) = n u m b e r o f u n k n o w ns ra n k (A ) < n u m b e r o f u n k n o w ns
Figure 5.2. Flow chart of conditions for consistent and inconsistent system of equations.
Example 4
We found that the following system of equations
25 5 1 x1 106 . 8
64
[8 1 x2 = 177 . 2
144 12 1 x 3 279 . 2 ][ ] [ ]
Is a consistent system of equations. Does the system of equations have a unique solution or
does it have infinite solutions?
Solution
The coefficient matrix is
25 5 1
[
[ A ] = 64 8 1
144 12 1
And the right hand side is
]
106 .8
[ ]
[ C ] = 177 .2
279. 2
While finding out whether the above equations were consistent in an earlier example, we
found that the rank of the coefficient matrix (A) equals rank of augmented matrix [ A⋮C ]
equals 3. The solution is unique as the number of unknowns = 3 = rank of (A).
Example 5
We found that the following system of equations
25 5 1 x 1 106 . 8
[
64 8 1 x 2 = 177 .2
89 13 2 x 284 . 0 ][ ] [ ]3
Is a consistent system of equations. Is the solution unique or does it have infinite solutions.

Solution
While finding out whether the above equations were consistent, we found that the rank of the
coefficient matrix [ A] equals the rank of augmented matrix ( A⋮C ) equals 2
Since the rank of [ A ]=2 < number of unknowns = 3, infinite solutions exist.
Consistent systems of equations can only have a unique solution or infinite solutions. Can a
system of equations have more than one but not infinite number of solutions?
No, you can only have either a unique solution or infinite solutions. Let us suppose
[ A ][ X ]=[ C ] has two solutions [Y ] and [Z] so that
[ A ][Y ]=[C ]
[ A ][ Z ]=[ C ]
If r is a constant, then from the two equations
r [ A ][ Y ] =r [ C ]
( 1−r ) [ A ] [ Z ] =( 1−r ) [ C ]
Adding the above two equations gives
r [ A ][ Y ] + ( 1−r ) [ A ][ Z ] =r [ C ] + (1−r ) [ C ]
[ A ] ( r [ Y ] + ( 1−r ) [ Z ] )= [ C ]
Hence, r [ Y ] + ( 1−r ) [ Z ] is a solution to [ A ][ X ] =[ C ]
Since r is any scalar, there are infinite solutions for [ A ] [ X ]=[C ] of the form
r [ Y ] + ( 1−r ) [ Z ]
3.3 Methods of solution of Linear Equations

3.3.1 Gaussian Elimination
How is a set of equations solved numerically?
One of the most popular techniques for solving simultaneous linear equations is the Gaussian
elimination method. The approach is designed to solve a general set of n equations and n
unknowns
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +a 13 x 3 +. ..+a1n x n =b 1
a21 x1 +a22 x 2 +a23 x 3 +.. .+a2 n x n =b2
. .
. .
. .
an 1 x 1 +a n2 x 2 +a n3 x 3 +.. .+ann x n=bn
Gaussian elimination consists of two steps:

Forward Elimination of Unknowns:
In this step, the unknown is eliminated in each equation starting with the first equation.
This way, the equations are reduced to one equation and one unknown in each equation.
Back Substitution: In this step, starting from the last equation, each of the unknowns is
Found.
Forward Elimination of Unknowns:
In the first step of forward elimination, the first unknown, x 1 is eliminated from all rows
below the first row. The first equation is selected as the pivot equation to eliminate x 1 . So,
to eliminate x 1 in the second equation, one divides the first equation by a11 (hence called
the pivot element) and then multiplies it by a21 . This is the same as multiplying the first
equation by a21 /a11 to give
a a a
a21 x1 + 21 a12 x 2 +. . .+ 21 a1 n x n= 21 b1
a11 a11 a 11
Now, this equation can be subtracted from the second equation to give
a 21 a a
( a 22−
a11 ) ( )
a12 x 2 +. ..+ a2 n − 21 a1 n x n =b 2− 21 b 1
a11 a 11
Or
a22 x2 +.. .+a'2 n x n =b'2
'
Where,
a 21
a'22= a22− a
a11 12
⋮
a 21
a'2 n = a 2n − a1 n
a11

