(Advances in Space Biology and Medicine 5) Sjoerd L. Bonting (Eds.) - Elsevier Science (1996)

ADVANCES IN
SPACE BIOLOGY
A N D MEDICINE
Editor: SJOERDL. BONTING

Goor, The Netherlands
VOLUME5 1996
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Michael Abbal Department of Immunology

Medical School
University of Toulouse
Toulouse, France
Peter Achermann Institute of Pharmacology

University of Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
Anne-Marie Adine NESTLE France

Courbevoie, France
A.M. Allevard Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

Faculte’de Mgdecine
Lyon, France
C. Bachelard Department of Applied Psychology

University of Reims
Reirns, France
C.A. Bizollon Laboratoire de Radioanalyse et

Radiopharmacie
Hop. Neuro-Cardiologique
Bron, France
Alexander A. Borbdy Institute of Pharmacology

University of Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
V N . Bricksin SYMBOL-D
Moscow, Russia
C. Cazes Department of Applied Psychology

University of Reims
Reirns, France
ix
X LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
1. Collet European Space Agency

Long-Term Project Office
Paris, France
).M. Cotter-Emard Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

Facult6 de Medecine
Lyon, France
C. Davies Aerosystem International

Great Br itain
Bernard Decarli NESTEC Ltd., Research Center

Lausanne, Switzerland
V A . Elminov Institute for Biomedical Problems

Moscow, Russia
F. Ellmers OHB-System, Space & Environmental

Technology, Operations and Human Factors
Bremen, Germany
K.N. Eskov Institute for Biomedical Problems

Moscow, Russia
A. Friederici Department of Psychology

Free University Berlin
Berlin, Germany
A. W.K. Gaillard TNO Institute for Human Factors

Soesterberg, The Netherlands
G. Gauquelin Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

Facult6 de Medecine
Lyon, France
C. Gharib Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

Facult6 de M6decine
Lyon, France
G. Gillor Research Center on Sport Performance

University of Dijon
Dijon, France
List of Contributors xi
H.-Chr. Gunga lnstitut fur Physiologie

Freie Universitat Berlin
Berlin, Germany
Kl. Gushin Institute for Biomedical Problems

Moscow, Russia
T. Gijssow Department of Psychology

Free University Berlin
Berlin, Germany
1. Hennig Department of Psychology

University of Giessen
Giessen, Germany
G.R.]. Hockey Department of Psychology

University of Hull
Hull, England
David Husson Department of Immunology

Mqdical School
Toulouse, France
N.Kane-Toure Research Center on Sport Performance

University of Dijon
Dijon, France
1. R. Kass OHB-System
Space & Technology, Operations
and Human Factors
Bremen, Germany
Emmanuelle Kihm NESTEC Ltd., Research Centre

K. A. Kirsch institut fur Physiologie

Berlin, Germany
C. Le Scanff Department of Applied Psychology

University of Reims
Reims, France
xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Bernd Lorenz DLR-Institute of Aerospace

Aviation and Space Psychology
Hamburg, Germany
Jurgen Lorenz Institute of Physiology

University of Hospital Eppendorf
Hamburg, Germany
A. Maillet Laboratoire de Facult6 de M6decine

Lyon, France
Dietrich Manzey DLR-Institute of Aerospace

Aviation and Space Psychology
Hamburg, Germany
Azel Mecklinger lnstitut fur Physiologie

Freie Universitat Berl in
Berlin, Germany
Hubert Milon NESTEC Ltd., Research Centre

P. Netter Department of Psychology

University of Giessen
Giessen, Germany
M.A. Novikov Institute for Biomedical Problems

Moscow, Russia
C. Pachiaudi Unite lnserm

Facult6 de Medecine Alexis Carrel
Lyon, France
J. Rivolier Department of Applied Psychology

University of Reirns
Reims, France
L. Rtlcker lnstitut for Physiologie

Berlin, Germany
E. Rosnet Department of Applied Psychology

University of Reirns
Reims, France
List o f Contributors xiii
Gro M. Sandal Department of Biological and Medical

Psychology
University of Bergen
Bergen, Norway
I . Sauer Department of Psychology

University of Hull
Hull, England
I. Schiemann COLUMBUS System Engineeringand

Integration Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
Didier A. Schmitt Department of Immunology

Medical School
Toulouse, France
T.A. Smirnova Institute for Biomedical Problems

Moscow, Russia
F. Strollo lnstituto per la Patologia

Endocrina e Metabolica
Rome, Italy
Mathieu Tafani Service Central de Medecine Nucleeire

CHU Purpan
Toulouse, France
Carole Tafforin Centre de Reserche en Biologie du

Cornportement
Universite Paul Sabatier
Toulouse, France
Holger Ursin Department of Biological and Medical

Psychology
Bergen, Norway
Ragnar J. Vzrnes NUTEC & Institute of Biological and Medical

Psychiatry
Bergen, Norway
xiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
J.A. Veltman TNO Institute for Human Factors

A.G. Viknokhodova Institute for Biomedical Problems .

Moscow, Russia
C.J.E. Wientjes TNO Institute for Human Factors

L uzian Wolf European Space Research and Technology

Center
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 5
The fifth volume in this series, Space Biology and Medicine, is another special
volume, this time dedicated entirely to the results of the second European study of
the effects of long-term confinement and isolation, called EXEMSI. This project
was also sponsored by the European Space Agency's Long-Term Programme
Office, Directorate of Space Station and Microgravity, in preparation for its
long-term manned space missions, in particular its planned participation in the
International Space Station through the Columbus program.
The aim was to come closer to a space station situation than in the ISEMSI
mission. This was achieved by five measures: (1) crew selection was performed by
the European Astronauts Centre (EAC), (2) duration was extended to 60 days, (3)
mixed crew of three males and one female was employed, (4) isolation facility
resembled a space station in size and in having separate habitat, laboratory and
storage modules, and ( 5 ) communication between crew and outside world was like
that between a space station and a ground control center.
The primary purpose of EXEMSI was to achieve a better understanding of the
physiological, psychological, and sociological effects of long-term isolation and
confinement of a small crew group under conditions similar to those that may be
expected to exist for a space station crew. The secondary purpose was to acquire
experience in the operational aspects of a future space station mission. Included
were also items like verification of the test criteria for European astronaut selection,
and study of the nutritional requirements of space station crews.
xv
xvi INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 5
The workload of the crew consisted of an extensive battery of psychological and

physiological experiments,of housekeeping duties, and of additional space-related
experiments. The nature and the results of these activities are described in this
volume. The list of contents indicates the wide range of topics studied: physiologi-
cal aspects as body weight and body composition, hormonal and water balance,
nutritional status, immune function, cardiovascular and respiratory function, brain
electrical activity; psychological aspects as group dynamics and crew interaction,
communication, spatial behavior, work capability, mental performance and atten-
tion, and cognitive fatigue. Additional experiments cover important topics like
telemedical diagnosis and treatment, telescience, and operation of an algal biore-
generation system. The volume is concluded by two chapters in which the lessons
learned are critically considered.
This material should offer the reader a rather comprehensive view of the psycho-
physiological aspects of the confinement and isolation inherent in long-term space
missions, missions which may be expected to become commonplace in the next
decades. The results of this study and further studies of this nature should not only
benefit future astronauts and assist those who are organizing long-term manned
space missions, but should also be useful to investigators who are planning
crew-operated experiments to be carried out during such missions. Thus, it is hoped
that this second special volume will serve to bring the field of space biology and
medicine to a wider scientific audience, as is the intention of the series.
Sjoerd L. Bonting
Editor
Chapter 1
EXEMSI: THE SECOND EUROPEAN

SIMULATION OF A LONG-DURATION
MANNED SPACE MISSION
J. Collet and R.J.Vaernes
I. Introduction .................................... 1
11. PreviousStudies .................................. 2
111. EXEMSI.. . . .................................. 2
IV. Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
V. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. INTRODUCTION
The time when astronauts belonged to a homogenous elite group is past. Manned
spaceflight is entering a new era: From a period whereeach astronaut was to achieve
one or more major milestones in the manned space history we are now moving to
Advances in Space Biology and Medicine

Volume 5, pages 1-5
Copyright 0 1996 by JAI Press Inc.
All rights of reproductionin any form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
1
2 J.COLLET and R.J. VIERNES
a period in which routine tasks are performed on a space station quite similar to
those taking place in ground laboratories.
Despite such routine tasks for the future spaceworkers, the working environment
will be as difficult for them as for their predecessors, but without offering the same
rewards. Although the future space stations will offer more comfort than earlier
spacecraft, the space workers will still be surrounded by a hostile environment in
which they are isolated from the ‘normal world.’ They will be living in a confined
area for a long time with limited space and human contacts, and in general with
reduced sensory stimulation. However, in contrast to previous spaceflights, the
crews will be larger and multinational, and of mixed gender.
Since the European Space Agency (ESA) has the ambition to play a major role
in the domain of manned spaceflight, it is necessary to acquire experience in all
human factors operating in space missions. The activity of the Long Term Pro-
gramme Office (LTPO) in the Directorate of Space Station and Microgravity
(D/SSM) is oriented to mastering these human factor problems and developing
suitable countermeasures in preparation for such long duration missions. This is
the reason why ESA decided four years ago to embark on a series of field
experiments involving humans in situations offering certain similarities to space-
flight. The objectives of these simulation studies are defined with the help of the
European scientific community in space medicine and psychology, and the studies
are carried out in cooperation with investigatorsfrom these scientific communities.
II. PREVIOUS STUDIES

LTPO first participated in some space-related experiments in 1989 during a seven-
month Antarctic ski crossing and during an experimental deep-sea saturation dive
(HYDREMSI). Subsequently, upon the recommendation of its Space Psychology
Advisory Group (SPAG), it was decided to undertake an experimental study on the
psychological problems that could be encountered by space crews during long-term
missions. Thus LTPO performed in 1990 its own ‘full-scale’simulation study, in
which the effects of long-term isolation and confinement were investigated during
28 days of isolation: the ‘Isolation Study for the European Manned Space Infra-
structure’ (ISEMSI) project.
Amale crew of six ‘EMSInauts’ofdifferent nationalities was isolated for 28 days
in the hyperbaric chambers at the Norwegian Underwater Technology Centre
(NUTEC). During this isolation experiment the crew members were subjected to
an extensive series of psychological and physiological tests, while they carried out
a number of space-related operations regarding contamination control and tele-
medicindteletraining. The results have been reported in detail in volume 3 of this
series.’
EXEMSI: Second European Simulation 3
111. EXEMSI
In 1992 a second study was performed, this time with 60 days of isolation. This
study was called the ‘Experimental Campaign for the European Manned Space
Infrastructure’(EXEMSI). The aim of LTPO was to come closer to a space station
situationthan in the ISEMSI mission. This was achieved by the following measures:
(1) having the crew selection performed by the European Astronauts Centre (EAC),
(2) a longer duration, (3) a mixed crew (3 males and 1 female), (4) more limited
space with a clear topological separation of the habitat, laboratory and storage
functions as in a space station, and ( 5 ) making the communication between crew
and outside world similar to that between a space station and a ground control
center.
The facility at the Institut fiir Flugmedizin of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fur
Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) in Cologne, Germany, was set up like a small space
station.2The habitat module offered the crew living quarters with a limited standard
of comfort. The laboratory module provided all the necessary basic facilities for
carrying out the 30 scientific experiments planned for the mission.
The primary purpose of EXEMSI was to achieve a better understanding of the
physiological, psychological and sociological effects of long-duration manned
spaceflight. Secondarily, the EXEMSI project also provided an environment in
which design concepts and approaches relevant to COLUMBUS, the European
space station contribution, were implemented in a complex and representative
operational environment.Finally, the base of knowledge for organization, manage-
ment and execution of simulation projects was enhanced through the similarity of
the operational environment to that of real spaceflights.
On September 7th, 1992 the four young European scientists entered the hyper-
baric chambers at DLR. Prior to the isolationperiod they had completed two months
of extensive training for the various experiments to be performed during EXEMSI
and instruction on the operational and safety aspectsof the exposure. On November
6th,1992 the isolation period ended, and two weeks of post mission testing and
debriefing followed.
EXEMSI was carried out within the framework of LTPO’s activities in the
Directorate of Space Station and Microgravity at ESA headquarters in Paris, with
the support of the COLUMBUS Systems and Projects Department of the European
Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands,
and the European Astronauts Centre (EAC), Cologne, Germany.
IV. OBJECTIVES
EXEMSI was an attempt to study the effects on humans involved in long-duration
confinement through the simulation of a multidisciplinary space mission. To satisfy
this overall goal, the fields of work covered in the EXEMSI project were defined
4 J.COLLET and R.J. VARNES
by the followingfouradjectives:scientific,simulation,operational,and technologi-

cal.
Scientific Objectives
Study of the physiological and psychological effects of long-term confine-
ment of space crews
Verification of test criteria for European astronaut selection
Study of the development of the notions of privacy and temtorialism of space
crews during a long-duration mission
Study of the nutritional requirements of space station crews
Simulation Objectives
Provision of a representative simulation of a space station environment
0 Incorporation of lessons learned from previous experiments of this nature
Extension of the experience of conducting full-scale integrated simulations

and operation of a multi-user simulation facility
Operational Objectives
Assessing the effectiveness of interaction between the crew and the ground
support team
Deriving recommendations and requirements on operations planning and
execution, crew operations and procedures
Study of the effectiveness of the training concept for space station crews
versus inflight performance
Technological Objectives
Study of the-contaminationof closed environmental systems and providing a
representative test environment for sensor technologies
Assessing the effectiveness of computer-based planning and operational
support
Studying the management of limited resources during long-duration manned
space missions
Studying the effectiveness of COLUMBUS space station concepts.
V. CONCLUSIONS
While the conclusions drawn from this project will be discussed in detail in the
concluding chapter of this v o l ~ m e the
, ~ following general conclusions can be
formulated.
The main lesson learned is that in such a simulation study there easily arises a
significant discrepancy between the theoretical and the operational mission sce-
nario. While the overall objectives seemed to be clear, the practical means used to
achieve these objectives were sometimes vague and subject to frequent changes.
EXEMSI: Second European Simulation 5
The vagueness of the scenario led in many cases to different interpretations at

different organizational levels. In the future a representative and well defined
operational scenario with precisely defined requirements should be provided. In
addition, the multiple objectives of the project sometimes led to a neglect of the
overall goal of studying the effects of confinement through a space mission
simulation in favor of studying specific details.
The composition of the crew (three males and one female) proved to be well
chosen. The presence of one woman on board tended to unify the group and to
prevent the formation of sub-groups, which could have occurred with equal
numbers of males and females. This composition also had a stabilizing function
and had a moderating effect on interpersonal tensions. Crew training was markedly
better than in the ISEMSI project. Preparation of the principal investigators,
responsible for individual experiments, needs to be improved, particularly in
adherence to schedules and availability for communication. Nevertheless most
experiments were successfully performed.
Among the scientific studies to be carried out by the crew there were too many
passive experiments, like completing questionnaires, while too few simulation
operations were incorporated in the experimental programme. More psychological
experiments could have been based on direct observation. In that way the type of
workload of a real space crew would have been better simulated.
In summary, the lessons learned concerning organizational and operational
aspects will provide valuable information for the planning of future ESAsimulation
studies and space missions.
REFERENCES
1. Bonting, S.L., ed.. European Isolation and Confinement Study. In: Advances in Space Biology ond
Medicine, vol. 3, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT. 1993.
2. Vsmes, R.J. EXEMSI: Description of Facilities, Organization, Crew Selection and Operational
Aspects. In:Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 5 , European Isolation and Confinement
Study EXEMSI (S.L. Bonting. ed.),JAI Press, Greenwich. CT,1995 ch. 2.
3. Vsmes, R.J. Lessons Learned from ISEMSI and EXEMSI, Advances in Space Biology and
Medicine. vol. 5. European Isolation and Confinement Study EXEMSI (S.L. Bonting, ed.). JAI
Press, Greenwich, CT,1995 ch. 22.
Chapter 2
EXEMSI: DESCRIPTION OF FACILITIES.

