Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757

www.fuelfirst.com

Prediction of sorption equilibrium both in air and superheated

steam drying of energetic variety of willow Salix viminalis
in a wide temperature range
Zdzislaw Pakowski *, Beata Krupinska, Robert Adamski
Faculty of Process and Environmental Engineering, Lodz Technical University, 213 Wolczanska, 90-924 Lodz, Poland

Received 5 October 2006; received in revised form 4 January 2007; accepted 5 January 2007
Available online 14 February 2007

Abstract

Sorption isotherms and isobars of energetic variety of willow Salix viminalis in a wide range of temperature and water activity were
determined. In order to investigate sorption isobars a specially constructed set-up was built. The sorption isotherms were determined in
the water bath and CIsorp water sorption analyser. The experimental data were compared with the literature data. It was found out that
water activity of willow as a function of temperature and moisture content can be described by one generalized equation. The equation
can be then used for the purpose of prediction of sorption equilibrium during wood drying process in a wide range of temperatures and
moisture contents.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biomass; Willow; Sorption equilibrium; Sorption isobars; Sorption isotherms

1. Introduction tion time support willow S. viminalis as an attractive

Energy plays a crucial role in contemporary life and
consumption of energy is growing by about 1.5–2% a year.
A well known and most often used fossil fuels have two
main disadvantages. First, during burning process they
emit greenhouse gases. Second, countries without adequate
resources of gas, oil or coal face running out of their energy
supplies. For this reason and in accordance with the Kyoto
Protocol it is necessary to pay more attention to renewable
energy resources. The most abundant energy resource on
the Earth is biomass, especially that one obtained from
energetic plantations like willow Salix viminalis. It is char-
acterized by high energy efficiency and relatively highest
calorific value in comparison with other plants – Table 1.
Apart from these points, low gas emission to the atmo-
sphere, small amount of ash and strong growth in vegeta-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 426373731; fax: +48 426364923.
E-mail address: pakowski@wipos.p.lodz.pl (Z. Pakowski).
renewable energy resource.
The solar energy stored in chemical form in plant is
going to play a significant role in reaching the planned
7.5% energy share from renewable resources in total Polish
energy production. Unfortunately, biomass contains a high
amount of water and before combustion it has to be dried.
There are many alternative ways of biomass drying, but
superheated steam drying (SSD) seems to be the best solu-
tion, especially when large scale production is taken into
account. Using superheated steam as a drying medium
allows for enormous energy savings by reusing the excess
steam, closing the drying cycle thereby avoiding the emis-
sions to the atmosphere. Moreover, superheated steam
gives the possibility of softening the wood tissue before pel-
letization. Furthermore, thanks to the anaerobic environ-
ment, the oxidation is avoided.
Drying processes are amongst the best known, however
an improper design of the dryer and the whole process can
entail enormous costs and loss. That is why a good knowl-
edge of sorptional properties of the plant is necessary to

0016-2361/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2007.01.016
1750 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757

Notations

aw water activity () T temperature (C)

a1, a 2, a3, a4, a5, a6 constants () X moisture content (kg/kg)
p0 ambient pressure (Pa) R multiple correlation coefficient ()
pS saturated water vapor pressure at superheated
steam temperature (Pa)