This procedure of eliminating x 1 is now repeated for the third equation to the n
th
equation
to reduce the set of equations as
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +a 13 x 3 +. ..+a1n x n =b 1
a'22 x2 +a'23 x3 +.. .+a '2n x n =b'2
a'32 x 2 + a'33 x 3 +.. .+a'3 n x n =b'3
. .
. .
a'n 2 x 2 +a 'n3 x 3 +. . .+ a'nn x n=b'n
This is the end of the first step of forward elimination. Now for the second step of forward
'
elimination, we start with the second equation as the pivot equation and a22 as the pivot
element. So, to eliminate x 2 in the third equation, one divides the second equation by a22
'
'
(the pivot element) and then multiply it by a32 . This is the same as multiplying the second
' '
equation by a32 /a22 and subtracting it from the third equation. This makes the coefficient of
x 2 zero in the third equation. The same procedure is now repeated for the fourth equation
th
till the n equation to give
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +a 13 x 3 +. ..+a1n x n =b 1
a'22 x2 +a'23 x3 +.. .+a '2n x n =b'2
a'33' x3 +.. .+a ''3n x n =b'3'
. .
. .
an 3 x 3 +. ..+ann x n =b 'n'
'' ''
The next steps of forward elimination are conducted by using the third equation as a pivot
equation and so on. That is, there will be a total of n−1 steps of forward elimination. At the
end of n−1 steps of forward elimination, we get a set of equations that look like
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 + a13 x3 +.. .+a 1n x n =b1

a'22 x2 +a'23 x3 +.. .+a '2n x n =b'2
a'33' x3 +.. .+a ''3n x n =b'3'
. .
. .
a(nnn−1 ) x n =b(nn−1 )
Back Substitution:
Now the equations are solved starting from the last equation as it has only one unknown.
( n−1 )
bn
x n=
a(nnn−1 )
th x n and
Then the second last equation, that is the (n−1) equation, has two unknowns:
x n−1 , but x n is already known. This reduces the (n−1)th equation also to one unknown.
Back substitution hence can be represented for all equations by the formula
n
b(ii−1 )− ∑ a (iji −1 ) x j
j=i +1
x i=
a (iii −1 ) For i=n−1, n−2,…, 1
And
b(nn−1 )
x n=
a(nnn−1 )
Example 1
Use Naïve Gauss elimination to solve
20 x1 +15 x 2 +10 x 3 =45
−3 x1 −2 .249 x 2 +7 x 3 =1.751
5 x1 + x2 +3 x3 =9
Solution
Working in the matrix form
20 15 10 x1 45
[ −3
5
−2.249 7
1 3
x
x3
2
=
1.751
9 ] [] [ ]
Forward Elimination of Unknowns
First step
Divide Row 1 by 20 and then multiply it by –3, that is, multiply Row 1 by −3/20=−0 .15 .
( [ 20 15 10 ] [ 45 ] )×−0 . 15
Gives Row 1 as
[−3 −2.25 −1.5 ] [ −6 .75 ]
Subtract the result from Row 2
[− 3 −2.249 7 ] [ 1.751 ]
− [−3 −2.25 −1 .5 ] [ −6 .75 ]
0 0.001 8 .5 8.501

To get the resulting equations as

20 15 10 x1 45
5 [
0 0.001 8.5
1 3 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
8.501
9
Divide Row 1 by 20 and then multiply it by 5, that is, multiply Row 1 by 5/20=0. 25
( [ 20 15 10 ] [ 45 ] )×0 . 25
Gives Row 1 as
[5 3.75 2.5 ] [ 11.25 ]
[5 1 3] [ 9]
− [5 3.75 2.5 ] [ 11.25 ]
0 −2.75 0.5 −2.25
20 15 10 x1 45
[ 0 0.001 8.5
0 −2.75 0.5
x2
Second step
] [] [ ]
x3
8.501
= −2.25
Now for the second step of forward elimination, we will use Row 2 as the pivot equation and
eliminate Row 3: Column 2.
Divide Row 2 by 0.001 and then multiply it by –2.75, that is, multiply Row 2
−2. 75/0 . 001=−2750 .
( [ 0 0 . 001 8 .5 ] [ 8 .501 ] )×−2750 Gives Row 2 as
[0 −2. 75 −23375 ] [ −23377 .75 ]
[0 −2 .75 0 .5 ] [ −2 .25 ]
− [0 −2 .75 −23375 ] [ −23377 .7 ]
0 0 23375 .5 23375 . 45
20 15 10 x1 45
[ 0 0.001
0
8.5
0 23375 .5 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
8.501
= 23375 .45
This is the end of the forward elimination steps.
Back substitution
We can now solve the above equations by back substitution. From the third equation,
23375 .5 x 3 =23375. 45
23375 . 45
x 3=
23375 . 5
=0 . 9999978
x
Substituting the value of 3 in the second equation
0 . 001 x 2 +8 .5 x3 =8 . 501
8. 501−8 . 5 x3
x 2=
0. 001
8 .501−8 .5×0 . 9999978
=
0 . 001
=1. 0182
Substituting the value of
x 3 and x 2 in the first equation,
20 x1 +15 x 2 +10 x 3 =45
45−15 x 2 −10 x 3
x 1=
20
45−15×1. 0182−10×0 . 9999978
=
20
¿ 0 . 9863511
Hence the solution is:

x1 0.98635
x3[] [ ]
[ X ]= x 2 = 1.0182
0.9999978
Compare this with the exact solution of
x1 1
[ X ]= x2
x3[ ] [] =1
1
Are there any pitfalls of the Naïve Gauss elimination method?