ORGANIZATION. CREW SELECTION.
A N D OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Ragnar J . Vaernes
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
I1. Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A . FacilityHall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
B . Isolation Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
C. Control Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
111. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A . Project Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B . Operational Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
C. Operational Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
D . Managers and Coordinators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
IV. Crew Selection and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
A . Crew Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
B . CrewTraining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C . Crew Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Volume 5, pages 7-38
Copyright 0 1996 by JAI Press Inc .
AU rights of reproduction in any form reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
8 RACNAR J. VkRNES
V. Operations ..................................... 21
A. Operational Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B. Technical Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
C. Medical Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
D. Safety Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E. Data Handling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
F. Experiments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
VI. Sequence of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A. Chronology of the EXEMSI Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
B. Activities Prior to the Isolation Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
C. The Isolation Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
D. Post-Isolation Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1. INTRODUCTION
The EXEMSI project was designed so as to provide a closer approximation of a
space station situation than was possible in the ISEMSI project. This was accom-
plished by having the crew selection performed by the European AstronautsCenter,
a longer isolation period (60 instead of 28 days), a mixed crew of 4 (3 males and 1
female), and a more limited space with a clear topological separation of the habitat,
laboratory, and storage functions as on a space station. Furthermore, the commu-
nication between chamber and outside world was made similar to that between a
space station and a ground control center.
The simulationfacility was located in the Institut fur Flugmedizin at the Deutsche
Forschungsanstalt fiir Lufi- und Raumfahrt (DLR) in Cologne, Germany. It simu-
lated a small space station, consisting of a habitat module, laboratory module and
storage module. The habitat module provided living quarters for the crew with
limited comfort standard.The laboratory module offered all basic facilitiesrequired
for carrying out the 30 scientific experimentsto be performed by the chamber crew
during the isolation period.
II. FACILITIES
A. Facility Hall
The hall housing the simulation facility is presented in Figure 1. In addition to

the three mock space station modules, the hall contained the Facility Operations
Control Center (FOCC). the Experimental Program Operations Control Center
(EPOCC) and the external interfaces.The DLR staff ran the facility in three shifts.
The operators’desk was located beside the chambers. For safety reasons, a techni-
cian and a crew surgeon were always on call.
1-1 n 1-1
OXYGEN-SUPPLY
l--.-I 1
DOOR
1
C R O U Y D FLOOR
Figure 1. Diagram of the facility hall.
9
10 RAGNAR J. VARNES
B. Isolation Facility
Habitat Module
The DLR hyperbaric chamber ‘TITAN’ was used as the habitat module (Figure
2,A). It was cylindrical with a diameter of 220 cm and a length of 600 cm, total
volume 23.5 m3. Its life support system provided the desired levels of temperature,
humidity, 0, and CO, for the entire facility. The habitat module contained a sanitary
facility near the transfer chamber B, a galley at the other end, and the living quarters
in between. The living quarters contained four bunks and a table, and was used for
sleeping, eating, and leisure time. The sanitary facility was equipped with a water
basin, shower, and toilet. The galley was equipped to prepare meals without outside
assistance.
gal ley
- w
Figure 2. Diagram of the isolation chamber.
EXEMSI Description 11
n
A* cx I?
HUYdEA
Laboratory Module
An additional module was specifically manufactured to serve as the laboratory

module (Figure 2, LAB). This tight welded steel module (640 cm long, 210 cm
high, total volume 22.4 m3) was well insulated against transfer of heat and noise.
Its interior design resembled the Columbus MTFF module in its functional work-
space and cross-section. Standard 19" industry racks served for storing laboratory
equipment and supplies (Figure 3). A workbench provided basic services and tools
for maintenance and repair activities.The interior design of the laboratory module
in terms of color and illumination levels followed the recommendations made by
ALENIA (Ref: CL-TN-A 1-673).The resemblance between the laboratory module
and the Columbus module permitted to draw conclusionsrelevant for the definitive
design of the latter.
Storage Module
The storage module (Figure 2, C) was connected to the habitat and laboratory
modules by way of the transfer chamber B. This vertical cylinder with a total
volume of 22.4 m3 served as the main storage room during the isolation period. A
ladder had to be used to enter and exit this chamber.
Transfer Module
This spherical chamber (Figure 2, B) with a diameter of 200 crn and a total volume
of 3.5 m3 functioned as the connection between habitat, laboratory, and storage
modules.
12 RACNAR J. VkRNES
C. Control Center
The ground control center (CCC: Campaign Control Center) was located in three
rooms in the facility hall (Figure 1, rooms D3,D4,and D5). It was equipped with
various communication systems: video, audio communication, telephone, fax,
electronic mail computer for the timeline, and teleoperation links. It was manned
by the ground crew, which consisted of three persons plus two back-ups. They
worked in shifts as Crew Interface Coordinator (CIC), PlannerReplanner and
Supporter.
The CIC, located in the main operation room (room D4). had visual access to all
chambers via videocameras,and could speak as needed to individualcrew members
in each chamber. All communication via telephone or telefax from the chamber
crew to the outside world was also controlled from the CIC work station. Commu-
nication and control of the simulation infrastructure was operationally organized
as shown in Figure 4.
For the onboard operation of experiments each crew member was provided with
a portable personal computer. This computer served for data acquisition, data
handling, communication tool, and personal notebook. Two data servers, located
inside the habitaaaboratory modules and in the control center, were used for
database administration, timeline management, and scientific data management.
Specific software was developed to support this concept.
An electronic implementation of the timeline, specifically developed for the
EXEMSI project and linked to a database, provided easy access to timeline data,
effective updating of schedules, limitation of paperwork for all crew members, and
efficient coordination of experiment and system activities. Timeline management
was an integral part of the EXEMSI crew systems infrastructure, allowing direct
access to other services, such as experiment application software and procedures.
1 PI'S
I
External
Figure 4. Communication lines.

EXEMSl Description 13
The schedule and daily updates were sent to the data server in the habitatnaboratory
modules and were therefore available to the chamber crew. All scientific data were
collected on a single database, through which the data were processed and for-
warded to the principal investigators.
111. ORGANIZATION
A. Project Organization
The roles and responsibilities of the various contributing entities in the EXEMSI
project are presented in Table 1.
Long Term Planning Office (LTPO)
The EXEMSI project was initiated by LTPO. In the implementationof the project
LTPO had the following responsibilities:
0 Definition of the general objectives of the simulation activities

0 Definition of the mission scenario
0 Development of objectives and scenario
0 Assignment of responsibilities
Table 1. Organizational Task Distribution for the EXEMSI Project

ESA Directorate of Space Station and Microgravity(D/SSM)
Overall project lead and direction
Project budget provision (LTPO)
Project management and implementation of the COLUMBUS concepts (CSPD-MER)
Technical support (CSPD-MQ; CSPD-MSP)
ESA-ESTEC
Implementation support for remote experimentation (WD)
Implementation support for data handlingsystem WGO)
0 Implementation of General Purpose Workbench (WGO)
ESA European Astronauts Center (EAC)

Selection of candidates
Training management and implementation
Operational support and EXPET coordination
DLR: lnstitut fur Untenvassermedizin

Prime contractor, facility development, manufacturing and operation
Overall project safety
EXPETsupport
14 RAGNAR J. VkRNES
0 Establishment and approval of organizations and assignments for the devel-

opment and the operational organization of the project
0 Approval of the phases and the overall schedule
0 Mission direction.
In fulfilling these responsibilities LTPO received support and inputs from the
scientific community represented through the EXEMSI Scientific Committee
(SCOM), from the European Astronauts Center (EAC), and from the Columbus
Systems and Project Department (CSPD), which was responsible for implementa-
tion.
Columbus Systems and Project Department (CSPD)
This department provided the technical management of the EXEMSI project. It

appointed a project manager, to whom was delegated the authority for managing
the development and integration of the simulation facility. Subsequently this person
became responsible for leading the management and implementation of the EX-
EMS1 simulation operations, which included:
0 Establishment of the simulation operations requirements based on the objec-

tives defined by LTPO:
0 Mission direction support
0 Simulation mission management
0 Establishment of mission timeline and crew activity planning
0 Monitoring of timeline administration and maintenance
0 Monitoring of scientific data handling.
The project manager functioned as a mission manager, heading the mission

management team.
European Astronauts Center (FAC)
The European Astronauts Center performed the selection of the members of

chamber and ground crew. In addition, it was responsible for the preparation,
implementation and management of the training of the crew members. This
assignment was meant to provide a space-representative selection and training of
the crew.
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR)
DLR served as the main contractor for the EXEMSI project, and as such was
responsible for manufacturing, assembly, integration and testing of the simulation
facility and experiment hardware. During the operational phase DLR was respon-
sible for the following tasks:
0 Operation of the simulation facility

0 Engineering support
0 Safety of personnel
Safety of the operation of the simulation facility and associated hardware
0 Medical surveillance and safety of the chamber crew
0 Support of the principal investigators
0 On-site organization, logistics, and security.
B. Operational Organization
The organization of the EXEMSI operational phase was implemented in a

three-level hierarchical structure shown in Figure 5 . Three operational teams were
formed to provide on each level the expertise required for fulfilling the various
functions and tasks. These teams were the Mission Management Team (MMT), the
Mission Control Team (MCT), and the Mission Support Team (MST).
The interfaces between the levels were designed so as to provide an integrated
chain of authorities, responsibilities and supporting functions, which would still
leave sufficient freedom and authority within each level to allow an adequate
decision making capability on each level.
Through appropriate reporting lines all decisions made at one level were to be
brought to the attention of the next higher level for endorsement, at least in
summarized form. It was an integral part of the mission organization that one level
was “standing in” and supporting the decisions made on a lower level.
r
Mission Direction
E
(LlPO)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... I
,.
. ..... .. .. .. ....... .. . I. .....
Mission Management
Mission Management
Team (MMT)
................
................
EXPET W S
I=m ( m c ) [SCAC](LTPO) (CSPD)
...............
rew I n t d
contrd
.................
- lnslalled
lnslalled PlannAepl.
LogisticJ
-
LogisticJ Hardware Team (MCT)
.............
- system
Mainlenance
Figure 5. Organization of EXEMSI operations.

16 RAGNAR J. VARNES
C. Operational Teams
Mission Management Team (MMT)
The mission management team provided the overall management function for
the execution of the EXEMSI project. Therefore, it was composed of the key Level
2 and Level 3 personnel performing the developmental and operational tasks. It was
headed by the EXEMSI project manager. This team initiated its activities during
the specialized training phase and provided its oversight function by reviewing
twice weekly the status and progress of all operations of the project.
Additional meetings were called when required for redirection, for establishment
of operationsoutside the predefinedproceduresand mission rules, during situations
critical to the crew and other operational personnel, in situations requiring assess-
ment of abortion of the project, or in case cf major conflicts occurring in the
execution of the experimental program. Such meetings were required particularly
when specific problems occurred in parts of the organization, such as experiments,
operations or computer software problems.
Mission Control Team (MCT)
The mission control team was responsible for the day-to-day coordination and
control of the EXEMSI operationsin the chamber facility and the control center. It
was headed by the Experimental Program Execution Manager (EPEM). This team
provided accurate and up-to-date status information about the progress of the crew
activities and the experiments carried out by the crew via the EPEM to the mission
management team. The status reports of this team were compiled by the crew
activity coordinator (EXAC), who served as the interface between the mission
control team and the mission management team.
D. Managers and Coordinators
EXEMSl Mission Manager
The EXEMSI Project Manager was delegated by LTPO to serve as Mission

Manager (MM), who managed the execution of the simulation project, headed the
Mission Management Team, and was given authority for the direction of the
operations.
Experimental Program Execution Manager
The Experimental Program Execution Manager (EPEM) headed the Mission

Control Team, reported on the status and progress of the experimental program to
the Mission Manager, prepared the experimental program progress reports to the
Mission Management Team, and participated in its meetings. He also represented
the project management during the daily operations. The planning and replanning
of experiment timelines resided under his authority.
facility Operations Manager
The Facility Operations Manager (FOP) had the overall responsibility for the
operation of the simulation facility and for approval of facility operational proce-
dures. During the simulation project this person had the responsibility for the
overall safety of the facility. He prepared facility status reports to the Mission
Management Team and participated in its meetings.
Scientific Activity Coordinator
During the operational phase, the Scientific Activity Coordinator (SCAC) coor-
dinated closely with the Experimental Program Execution Manager. He ensured
and verified that the experimental objectives were achieved, thereby ensuring a
proper scientific data flow. Qpical tasks to be performed by this person were
problem solving for particular experiments, maintenance of working interfaces to
the principal investigators, and anomaly reporting. He coordinated the communi-
cation to the principal investigators, and interfaced with the Remote User Sites. He
prepared a summary of his activities and of major events and problems for inclusion
in the Mission Management Team status repon.
Crew Activity Coordinator
The Crew Activity Coordinator (EXAC) reported to the Experimental Program

Execution Manager, and represented mission control level 3 in the Mission Man-
agement Team in order to ensure an adequate and efficient flow of information. He
took care of crew matters and the planning of public relations activities, and
represented the crew and the experimental team towards the EXEMSI Prime
Contractor and to the Mission and Project Management.
This person directly interfaced with the Facility Operations Manager and the
Scientific Activity Coordinator to ensure a balanced coordination between crew
activities, facility control activities,and the execution of the experimental program.
He compiled Mission Control Team status reports, which were based on the defined
inputs and covered information on achievement of the experiment objectives,
communication log, schedule status, anomaly log, etc. He prepared a summary of
his activities and of major events and problems for inclusion in the Mission
Management Team status report and participated in the meetings of this team.
18 RAGNAR J. VARNES
IV. CREW SELECTION AND FUNCTIONS

A. Crew Selection
Crew selection was handled by the Astronauts Division of the European Astro-
nauts Center. The selection criteria were basically those used for the selection of
European CandidateAstronauts, including a professional evaluation,psychological
assessment and medical screening.
Call for Candidates
The ‘Call for Candidates’ specified the general selection requirements for the
EXEMSI crew members:
0 Applicants may be male or female.