Table 1 out that moisture in wood exists in two forms – bound

Characterization of several plants species with respect to their calorific and capillary water [5] . Bound water exists in the cell wall
value and energy efficiency [1]
and is hydrogen bonded to the hydroxyl groups of cellu-
Cultivation Calorific Energetic efficiency lose, hemicellulose and lignin. Moisture content in form
value (GJ/t) (GJ/ha year)
of bound water is limited by the number of sorption sites
One-year’s Rye 18.5 37 available and by the number of molecules of water which
cultivation Alfalfa 19.0 152
can be held on a sorption site.
Short-rotation Willow S. 19.5 487 The capillary water in wood exists in liquid form in the
plantation viminalis
lumens and voids of the wood. The amount of free water is
Mallow 11.7 292
limited by the porosity of wood. Free water is held only by
shorten the drying time and minimize the size of the dryer weak capillary forces and cannot cause swelling, shrinking
thereby lower the capital costs. The equilibrium water or other changes in physical properties, because the cell
activity determines the driving force available for the dry- wall is already saturated by much more tightly bound
ing process. hygroscopic water [5]. Sorption isotherm (in air drying)
Thermodynamic equilibrium between the wet wood and and sorption isobar (in SSD) represent thermodynamic
drying medium is described as a dependence of water activ- equilibrium between the wet solid and drying medium.
ity on the moisture content and temperature. Depending In the literature there exist many studies on the drying
on the drying medium, water activity is described processes of fuels obtained from biomass. Most of them
differently. concern experiments in low temperature range especially
In superheated steam drying, the activity of water is when energetic varieties are taken into account [6], where
equal to the ratio of total pressure – p0, which is equal to sorption isotherms for S. viminalis at low temperature of
the actual pressure of the superheated steam to the satura- 20 C are reported. Some sorptional data for wood in
tion pressure at superheated steam temperature – pS [2]: general [7–10] and sorptional data for pine wood of Pinus
p radiata variety [11,12] are available in the literature. High
aw ¼ 0 ð1Þ temperature studies [13–17] concentrate mostly on wood
pS ðtÞ
that does not originate from energetic plantations (spruce,
When the measurement is carried out at constant pressure aspen, beech, eucalypt) – for example, water activity for
p0 the water activity vs. time at constant p0 is named a sorp- these kinds of wood were measured at constant tempera-
tion isobar. For air drying, water activity is defined as the tures up to 160 C (Fig. 1), whereas sorption isobars were
ratio of partial pressure of water vapor to the saturation determined for spruce, beech and eucalyptus (Fig. 2). Some
pressure at the same temperature. Since the temperature of the authors [18] suggest that the less moisture content of
is held constant the curve is named a sorption isotherm. wood the less are the differences in sorption isotherms for
In the present work the measurements of sorption different wood species.
isobars and isotherms for energetic species of willow S. Based on the literature review mentioned above, specific
viminalis, were performed and combined with the results aims of the present work have been formulated. First of all,
available in the literature. It should be mentioned that the determination of sorption isobars for willow S. vimi-
the literature data connected with energetic varieties of nalis was undertaken because of the lack of that data in
wood are scarce in the literature. After combining together the literature. Secondly, the experiments concerning sorp-
the experimental and available literature data it was possi- tion isotherms were performed in a wide range of temper-
ble to fit them with one universal equation that can be fur- ature and water activity and compared with data
ther used both in SSD and in air drying of energetic wood presented in the literature. On the basis of the results
varieties. obtained during the experiments and data available in the
literature the trial of combining them in one set was under-
2. Earlier work taken. It was found out that all available data can be
described by one, universal and generalized equation that
The structure and chemical composition of wood have can help to predict moisture equilibrium both in air drying
been investigated for many decades [3,4]. It was found and superheated steam drying processes. This approach
 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
Fig. 1. Equilibrium moisture content of wood in three different temper-
atures of superheated steam [17].
Fig. 2. Sorption isobars for beech, spruce and eucalyptus [13,14].
presents a generalization of drying equilibrium over wide
range of temperatures and moisture contents.
3. Experimental
3.1. Samples for sorption isotherm determination
Sorption isotherms altogether with the hysteresis phe-
nomena of the energetic variety of willow S. viminalis were
investigated. The experiments were performed for temper-