Yes, there are two pitfalls of the Naïve Gauss elimination method.
Round-off error: The Naïve Gauss elimination method is prone to round-off errors. This is true
when there are large numbers of equations as errors propagate. Also, if there is subtraction of
numbers from each other, it may create large errors.

Division by zero: It is possible for division by zero to occur during the beginning of the n−1
steps of forward elimination.
For example:
5 x2 +6 x3 =11
4 x 1 +5 x 2 +7 x 3 =16
9 x 1 +2 x 2 +3 x 3 =15
Will result in division by zero in the first step of forward elimination as the coefficient of x 1 in
the first equation is zero as is evident when we write the equations in matrix form.
0 5 6 x 1 11
[ ][ ] [ ]
4 5 7 x 2 = 16
9 2 3 x3 15
But what about the equations below: Is division by zero a problem?

5 x1 +6 x2 +7 x3 =18
10 x1 +12 x 2 +3 x 3 =25
20 x1 +17 x2 +19 x 3 =56
Written in matrix form,
5 6 7 x1 18
[ ][ ] [ ]
10 12 3 x 2 = 25
20 17 19 x3 56
There is no issue of division by zero in the first step of forward elimination. The pivot element is
the coefficient of x 1 in the first equation, 5, and that is a non-zero number.
However, at the end of the first step of forward elimination, we get the following equations in
matrix form
5 6 7 x1 18
[
0 0 −11 x 2 = −11
0 −7 −9 x 3 −16 ][ ] [ ]
Now at the beginning of the 2nd step of forward elimination, the coefficient of x 2 in Equation
2 would be used as the pivot element. That element is zero and hence would create the division
by zero problems. So it is important to consider that the possibility of division by zero can occur
at the beginning of any step of forward elimination.
What are some techniques for improving the Naïve Gauss elimination method?
One method of decreasing the round-off error would be to use more significant digits, that is,
use double or quad precision for representing the numbers. However, this would not avoid
possible division by zero errors in the Naïve Gauss elimination method.

To avoid division by zero as well as reduce (not eliminate) round-off error, Gaussian elimination
with partial pivoting is the method of choice.
How does Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting differ from Naïve Gauss elimination?
The two methods are the same, except in the beginning of each step of forward elimination; a
row switching is done based on the following criterion. If there are n equations, then there
are n−1 forward elimination steps.
At the beginning of the k
th
step of forward elimination, one finds the maximum of
|a kk| ,
|a k+1,k| , …………,
|a nk|
.Then if the maximum of these values is pk in the p |a |
row,
th
k ≤p≤n , then switch rows p and k . The other steps of forward elimination are the
same as the Naïve Gauss elimination method. The back substitution steps stay exactly the same
as the Naïve Gauss elimination method.
Example 2
In the previous example, we used Naïve Gauss elimination to solve
20 x1 +15 x 2 +10 x 3 =45
−3 x1 −2 .249 x 2 +7 x 3 =1.751
5 x1 + x2 +3 x3 =9
The solution found was:
x1 0.625
[] [ ]
[ X ]= x 2
x3
= 1.5
0.99995
This is different from the exact solution of

x1 1
[ ] []
[ X ]= x 2
x3
=1
1
Find the solution using Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting
Solution
20 15 10 x1 45
[ −3 −2.249 7
5 1 3 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
1.751
9

Forward Elimination of Unknowns

Now for the first step of forward elimination, the absolute value of the first column elements
below Row 1 is |20| , |−3| , |5| or 20, 3, 5.
So the largest absolute value is in the Row 1. So as per Gaussian elimination with partial
pivoting, the switch is between Row 1 and Row 1 to give
20 15 10 x1 45
[ −3 −2.249 7
5 1 3 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
1.751
9
Divide Row 1 by 20 and then multiply it by –3, that is, multiply Row 1 by −3/20=−0 .15 .
( [ 20 15 10 ] [ 45 ] )×−0 . 15 Gives Row 1 as
[−3 −2.25 −1.5 ] [ −6 .75 ]
[− 3 −2.249 7 ] [ 1.751 ]
− [−3 −2.25 −1 .5 ] [ −6 .75 ]
0 0.001 8 .5 8.501
20 15 10 x1 45
5 [
0 0.001 8.5
1 3 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
8.501
9
Divide Row 1 by 20 and then multiply it by 5, that is, multiply Row 1 by 5/20=0. 25 .
( [ 20 15 10 ] [ 45 ] )×0 . 25 Gives Row 1 as
[5 3. 75 2.5] [ 11. 25 ]