0 Applicants must be nationals of an ESA member state or of an ESA associated
state.
0 The preferred age range was 27 to 37.
0 Applicants must be in the height range of 153 to 190 cm.
0 Applicants must speak and read English.
0 Applicants should possess a university education (or equivalent) in Natural
Sciences, Engineering or Medicine. Postgraduate professional experience is
considered an asset.
0 Applicants should have a satisfactory medical history and be in a sound state
of health, have a normal weight, and be of normal psychiatric disposition.
0 Abnormally high dosage of any medication may be considered adisqualifying
factor.
0 Applicants must be prepared to provide a full family and personal history and
permit the collection of further information if deemed necessary by the
examining medical body.
0 All information provided will be treated as confidential.
In January 1992 the ‘Call for Candidates’ went out to universities, research
organizations and industries in the thirteen Member States of ESA and in Canada.
The closing date for submission of applications was March 2, 1992. A declaration
of interest was received from 152 persons (1 27 males, 25 females).
Preselection
Those who had returned a declaration of interest were sent a preselection

questionnaire (general, medical, psychological) prepared by the European Astro-
nauts Center. The questionnaire was completed and returned by 82 applicants (67
males, 15 females). On March 6, 1992 24 persons (17 males, 7 females) were
preselected from these applicants.
Selection
On April 13,1992 10 applicants (6 males, 4 females) were accepted as members

of the Experimental Program Execution Team, comprising both chamber crew and
ground crew. The professional evaluation was conducted by an Interview Board,
composed of ESA representatives (D/SSM-LTPO, D/SSM-CSPD, EAC/AD and
EAC/ST). The medical screening was performed by the Institute for Aerospace
Medicine, Department of Operational Medicine, DLR (Koln), and the psychologi-
cal assessment by the Department of Aerospace Psychology, DLR (Hamburg).
The majority of applicants from ESA Member States came from United King-
dom, Italy, France, and Germany. There were five applicants from Canada and one
each from USA, Portugal and Pakistan. Females comprised 16.4%of the original
applicants, 17.4%of those returning the questionnaire, 2 9 8 of the preselected
group, and 40% of the selected crew members.
Assignment
The final assignment to the different roles to be covered by the crew during the
EXEMSI project was established on August 3, 1992. It was based on the training
evaluation by EAC and a group behavior assessment by DLR-Hamburg.
B. Crew Training
This program was prepared and managed by the Astronauts Support and Training
Division of the European Astronauts Center according to the standards expected
and required for preparing astronauts for space missions.The aim of the training
was to provide crew members with the knowledge and skills in their operational
areas required for a successful mission. There were three training periods: basic
training, specialized training, and mission training.
Basic Training
Basic training (July 6-17, 1992) provided the crew with a general introduction
to the EXEMSI project and the experiments. Each principal investigator introduced
hisher experiment and explained its objective, background, procedures and hard-
ware to the crew members. The basic training period also served as an observation
period for acquiring data for the crew assignment. Ten crew members started the
basic training, but after 6 weeks one crew member left the project.
Specialized Training
The specialized training period (July 20 to August 2, 1992) provided the crew
with specific system and experiment training with particular reference to proce-
dures. Principal investigators and/or their coworkers trained the crew in handling
20 RAGNAR J. VkRNES
the equipment and baseline measurements for their experiment. At the end of this
phase each crew member was assigned to a specific function for the mission.
Mission Training
The mission training phase (August 3-28, 1992)provided the crew with experi-
ment and operational training according to the skills required for their assigned
category and function. Most of the mission training was conducted in the isolation
facility. Simulations were carried out in order to validate experiment concepts and
equipment, and to evaluate the operational concepts and procedures of the project.
C. Crew Functions
Chamber Crew
The chamber crew consisted of four persons to be confined for 60 days in the
isolation facility, thereby simulating a space station crew. They were to perform all
activities which could only be carried out in the isolation facility. In particular, the
chamber crew had the following roles and responsibilities during the isolation
period:
0 Effective execution of the Daily Activity Plan

0 Interaction with the experimental hardware and software as required by the
defined procedures
0 Adherence to the daily schedule
0 Managing contingencies with the allocated resources according to established
procedures
0 Performance of systedsubsystem activitiesand all operationsallocated to the
chamber crew.
The following specific, system-related functions were assigned to individual

members of the chamber crew:
1. Commander (chairman for briefings and status report communications)

2. Vice Commander (providing support to the commander)
3. Systems and hardware (same person as post 2)
4. Data Management and Software
5 . Safety and Medical responsible (same person as post 1)
6. On-board logistics.
These assignments were meant to aid the organization of the everyday life of the
crew in the isolation facility. The chamber crew back-up function was covered by
two members of the ground crew (one male, one female), but they were not needed
to function in this capacity.
Ground Crew
The ground crew, functioning as the Mission Control Team, consisted of five
persons, three of whom were on duty at all times. They were responsible for the
daily coordination and control of the EXEMSI operational activities in the control
center and the isolation facility. The ground crew provided accurate and up-to-date
status information about the progress of the experimental activities of the chamber
crew via the Experimental Program Execution Manager (EPEM) to the Mission
Management Team.
The ground crew covered the following functions:
Crew Interface Coordinator (CIC), responsible for crew communication,had

control and oversight of the communication activities during the mission.
0 PlannerReplanner (PR), reporting to the CIC, maintaining (correcting and
updating) the EXEMSI Mission Timeline.
Data Handler, responsible for monitoring the operation of the hardware and
software of the Data Handling System.
V. OPERATIONS
A. Operational Scenario
The operational scenario for EXEMSI encompassed the following important

features:
0 Separation of authority for system operations and payload operations

0 Single interface for chamber crew with ground control
Computerized planning and time lining
Centralized, computerized acquisition and handling of experimental data
Automated application of execution procedures
Standardized computer operating environment.
The separation of system operations and payload operationsled to a ‘two-legged’

organization with DLR being responsible for the system operations and ESA for
the experimental (payload) operations.
During the mission the DLR Operating Staff worked in three shifts of nine hours
with an overlap of half an hour at beginning and end of each shift. There was
permanently one person at the operator desk. During normal working hours
Superintendent,Crew Surgeon and a limited number of additional members of the
division were available. At night and on Sundays and holidays a Crew Surgeon was
on call by Euro-Beep.
22 RAGNAR J.VARNES
Experimental Operations
The organization of the experimental operationswas more complex and involved

more manpower. The Russian scheme for shift organization for long-duration
flights was followed. The ground control team worked on a revolving shift
according to the following scheme:
Day 1: Support, from 9-17h
Interface with principal investigator, experiment performance (outside chamber)

and experiment support;executing and closing Action Forms generated by the Crew
Interface Coordinator.
Day 2: Planner/Replanner, from 14-2Oh
Entire mission was timelined according to a prior master timeline, but daily
updates were needed.
Day 3: Crew Interface Coordinator, from 8-9h (25 hours)
Interface to the DLR staff, stand-by to assist in operational tasks during night
(with opportunity to sleep on a portable bed), conducted and authorized any
communication to the chamber crew (normally via the Commander), monitored
timeline, kept logbook, created action forms.
Day 4 and 5: Off duty
The CIC and the crew wrote a daily Evening Report. The Crew Activity
Coordinator (EXAC) attended and reported to the twice-weekly Mission Manage-
ment Team meetings. Throughout the EXEMSI project DLR submitted biweekly
Progress Reports to the ESA Project Management.
B. Technical Scenario
Communication System
Audio, video, fax, and computer links connected the four chamber crew members
in the laboratory module with the ground control center. Use of the system was
controlled and restricted by the Crew Interface Coordinator (CIC). The only
exceptions were the safety-relevant links to the Facility Control Center. Commu-
nication with principal investigators and other external persons or computer sys-
tems had to be switched by the CIC.
The following communication equipment was available:
Weo: One movable and six fixed video cameras were installed in the habitat and
laboratory modules. All video signals were amplified by seven independent video
amplifiers.The video amplifiers had four independent outputs. For surveillance, all
video signals were displayed in the Facility Control Center on seven video screens.
Fax:In the ground control center a fax facility was installed with an independent
public line. This line was also used as an emergency line for the Facility Control
Center. One of the internal telephones of the laboratory module was connected to
a fax facility, so that fax messages could be exchanged between control center and
laboratory module.
Elecrronic Mail: In the control center, a separate terminal (VT 100) was con-
nected to the VAX computer network of DLR. It was used with E-Mail software.
Power System
The DLR Institute for Aerospace Medicine has a transformer station which
receives its electrical energy from the central distribution of the DLR Research
Center. This transformer station normally delivers the electric power to the facility
switch cabinet UV14. Additionally, the switch cabinet UV14 is supplied by an
emergency power line from a diesel powered generator.
The power supply of the entire facility and all connected equipment was isolated
from the UV14 by a three-phase transformer. An isolation monitor ensured that the
isolation resistance of the transformer remained above 80,000 Ohms. Independent
circuit breakers distributed the electrical power to the laboratory module, the habitat
module (galley) and the ground control center. Internally, the power for the
laboratory module was distributed via a system rack located inside this module.
Environmental Control System
The isolation facility was operated as a closed system. In order to maintain a

healthy atmosphere and a comfortable climate, several environmental factors were
controlled by the Life Support System which is part of the Deep Diving Facility.
The pressure in the facility was controlled by the Haux-Decomat/Decolog
system. In case of a leak, the system fed air into the facility from a compressed and
pre-analyzed gas storage which is part of the diving facility. The internal pressure
of the facility was maintained at 1060 mbar; the slight overpressure ensured that
no contaminants could enter the facility from the outside. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels were continuously monitored. Oxygen consumed by the crew was
substituted from a high pressure pure oxygen supply, so as to maintain a 20%
oxygen level. The carbon dioxide level reached a minimum level of about 1 mbar
during the night (crew sleeping), then rose during the day but rarely exceeding
levels of 2-3 mbar, never exceeding 5 mbar. Conraminanrs were monitored by mass
spectrometry. For emergency, e.g. contamination of the air, BIBS-masks were
provided in each module, connected to a separate gas supply.
Temperature and humidity in the facility were controlled by the Life Support
System. The temperature could be set between +I8 and +25"C to within +/- 1.5"C.
24 RAGNAR I. VKRNES
The relative humidity in the laboratory module was controlled at a nominal value
of 60%.The temperature in this module decreased during the night, because there
were no activities and several heat emitting instruments (computers, amplifiers)
had been switched off. In the morning the temperature increased to a convenient
level of about 28°C set by the internal temperature control. The relative humidity
was nearly constant at about 55%. In the habitat module, the temperature was almost
independent of the daily routine, because the thick steel wall of the deep diving
chamber represented an excellent heat buffer. The relative humidity was nearly
constant at about 65%, but showed significant increases when the shower was used
or water was heated in the galley.
The operational noise level never exceeded 75 dB, while the resting noise level
was about 55 dB, mainly coming from the life support system. The design of the
simulation facility provided good acoustic insulation. The habitat module had thick
steel walls and on the outside rockwool mats covered by thin metal sheets. The
laboratory module had rockwool mats on both sides of its steel wall.
Chamber Hygiene and Personal Hygiene
The habitat module contained hygiene and sanitary installations to satisfy the
needs of the crew. There was a separate compartment, furnished as the sanitary part:
water toilet, shower, and water basin with hot and cold water. In addition there was
storage space for hygiene items. No extra procedures for personal hygiene were
foreseen; this area was not restricted, and the crew was asked to proceed according
to their usual habits. For chamber cleaning a small rechargeable vacuum cleaner
and liquid cleaning agents were provided, and the crew was to perform the cleaning
procedures every second day. This was not implementeddue to insufficient training
and missing instructions.
Food and Water Management
In order to satisfy the objectives of isolation and limited resources, all food and
other consumables for a confinement period of 60 days were to be stored inside the
facility. Storage was in chamber C and partly in the laboratory module. Resource
Management was formulated as an experiment by Carrar;analyses prior to isolation
showed that ‘normal’ food needs too much space inside a spacecraft. Therefore,
special efforts were made to provide the crew with a nutrition both acceptable for
their needs and not too space-consuming.
Waste Management
Apart from the free waste water dump from shower, toilet and water basins in
sanitary facility and kitchen, the exit of trash was the only agreed lock-out during
the campaign. The air-lock was to be used only once a day, mainly toremove organic
trash from the kitchen. Much discipline was needed by the crew to follow this
Table 2. Responsibility for Stored Hardware and Consumables