ature range: 20–85 C.
Sorption isotherms were studied in two different ways.
Firstly, the simple water bath containing saturated salts
solutions was used in order to determine the sorption iso-
therm for 30 C, 50 C, 76 C, 85 C . Each sample was
cut into chips approximately 5 · 3 · 0.5 mm and ca. 3–4 g
in weight. Experiments were made in duplicate.
Secondly, CIsorp water sorption analyser was used. In
this case the adsorption and desorption isotherms alto-
gether with hysteresis phenomena at 20 C, 50 C and
75 C for samples of willow S. viminalis were studied. Each
sample was cut also into chips approximately 5 · 3 ·
1751
0.5 mm and ca. 50 mg in weight. Experiments were made
in duplicate as well.
3.2. Samples for sorption isobar determination
In order to investigate sorption isobars of wood 3-year
stems of S. viminalis were collected in winter season. The
stems were ca. 2 m in length and 30 mm in diameter.
The measurements were done at atmospheric pressure
p = 1.003 kPa. The experiments were carried out at several
different temperatures of superheated steam: 102 C,
105 C, 107 C, 110 C, 115 C, 120 C and 125 C.
Each measurement was made in duplicate. Each sample
was cut into chips approximately 5 · 3 · 0.5 mm and ca.
40 mg in weight. The time of one isobar determination
was ca. 14 h.
3.3. Experimental set-up and methods
3.3.1. Water bath for sorption isotherm determination
In order to determine the sorption isotherm, the water
bath MLL 147 (AJL Electronic) (Fig. 3) was used. The
set-up gave a possibility to monitor the sample mass loss.
The sample was hanged in a small container above a satu-
rated salt solution. The applied salts were as follows:
K2SO4, KCl, NaCl, NaNO2, NaBr, Na2Cr2O7, K2CO3,
MgCl2, CH3COOK.
During the measurements the sample was placed in the
container above saturated salt solution of known relative
humidity. The whole system was thermostated. Weighing
of the sample took place in the constant conditions until
the equilibrium was established. The time of equilibrium
establishing was ca. 20 h. Special preventive measures to
eliminate possible weight change due to microbial growth
were taken.
Fig. 3. Water bath for sorption isotherm determination: 1 – thermostat, 2
– electronic balance, 3 – set of salts, 4 – thermostatic container, 5 –
container with sample, 6 – base, and 7 – sample dish hanged on a thin
wire.
1752 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
3.3.2. CIsorp water sorption analyser for sorption isotherm
determination
The experimental set-up – CIsorp water sorption ana-
lyser (CI Electronics Ltd.) equipment (Fig. 4) consisted of
weighing chamber, humidifier and heat exchanger. The
whole equipment was controlled with a PC.
Weighing chamber contained weighing pans suspended
from two microbalances (working independently from each
other). Changes in the sample masses as a result of uptake
or loss of water were monitored and recorded. The dry gas
(in this case dry air) was fed to the weighing chamber and
humidifier. The wet and dry gas flows were brought up to
the required weighing chamber temperature and mixed
together just before they enter the chamber. The chamber
contained calibrated humidity probe what enabled to mon-
itor and control the relative humidity inside.
The unit contained also a microprocessor which held the
set-points for the flows and temperatures. It continuously
monitored the wet and dry flows, temperatures of the
humidifier, weighing chamber and relative humidity. It
continuously calculated the balance weights reading as
well. For each experiment wet sample of wood was inserted
into the weighing chamber and 19 step changes relative
humidity (0.9–0.0–0.9) were allowed. In this way the hys-
teresis phenomenon (desorption–adsorption isotherms)
could be investigated. The cut-off criteria for steps were
set in terms of fixed time (1200 min) or rate of weight
change (0.001%/min). The weighing accuracy was ±1 lg.
3.3.3. Set-up for sorption isobar determination
The sorption isobars were determined in a specially con-
structed set-up (Fig. 5) by continuous weighing the sample
Fig. 4. CIsorp water sorption analyser for sorption isotherm determination.
hung in a tray-5 in superheated steam environment. Steam
was produced in a boiler-1 and superheated to the required
temperature in an electrical superheater-2. Next, super-
heated steam went through a calming section-3 filled with
stainless steel shavings in order to equalize the flow. After
leaving the measuring section the superheated steam was
condensed in a cooler and returned as liquid water to the
boiler. The whole set-up was insulated and externally
heated in order to avoid steam condensation on the walls.
After the set-up was heated, the sample of fresh biomass
was placed on the tray. The mass of the sample was mon-
itored at given steam temperature until a constant value
was reached, then the temperature was increased to a
new value and a new equilibrium was obtained. The sample
mass measurement accuracy was ±0.001 g. The measure-
ments were made in duplicate.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Results of sorption isotherms determination
The experimental results of desorption isotherms for S.