[5 1 3] [ 9]
− [5 3.75 2.5 ] [ 11.25 ]
0 −2.75 0.5 −2.25

20 15 10 x1 45
[ 0 0.001 8.5
0 −2.75 0.5 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
8.501
−2.25
This is the end of the first step of forward elimination.
Now for the second step of forward elimination, the absolute value of the second column
elements below Row 1 is
|0.001|
, |−2.75| or 0.001, 2.75
So the largest absolute value is in Row 3. So Row 2 is switched with Row 3 to give
20 15 10 x1 7
[
0 −2.75 0.5
0 0.001 8.5
x2
x3
=
] [] [ ]
−2.25
8.501
Divide Row 2 by –2.75 and then multiply it by 0.001, that is, multiply Row 2 by
0 . 001/−2. 75=−0. 00036363 .
( [ 0 −2 .75 0 .5 ] [ −2. 25 ] )×−0 . 00036363 Gives Row 2 as
[0 0. 00099998 −0.00018182 ] [ 0 .00081816 ]

[0 0. 001 8.5 ] [ 8 . 501 ]
− [0 0. 00099998 −0 . 00018182 ] [ 0 .00081816 ]
0 0 8 . 50018182 8 .50018184
20 15 10 x1 45
[ 0
0
−2.75
0
0.5
8.50018182
x2
x3] [] [
Back substitution:
=
−2.25
8.50018184 ]
8 .50018182 x 3=8. 50018184
8 . 50018184
x 3=
8 . 50018182
=1

x 3 in Row 2
−2.75 x 2 +0 . 5 x 3 =−2 .25

−2 .25−0 .5 x 2
x 2=
−2. 75
−2.25−0. 5×1
=
−2 .75
=1
x 3 and x 2 in Row 1
20 x1 +15 x 2 +10 x 3 =45
45−15 x 2 −10 x 3
x 1=
20
45−15×1−10×1
=
20
=1
So the solution is,
x1 1
[ X ]= x 2
x3 [ ] []
= 1
1
Can we use Naïve Gauss elimination methods to find the determinant of a square matrix?
One of the more efficient ways to find the determinant of a square matrix is by taking
advantage of the following two theorems on a determinant of matrices coupled with Naïve
Gauss elimination.
Theorem 1:
Let [ A] be a n×n matrix. Then, if [ B ] is a n×n matrix that results from adding or
subtracting a multiple of one row to another row, then det( A )=det (B ) (The same is true for
column operations also).
Theorem 2:
Let [ A] be a n×n matrix that is upper triangular, lower triangular or diagonal, then
det( A )=a 11×a22×.. .×aii×. . .×a nn
n
=∏ aii
i=1
This implies that if we apply the forward elimination steps of the Naïve Gauss elimination
method, the determinant of the matrix stays the same according to Theorem 1. Then since at
the end of the forward elimination steps, the resulting matrix is upper triangular, the
determinant will be given by Theorem 2.

Example 3
Find the determinant of
25 5 1
[
[ A ]= 64 8 1
144 12 1
Solution
]
Using Naïve Gauss elimination method on [ A] gives,
25 5 1
[
[ B ] = 0 −4.8 −1.56
0 0 0.7 ]
According to Theorem 2
det( A )=det (B )
=25×(−4 .8)×0 . 7
=−84.00
What if I cannot find the determinant of the matrix using the Naïve Gauss elimination
method, for example, if I get division by zero problems during the Naïve Gauss elimination
method?
Well, we can apply Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting. However, the determinant of the
resulting upper triangular matrix may differ by a sign. The following theorem applies in addition
to the previous two to find the determinant of a square matrix.
Theorem 3:
Let [ A] be a n×n matrix. Then, if [ B] is a matrix that results from switching one row
with another row, then det( B)=−det( A ) .
Example 4
Find the determinant of
10 −7 0
[
[ A ]= −3 2.099 6
5 −1 5 ]
Solution
The end of the forward elimination steps of Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting, we
would obtain
10 −7 0
[
[ B ]= 0 2.5 5
0 0 6.002 ]
det ( B )=10×2. 5×6. 002
=150. 05
Since rows were switched once during the forward elimination steps of Gaussian elimination
with partial pivoting,
det ( A )=−det( B)
=−150 . 05
3.3.2 LU Decomposition Method
For a non-singular matrix [ A ] on which one can successfully conduct the Naïve Gauss
elimination forward elimination steps, one can always write it as
[ A ] =[ L ][ U ]
Where:
[ L] = Lower triangular matrix
[U ]
= Upper triangular matrix
Then if one is solving a set of equations
[ A ][ X ]=[ C ] ,
Then,
[ L ][ U ][ X ] =[ C ] As ( [ A ]=[ L ][ U ] )
−1
Multiplying both sides by [ L ] ,
−1 −1
[ L ] [ L ] [ U ][ X ] =[ L ] [ C ]
[ I ] [ U ] [ X ] = [ L ]−1 [ C ] as ( [ L ]−1 [ L ] =[ I ])
[ U ] [ X ] =[ L ]−1 [ C ] as ( [ I ] [ U ] =[U ])
Let
[ L ]−1 [ C ] =[ Z ]
Then
[ L ][ Z ] =[ C ] (1)
And
[ U ][ X ]= [ Z ] (2)
So we can solve Equation (1) first for [ Z] by using forward substitution and then use
Equation (2) to calculate the solution vector [ X ] by back substitution.
How do I decompose a non-singular matrix [ A] , that is, how do I find [ A ] =[ L ][ U ] ?