Chamber operation and safety DLR
Household and general hygiene DLR
Crew personal items (e.g., clothing, hygiendcosmetics) DLR
Galley and nutrition Carrar/DLR
Medical (diagnostics & therapeutics) DLR
Scientific experiments P.1.s
guideline. All other items were to be stored inside the storage module until the end
of the isolation period.
Chamber fogs
Three types of chambedpersonnelactivity listings were used during the isolation

period: Chamber Logbook; Operator Data Sheets; CIC Logbook. The Chamber
Logbook was a protocol book kept by the chamber operator to monitor all system
relevant activities. Operator Data Sheetsrepresented the hourly readings of relevant
system parameters. They served as a backup to the automatic data logging per-
formed by the system monitoring computer, whose data were provided on floppy
disk. The CIC Logbook contained the records of crew and experiment activities
and also of any problems with chamber operations.
1ogistics
All parties involved in the study had to provide an inventory of all hardware and
consumables to be stored inside the chamber system under their responsibility.
Table 2 shows the distribution of responsibility for providing adequate supplies of
all stored items.
C. Medical Scenario
Crew Surgeon
The Crew Surgeon was responsible for crew health and safety. He certified the
crew members for their mission role, and he authorized andor approved the
evacuation of any member of the chamber crew for medical reasons. He performed
medical consultations and provided the Mission Management Team with regular
medical summary reports on the crew, respecting the confidentiality of these
matters. DLR Medical Operations was involved in the primary medical selection
of the EXEMSI candidates,provided medical coverage and surveillance during the
pre-isolation period as well as during confinement,and supported the pre-isolation
training. The institute also supported the DLR Medical Board during the process
of approval for experiments in which crew members were subjects.
26 RAGNAR J. VARNES
Selection
Crew surgeons at DLR, in cooperation with EAC, were involved in the medical
selection of the candidates, which was performed in April 1992. The examination
included general physical status, exercise capacity, lung function test, and blood
and urine laboratory data. For the role assignment in August 1992 emphasis was
placed on psychological criteria.
Pre-isolation Period
During the training period, crew surgeons at DLR performed an interim medical
examination (mid August) of all crew members (chamber and ground crew). An
additional medical examination of the chamber crew members was performed three
days before the start of confinement. The crew surgeons encountered various cases
of upper respiratory tract infections (3,sinusitis (2), middle ear inflammation ( I ) ,
joint problems (l), and second degree burn (1 ).
Isolation Period
The crew surgeons provided a medical kit with medication and diagnostic aids
to cover all diseases that might occur during the 60 days of confinement.One crew
member, who is a physician, was assigned as crew medical officer and was
introduced to the contents and usage of the medical kit. He was the only crew
member authorized to use this kit, thus guaranteeing its proper use. The medical
officer also served as the primary contact to the crew surgeon during the private
medical conference,which was performed routinely three times per week (Monday,
Wednesday, Friday).
During the confinement period DLR crew surgeons encountered the following
diseases: upper respiratory tract infections (3, at beginning of confinement); der-
matological alterations (3, one possibly due to chemically treated fabric of new
shorts); cardiac arrhythmia(1, spontaneous normalization); urinary tract infections
(2). All medical problems could be treated adequately by use of the medical kit and
without impacting the ongoing mission. Once it was necessary to consult a
dermatologist for verification of the diagnosis via video and intercom.
Post-isolation Period
The medical check-up after the isolation period showed all crew members to be
in excellent medical and psychological condition.
D. Safety Scenario
Handling of Emergency Situations
The isolation facility was equipped with smoke detectors and handheld fire
extinguishersfor early detection and extinction of any fire. However, it was realized
that safety was not only a matter of providing safety equipment, but also a matter
of proper training and a sense of responsibility of the staff inside and outside the
isolation facility. Therefore, well-defined procedures were drawn up for handling
all foreseeable emergency situations. A training course in handling emergencies
according to these procedures was set up for staff and all crew members. These
classroom lessons also provided the technical background needed to understand
what was to be done and what was strictly to be avoided.
Abort Procedure
In the event of a catastrophic situation the simulation project could be aborted

quickly. The laboratory module was connected to the habitat module with quick
release fasteners, so the two modules could be detached within minutes and the
chamber crew could leave the isolation facility immediately. This procedure was
verified during the joint integrated simulation.
E. Data Handling System
The Data Handling System was a key element in the EXEMSI project. It was
designed (a) to provide an efficient means to acquire, handle, store, and secure
experimental and operational data from the project, (b) to provide a broadly defined
scientific database containing all experimental and operational data from the
EXEMSI project and other simulation projects, which should facilitate the inter-
disciplinary evaluation of the scientific results gained from these projects.
Since the COLUMBUS Development Program had an obvious interest in this
Data Handling System, the development of the system was sponsored by and
performed under the authority of this group. The system was to provide:
Spaceflight relevant operational environment for the project

Common operating interface for the crew
System allowing efficient schedule handling and upgrading
On-line operating interface to the various experiments
High degree of data security to ensure confidentiality of the personal experi-
mental data
Data link between the isolation facility and the control center
Storage and interface for supporting documentation
Reduction of paperwork to be handled by the chamber crew.
28 RAGNAR J.VARNES
The hardware comprised the following elements: Control Center Data Server,
On-Board Server;Portable Crew PC;Back-up Medium;On-Board Multi YO Interface.
F. Experiments
The purpose of the EXEMSI project was to study the human-related effects of
long-duration confinement by means of a multidisciplinaryspace mission simula-
tion. To achieve this goal, the following fields of study were chosen:
Table 3. Experiments Performed by Chamber Crew

Experiment
Number Experimental Topic
1 Role of the autonomic nervous system during isolation
2 Water and salt balance, blood volume regulation
3 Adaptational changes in neural control of cardiorespiratory function
4 Immunologicalstatus in space environment
5 Orthostatic exploration before and after the confinement period
6 The P300 component of the human event-related potential
7 Monitoring of cognitive performance and brain electric activity
8 Assessment of physiological and subjective state changes
9 Workload, fatigue and skill maintenance during prolonged isolation
1 Oa Work capability dynamics and computer games as psychological support method
1 Ob Investigation of dynamics of interpersonal interaction
11 Ethological analysis of crew behavioral adaptation
12 Core Psychological Measurements
13 Local imrnunocompetence in a restricted environment
14 Group dynamics
15 Effect on flicker fusion ability
16 Effect on neuromuscular coordination ability
17 Effect on neuromuscular tremor
18 Telemedicine Experiments
19 Biological air filter
20 Determination of bioeffluents
21 Algae Bioreactor
22 Nutrition and Food management
23 Resources Management
24 Light hydrocarbon concentration
25 Condensed water characterization
26 UMlST trace gas monitoring
27 MPS Trace monitoring
28a Microbial contamination of closed habitat
28b Fluctuation of microbial CFU in the air
29 Trace gas contamination
30 Oculomotor performance during prolonged isolation
31 EXEMSI Owrations Assessment
0 Physiological and psychological effects of long-term confinement of space

crews,
0 Verification of test criteria for European astronaut selection,
0 Evolution of the notion of privacy and territorialism of space crews during
long-duration missions,
Nutritional requirements of space station crews.
A detailed list of the experiments is presented in Table 3.

The psychological experimentsshowed that a good selection procedure provided
a team with ‘normal personalities,’ few stress-related psychosomatic complaints
and no psychopathological reactions. However, social-psychological factors
caused a tendency to suppress team conflicts with development of group-thinking.
Conflicts were focused (often relevant) on the ‘outside world.’ One of the studies
concluded that if this team would have continued working together, the subtle
conflict which was building up might eventually have created a problem in the
functioning of the team.
Several performance studies showed the usefulness of standardized laboratory
tasks as monitoring instruments. This was demonstrated by relating the results of
two studies using exactly the same tasks. The feasibility of self-administered
integrated psychophysiological assessment of the individual state could be shown.
The large amount of individual data collected during the entire isolation period
permitted application of single-subject methodology. This allowed reliable judge-
ments of the individual state. Parallel EEG recording provided relevant supplemen-
tary information for the diagnosis of the individual activation state associated with
task performance.
Physiological studies of serum proteins showed that there was no significant
increase in the haptoglobin level. T lymphocyte proliferation induced by phytohe-
magglutinin as well as CD4 and CD8’ lymphocyte counts were lower after
confinement. Natural Killer cell activity was also significantly decreased, but the
0, production of neutrophil granulocytes was unchanged.
Some of the results from the water and salt balance studiesof the EXEMSI project
were different from those obtained during the ISEMSI project, especially for the
blood volume regulating hormones renin and ANP. During ISEMSI there was a
significant increase in renin and no change in ANP. Nearly the opposite was found
during EXEMSI renin decreased and ANP increased. The increased ANP level
agrees with the increased urine output, since ANP has a diuretic effect.
The contamination studies suggest that the ESA rules for cleanliness and con-
tamination control, and for avoidance of microbial growth were not followed
satisfactorily. The disinfectants used were not effective in eliminating microbial
growth. The crew obviously lacked training in environmental hygiene, and no one
had been given responsibility for hygienic matters.
Four telemedicine consultationswere performed during the isolation period. The
study could confirm: (a) the efficiency of Telemedicine Assistants previously
30 RAGNAR J. VkRNES
trained and acting under remote medical guidance, (b) the need for a sophisticated
telecommunication network permitting audio, video and data transmission, and (c)
the importance of integrating ESTEC telescience facilities for telemedicine prac-
tice.
VI. SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

A. Chronology of the EXEMSI Project
The general time schedule of the EXEMSI project is presented in Table 4.It
started in December 199 1 with the assignment to DLR of the contract for providing
and handling the isolation facility with the hyperbaric chamber complex TITAN as
its nucleus.
Crew Selection
In January 1992 the ‘Call for Candidates’ went out to universities, research
organizations and industries in the thirteen Member States of ESA and in Canada.
The closing date for submission of applications was March 2, 1992. A declaration
of interest was received from 152 persons (1 27 males, 25 females). These were sent
a preselection questionnaire (general, medical, psychological) prepared by the
European Astronauts Center (EAC), which handled the selection process. The
questionnairewas completed and returned by 82 applicants (67 males, 15 females).
On March 6, 1992, twenty-four persons (17 males, 7 females) were preselected
from these applicants.Finally, on April 13,1992, ten applicants (6 males, 4 females)
were accepted as members of the Experimental Program Execution Team, compris-
ing both chamber crew and ground crew.
Table 4. Time Schedule for the EXEMSI Project

ProjectMilestones Date
Start of EXEMSI Project 18.12.91
Call for Candidates 01.01.92
Selection of Candidates 16.04.92
Experimental Program Establishment 30.04.92
Start of Training Phase 06.07.92
Mission Assignment 03.08.92
Joint Integrated Simulation 25.08.92
Facility Acceptance Review 02.09.92
Start of Isolation Period, Crew Enters Chamber 07.09.92
End of Isolation Period, Crew Exits Chamber 06.11.92
Post Isolation Testing and Debriefing 06.1 1.92
End of EXEMSI Project 31.03.93
Experimental Program
The EXEMSI experimental program comprised thirty experiments.The majority

was proposed by the members of the Space Medicine Advisory Group (SMAG)
and the Space Psychology Advisory Group (SPAG).These experiments formed the
group of core experiments,some of which were follow-up studies from experiments
performed during the ISEMSI project. The selection of the physiological and
psychological experiments was performed by a Scientific Committee. The opera-
tional add-on experiments were largely proposed by ESTEC and finally agreed to
by LTPO. In this way the experimental program was established by the end of April
1992.
Approval Procedures
A Medical Board was involved in the preparation of the EXEMSI project. It was
composed of experts from the ESA member states in several fields of clinical and
aerospace medicine.The designated crew surgeon for the project was also a member
of this board. The functions of this independent advisory committee included the
review of medical and operational requirements, the considerationof ethical aspects
of human life science experiments, and the review and approval of the protocols
for these experiments.
Crew Training
The Astronauts Supportand Training Division of theEuropean Astronauts Center

accepted the responsibility for preparing and managing the crew training according
to standards expected and required for preparing astronauts for space missions. A
major challenge was that the existing astronaut training concepts and methods had
to be changed to accommodate some distinctive features of the EXEMSI project,
for example, the complete training period lasted only two months (from July 6 until
Sept. 6, 1992) compared to several years required for any complex space mission.
This imposed major constraintson the activities and heavily influenced the training
flow and concept. The principal aim of the training program was to provide the
crew the knowledge and skills required for a successful mission. This meant that
each crew member had to acquire a sufficient level of proficiency in hisher
operational areas. For example, all crew members had to be thoroughly trained in
general medical procedures, like blood sampling, ECG and EEG.
The crew members received their mission assignment on August 3. From that
date until August 28, mission training took place. This training phase provided the
crew with experiment and operational training according to the skills required for
their assigned category and function (chamber crew, back-up crew, ground crew,
commander). On August 25 a joint integrated simulation was carried out in order
to validate experiment concepts and equipment, as well as the operational concepts
and procedures of the project.
32 RAGNAR J.VkRNES
During the training program other major project activities were performed and
completed:
0 Integration of the habitat and laboratory modules

0 Integration and testing of the experimental hardware
0 Development of the operational software.
Isolation Period
After the Facility AcceptanceReview on September 2, the isolation period started

on September 7,1992. The four chamber crew members stayed inside the chamber
for 60 days. No crew change, involving the two back-ups, was required. On
November 6 the isolation period was completed, and the four chamber crew
members left the chamber facility. They were met by a large group of journalists,
ESA and DLR staff and their colleagues from ground control.
Post-isolation Period
Post-isolation testing started in the afternoon of the same day after completion
of the press conference and debriefing by the principal investigators. Post-isolation
testing lasted two weeks, and consisted of individual and group interviews, ques-
tionnaire completion, and post-mission testing of psychophysiological parameters.
The crew members, principal investigators, European Astronauts Center, and
DLR all prepared reports on the EXEMSI project according to their contracts with
LTPO. These reports are incorporated in the EXEMSI Main Report, which together
with the Appendices A to E attempts to give a complete picture of this complex
multinational scientific project.
B. Activities Prior to the Isolation Period
Coordination Phase and lmplementation Phase
The points made in this section are derived from the DLR report. At the
Kick-Off-Meeting between DLR and ESALTPO the overall planning and organi-
zation of the project were agreed. During the Coordination Phase which then started
the following activities took place:
0 Detailed preparation of the framework for the subsequent project phases

