In medieval period, India used to export commodities like spices, calicoes, silk and various precious

stones.

The treaty of Tordesillas was between Portugal and Spain on which area can be occupied by the. An
imaginary line 1300 miles west of Cape Verde island wad drawn and it was signed that Portugal can
occupy and claim everything to east of this line and Spain to the west of this line.

Vasco de Gama (Portuguese) was the first to discover the sea route to Calicut in 1498, India by crossing
the Africa for the business of spices.

Pedro Alvarez Cabral was the Portuguese to discover the Brazil country in SA and later setup a factory in
Calicut (Kozhikode) for spices and then became friend with Kingdom of Cochin (Kochi) and Cannanore
(Kannur) for spices due to attack on his properties in Calicut.

Gradually Cochin, Cannanore & Calicut became the important trade centers of the Portuguese.

The non-availability of timber in the Gulf and Red Sea regions for ship-building also helped the
Portuguese (Genoese, Italy provided ships and technical knowledge to Portugal’s at very first place) in
their objectives (like introducing a permit system for other ships in Indian ocean regions and
monopolizing the trade of spices)

Alfonso de Albuquerque,2nd governor of Portugal (1st was Francisco De Almeida) in India acquired Goa
from Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 with ease; the principal port of the Sultan of Bijapur (Vijayapura) became
“the first bit of Indian territory to be under the European since the time of Alexander the Great” , An
interesting feature of his rule was abolition of Sati.

The Portuguese men introduced new crops like cashew nuts and tobacco and better plantations of
coconut to meet the need for coir rigging and cordage (ropes for ships).

Treaty of Bassein – Done by Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat with Portuguese (as he wants to get help from
Portuguese to fight with Humayun). So, control of Island of Bassein, Mumbai was given to Portuguese
and also, he promised them a base in Diu.

Portuguese occupied some 60 miles of coast around Goa, they controlled narrow tract in the west from
Mumbai to Daman and Diu to the approaches to Gujarat with 4 important ports and also south ports –
Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, and Calicut. Also, they established settlements San Thome (Chennai)
and Nagapatnam (Andhra) and a wealthy settlement at Hooghly in WB. Interestingly, Portuguese the
first Europeans to come to India, were also the last to leave this land (1961 Goa and Daman & Diu)

From North to South – Goa, Mangalore, Kannur, Kozhikode, Kodungallur, Cochin.

The Moors were the bitter enemies of the Portuguese in North Africa. So were the Arabs.

In 1608, Captain William Hawkins came to Surat with a letter from James 1 King of England, to the
Mughal court of Jahangir. Hawkins knew the Turki language well so he conversed with Jahangir without
interpreter. Jahangir was pleased and made him mansabdar (Power of Language). Also, the grant of
trading facilities to the English offended the Portuguese. The Portuguese stopped the English ships from
entering the port of Surat. (Surat is a coastal city in Gujarat, Tapti River flows through Surat city)
In 1612, the English ship DRAGON under Captain BEST and a small ship the OSIANDER successfully
fought Portuguese fleet. Jahangir was impressed. In 1613 Portuguese offended Jahangir, capturing
Mughal ships, torturing Muslims. During reign of Shah Jahan, advantages to Portuguese were lost
forever and also lost their hopes of converting the royal family and Mughal India to Christianity.

In 1632 Shah Jahan ordered to remove the Portuguese from Hooghly Port after their nefarious activities.
The seize of Hooghly finally led to the Portuguese fleeing.

The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739 from the Portuguese.

The union of the two Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal in 1580-81, dragging the smaller kingdom into
Spain’s wars with England and Holland, badly affected Portuguese monopoly of trade in India.

Persia’s present name is IRAN and Holland’s present name is NETHERLANDS.

Goa which remained with the Portuguese had lost its importance as a port after the fall of Vijayanagar
empire and soon it did not matter in whose possession it was and Goa was superseded by Brazil as the
economic centre of the overseas empire of Portugal. In 1683, after two naval assaults, the Marathas
invaded Goa.

However, it can not be forgotten that the missionaries and the church were also teachers and patrons in
India of the arts of the painter, carver, and sculptor. As in music, they were the interpreters, not just of
Portuguese, but of European art to India. The art of silversmith and goldsmith flourished at Goa, and the
place became a centre of elaborate filigree work, fretted foliage work and metal work embedding
jewels.

VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE – Established in 1336 it lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a
major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.
The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi,
now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.

Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. After their arrival in
India, the Dutch founder their first factory in Masulipatnam (present day Machilipatnam in NH 9 Pune to
Machilipatnam) (in Andhra) in 1605. They capture Nagapatam from Portuguese. In 1609, they opened a
factory in Pulicat, north of Madras.