If forward elimination steps of the Naïve Gauss elimination methods can be applied on a
nonsingular matrix, then [A] can be decomposed into LU as
a11 a 12 … a1 n
1 0 … 0
⋮
[
[ A ]= a21 a 22 ⋯ a2 n
⋮ ⋯ ⋮
a n1 an 2 ⋯ ann
u11 u 12 … u1 n
]
=
[
ℓ21 1
⋮ ⋮
ℓn 1 ℓn 2
⋯
⋯
⋯
0
⋮
1 ][ 0 u 22
⋮ ⋮
0 0
⋯ u2 n
⋯ ⋮
⋯ unn
]
The elements of the [ U ] matrix are exactly the same as the coefficient matrix one obtains at
the end of the forward elimination steps in Naïve Gauss elimination.
The lower triangular matrix [ L] has 1 in its diagonal entries. The non-zero elements on the
non-diagonal elements in [ L] are multipliers that made the corresponding entries zero in the
upper triangular matrix [ U ] during forward elimination.
Let us look at this using the same example as used in Naïve Gaussian elimination.
Example 1
Use LU decomposition to solve
20 x1 +15 x 2 +10 x 3 =45
−3 x1 −2 .249 x 2 +7 x 3 =1.751
5 x1 + x2 +3 x3 =9
Solution
Working in the matrix form,
[ A ][ X ]=[ C ]

20 15 10 x1 45
[ −3 −2.249 7
5 1 3 ] [] [ ]=
x2
x3
Find the LU decomposition of the matrix
1.751
9
[ A ] =[ L ] [ U ]
1 0 0 u 11 u12 u13
[
= ℓ21 1 0 0 u22 u23
ℓ31 ℓ 32 1 0 0 u33 ][ ]
The [U ] matrix is the same as found at the end of the forward elimination of Naïve Gauss
elimination method, that is
20 15 10
ℓ
[
[ U ] = 0 0.001 8. 5
0 0 23375.5 ] a
To find ℓ 21 and 31 , find the multiplier that was used to make the a21 and 31
elements zero in the first step of forward elimination of the Naïve Gauss elimination method. It
was
−3
ℓ 21 =
20 =0.15
5
ℓ 31= =0. 25
20
To find
ℓ 32 , what multiplier was used to make a32 element zero? Remember a32
element was made zero in the second step of forward elimination.
The [A] matrix at the beginning of the second step of forward elimination was
20 15 10
[ 0 0.001 8.5
0 −2.75 0.5 ]
So,
−2 . 75
ℓ 32= =−2750
0 . 001
Hence,

1 0 0
[
[ L ] = −0. 15 1 0
0 .25 −2750 1 ]
Now that [ L] and [U ]
are known, solve [ L ][ Z ] =[ C ]
1 0 0 z1 45
[ −0 .15 1
0.25 −2750 1
0 z2
z 3
] [] [ ]
=
1.751
This provides the three equations,