0 Agreement with ESA on the baseline requirements
0 Definition of the experimental program and its integration in the project
0 Definition and agreement of the project execution.
The Implementation Phase started with the verification of the user interface
specification of the facility according to the requirements. Needed improvements
of these interfaces were carried out. The delivery of experimental hardware was
planned to start in week 20.
Crew Training Program
This program was prepared and managed by the Astronauts Support and Training
Division of the European Astronauts Center according to the standards expected
and required for preparing astronauts for space missions.The aim of the training
was to provide crew members with the knowledge and skills in their operational
areas required for a successful mission. There were three training periods: basic
training, specialized training, and mission training, which are described in Section
1V B.
loint Integrated Simulation
The EXEMSI facility and the experiments had to be tested before starting crew
training, because major modifications of the facility or the experiments could not
be performed during the training period. The test phase of the facility and the
experiments was divided into four independent parts:
0 Tests of facility systems (gas and power supply, communication, instruments,

gas analysis, etc.)
0 Test of experiment hardware (safety, compatibility, interferences, etc.)
0 Unmanned tests of the entire facility (leakage, pressure control, heating and
cooling systems, life support system, etc.)
0 Manned tests-Joint Integrated Simulation-of the facility and the experi-
ments with all systems in operation (temperature distribution, air flow, effi-
ciency of the life support system, noise measurements, etc.)
C. The Isolation Period
The isolation period started September 7,1992. The four chamber crew members
remained inside the isolation facility for 60 days without any crew change until
their emergence on November 6. They had a tight daily schedule during this period.
In addition to the daily housekeeping activities, such as preparing meals and
cleaning, thirty experimentshad to be executed according to the procedures learned
during training.
Due to the complexity of the instrumentationand the coordination of all activities,
plans had to be changed almost daily. A hierarchy of reporting procedures had to
be performed in order to keep track of what had been done, what should be moved
to the next day, and what had to be cancelled or changed, in agreement with ground
control.
34 RAGNAR J.VARNES
The crew interface coordinator (CIC) kept a daily CZC Logbook. An abbreviated
version of this logbook was prepared for further information in the organization.
In addition, the crew interface coordinator completed a daily CZC Report.
The chamber crew commander prepared a daily Commander Report. From these
daily reports a Weekly Report was made, which provided the basis for the informa-
tion sent by the ScientificCoordinator (SC) to the principal investigators.
The PlannerReplanner had to report any changes in the daily schedules, which
were recorded in the Actions Reports, divided in ‘General Actions’ and ‘Actions
for the Replanner.’
From the sophisticated computer-based logging system developed for this mis-
sion, it was possible to extract Evenrs Reports. These list the main activities, such
as eating, sleeping, leisure etc., and separately ‘Unexpected and Maintenance
Events.’
Week I
During the first week the chamber crew had several problems with logging and
storage of data. Out of the 22 experimentsconducted during that week, only 10 had
full data sets. The other 12 suffered either data anomalies (data not lost but wrongly
labeled, stored in the wrong place, etc.) or complete loss of data. The data system
needed to be even more foolproof to help the crew members when they are under
pressure. Furthermore, the crew should have had more opportunity to practice these
routines beforehand under operational conditions.
Week 2
Time keeping by the chamber crew had significantly improved with deviations
of less than 20 minutes, unless there was a technical problem. The data storage
problem had fallen to an average of 2%.The crew had become so efficient that it
was proposed that they could afford to get up half an hour later, at 07.30 am.
Minor repairs on some scientific equipment had to be performed by the Systems
Manager. It was agreed that ground control should allow time for such maintenance
tasks in the time schedule for workdays, so as to enable the Systems Manager crew
to manage his time better. A computer virus in two of the crew PC’s was detected
and eliminated.
Upon request of the chamber crew and after some discussion with the project
management, it was agreed that two crew members could sleep in the laboratory
module instead of the habitat module. On most evenings,thecrew watched a video,
followed by computer games, and retired to bed around 02.00 am as an average.
Time was reserved on Saturday in Week 2 for a delegation of Russian cosmonauts
to visit Ground Control and communicate with the chamber crew commander (who
had received previous training as a cosmonaut). A few weeks later the Russian
cosmonaut Olek Atkov visited Ground Control and had a 10-minute communica-
tion with the chamber crew.
The major issue for the ground crew during week 2 was the question of isolation
versus communication with the chamber crew. Although the guidelines drafted by
the Experimental Program Execution Manager were useful, it was necessary for
Ground Control to discuss the issue extensively before arriving at a common
understanding. Unfortunately, the chamber crew had never seen these guidelines,
which led to some misunderstandings and disagreements.This issue first came up
in the middle of Week 2 with the arrival of a letter for a member of the chamber
crew. The person concerned felt very strongly that it should be faxed to him, and
this was supported by the commander. Several lengthy and difficult conversations
took place between chamber crew and ground control. When the letter was not sent
to the crew member, the chamber crew was in a “rebellious mood on Friday.” A
member of the ground control crew wrote in the Weekly Report for week 2 that the
“relations between the crews have been damaged and it is regrettable that ESAdid
not fully discuss and document these issues before the isolation began.”
Week 3
There was a discussion with the principal investigators on shifting the start of the
morning sequence from 07.00 to 07.30 am. No objections were raised. A trash exit
incident occurred when the Commander was asked by DLR to send out some
photographic film with the trash. The chamber crew was reminded that nothing
other than genuine trash should be exited.
Ground control received a revised set of communication rules from the Experi-
mental Program Execution Manager. While the chamber crew still queried some of
these rules, it at least provided Ground Control with a baseline from which they
could work.
Morale was reported to be high during this week. Some modifications and repairs
had to be performed by the Systems Manager. There were some problems with
specific experiments, but these were solved by direct contact with the responsible
principal investigator. A successful ‘telerepair experiment’ was performed during
this week. Due to some software problems, the contractor firm CARRAR had to
install some new software. This software installation involved the chamber crew
sending video pictures of the computer screen inside the chamber to a monitor
installed by CARRAR outside.
Failure of a flowmeter in the sanitary installation inconvenienced the crew. Since
this happened at night, no action was possible, except closing the cold water valve.
The next day DLR installed a device to mix hot and cold water so that showers
could be taken. The chamber crew spent much effort on this flowmeter problem,
and different scenarios emerged from the crew and other parties regarding other
flowmeter failures during the isolation period.
36 RACNAR J. VkRNES
Week 4
The Scientific Activity Coordinator reported several minor problems with differ-
ent experiments,most of which were solved. Ground Control developed a data base
which would contain all information usually written in the CIC Logbook. All
information related to ‘Action requested’ was also included in this database.
Week 5
Problems occurred in several experiments. For example, in Exp. 1 the crew ran
out of electrodes for doing body impedance measurements (BIM). The crew did an
experiment comparing BIM readings made with the correct electrodes and with
ECG electrodes. The results correlated to a degree that was acceptable to the
principal investigator, and ECG electrodes were used in this experiment for the
remainder of the isolation period. This is another example of the creativity needed
in space experiments when no additional supplies can be provided.
The mixed water solution previously implemented appeared to be satisfactory,
and no further action was taken on this issue. A trial run for the power supply
interruption (maintenance of on-site power plant),was held. Both Ground Control
and chamber crew switched off sensitive computer equipment, and the only
problem encountered came from the Planner’s printer which failed to restart
properly. A teal on-site power interruption occurred four days later; then no
problems were encountered.
An extra medical conference with a specialist from outside DLR was held. A
hand-held camera was used to transmit pictures from inside the chamber to facilitate
a diagnosis.This aspect of the conference was very successful, and later it appeared
that the agreed treatment was equally satisfactory.
Week 6
The bioreactor (ALBI; Exp. 21) was successfully inoculated, but on the next day
the number of algae had fallen by about 30%,as estimated by the crew. Thereafter
the population stabilized and began to increase. In Exp. 28 (ASAM), the amount
of fungus and bacterial cultures had greatly increased.
The Telemedicine study (Exp. 18) was conducted during this week. Since the
physician in Toulouse, who was to give the camera operation instructions, did not
speak English, the French chamber crew member had to serve as a translator during
the operation of the padtilt camera. At first there was no picture in Toulouse, but
the fault was traced to an incorrect configuration patch panel in the Spacelab
simulator hall.
Week 7
By this week the crew members were running the experiments very efficiently,
so they could afford to make minor modifications to the schedule at their own
initiative, without reference to the Crew Interface Coordinator. After seeing the
draft schedule for the post-isolation activities, the chamber crew sent out some
suggestions concerning the details of the schedule, and these were taken into
account.
Another Telemedicine session was held on October 23. There were no problems
with the video link, but the audio link could not be activated in time for this session.
As a result, the session was carried out in the usual way, but without sending a fax
from inside the chamber.The padtilt camera inside the chamber did no longer move
freely, so the hand-held camera was used instead. A member of the chamber crew
would try to repair the camera before the next session.
At the request of the principal investigator of the contaminant experiment, the
charcoal in the LSS was not replaced for 36 hours on a trial basis. One crew member
reported a slight feeling of nausea and headache during this period, but this could
also have been due to the vaccinations carried out in the ISSE experiment.
The on-board server and Laplink had for some time functioned inefficiently, but
the crew was able to run the experimental applications, so no further action was
taken.
A second medical incident occurred that was successfully managed with the aid
of the Telemedicineequipment. Crew member G was notifiedof the birth of an 8-lb
daughter at 4:15 AM on October 24, and that mother and child were in good
condition.
Week 8
Agreement was reached with the crew concerning the rights to photographic
material. The crew agreed to the proposed ‘Exit arrangements,’ but requested that
the interval between the exits of each crew member would be kept to a minimum.
During the Telemedicinemaintenance session,live television pictures of Ground
Control were accidentally transmitted for some minutes to the monitor in the
laboratory module. This definitely had a temporary effect on the state of mind of
the chamber crew.
The telerepair of the panhilt camera in the laboratory module provided a clear
lesson: ‘This was a difficult problem to solve and was symptomatic of leaving such
a device exposed to general purpose use (and abuse) in a long duration experiment
such as EXEMSI . . . .” “Several things had gone wrong, namely; a blown fuse,
connectors and interface PCBs making poor electrical contacts, gear slipping on
their drive shafts, physical knocks and damage to the camera, cable rerouting and
reconfiguration.” It should be noted that some of the ‘abuse’ was caused by the
38 RACNAR I. VARNES
installation of the extra cooling system during the last days before the start of the
isolation period.
D. Post-Isolation Period
The isolation facility was opened at 12.00am on Friday November 6,1992. After
welcoming speeches by ESA and DLR management and a photo and film session
for the media, blood sampling for the immunological analysis was performed. A
complete medical examination was scheduled in the afternoon, followed by psy-
chological and physiological tests.
On the following two days physiological and psychological post-mission data
were collected. On the third post-isolation day the crew had a debriefing with ESA
project management. This debriefing session was videotaped. The rest of this week,
up to Friday November 13, consisted of further post-mission measurements,
interviews and debriefing. On Saturday and Sunday, November 14 and 15, the
crew was off-duty. Some testing was performed on Monday, November 16, and the
post-mission period ended on Tuesday, November 17 with a press conference,
buffet lunch and a debriefing with the principal investigators.
At the principal investigator debriefing meeting it was decided to run extra
post-mission sessions for psychological debriefing and blood sampling for the
immunological project on the two days preceding the Final EXEMSI Presentation
on March 3 1, 1992 at ESA Headquarters in Paris. The first session consisted of
presentations on the operational aspects of the project (scenario, crew selection,
crew training, medical and operational procedures and organization, crew function-
ing). The second session consisted of brief presentations from some of the experi-
ments which were performed. A more thorough presentation and discussion of the
scientific results from the EXEMSI project took place during a two-day symposium
in Paris on December 1-2, 1993, the proceedings of which are published in this
volume.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
EXEMSI was a complex experiment. Thanks to the technical, operational and medical
reports from DLR and EAC which are included in the EXEMSI Final Report, and the
interviews with EXEMSI key personnel, it has been possible to write this chapter. I am
indebted to the persons at DLR and EAC who provided the necessary information for
describing the EXEMSI project.
Chapter 3
BODY WEIGHT AND BODY

COMPOSITION DURING
SIXTY DAYS OF ISOLATION
H.-Chr. Gunga, K.A. Kirsch,

L. Rocker, A. Maillet, and C. Gharib
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .40
11. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .41
A. Facilities, Subjects, Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B. Analytical Methods . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1
111. Results.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .42
A. Bodyweight . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2
B. BodyComposition . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
C. Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .46
Advances in Space Biology and Medwine

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
39
40 GUNGA, KIRSCH, ROCKER, MAILLET, and GHARIB
D. Comparison of Techniques for Body Water Determination. . . . . . . . . 49

E. Normality of Subject Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
V. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1. INTRODUCTION
During spaceflight14 as well as during isolation and confinement on the ground5-12
body weight in humans becomes unstable: most subjects lose weight, but some
show a weight gain. This raises the question whether these weight changes merely
reflect shifts in the water balance, a hypothesis which received much emphasis in
thepast?13-'6 or whether a shift in body composition takes place. Even if no weight
change would occur under these extreme environmental conditions, changes in
body composition might still take place, e.g., some lean body mass might be
replaced by fat or water.
A major problem in the past was the lack of a suitable method for the study of
body composition. The method should be reliable, safe and relatively fast, and it
should allow frequent use in an individual subject. For this reason the dilution
techniques must be excluded, and only the Body Impedance Analyzer (BIA)
method satisfies these requirement^?**"^-^^ Therefore we have applied the BIA
method in combination with the double-labeled water dilution technique. The BIA
method was applied daily to analyze the body composition of the subjects isolated
and confined for 60 days during the EXEMSI project.
To allow safe conclusions to be drawn from these data, the circumstances under
which the data were collected should always be considered. For example, the
pre-isolation period, during which the subjects are exposed to selection procedures
and training sessions, is a busy and stressful period, and stress is known to induce
changes in the water balance. This has been observed in astronauts during the
pre-flight phase: they gained weight two weeks before launch.2s3During isola-
tion and confinement the life style again changes drastically. Physical activity
is restricted and food intake may also undergo changes, in addition to the social
changes taking place. All this could also have an impact on the body composi-
tion.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to analyze the body weight changes in the
light of possible shifts in body composition during isolation and confinement of
humans, and whether subjects display individual patterns of body weight and body
composition changes. We also wanted to determine whether the BIA method can
be applied safely in such studies. This kind of study might be helpful in the design
and conduct of further isolation studies as well as in the preparation for future
long-term spaceflight missions.
Body Weight and Body Composition 41
II. METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS

A. Facilities, Subjects, Procedures
The EXEMSI isolation and confinement study, organized by the European Space
Agency (ESA), was carried out between July and November 1992 at the Deutsche
Forschungsanstalt fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR), Cologne, Germany.
The crew consisted of four healthy subjects, 3 males and 1 female. These four
subjects were selected by the European Astronaut Center (EAC, Cologne) from a
group of 10 European persons (6 males, 4 females), who had passed all medical
and psychological examinations (with the same medical, psychological and
group criteria as applied in the selection of astronauts). None of them took any
non-prescribed medication before and during the experiment. The subjects were
informed about the aim of the study and their written consent was obtained. The
scientific protocol was approved by the ethical medical board of DLR.
The four subjects were isolated and confined in a chamber with a total volume
of 92.4 m3 for all activities.The pressure inside the chamber was maintained at 106
P a (mbar), slightly hyperbaric to prevent entry of any contaminants. Breathing
gas inside the chambers was bottled air (DIN 3 188). The partial oxygen pressure
was maintained at 20 f lkPa (19-21%). The chamber temperature was in the range
of 22 f 2.5"C and the humidity 55 f 15%. All environmental parameters were
continuously measured and monitored by the outside technical control team from
the DLR diving division.
Before the isolation period (Sept. 7-Nov. 6, 1992) the subjects spent a training
period of two months (July 6-Sept. 5 , 1992) that took place in the DLR and EAC
facilities. This training period was to allow each subject to become familiar with
all facilities and procedures, to undergo the final medical examinations and selec-
tion, and to become proficient in the execution of all scientific experiments that
would have to be performed during the 60 days of confinement.
The first measurement of body weight was obtained on June 6. All other
experiments started on the first day of confinement. From then on daily measure-
ments of body weight, body composition, urine output, and electrolyte excretion
were performed until the 8'h day after the end of confinement.
B. Analytical Methods
Body Weight
Body weight (BW) was determined on a balance with an accuracy of S O g every

morning after voiding. The value recorded at the start of isolation was set at loo%,
against which all later data were plotted. The Body Mass Index (BMI) was
calculated from body weight and height by means of the formula:
BMI = BW [kg] / Height [m2]
Urine
Urines of each subject were collected daily during the isolation phase, and on
post-isolation days D+l to D+8. Na' and K ' concentrations in the urine were
determined with an ion selective electrode system (Hitachi 7 17 Multi Analyzer and
Synchron CX3, respectively).
Body Composition
Total Body Water (TBW) was determined with the Body Composition Analyzer
(Akern-Rcl BIA 101/S Data Input, Frankfurt, Germany). Two electrodes were
placed on the right hand and two others on the right foot. The coefficient of variation
for this method was 0.5% for the resistance (0-1 000 Ohm) and 1% for the reactance
(&SO0 Ohm). From these data the lean body mass (LBM) and body fat were
calculated. Total body water was also determined by means of the double-labeled
water method, described in the chapter by Maillet et al. in this volume?
Body weight, body composition, urine volumes, and urine electrolytes were
measured daily. In order not to crowd the graphs, the data from 7 consecutive days
are averaged and presented as weekly arithmetic means.
The data from all four subjects are presented individually.No statisticd analysis
was performed.
111. RESULTS
A. Body Weight
Table 1 contains the anthropometricdata from the four subjects. The data indicate
that subject G was slightly overweight on the basis of his BMI index of 27.1.
According to the World Health Organization standards this index should not exceed
25.
Figure 1 presents the body weights of the four crew members in the course of the
EXEMSI project (upper part). The data points are weekly averages in percent of
the value immediately preceding isolation. For comparison, the correspondingdata
for the ISEMSI experiment are shown in the bottom part of Figure 1.
Table 1. AnthroDometric Data for the Four Crew Members

Subject Age (years) Height fcm) Weight (k) BMI (kg/m2)
B 29 184 81 .O 23.9
D 26 178 74.0 23.4
C 34 179 87.0 27.1
H 27 173 64.0 21.4
PRE-1- +I-
ISOLATION POST
EXEMSI
j
-1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1
I
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9+1
1 *
Time [weeks]
Figure 1. Body weight changes in the four crew members during isolation. Upper
part Weekly averages of body weight expressed as percent of body weight on day 1
of isolation. At left absolute body weights 3 months and 2 weeks before start of
isolation. Lower part Weekly averages of body weight expressed as percent of body
weight 5 days before start of isolation from the ISEMSI study.
The absolute body weights at the beginning and end of the pre-isolation period
are listed for each subject (top left). Three subjects gained weight during this period,
subject G even 5.5 kg. The beginning value of his BMI (based on 81.5 kg body
weight) was 25.5, which is still in the normal range. Only subject B lost weight (2
kg) during the pre-isolation period.
During the isolation period all subjects lost body weight (Figure 1, upper part).
It was a gradual process, taking placeduring the first 3 4 weeks of isolation. Subject
B had the largest loss: 4%, 3.2 kg, while subject G lost 2%. Subject H had a loss,
followed by a weight gain. This weight fluctuation occurred in a 4 week cycle.
In the first post-isolation week body weight remained stable in all four subjects.
The corresponding data from the preceding ISEMSI study (Figure 1, bottom part)
show a different course for the body weight. Losses occurred in two of the six
subjects only, and this occurred during the second half of the isolation period
(though in the same weeks as in the case of the EXEMSI project). During the
Changes of Body Water
(A%]
Changes 01 Lean Body Mass
:c*
[A%]
---------,mmmoN---
+. .++. p0ST -+
102- EXEMS
102
H
A
100 1004 7
98 98 Y D
B
96 96-
G
94 94-
92 92- 8 r I I 8 8 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 +1 +2weokr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 +1 +2vw&s
Figure2. Body composition changes in the four crew members during isolation. Top
left: total body water; Top righe lean body mass; Below body fat. Weekly averages
expressed as percent of value on day 1 of isolation.
44
\
x'LX/x-x-x X
'
\ x ---x
I Subiect
d
- 31-
-P
P P Subject b
cn 1
9- 2 9 - G A 13
; Subiect
; E
I
E 27- ; 1 1
C 0
.-
.-
L
-
2 25- 09
eg
0 W
W E
g 23- :. 07
.- a Ei
L
J 21- 05
I , I , , I
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
I!9 O l i 3 4 6 6 ; & i b
Time [weeks] Time [weeks]
dU
Figure 3. Sodium and potassium excretion in relation to body composition changes. Left side: Sodium excretion and changes of total
body water during isolation for subject C. Rightside: Potassium excretion and changes of lean body mass during isolation for subjects B
and G.
1 G
'
0
3
I 1 , 1 1
30 40 50
Total Body Water (TBWI [ I ]
(Dilution Method)
figure 4. Total body water values of four crew members determined by the Imped-
ance method plotted against the data determined by the double-labeled water
technique. Data determined at the start of isolation.
post-isolation phase of ISEMSI weight gains were observed in five out of six
subjects.
B. Body Composition
Figure 2 presents the data on the body composition of the four subjects as weekly
averages in percent of the value immediately preceding isolation: top left body
water, top right lean body mass, and bottom body fat.
The time course of the data in Figure 2 shows that during the first three weeks
of isolation subject G lost total body water and lean body mass, while gaining body
fat. This explains his eventually moderate weight loss of 2%, mentioned above.
Another interesting trend is seen in subject B, who lost about 15%of his fat stores
during the first three weeks, and lean body mass during the second half of the
isolation period. This explains his rather large weight loss of 4% (Figure 1). Subject
H gained and lost total body water in a 4-week cycle, which is characteristic for
females.
C. Electrolytes
Figure 3 shows sodium and potassium excretion values for subjects B and G
together with values for total body water and lean body mass. These subjects have
been selected because of their interesting electrolyte excretion patterns.
N Frequency distribution of body mass index (BMI)
A 4
24
-
N 103
middle aged (2040 years) untrained men
@@@ = subjects (EXEMSI STUDY)
20
16
12
0
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
BMI [kg;m2]
B N
A
Frequency distribution of body mass index (BMI)
28 -
-
0
+
N = 159
middle aged (20-40 yearsj women
24 -
I
- n 42 -
= female athletes
- :...untrained women
=
n = 117
@ = subject H (EXEMSI STUDY)
20 -
-
16-
-
12-
8-
-
4-
-
0-
1's . 20 ' 22 . 24 26 28 30 32
BMI [kg/m2]
(continued)
Figure 5. Comparison of crew member values with those in healthy male and female
populations in the same age group. A and B: Frequency distribution of body mass
index in a group of males (left)and females (right).
47
C Frequency distribution of total bodywater
N N = 103
@a@)
middle aged (2040years) untrained men
= subjects (EXEMSI STUDY)
16
12
0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
bodywater [%BW]
D Frequency distribution of total bodywater
N N = 159
middle aged (20-40 years) womev
A rn
- E = lemale athletes
.: -
n = 42
. = untrained women
16- n 117
! @) = subject H (EXEMSI STUDY,
12-
-
8-
4-
0
46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 6 4 6 6
bodywater [OeBLV'
F@weS. (Continued)C and D:Frequency distribution of total body water in a group

of males (left)and females (right).Values of the four subjects indicated by circles above
top of corresponding column.
Subject G shows high sodium excretion rates during the first 3 weeks, when he
also has a loss of total body water. His potassium excretion pattern corresponds
well with the periods of loss of lean body mass. At the time when he loses lean body
mass, he shows high potassium excretion values, which is understandable because
tissue has a high potassium content.
Subject B, who lost lean body mass in weeks 3-5, also has an increased potassium
excretion during those weeks. On the whole, the electrolyte findings fit with the
data on body composition obtained with the BIA.
D. Comparison of Techniques for Body Water Determination
Figure 4 compares the body water values for the four subjects obtained with the
double-labeled water method with those provided by the BIA method. There is a
good correlation (r = 0.998), but the BIA values are consistently 5% higher than
the dilution method values. Nevertheless, the dilution method repeated during the
second half of the isolation period confirmed the body fat loss in subject B, and the
gain in body fat and loss of total body water in subject G.
E. Normality of Subject Data

In order to draw valid conclusions from these data, one must be sure that the
beginning values of the subjects were within the normal range. In Figure 5 the data
of the four subjects are compared with those of a group of healthy subjects in the
same age range. Panels A and B show BMI values for males and females, respec-
tively. The BMI value of subject G is indeed far to the right, which means that in a
group of 103 males only 6 had the same or higher BMI value. The other subjects,
two males and one fcmale, fall within the 1-standard deviati0.n spread.
Panels C and D show total body water values for males and females, respectively.
With respect to this parameter, all subjects are within the 1-standard deviation
spread.
IV. DISCUSSION
The findings of the EXEMSI project confirm that loss of body weight can be expected
during isolation and confinement, in agreement with earlier In the
present study the body weight changes occurred gradually in the first half of the
60-day isolation period, but it should be taken into account that three of the four
subjects gained weight during thepre-isolation period, only subject B losing weight
during that time.
The data on body composition indicate that the weight loss of subject G
represented loss of body water and lean body mass, partly compensated by an
increase in body fat. Subject B, who lost 4% body weight, showed a decrease in all
three body compartments. Remarkable is that the electrolyte excretion patterns of
subjects G and B correspond with their changes in body water and lean body mass.
The initial values for body mass index (BMI) and body water for the four crew
members were within normal limits, as shown by a comparison with the com-
sponding data for populations of healthy males and females in the same age group.
The body water data obtained with body impedance analysis (BIA) are highly
correlated with those determined with the double-labeled water method, but the
latter are consistently 5% lower than the BIAvalues. In a recent review of principle,
underlying assumptions and clinical application of the BIA method, Kushne?'
finds it a valid and useful technique, as did other authors."-20 In comparing the
BIA method with the double-labeled water method, he finds a good correlation,as
we do. He determines that both methods are unable to determine lean body mass
changes below 1 kg. He also concludes that determinations 2 weeks apart from each
other can be validly compared.
In the present study the double-labeled water method was applied twice, two
weeks before start of isolation and on day 27 of isolation, about 6 weeks apart. In
this period subject B lost 1.9 kg body fat according to the double-labeled water
method, while the BIA method showed a loss of 2.5 kg. Based on the dilution
technique for subject G a 3.6% loss of total body water was found in the same period
with the double-labeled water method and a 3.8% loss of lean body mass, partly
offset by a gain in fat. The conclusion seems justified that the BIA method is a
reliable technique for the purpose of these studies and deserves to be applied in
future experiments.
Comparison of the body weight changes during 60 days of isolation with those
in the earlier ISEMSI study of 28 days of isolation shows a considerabledifference.
In ISEMSI two of the six subjects showed weight gains, two weight losses, and two
little or no change. In EXEMSI all four subjects lost weight throughout the isolation
period. The only common finding is that in ISEMSI 5 out of the 6 subjects showed
a weight loss at some point during isolation. Mission specific events or individual
circumstances appear to determine when this happens. Lamb, et al? found both
weight losses and unchanged weights during their isolation study for unclear
reasons.
Since 3 out of 4 subjects gained weight during the pre-isolation period of the
EXEMSI study, it appears that subjects corrected this deviation during the isolation
period. In earlier studies reported in the literature no emphasis was placed on this
f a ~ t o r . ~ * ' * ~With
~ " *respect
'~ to post-isolation changes in body weight we note that
Morgan et al." found after 17 days of isolation a rapid recovery of lost weight after
the end of isolation, but after 30 days of isolation a delayed and slow recovery. This
appears to be confirmed by our findings for the post-isolation periods of ISEMSI
and EXEMSI: rapid recovery after 28 days of isolation, slow and delayed recovery
after 60 days of isolation. The authors suggest that weight losses occurring during
shorter isolation periods might primarily be due to dehydration, while weight loss
during continuing isolation might involve altered body composition. Morgan et
a1.I' also report that body water loss exceeded weight loss in their experiment,and
suggest that this might be due to an increase in body fat. This was in fact noticed
by us for subject G.
Lamb, et al.’ also observed the appearance of two groups with regard to body
weight during isolation: 19 subjects showing weight loss, 6 subjects showing no
weight change. They suggest that this is an age related phenomenon: younger
subjects tend to maintain their weight, while older subjects lose weight during
isolation. However, body composition was not measured in their experiment, and
this factor may play a role of importance besides age.
Fraser,’ in a review of the effects of confinement, cites studies where the diet was
deliberately restricted in order to make the subjects lose weight during isolation. It
may be that subject B presents such a case, because his weight loss was accompa-
nied by a large loss of body fat. Fraser also mentions that appetite depression, food
acceptability, daily exercise, and restriction of movement may play a role. Obvi-
ously, there still remain many unanswered questions that require further research.
But it does appear that the simple statement “subjects lose weight during isolation”
is insufficient. Pre- and post-isolation periods need to be considered together with
the isolation period, and changes in body composition must be considered. Data
from psychological studies should also be taken into account in future studies.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