viminalis at 30 C, 50 C, 76 C, 85 C obtained from the
water bath are presented in Fig. 6 and compared to the lit-
erature data. Fig. 7 shows the experimental data of desorp-
tion isotherms at 20 C, 50 C, 75 C measured in CIsorp
water sorption analyser altogether with data presented in
the literature. The errors of the measurements are pre-
sented only for one series in each figure in order to make
the figures more clear and transparent.
Willow, like other kinds of wood, shows an increase of
moisture content with increasing water activity at constant
 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
Fig. 5. Set-up for sorption isobar determination: 1 – boiler, 2 –
superheater, 3 – calming section, 4 – steam temperature measurement, 5
– sample, and 6 – balance.
Fig. 6. Sorption isotherms for S. viminalis obtained from water bath.
temperature. According to Brunauer’s classification the
sorption isotherms of willow exhibit the sigmoidal shape
and can be classified as a type II isotherm. The experimen-
tal data in both cases indicate that moisture content
decreases with increasing temperature at constant water
1753
Fig. 7. Sorption isotherms for S. viminalis obtained from CIsorp water
sorption analyser.
activity what is caused by decreasing wood hygroscopicity.
The temperature change is an important parameter that
has an effect on chemical reactions during wood drying.
With temperature increase water activity increases as well
at the same moisture content, which influence material
quality and storage stability [19]. The temperature increase
influences the water binding properties by reducing the
number of active water binding sites. It is said [20] that
at higher temperatures water molecules get activated to
higher energy levels, causing them to become less stable
and break away from the water binding sites of the mate-
rial, thus decreasing the equilibrium moisture content.
The analysis of Figs. 6 and 7 shows that sorption is not
highly influenced by temperature for willow. It can be
explained on the basis of chemical composition and struc-
ture of wood. Willow belongs to softwoods and consists of
tracheids. Softwoods are less complex and heterogeneous
in comparison with hardwoods [17]. Generally in soft-
woods there is more lignin than in hardwoods and lignin
sorbs water less than wood cellulose does. The content of
organic compound in wood is presented in Table 2 [21].
4.1.1. Hysteresis phenomena
On the basis of experimental data obtained from CIsorp
water sorption analyser the hysteresis phenomena were
observed for temperatures 20 C, 50 C, 75 C and exam-
ined (Figs. 8–10).
It is observed in the figures presented above, that the
equilibrium moisture content for desorption is always
Table 2
Chemical composition of wood [21]
Composition (%) Hardwoods Softwoods
Cellulose 40–44 40–44
Hemicellulose 15–35 20–32
Lignin 18–25 25–35
1754 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
Fig. 8. Hysteresis phenomena for S. viminalis at 20 C.
Fig. 9. Hysteresis phenomena for S. viminalis at 50 C.
Fig. 10. Hysteresis phenomena for S. viminalis at 75 C.
higher than for adsorption, at a particular water activity.
The hysteresis has a significant meaning especially when
Fig. 11. Sorption isobars for willow S. viminalis.
storage conditions are taken into considerations. It means
that for wood, not only from energetic plantations, it is
better to dry the product before storage.
4.2. Results of sorption isobar determination
In the literature there is a lack of sorptional data at high
temperature for energetic varieties of wood, that is why the
comparison with the literature data is almost impossible.
As it was mentioned above, the only data available in the
literature for high temperature concern sorption isobars
of beech and spruce [13]. For these species the experiments
were performed under similar conditions to those presented
in our work. Nevertheless, it is difficult to compare the
results because beech belongs to hardwoods, whereas
spruce and willow are softwoods. However, the preliminary
analysis shows good agreement between the results of
experiments carried out for willow and spruce. Experimen-
tally determined sorption isobar for S. viminalis is pre-
sented in Fig. 11.
5. Analysis
All sorptional data obtained during the experiments car-
ried out in a wide range of temperatures and moisture con-
tents altogether with data available in the literature for
energetic variety of willow S. viminalis were used to pro-
duce one, universal and generalized sorptional equilibrium
equation. In order to describe the relationship of water
activity on temperature and moisture content Karlsson–
Soininen [22] equation was used.
Many attempts with other equation types indicated that
this particular one provides the best fit to the experimental
data.
The obtained equation is plotted vs. data points for our
own experimental data series together with Gigler’s data
(Figs. 12 and 13), and all collected 109 data points in
Fig. 14.
In order to build one equation, data produced for the
purpose of this paper were taken and combined with the
 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757 1755