9
z 1=45
−0 .15 z 1 +z 2 =1. 751
0 .25 z 1 + (−2750 ) z 2 + z 3 =9
Forward substitution starting from the first equation gives

z 1=45
Substituting the value of z 1 into the second equation,
z 2=1 . 751+0. 15 z 1=1 .751+0 . 15(45 )=8 . 501
Substituting the values of z 1 and z 2 into the third equation,
z 3=9−0 . 25 z1 −(−2750 ) z 2
=9−0. 25 ( 45 ) −(−2750 ) ( 8 .501 )
=23375. 5
Hence,
z1 45
[ z ] =¿
[] [ ]
z2
z3
8.501
= 23375 .5
Now solve [ U ][ X ]= [ Z ]
20 15 10 x1 45
[ 0
0
0.001 8.5
0 23375 .5 ] [] [ ]
x2
x3
=
8.501
23375 .5
This provides the three equations for [ X ]
20 x 1+15 x 2 +10 x 3=45
0.001 x2 +8.5 x 3=8.501
23375.5 x 3=23375.5
From the third equation,
23375.5 x 3=23375.5
23375.5
x 3= =1
23375.5
Substituting the value of x 3 in to the second equation,
0.001 x2 +8.5 x 3=8.5010.001 x2 +8.5 (1)=8.501
x 2=1
Substituting the values of 3 and x 2 in to the first equation,
x
20 x 1+15 x 2 +10 x 3=45
20 x 1+15 (1)+10(1)=45
x 1=1
The solution vector is,
x1 1
[ ] []
x2
x3
=1
1
How do I find the inverse of a square matrix using LU decomposition?
A matrix [ B ] is the inverse of [ A ] if

[ A ][ B ] =[ I ] =[ B ][ A ] .
How can we use LU decomposition to find the inverse of the matrix? Assume the first column
T
of [ B ] (the inverse of [ A ] ) is [b 11 b12 ... ... bn 1 ] , Then from the above definition of an
inverse and the definition of matrix multiplication:
b11 1
[ ][]
[ A ] b21 = 0
b
⋮
n1
⋮
0
Similarly the second column of [B] is given by

b12 0
[A]
[ ][]
b22
b
⋮
=
n2
1
⋮
0
Similarly, all columns of [ B ] can be found by solving n different sets of equations with the
column of the right hand side being the n columns of the identity matrix.
Example 3
Use LU decomposition to find the inverse of

25 5 1
[
[ A ] = 64 8 1
144 12 1
Solution
]
Knowing that
[ A ] =[ L ][ U ]
1 0 0 25 5 1
[
= 2.56 1 0 0 −4.8 −1.56
5.76 3.5 1 0 ][0 0.7
−1
]
We can solve for the first column of [ B ]= [ A ] by solving for
25 5 1 b11 1
[ 64 8 1 b21 = 0
144 12 1 b31 0 ][ ] [ ]
First solve,
[ L ][ Z ] =[ C ] ,
That is
1 0 0 z1 1
[ 2. 56 1 0 z 2 = 0
5 . 76 3 . 5 1 z 3 0 ][ ] [ ]
To give
z 1=1
2. 56 z 1 +z 2 =0
5 .76 z 1 +3 . 5 z 2 +z 3 =0
Forward substitution starting from the first equation gives

z 1=1
z 2=0−2 .56 z 1

=0−2.56 ( 1 )
=−2.56
z 3=0−5 . 76 z 1 −3 .5 z 2
=0−5 .76 ( 1 ) −3.5 (−2.56 )
=3. 2
Hence,
z1 1
Now solve
[] [ ]
[ Z ]= z2
z3
= −2.56
3.2
[ U ][ X ]= [ Z ]
that is
25 5 1 b11 1
[ 0 0 0 . 7 b31 ][ ] [ ]
0 −4 .8 −1. 56 b21 = −2. 56
3.2
25 b11 +5 b 21+b 31=1

−4.8 b 21−1.56b31=−2 .56
0.7b 31=3.2
Backward substitution starting from the third equation gives
3.2
b31=
0 .7
=4.571
−2 .56+1. 56 b31
b21=
−4 . 8
−2 .56+1 . 56(4 . 571)
=
−4 .8
=−0.9524
1−5 b21−b 31
b11 =
25
1−5(−0 . 9524 )−4 .571
=
25
=0 .04762
Hence the first column of the inverse of [A] is

b11 0. 04762
[ ][ ]
b21 = −0 . 9524
b 31 4 .571
Similarly by solving
25 5 1 b12 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
64 8 1 b22 = 1
144 12 1 b 0 32
b12 −0 . 08333
[ ][ ]
b22 = 1 . 417
b 32 −5 . 000
And solving
25 5 1 b13 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
64 8 1 b23
144 12 1 b33 1
= 0
Gives
b13 0 .03571
[ ][ ]
b23 = −0. 4643
b 33 1 . 429
Hence
0.04762 −0.08333 0.03571
−1
[
[ A ] = −0.9524 1.417 −0 .4643
4.571 −5 .000 1.429
Can you confirm the following for the above example?
]
[ A ] [ A ]−1 =[ I ] =[ A ]−1 [ A ]
3.3.3 Gauss-Siedel Method