The Dutch participated in the redistribution or carrying trade, they took to the islands of the far east
various articles and merchandise from India. They carried Indigo manufactured in the Yamuna valley and
central India, textiles and silk from WB, GJ and the Coromandel, Saltpetre from Bihar and opium and rice
from the Ganga valley.

Saltpetre in India. India's gunpowder production system

India was the largest gunpowder production system – in the history of the world, till the 20th century.
Specifically, Bengal and Bihar regions. Operated by a caste of peoples called the nuniah, saltpetre beds
supplied the most vital element in gunpowder – saltpetre.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry – English v/s Dutch – After prolonged warfare, both came to an agreement in 1667
by which British agree to withdraw all their claims on Indonesia, and Dutch retired from India to
concentrate on their more profitable trade in Indonesia. They monopolised the trade in black pepper
and spices. The most important Indian commodities the Dutch traded in were silk, cotton, Indigo, rice
and opium. However, defeat of Dutch by English in Battle of Hooghly in 1759 result in crushing blow to
Dutch ambitions in India.

1600: The East India Company is established. In 1609 William Hawkins arrives at Jahangir’s court. In
1611, the English started trading at Masulipatnam on the south-eastern coast of India and later
established a factory there in 1616. In 1613, a permanent factory at Surat is established. In 1633 The
Company established its first factory in east India in Hariharpur, Balasore Odisha. In 1639, the company
gets lease of Madras from a local King. In 1651, The company is given permission to trade at Hooghly. In
1662, Bombay had been gifted to King Charles II by the King of Portugal as dowry. Later Bombay was
made the HQ by shifting the seat of Western Presidency from Surat to Bombay in 1687. In 1667,
Aurangzeb gives the English a Farman for trade in Bengal. In 1717 the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar
issues a Farman, called Magna Carta of the company, giving the co. a large no of trade concessions.

The East India Company’s position was improved by the ‘Golden Farman’ issued by then king of
Golconda in 1632 getting a privilege of freely trade in ports of Golconda on a payment of 500 pagodas
annually.

French were the last Europeans to come to India with the purpose of trade. Pondicherry was the
stronghold of the French in India. They also established factory in Surat, Masulipatnam and a township
at Chandernagore near Calcutta. But there was early setback to French East India Co. Dutch acquired
Pondicherry from French. Treaty of Ryswick concluded Pondicherry back to French. But War of Spain
succession broke out and French had to abandon their factories.

But in 1720 French company reorganized. Further, French India was backed by the French possession of
Mauritius and Reunion in the southern Indian Ocean.

Then Anglo-French rivalry which started with Austrian War of Succession and ended with the conclusion
of the Seven Years war

In India Anglo-French rivalry resulted in three Carnatic wars (The Carnatic region is the region of
peninsular South India lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal)

1st Carnatic war (1740-48) was an extension of Anglo-French War in Europe caused by Austrian war of
succession. France captured Madras inspite of very small but disciplined military. Ended with Treaty of
Aix-La Chapelle bringing Austrian war od succession to an end and handing over of Madras to British in
return to territories of French in North America.

2nd Carnatic war (1749-54) ‘s background was provided by rivalry in India. After Battle of Ambur (near
Vellore) Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of River Krishna.
Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa coast (including Masulipatnam) were
ceded to the French. But rivalry goes on and to end war negotiations happened and concluded with a
treaty that the English and the French will not interfere in the quarrels of native princes. Also, each party
was left with the possession of the territories actually occupied by them at the time of treaty.

3rd Carnatic War (1758-1763) ’s background was in Europe when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in
1756, the Seven Year War (1756-1763) started. Then the decisive Battle of Wandiwash TN won by
English. Although the Treaty of peace of Paris (1763) resorted to the French their factories in India, the
French political influence disappeared. Like Portuguese and Dutch, French confined themselves to their
small enclaves and to commerce. The English became the supreme power in the Indian Subcontinent.
(Dutch has already been defeated in the Battle of Bidara (present day Chinsurah, WB) (1759). The
Battle of Plassey (1757) is usually regarded by historians as the decisive event that brought about
ultimate British rule over India. But the victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Co. with no
European rival in India. (Lack of sensitivity to geopolitics and lack of foresight on part of native rulers)

The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal
and his French allies on 23 June 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive which was possible due to
the defection of Mir Jafar Ali Khan, who was Siraj-ud-Daulah's commander in chief.

Danish East India Company found a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore in 1620, on the eastern coast of
India. Their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta. The Danes were better known for their
missionary activities than for commerce. So, they sold their company to British Govt. in 1845.

It is argued that Aurangzeb’s misguided policies weakened the stability of the state and the decline
gained momentum after his death due to wars of succession and weak rulers. After Aurangzeb (1658-
1707), Muhammad Shah (1719-48) (Rangeela) ruled 29 years but he was incompetent. In between
Bahadur Shah I (1709-12) was the last Emperor of whom anything favourable can be said.