Fig. 12. Literature [6] and own experimental data for sorption isotherm and curve obtained from the Karlsson–Soininen equation obtained in this work.

Table 3
Sorptional equilibrium data for S. viminalis used in the present work
Reference Sorption Temperature Numbers of
isotherm/isobar range (C) data points
Gigler et al. Sorption isotherm 20 13–24
(2000)
This work Sorption isotherm 30 83–109
from water bath 50
76
85
Sorption isotherm 20 25–82
from CIsorp water 50
sorption analyser 75
Sorption isobar 100–125 1–12
Fig. 13. Own experimental data for sorption isobar and curve obtained
from the Karlsson–Soininen equation obtained in this work.
Altogether 109 data points were compiled and curve fitted
using Matlab software.
Modified Karlsson–Soininen equation [22]:
pffiffiffiffi
aw ¼ exp½T  expða1  X þ a2  X þ a3 Þ
pffiffiffiffi
 expða4  X þ a5  X þ a6 Þ ð2Þ
a1 ¼ 32:591; a2 ¼ 14:229; a3 ¼ 6:167
a4 ¼ 14:261; a5 ¼ 2:057; a6 ¼ 0:785

Convergence intervals at 95% confidence level are

respectively:
a1 ¼ 73:223 to 8:0411; a2 ¼ 8:9521 to 37:41;
a3 ¼ 9:4026 to  2:9308 a4 ¼ 25:779 to  2:7433;
a5 ¼ 4:8071 to 8:9213; a6 ¼ 0:21417 to 1:7841

Fig. 14. The surface of equilibrium water activity as a function of
temperature and moisture content by Karlsson–Soininen equation.
literature data [6]. Collected data in a form of database
shown in Table 3 includes wide temperature range 20–
125 C and wide moisture content range of 0.0–0.9 kg/kg.
Correlation coefficient R = 0.93066
As it was mentioned before together with the Karlsson–
Soininen equation other equations were tested. Three dif-
ferent equations were compared, but the quality of the
fitting was not satisfactory – Table 4.
As results from the quality of the fitting, the Karlsson–
Soininen equation (2) is the most suitable of the equations
1756 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
Table 4
Tested sorption isotherm equations
Equation Form of the equation
a3
Modified Henderson equation aw ¼ 1  exp½a1  ða2 þ T Þ  X 
a1 ¼ 0:110; a2 ¼ 39:093; a3 ¼ 1:068
aw ¼ expða1  T a2  expða3  T a4  X ÞÞ
Chen–Clayton equation a1 ¼ 46:409; a2 ¼ 0:766; a3 ¼ 26:724; a4 ¼ 0:1778
 