Why do we need another method to solve a set of simultaneous linear equations?
In certain cases, such as when a system of equations is large, iterative methods of solving
equations are more advantageous. Elimination methods, such as Gaussian elimination, are
prone to large round-off errors for a large set of equations. Iterative methods, such as the
Gauss-Seidel method, give the user control of the round-off error.
Given a general set of n equations and n unknowns, we have
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +a 13 x 3 +. ..+a1n x n =c 1
a21 x1 +a22 x 2 +a23 x 3 +.. .+a2 n x n =c 2
.
.
.
.
an 1 x 1 +a n2 x 2 +a n3 x 3 +.. .+ann x n=c n
If the diagonal elements are non-zero, each equation is rewritten for the corresponding
unknown, that is, the first equation is rewritten with x 1 on the left hand side, the second
equation is rewritten with x 2 on the left hand side and so on as follows
c −a x − a x . . ..− a x
x= 1 12 1 13 3 1n n
a
1
11
c2 −a 21 x 1−a23 x 3 ……−a 2n x n
x 2=
a22
.
.
c n−1 −a n−1,1 x 1−an−1,2 x 2 ……−a n−1 ,n−2 x n−2 −an−1, n x n
x n−1 =
an−1, n−1
c n −an 1 x1 −a n2 x 2 −……−an , n−1 x n−1
x n=
ann
These equations can be rewritten in a summation form as
¿ j≠1 ¿¿¿ ¿ ¿¿
n a11
¿ j≠2 ¿¿¿ x j ¿ ¿¿
n a22

¿ j≠n−1 ¿¿¿ ¿ ¿¿
n a n−1,n−1
¿ j≠n ¿¿¿ ¿ ¿¿
n ann
Hence for any row i ,
¿ j≠i ¿¿¿ ¿ ¿,i=1,2,…,n.¿

n aii
x x
Now to find i ’s, one assumes an initial guess for the i ’s and then uses the rewritten
equations to calculate the new estimates. Remember, one always uses the most recent
estimates to calculate the next estimates,
x i . At the end of each iteration, one calculates the
x
absolute relative approximate error for each i as
new old
x i −xi
|∈a|i=| |×100
x new
i
new old
Where x i
x
is the recently obtained value of i , and x i is the previous value of i .
x
When the absolute relative approximate error for each xi is less than the pre-specified
tolerance, the iterations are stopped.
The gauss-siedel method strictly converges if the coefficient matrix is strictly diagonally
dominant; otherwise the Gauss-Seidel method may or may not converge.
N.B: A matrix A of dimension NxN is said to be strictly diagonally dominant provided that
N
|a kk|> ∑|akj| For k=1, 2,… ,N.

j=1
j≠k
This means that in each row of the matrix the magnitude of the element on the main diagonal
must exceed the sum of the magnitudes of all other elements in the row.
Example 1
Find the solution to the following system of equations using the Gauss-Seidel method.
12 x 1 +3 x 2 −5 x3 =1
x 1 +5 x2 +3 x3 =28
3 x1 + 7 x2 +13 x 3 =76
Use

x1 1
[ ][]
x2 = 0
x3 1
As the initial guess.
Solution
The coefficient matrix
12 3 −5
[
[ A ]= 1 5 3
3 7 13
Is diagonally dominant as
]
|a11|=|12|=12≥|a12|+|a 13|=|3|+|−5|=8
|a 22|=|5|=5≥|a21|+|a 23|=|1|+|3|=4
|a33|=|13|=13≥|a31|+|a 32|=|3|+|7|=10
Hence, the solution should converge using the Gauss-Seidel method.
Rewriting the equations, we get
1−3 x 2 +5 x 3
x 1=
12
28−x 1−3 x 3
x 2=
5
76−3 x 1−7 x 2
x 3=
13
Assuming an initial guess of
x1 1
[ ][]
x2 = 0
x 3
1
Iteration #1
Substituting the guess values into the first equation
1−3 ( 0 ) +5 ( 1 )
x 1=
12
=0 .50000
Substituting the new value of x 1 and the remaining guess values into the second equation
28−( 0 . 50000 )−3 ( 1 )
x 2=
5
=4 . 9000
Substituting the new values of x 1, x 2, and the remaining guess values into the third equation
76−3 ( 0 .50000 )−7 ( 4 . 9000 )
x 3=
13
=3 . 0923
The absolute relative approximate error for each x then is
0.50000−1
|∈a|1=| |×100
0 .50000
=100 . 000 %
4 .9000−0
|∈a|2=| |×100
4 .9000
=100 . 000 %
3.0923−1
|∈a|3=| |×100
3.0923
=67 . 662 %
The maximum absolute relative approximate error is 100.000%
Iteration #2
The estimate of the solution vector at the end of Iteration #1 is
x1 0 . 50000
[ ][ ]
x 2 = 4 . 9000
x3 3 . 0923
Substituting the values from Iteration #1 into the first equation
1−3 ( 4 . 9000 )+5 ( 3 . 0923 )
x 1=
12
=0 .14679