The aim of this study was to find the mechanisms leading to the weight changes
that have frequently been observed during isolation and also in spaceflight. Isola-
tion studies with small groups impose limitations on the measurements that can be
performed to simple. noninvasive methods. In this study the simple parameters of
body weight and body composition, along with sodium and potassium excretion,
were determined in three male and one female subject before, during and after 60
days of isolation. Our assumption was that application of these simple methods
might provide valuable information, when measurements are done on a daily basis
and when the pre- and post-isolation periods are taken into account.
Three subjects gained weight before isolation, while one lost weight. All four
subjects gradually lost weight during isolation, 1 4 % of their weight on the first
day of isolation. During the first post-isolation week weight remained stable.
During isolation one subject lost body fat, whereas another lost body water and lean
body mass, but gained body fat. The urinary electrolyte excretion pattern reflected
the changes in body composition: sodium loss coincided with a decrease of total
body water, and potassium loss with adecreaseof lean body mass. The Bioelectrical
Impedance Analysis method, used in defining changes in body composition,
provided data in good agreement with those obtained with thedouble-labeled water
method.
The results reported here are in agreement with observations reported by other
investigators with respect to the body weight changes and the body composition.
However, it is still not understood why some subjects lose fat and others gain fat
under identical environmental conditions. Psychological .factors may be involved

in these individual differences. Two further points have become clear from these
studies: (1) the pre- and post-isolation periods should be taken into account, (2)
urinary electrolyte excretion must be seen in the context of changes in body
composition, not only in the context of kidney function.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The cooperation of the subjects and the technical assistance of B. Biinsch and H.J. Wicke
during this study are gratefully acknowledged. This investigation was supported by ESA-
LTPO (Long-Term Planning Office), and by grants from DARA (No. 50 WB 92397), DRET
(No. 89237) and CNES.
REFERENCES
1. Grigoriev, A.I., Egorov, A.D. General Mechanisms of the Effect of Weightlessness on the Human
Body. In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine (S.L. Bonting. Ed.) Vol. 2. pp. 142. JAI Press
Inc., Greenwich, CT,1992.
2. Kirsch, K., Haenel, F., Riicker. L., with technical assistance of H J . Wicke. Venous Pressure in
Microgravity. Natunvissenschaften 73:44749. 1986.
3. Kirsch. K.A., Riicker, L., Gauer, O.H., Krause, R.. Leach. C., Wicke. HJ.. Landry, R. Venous
Pressure in Man during Weightlessness. Science 225(4658):218-219, 1984.
4. Leach, C.S. Fluid Control Mechanisms in Weightlessness. Aviation, Space, and Environmental
Medicine W A 7 4 A I 9 , 1987.
5. Fraser. T.M. The Effects of Confitiement as a Factor in Manned Space Flight. NASA Contractor
Report. NASACR-511,1966.
6. Gunga, H.C., Maillet. A., Kirsch, K., Riicker, L., Gharib, C., Vames, R.Water and Salt Turnover.
In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine (S.L. Bonting. Ed.) Vol. 3.185-200, JAI Press Inc.,
Greenwich, CT,1993.
7. Lamb, L.E.. Johnson, R.L.. Stevens, P.M.. Welch, B.E. Cardiovascular Deconditioning from a
Space Cabin Simulator Confinement. Aerospace Medicine 35420428. 1964.
8. Lamb, L.E., Johnson. R.L., Stevens. P.M. Cardiovascular Deconditioning during Chair Rest.
Aerospace Medicine 356445449, 1964.
9. Maillet, A., N a a n d , S.. Gunga. H.C.. Allevard. A.M., Kihm, E., Strollo. F., Pacchiaudi, C.,
Kirsch, K., Gharib, C., Gauquelin, G. Hormonal. Water Balance and Electrolyte Modifications
during a &day Confinement in Humans. In this Volume, pp. 55-78.
10. Morgan, T.E., Ulvedal, F.. Welch B.E. Observations in the SAM lko-rnan Cabin Simulator. II.
Biomedical Aspects.Aerospace Medicine 32:591-597,1%1.
11. Stuster, J.W. Space Station Habitability Recommendations Based on a Systematic Comparative
Analysis ofAnalogous Conditions. NASAContractor Report 3943, NASA ScientificandTechnical
Information Branch, 1986.
12. Zubek, J.P. Sensory Deprivation: Fifteen Years of Research, pp. 254-289. Appleton Century-
Crofts. Englewood Cliffs, New York. 1%9.
13. Drummer, C., Heer, M., Dressendijrfer, R.A., Strasburger, C.J., Gerzer, R. Reduced Nauiuesis
during Weightlessness. Clinical hivestigation 71:678686. 1993.
14. Greenleaf. J.E. Physiology of Fluid and Electrolyte Responses during Inactivity: Water Immersion
and Bed Rest. Medicine and Science in Spons and Exercise 1620-25.1984.
15. Grigoriev. A.I., Morukov, B.V., Vorobiev, D.V. Water and Electrolyte Studies during Long-Tern
Missions Onboard the Space Stations SALYUT and MIR. Clinical Investigation 72:169-189.
1994.
16. Johnson. P.C. Fluid Volume Changes Induced by Spaceflight. Acta Asfronautica 61335-1341.
1979.
17. Deurenberg, P.. Schouten, F.J.M. Loss of Total Body Water and Extracellular Water Assessed by
Multifrequency Impedance. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46247-255. 1992.
18. Khaled LA., McCutcheon, M.J.. Reddy. S.. Peannan. P.L.. Hunter, G.R., Weinsier, R.L. Electrical
Impedance in Assessing Human Body Composition: the BIA Method. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition 41789-792, 1988.
19. Lukaski. H.C., Johnson, P.E., Bolonchuk. W.W., Lykken, G.I. Assessment of Fat-Free Mass using
Bioelectrical Impedance Measurements of the Human Body. American JourMi of Clinical
Nutrition 41:810-817. 1985.
20. Segal, K.R., Gutin, B.. Presta E., Wang, J.. van Itallie, T.B. Estimation of Human Body
Composition by Electrical Impedance Methods: A Comparative Study. Journal of Applied Physi-
ology 58:1565-1571, 1985,
2 1. Kushner. R.F. Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis: AReview of Principles and Applications. Journal
of the American College of Nutrition 11:199-209, 1992.
Chapter 4
HORMONAL, WATER BALANCE, AND

ELECTROLYTE CHANGES DURING
SIXTY-DAY CONFI NEMENT
A. Maillet, S. Normand, H.C. Gunga,

A.M. AIIevard, J.M.Cottet-Emard, E. Kihm,
F. Strollo, C. Pachiaudi, K.A. Kirsch,
C.A. Bizollon, G. Gauquelin, and C. Gharib
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
11. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
A. Facility, Subjects, and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
B. Sample Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
C. Biochemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
D. Doubly Labeled Water Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
E. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

ISBN: 1-55938-97tL2
55
56 MAILLET ETAL.
F. Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Ill. Results and Discussion .............................. 60
A. Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
B. Blood Pressure and Heart Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
C. Plasma Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
D. Blood Volume and Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
E. Urinary Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
IV. Comparison of ISEMSI and EXEMSI Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A. BImdPressure.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
B. HormonalEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1. INTRODUCTION
Long-term isolation and confinement induce psychological and physiological
modifications.' In 1990 the European Space Agency conducted its first isolation
study, ISEMSI, with six subjects isolated for 28 days in a hyperbaric chamber.*
During this study blood volume regulating hormones and water balance were
f ~ l l o w e d .At
~ the beginning of isolation, along with increased systolic blood
pressure, the levels of the blood volume regulating hormones renin, aldosterone
and antidiuretic hormone were raised. The stress hormones cortisol and 3-methoxy-
4-hydroxy phenyl glycol (MHPG) were also increased. MHPG sulfate is a marker
of central sympathetic system activity and MHPG glucuronide is a marker of
peripheral sympathetic system activity! These changes were related in part to
confinement, stress, and mental workload activation,' but they were also conse-
quences of alterations in water and electrolyte metabolism.6
In the second isolation study, EXEMSI, with four subjects confined for 60 days,
we had the opportunity to repeat these studies and to conduct additional experi-
ments to extend our knowledge of the effects of long-term isolation. Measurements
were made of renin, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic peptide
(ANP), and cortisol in plasma and of antidiuretic hormone and MHPG in urine.
Added were assays of erythropoietin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-
1, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), adrenaline, and noradrenaline in plasma,
2nd of MHPG and the catecholamine derivatives metanephrine and nor-
metanephrine in urine.
The increased hematocrit and decreased calculated plasma volume observed in
the ISEMSI were attributed to decreased hydration of the subjects and
maladjustment of body fluid metabolism. It is now possible to measure total body
water and energy expenditure level by a non-invasive and non-radioactive method
employing doubly labeled water (2H2'*O).'-'' This technique was applied twice
during the experiment to all four subjects, once before the isolation period and after
27 days of isolation to provide a precise index of water and energy metabolism.
Hormones and Confinement 57
Glucose tolerance is known to decrease due to reduced physical activity in

~ ’ ~ ~ the ISEMSI study we
subjects during bedrest’, and in trained s ~ b j e c t s . ’During
found hormonal effects that were due in part to reduced physical a~tivity,~ although
the maximal respiratory oxygen uptake (VO,max) was not significantly changed!
Thus, we examined in this second isolation experiment whether the glucose
tolerance could serve as an index of reduced physical activity.
So the aims of the present study were to: (1) define the cause of the blood pressure
increase seen during ISEMSI, (2) restudy the behavior of the blood volume
regulating hormones ANP, renin, aldosterone during long-term isolation, (3) assess
fluid balance and level of hydration, and (4)study the oral glucose tolerance test
as a means of assessing physical activity.

A. Facility, Subjects, and Procedures
The isolation facility, described in detail in the chapter by Vzrnes,” consisted

of a habitat module with kitchen, toilets, and shower; a laboratory module; and a
storage module. Pressure inside the modules was maintained at 106 kPa, partial
oxygen pressure at 20 f 1 kPa (19-21 vol. %), temperature at 22 f 2.5 “C, and
humidity at 55 f 15%. These parameters were continuously monitored by the
ground control team.
The chamber crew consisted of four healthy subjects, 3 males and 1 female, of
the following nationalities: 1 Austrian, 1 Dutch, 1 Swedish, and 1 French. Age
ranged from 27 to 34 yr (29.3 f 1.7 yr), weight from 64.0 to 87.0 kg (76.5 f 9.8
kg), height from 173 to 184 cm (178.5 f 2.3 cm). The subjects took no medications
during the entire experiment unless prescribed by the crew surgeon. The subjects
were informed about the aim of each scientific protocol and their written consent
was obtained. The scientific program was approved by the ethical medical board
of the Institut fiir Flugmedizin, DLR.
A 2-month training period (July 6-Sept. 5, 1992) allowed the chamber crew to
familiarize themselves with the isolation facility, its equipment, and the experi-
ments to be performed. Before the isolation period (Sept. 7-Nov. 6, 1992) the
pre-isolation data were collected over a period of 12 days immediately preceding
isolation. Post-isolation data were collected during the 7-day recovery period.
During the pre- and post-isolation collection periods the subjects were living
normally under ambulatory conditions. Physical exercise and sports were allowed
without excess; none of the subjects was physically highly trained.
B. Sample Collection
Blood samples (40ml) were drawn from each subject on day D-6 (6 days before
start of isolation),weekly on days D2,9,16,23,30,37,44,51,58during isolation,
58 MAILLET ETAL.
and post-isolation on days R+2, R+8 (2nd and 8th day of recovery period). Sample
collection took place in the morning, just after wake-upand before breakfast and
start of activities,aftera 10-minuterest period in upright seated position. A30-min.
seated rest period would have been better,16 but this was impossible for operational
reasons (overall schedule imperatives). At the end of the rest period, systolic and
diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and heart rate (HR) were measured with
a digital blood pressure monitor (HEM-704 C, Omron, Japan) with the cuff placed
0.5 inch above the elbow of the left arm. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was
calculated as MAP = 1/3 (SBP-DBP). All blood drawings were performed by the
same physician-crew member. He had been trained to draw blood from himself.
Blood was collected by venepuncture from an antecubital vein (Microflex infusion
set, nr. 246.07, Vigon, France). For hormonal assays the blood was collected in
10-mlheparinized Sarstedt tubes (Sarstedt Monovette@),for hematocrit and hemo-
globin concentration in 2-ml EDTA Sarstedt tubes. For hormonal assays the tubes
were spun in a refrigerated centrifuge (Jouan MR 1812, Jouan, France) at 4 "C and
3000 rpm for 20 min.. After centrifugation,plasma was distributed in 1.8-ml plastic
tubes (Nunc cryotubes@,Nunc Intermed, Denmark). The tubes were stored in a
freezer at -20 "C until assay.
The 24h urine outputs were collected daily during the entire study period,
pre-isolation, isolation, and days 4 to 7 post-isolation. The Urimate" (Sumitomo
Bakelite Inc., Tokyo, Japan) system was used to store 1/50 measured aliquots of
the entire 24-h volume.
C. Biochemical Analysis
The hematocrit was measured by spinning microhematocrit tubes for 6 min. at

11,500rpm in a hematocrit centrifuge (Hettich,Tullingen, Germany). Hemoglobin
concentrations were measured on total blood using HemoCue P-Hemoglobin
cuvettes and photometer (Hernocue@, HemoCue AB, Angelholm, Sweden).
Plasma volume (PV) was calculated by means of the Strauss formula adapted by
Greenleaf'' and expressed as per cent of change from pre-isolation baseline values:
%PV = [ 100 (Hb,,/Hb,)][(l - Ht,)/(l - Ht,)], where the subscript b denotes values
before confinement and c values during confinement or post-isolation periods.
Plasma samples were analyzed for activerenin, arginine vasopressin (AVP),atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP), aldosterone, cortisol, adrenaline (A), noradrenaline
(NA), erythropoietin (EPO), growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1
(IGF-l), sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), Na', K', creatinine and urea.
Urine samples were analyzed for MHPG sulfates and glucuronides, metanephrine
and normetanephrine, Na', K', creatinine and urea.
Concentrationsof Na', K', creatinine and urea were measured in plasma and urine
by an ion selectiveelectrodesystem (Hitachi7 17Multi Analyzer@or SynchronCX3@).
Osmolalitiesof plasma and urine were determined by freezingpoint depression (Fiske
One-Ten Osmometer@,Fiske Associates, Uxbridge, MA, USA).
Plasma radioimmunoassays (RIA) were performed for A";'* c~rtisol;'~aldos-

terone;" and erythropoietin (12sI- EPO COATRIA, Biomdrieux S.A., Marcy
l'Etoile, France). Radioimmunoassays on urine samples were made as described
previously for AVP20 and ANP." Radioimmunoassays for active renin plasma
concentrationswere carried out with a Renin Pasteur CT Kit (Code 79970, E.R.I.A.,
Diagnostic Pasteur, France). GH, IGF- 1, SHBG were assayed as described before?'
Plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline were determined in 70-pI aliquots of depro-
teinized plasma by high-performanceliquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with
electrochemical detection (sensitivity 1 and 2 pg; intra- and inter-assay variability
values 4.4k 0.2% and 2.6 k 0.4% respectively). MHPG sulfates and glucuronides
in urine were determined in similar fashion.,,
D. Doubly labeled Water Experiment
This experiment was performed twice on all four subjects: on day -14 before
isolation and during isolation on day 27. Subjects were weighed just after wake-up
and a 20-ml urine sample (U ) was collected. Then the dose of 2H,'80 (2H,0 = 0.07
g/Kg body weight and 2H, Ps0 = 0.17 g K g body weight) was ingested by the
subjects, followed by 100 ml mineral water as a chaser. After 4 hours another 20-ml
urine sample (U,) was collected. During this 4-hour period the subjects were not
allowed to drink or eat. A 20-ml urine sample was collected daily for two weeks
after the administration of 2H,'80.
E. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