The Battle of Karnal (24 February 1739), was a decisive victory for Nader Shah, the founder of
the Afsharid dynasty of Persia, during his invasion of India. Nader's forces defeated the army
of Muhammad Shah within three hours, paving the way for the Persian sack of Delhi.

Ahmad Shah Abdali was successor of Nader Shah after 1747 and invaded India many times between
1748 to 1767 and continuously harassed Mughals and captured Punjab and take control over Delhi using
his man. Later in 1758 expelled by Marathas from Delhi and Punjab and in 1759 Ahmad Shah Abdali
returned to take revenge from Marathas and defeat Marathas in 1761 in Third Battle of Panipat.

The First Battle of Panipat, on 21 April 1526, was fought between the invading forces of Babur and
the Lodi dynasty. It took place in north India and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire and the
end of the Delhi Sultanate.

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian
subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially:
the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–
1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

The Second Battle of Panipat was fought on 5 November 1556, between the Hindu emperor of north
India Hem Chandra Vikramaditya and forces of Akbar. Hemu had conquered the states
of Delhi and Agra a few weeks earlier by defeating the Mughals led by Tardi Beg Khan at the Battle of
Delhi and proclaimed himself Raja Vikramaditya at a coronation in Purana Quila in Delhi. Akbar and his
guardian Bairam Khan who, after learning of the loss of Agra and Delhi, had marched to Panipat to
reclaim the lost territories. And won 2nd Battle of Panipat.

Humayun ruled from 1530-40 and 1555-56 and in between Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) and his successors
ruled. Panipat was on the route of Grand Trunk Road by Sher Shah Suri.
Bahadur Shah I (1709-1712) adopted a pacific policy with the Marathas, the Rajputs and the Jats.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-19) was the first time in the Mughal history that was killed by his nobles. (Sayyid
brothers).

Muhammad Shah (1719-48) killed the Sayyid brothers (known as King makers) with the help of Nizam-
ul-Mulk. In 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk became the wazir and found the independent state of Hyderabad.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806) reign saw two decisive battles – 3rd battle of Panipat and Battle of Buxar
(1764). In 1765, according to terms of Treaty of Allahabad he was taken under protection of East India
Company. He also issued a farman granting to the company in perpetuity the Diwani, right to collect
revenue of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.

The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764, between the forces under the command of the
British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of
Bengal till 1763. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.

Akbar II (1806-37) gave the title of Raja to Rammohan Rai.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857) or Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal Emperor. The Revolt of 1857
had made a futile attempt to declare him the Emperor of India.

In legal terms, the Mughal Emperor came to an end on November 1, 1858 with the declaration of Queen
Victoria.

Aurangzeb’s religious policy was largely responsible, leading to the revolts by Sikhs, Marathas, Rajputs
and Jats. Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy was a complete failure and was an important cause of downfall of
the Mughal Empire.

DECCAN POLICY Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy refers to the extended period of conflict and diplomacy
between the Mughals and the states of Bijapur, Golconda and the Maratha Swarashtra under Shivaji and
his successors. Historians have attributed this to both territorial necessities of the Mughal State and
Aurangzeb’s personal religious zeal. The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb forms an important part of Mughal
historical study since it can also be argued that the economical dimension of the conquest of Deccan
marked the beginning of the decline of Mughal power in India.

At one time the Rajputs controlled the entire territory extending from the south of Delhi upto the
western coast.

Tripartite Treaty was in 1838 between Raja Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja and the English Company where
by Ranjit Singh agreed to provide passage to the British troops through Punjab with a view to placing
Shuja on the throne of Kabul.

The provincial rulers failed to develop a system based on sound financial, administrative and military
organisation. In fact, these states were strong enough to challenge Mughal power, but none was able to
replace it with a stable polity at all-India level.
During 18th century India was self sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products, India did not import
foreign goods on a large scale. On the other hand, its industrial and agricultural products were in good
demand in foreign markets. Hence its exports were more than its import; trade was balanced by import
of Gold and Silver.

J T Sunderland said India has great architecture - equal in beauty to any in the world. She had great
engineering works. She had great merchants, great businessmen, great bankers and financers. Not only
was she the greatest shipbuilding nation but she had great commerce and trade by land and sea which
extend to all known civilized countries. Such was the India which the British found when they came.

Religious conversations occurred and caste proved to be a major divisive force and element of
disintegration in 18th century India.

The imperial history of Britain started with the conquest of Ireland in the 16th century.

On Indian side the spirit of fighting for a united cause was not their motivation. Thus, they often
supported Britishers against neighboring rulers. The ‘consciousness’ of India was lacking.