Substituting the new value of x 1 and the remaining values from Iteration #1 into the second
equation
28−( 0 . 14679 )−3 ( 3 .0923 )
x 2=
5
=3.7153
Substituting the new value of x 1 , x 2 and the remaining values from Iteration #1 into the
second equation
76−3 ( 0 .14679 )−7 ( 3 .7153 )
x 3=
13
=3 . 8118
At the end of second iteration, the absolute relative approximate error is

0 .14679−0.50000
|∈a|1=| |×100
0.14679
=240 . 61 %
3 .7153−4.9000
|∈a|2=| |×100
3.7153
=31 . 889 %
3 .8118−3 .0923
|∈a|3=| |×100
3 .8118
=18 .874 %
The maximum absolute relative approximate error is 240.61%. This is greater than the value of
100.00% we obtained in the first iteration. Is the solution diverging? No, as you conduct more
iteration, the solution converges as follows.
Iteration x1 |∈a|1 % x2 |∈a|2 % x3 |∈a|3 %

1 0.50000 100.00 4.9000 100.00 3.0923 67.662
2 0.14679 240.61 3.7153 31.889 3.8118 18.874
3 0.74275 80.236 3.1644 17.408 3.9708 4.0064
4 0.94675 21.546 3.0281 4.4996 3.9971 0.65772
5 0.99177 4.5391 3.0034 0.82499 4.0001 0.074383

6 0.99919 0.74307 3.0001 0.10856 4.0001 0.00101
This is close to the exact solution vector of
x1 1
[ ][]
x2 = 3
x3 4

CH 3 System of Linear Equations and Matrices

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Mettu University Department of Electrical and computer Engineering

3.1 introduction to vectors and matrices

Some special properties of vectors and Matrices

3.2 Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions

Matrix algebra is used to solve a system of simultaneous linear equations.

Computational Methods Page 1

a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯⋯+a1 n x n=c1

Denoting the matrices by [ A ] ,

A system of equations can be consistent or inconsistent. What does that mean?

A system of equations [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] is consistent if the rank of A is equal to the rank of the

Computational Methods Page 2

A system of equations [ A ] [ X ] =[ C ] is inconsistent if the rank of A is less than the rank of

Computational Methods Page 3

Computational Methods Page 4

If a solution exists, how do we know whether it is unique?

Computational Methods Page 5

Computational Methods Page 6

3.3 Methods of solution of Linear Equations

Gaussian elimination consists of two steps:

Forward Elimination of Unknowns:

Computational Methods Page 8

a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 + a13 x3 +.. .+a 1n x n =b1

Computational Methods Page 10

To get the resulting equations as

Hence the solution is:

Are there any pitfalls of the Naïve Gauss elimination method?

Computational Methods Page 12

But what about the equations below: Is division by zero a problem?

Computational Methods Page 13

This is different from the exact solution of

Computational Methods Page 14

Forward Elimination of Unknowns

Subtract the result from Row 3

Computational Methods Page 15

Subtract the result from Row 3

Substituting the value of

Computational Methods Page 16

Computational Methods Page 17

3.3.2 LU Decomposition Method

How do I decompose a non-singular matrix [ A] , that is, how do I find [ A ] =[ L ][ U ] ?

Computational Methods Page 20

Computational Methods Page 21

This provides the three equations,

Forward substitution starting from the first equation gives

A matrix [ B ] is the inverse of [ A ] if

Similarly the second column of [B] is given by

Computational Methods Page 23

Forward substitution starting from the first equation gives

Computational Methods Page 24

25 b11 +5 b 21+b 31=1

Hence the first column of the inverse of [A] is

3.3.3 Gauss-Siedel Method

These equations can be rewritten in a summation form as

Computational Methods Page 27

¿ j≠i ¿¿¿ ¿ ¿,i=1,2,…,n.¿

|a kk|> ∑|akj| For k=1, 2,… ,N.

Computational Methods Page 28

As the initial guess.

Computational Methods Page 30

At the end of second iteration, the absolute relative approximate error is

Iteration x1 |∈a|1 % x2 |∈a|2 % x3 |∈a|3 %

Computational Methods Page 31

6 0.99919 0.74307 3.0001 0.10856 4.0001 0.00101