a1
aw ¼ exp  expða3  X Þ
Chung and Pfost equation a2 þ T
a1 ¼ 194:66; a2 ¼ 32:946; a3 ¼ 13:579
h  pffiffiffiffi 
Karlsson–Soininen equation aw ¼ exp T  exp a1  X þ a2  X þ a3  exp a4  X þ a5  X þ a6
a1 ¼ 32:591; a2 ¼ 14:229; a3 ¼ 6:167;
a4 ¼ 14:261; a5 ¼ 2:057; a6 ¼ 0:785
tested to describe water activity of energetic variety of wil-
low S. viminalis in the range of temperatures of 20–125 C
from almost zero to full fiber saturation point. Our own
experimental data fit quite well onto the fitted surface
(Figs. 12 and 13) which confirms the experimental results
obtained in this work. The obtained equation for the first
time in the literature describes sorptional equilibrium of
willow S. viminalis in such a wide range of temperatures,
thus making it universal for both air drying and super-
heated steam drying applications.
6. Conclusion
Combustion of fossil fuels is considered a main reason
for the recent climate change and there is a necessity to find
some alternative source of energy. In the Polish conditions
which exemplify mid-European conditions willow S. vimi-
nalis that originates from energetic plantations seems to
be the best choice. Despite many advantages of that plant
the low calorific value of fresh biomass must be taken into
considerations that involves high drying costs. In order to
design drying process properly the willow properties and
their relations to drying process must be known.
For this purpose the measurements of sorption iso-
therms and isobars of willow S. viminalis were performed
in a wide range of moisture content and temperature.
Although sorptional properties of wood are of great impor-
tance, in the literature there is a lack of data in high tem-
peratures above 100 C.
In the present work it was proved that it is possible to
describe the surface of dependence of equilibrium water
activity on moisture content and temperature by means
of one equation in a wide range of parameters present in
air and superheated steam drying. For this purpose our
own experimental data were combined with data available
in the literature and on the basis of 109 points Karlsson–
Soininen equation was fitted (correlation coefficient
R = 0.93066).
The fitted equation, that allows to predict the equilib-
rium in a such wide range of temperature and moisture
Correlation coefficient
0.91710
0.92758
0.92945
 pffiffiffiffi i
0.93066
content, is universal and can be used for both air drying
and superheated steam drying.
Acknowledgments
This work was performed under Grant No. 3 T09C 0101
28 financed in the years 2005–2008 by the Ministry of
Scientific Research and Information Technology of the
Republic of Poland.
The authors are greatful to Professor Ingvald Strømmen
for the ability to use sorption isotherm facilities of his lab-
oratory at NTNU Trondheim.
References
[1] Ciechanowicz W. Biopaliwa (Biofuels). Aura 2002; p. 7.
[2] Pakowski Z. Simulation of superheated steam drying of cut tobacco
in a primary line. In: Workshop on drying technology; 2005. p. 3.
ISBN 83-7351-119-9.
[3] Rowell RM. Wood chemistry and wood composites. Taylor &
Francis; 2005.
[4] Sjöström E. Wood chemistry-fundamentals and applications. Aca-
demic Press; 1993.
[5] Siau JF. Transport processes in wood. New York: Springer-Verlag;
1984.
[6] Gigler JK, van Loon WKP, Seres I, Meerdink G, Coumans WJ.
Drying characteristics of willow chips and stems. J Argic Eng Res
2000;77(4):391–400.
[7] Glijer L. Suszenie drewna w suszarkach (Wood drying in dryers).
Rozwój SGGW, Warszawa; 1995.
[8] Moreno R, Antolı́n G, Reyes A, Alvarez P. Drying characteristics of
forest biomass particles of Pinus radiata. Biosystems Eng
2004;88:105–15.
[9] Simpson WT. Drying wood: a review – Part I. Dry Technol 1983-
84;2(2):235–64.
[10] Janowicz L, Hunder M, Wiśniewski G, Pisarek M. Cechy suszarnicze
biopaliw stałych (The drying characteristics of solid biofuels). In: 10th
polish drying symposium; 2003. p. 497–504.
[11] Nijdam JJ, Langrish TAG, Keey RB. A high-temperature drying
model for softwood timber. Chem Eng Sci 2000;55:3585–98.
[12] Ball RD, Simpson IG, Pang S. Measurement, modelling and
prediction of equilibrium moisture content in Pinus radiata heart-
wood and sapwood. Holz Roh Werkst 2001;59:457–62.
[13] Hermansson M. Steam drying – an experimental and theoretical
study. Licentiate dissertation. Lund Universitet; 1992.
 Z. Pakowski et al. / Fuel 86 (2007) 1749–1757
[14] Kollmann FFP. High temperature drying. Forest Prod J 1961:508–15.
[15] Keey R. Drying principles and practice. In: International series of
monographs in chemical engineering; 1995. p. 13.
[16] Kent AC, Rosen HN, Hari BM. Determination of equilibrium
moisture content of yellow-poplar sapwood above 100 C with the aid
and experimental psychrometer. Wood Sci Technol 1981;15:93–
103.
[17] Björk H, Rasmuson A. Moisture equilibrium of wood and bark chips
in superheated steam. Fuel 1995;74(12):1887–90.
[18] Glijer L, Matejak M, Osipiuk J. Teoria i technika suszenia drewna
(Theory and technique of wood drying). Państwowe Wydawnictwo
Rolnicze i Leśne, Warszawa; 1984. p. 82.
1757
[19] Panchariya PC, Popovic D, Sharma AL. Modelling of desorption
isotherm of black tea. Dry Technol 2001;19(6):1177–88.
[20] Palipane KB, Driscoll RH. Moisture sorption characteristics of
inshell macadamia nuts. J Food Eng 1992;18:63–76.
[21] Zylkowski S. Introduction to wood as an engineering material. In:
Williamson TG, editor. APA engineered wood handbook. McGraw-
Hill; 2002. p. 1.5.
[22] Karlsson M, Soininnen M. The drying characteristics of a paper
machine. In: 3rd international drying symposium; 1982. p. 351–
62.