The oral glucose tolerance test was carried out once pre-isolation (day 4) three
,
times during isolation (days D24, 31,59), and once post-isolation (day R 4 ) . On
the test day the subjects measured their blood glucose level just after wake-up,
before breakfast. They pricked one finger with an Ames lancet, collected a drop of
blood on a Glucolet, and read the glucose value on the Glucometer M+ (Glucolet@,
Glucometer M+@,Ames Lancet@,Ames Department, Bayer Diagnostics, France).
This was the basal value (To). Then, they drank 50 g of glucose dissolved in 100
ml mineral water. They repeated the glucose measurement four times, after 30,60,
90, and 120 minutes. After the last measurement the subjects were allowed to have
breakfast.
F. Statistical Analysis
All analytical results in the figures and tables are expressed as mean values with
standard error (SE). Statistical analysis by means of variance analysis was canied out
to test the time effect. If a significant difference (F-statistic) was detected, then
individual non-parametricMann & Withney tests were used to compare pre-isolation
and isolation values for a given parameter. The statistical significancewas set at p
50.05.
60 MAILLET ET AL.
111. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Design of the Study
The plasma creatininedata, presented in Figure 1, illustratethe problems encoun-

tered in analyzing the EXEMSI results. The percentual changes relative to the
pre-isolation baseline values are shown for each subject as weekly averages during
the isolation period and on post-isolation days D+2and D+8. The group averages,
presented as bars, show no significant changes, but the individual patterns vary
greatly. This is the typical problem of working with small groups of subjects, as is
usually the case in microgravity ~tudies.2~ The mixed gender of the subjects, one
female and three males, aggravates the problem. This explains in part the different
results found in the FSEMSI study compared to those in the ISEMSI study, which
subject is discussed in detail in Section IV.
I PLASMA CREATININE I
+B +D + G 4 H Mean
*O 1
-1s ’ Z1; J!; 1;16 i2.7 dM i37 d44 &I dSS d+Z d+tl Days
4 +
60- day confinement
figure 1. Time course of plasma creatinine levels during and after isolation. Individ-
ual values and group averages (barswith SE) are presented as percentage change from
the pre-isolation values on day D-6 (B = 93 pnoVI; D = 109 pmal/l; G = 85 pmolfi;
H = 86 pmol/l; group average 93.5 f 5.5 pmol/l). B, D, G, and H are the four chamber
crew members.
B. Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
Slight, but significant increases were noticed in mean arterial pressure and
diastolic blood pressure for the group on D9 and D37, as shown in Figure 2..No
significant changes were found in systolic blood pressure and heart rate during
I BLOODPRESSURE I
130 -
. *
110 -
70 - Q
50 -
Yo
I HEARTRATE I
w
80
70
60
50
40
30
1 60-day confinement I
Figure 2. Blood pressure, systolic (SBP), diastolic (DBP) and mean arterial pressure
(MAP), a?d heart rate (HR) during and after isolation. Group averages are presented
with SE. ( p c 0.05 vs. pre-isolation day D-6). BDC is pre-isolation period.
isolation. Blood pressure, both diastolic and mean. arterial pressure, showed a
non-linear, rhythmic profile. This has been reported by Radzi~zewski~~ for other
parameters during a 46-day isolation study. The absence of an increase in the
systolic blood pressure may be related to the absence of changes in the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system, which will be noticed below.
In view of the relationship of blood pressure with catecholamines, we present in
Table 1 the results for the urinary catecholamines derivatives, MHPG sulfate and
glucuronide, which are markers of the stress level: and the methoxyamines,
metanephrine and normetanephrine (MN and NMN). No increases in urinary
catecholaminederivatives were observed during isolation. This is in contrast with
the findings in the ISEMSI study, where all subjects presented an increased systolic
blood pressure at the beginning of the experiment with raised levels of urinary
Table 1. Urinary Excretion of Catecholamine Derivatives During Isolation

Days MHPG-CIU MHPC-SUIf MHPC-Tot MN NMN
Preisolation 1060 f 42 1 885 f 305 1945 f 719 90 f 18 136f40
D2 81 7 f 192 444 f 49 1262 f 178 119f6 157f10
03 1009 f 187 654 f 74 1663 f 154 131 f27 176f32
D4 513 f 57 655 f 221 1 1 67 f 273 121 f 5 158f14
D5 1011 f 166 938 f 118 1949 f 276 130f13 175f16
D6 898 f 190 765 f 110 1663 f 272 139f44 180f46
D7 468 f 73 368 f 82 836 f 72. 91 f 9 121 f21
D8 725 f 153 826f164 1552 f 301 151 f48 197f49
D9 766k191 795 f 245 1561 f 430 131 f24 186f30
D10 659 f 80 469 f 142 1125 f 215 101 f23 135f35
D11 696 f 91 346 f 57 1035 f 126 128f32 197f52
D12 747f121 553 f 145 1299f161 123f34 213f59
D13 796 f 228 533f115 1329f161 130f29 190f49
D14 603 f 98 473 f 112 1076 f 156 84 f 11 127f21
D15 793 f 154 509 f 71 1302 f 96 122f22 173f33
D22 614f22 619 f 201 1232 f 215 98f8 157f18
D29 857 f 262 582 f 80 1439 f 282 110f6 162f15
D36 679 f 94 652f137 1331 f 224 113f19 153f33
D43 754 f 243 773 f 296 1527 f 539 114f3 154f24
D50 863 f 334 638 f 140 1501 f 308 142 f 10 192f28
D5 7 929 f 625 492 f 72 1421 f231 159f23 216f36
R+4 1351 f 381 862 f 183 2219f399 164f40 231 f47

R+7 1474 f 407 718f84 21 92 f 464 121 f16 270 f 77
Notes: Values, expressed in &24h, are means f SE (*: p < 0.05 vs. pre-isolation mean)
Key: MHPC = 3-Methoxy 4-Hydroxy Phenyl Glycol, -CLU itsglucuronide, -SULF its sulfate, -TOT itstotal.
MN = Metanephrine, NMN = Normetanephrine
MHPG and plasma c ~ r t i s o lThis

. ~ was attributed to a defense reaction as described
by Henry,25first against the new environment26and later against other individu-
a l ~ . ~ ~Moreover,
,** towards the end of the isolation period two of the six crew
members were isolated from the others.29In EXEMSI, except for the effect of the
new housing mode noticeable from days D2 to D9, no inter-individual defense
reactions developed. This may be due to the moderating effect of the female crew
member on the others?'
C. Plasma Hormones
The plasma levels of several hormones were measured during the EXEMSI
experiment: the blood volume regulating hormones, atrial natriuretic peptide
(ANP), renin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and aldosterone, and various other
hormones: cortisol, the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, growth hor-
mone, insulin-like growth factor- 1, and sex hormone binding globulin.
The plasma levels of these hormones were within a normal range during the
pre-isolation period. During the isolation period the ANP level went up signifi-
cantly, but not that of renin (Fig. 3). ANP is known to regulate the blood volume
through natriuresis and diuresis, caused by its hemodynamic and renal tubular
ANP is also known to inhibit aldosterone and renin secretion, but in
this study there were no significant decreases in renin (Figure 3) and aldosterone
levels (Table 2) during isolation.
The other plasma hormone levels are presented as group averages in Table 2.
ADH, aldosterone, adrenaline, noradrenaline, growth hormone, and SHJ3G did not
show any significant changes during and after isolation. Cortisol was raised
significantly on day R+2 after isolation, while insulin-like growth factor- 1 was
increased significantly on day D37 during isolation.
D. Blood Volume and Composition
Plasma volume, hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, and erythropoietin levels

are presented as group averages with SE in Table 3. No significant changes in any
of these parameters occurred during and after isolation. However, there was a
tendency for a plasma volume increase on days D2 (+I 1.5 f 6.2%) and D9 (+5.4 f
6.8%), which may explain the elevated plasma ANPlevel. The differences in plasma
volume increase between the subjects (not shown) may explain some of the
differences in plasma creatinine le~els.3~Conversely, the raised plasma ANP level
may explain the plasma volume decrease between days D16 and D51 of the
isolation period."
Data on plasma Na', K , creatinine, urea, protein, glucose and osmolarity are
'
presented in Table 4. No significant changes were observed for plasma sodium,
creatinine, and osmolality during and after isolation. However, potassium and urea
were significantly decreased throughout. Incidental increases were noticed for
plasma protein and glucose. A decrease in plasma potassium has previously been
*-
64
50 -
4"j
40 -
30 -
30
* ~ ~ 0 . VS.
20 - 0 5BDC-6
** pe0.01 vs. BDC-6
30 - [RE"]
25 -
20 -
VJ
IS -
I
I I
60-day confinement
figure 3. Time course of plasma levels of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP, and active
renin
tl
during and after isolation. Group averages are presented with SE. ( p c 0.05 and
p < 0.01 vs. pre-isolation day D-6). BDC is pre-isolation period.
reported for several confinement experimentsby R a d z i s z e ~ s k iwho

, ~ ~ascribed this
to the different living conditions imposed by confinement.
E. Urinary Findings
For the presentation and statistical analysis of the urinary data we were obliged
to use as baseline values the means for the entire pre-isolation period, because some
urine samples or values were missing for this period.
The group averages for the 24-h urine output, presented in Figure 4, show a
significant increase over the pre-isolation value (801 f 46 m1/24h) during the
Table 2. Plasma Hormone Levels During Isolation
Dayr ADH ( n d ) Cortisol (nmou) Ald (pmou) Adr ( n d ) NA ( n d ) IGF-1 (pd) SHBG (nmou) GH (pd)
Pre-isolation 0.88 f 0.09 689 f 44 258 f 55 34.1 f8.2 208 f 39 200 f 7 191 f137 1.Of 0.3
D2 0.67 f 0.1 2 707 f 50 325 f 171 27.1 f2.7 201 f 1 3 215f19 207 f 160 2.5 f 1.1
D9 0.77 f 0.23 6 8 0 f 122 263 f 96 26.7 f 2.4 196f16 248 f 21 127f66 2.9 f 1.9
D16 1.1 4 f 0.56 738 f 40 220 f 60 40.5 f 5.7 195f22 235 f 13 92 f 4 6 4.0 f 3.4
023 0.48 f 0.09 717*55 339 f 133 23.5 f 2.8 181 f 2 3 224 f 6 190f139 2.2 f 1.2
030 0.52 f 0.04 688 f 82 396 f 199 28.8 f 5.4 159rt6 245 f 12, 186f136 2.3 f 1.6
D37 0.52 f 0.06 664 f 79 327 f 76 25.5 f 4.2 179f11 262 f 36 188 f 138 1.1 f 0 . 3
044 0.68 f 0.1 5 781 f 6 2 408f135 25.3 f 2.5 190f31 220f19 139583 1.5 f 0.5
D5 1 1.18 f 0.71 640 f 81 463 f 228 23.3 f 1.4 186f4 225 f 6 194f136 4.7 f 3.9
D58 0.73 f 0.1 2 734 f 120 382 f 185 26.8 f 5.2 173f26 244 f 3 193f136 1.5 f 0.4
R+2 0.69 f 0.21 897 f 73. 235 f 99 37.5 f 12.9 258 f 36 210f18 167fllO 1.9 f 1.3
R+8 1.1 3 f 0.47 753 f 108 372 f 95 33.8 f 3.8 289 f 38 21 f 1 9 78 f 26 0.9 f 0.1
Notes: Values are group averages f SE. ('p < 0.05 vs. pre-isolation day -6).
Key: ADH = Antidiuretic Hormone, Ald = Aldosterone, Adr = Adrenaline, NA = Noradrenaline ICF-1 = insulin-like growth iactor-1, SHBC = sex hormone binding
globulin, C H = Growth Hormone
Table 3. Blood Parameters During and After Isolation
Plasma Volume Hematocrit Hemoglobin Erythropoietin
Days (% change) (%) (ddh ClUA
pre-isolation - 42.9 f 1 .O 15.6 f 0.6 9.5 f 2.2
D2 11.5 f 6.2 40.8 f 1.9 14.6 f 0.7 9.9 f 1.8
D9 5.4 f 6.8 42.8 f 2.2 14.9 f 0.8 10.4f1.8
D16 1.8 f 5.7 43.8 f 2.5 15.1 f 0.7 7.7 f 1.8
D23 1.5 f 7.1 43.4 f 2.5 15.4 f 1 .o 7.2 f 1.5
D30 -1.9 f 6.2 44.5 f 2.4 15.5 f 0.9 7.4 f 1.2
D37 1 .Of7.6 43.5 f 2.7 15.4 f 1.o 7.9 f 0.8
D44 -1 .Of 5.2 43.8 f 2.2 15.6 f 0.8 7.3 f 1.2
D51 -1.1 f 4.4 43.9 f 1.8 15.5 f 0.6 7.1 f 1.9
D58 1.5 f 4.3 43.3 f 1.9 15.3 f 0.7 8.4 f 2.0
R+2 4.4 f 6.0 43.5 f 2.3 14.8 f 0.7 8.7 f 2.4
R+8 6.5 f 3.7 42.8 f 1.7 14.7 f 0.5 7.4 f 2.2
Notes: Values are presented as group averages f SE.

Plasma volume change relative to pre-isolation day D-6 was calculated with the Strauss formula
adapted by Greenleaf:”
%PV = 1100 (HbdHbdlI(1 -Htb)/(l - HIJl,
where subscript b denotes the pre-isolation value and c the value during isolation or post-isolation.
24-h Urine Outputs
i i
60-day munlinemenl period recovery
period
Figure 4. Group averages of 24-h urine output during and after isolation. Values are
presented as means f S E (*p < 0.05 and **p c 0.01 vs. mean pre-isolation value of the
4 subjects, which was 801 f 46 m1/24h).
66
Table 4. Electrolytes, Creatinine, Urea, Protein, Glucose, and Osmolality in Plasma During Isolation
Na' r Creatinine Urea Protein Glucose Osrnolality
Days (rnrnoM) rnrnoM wnoM rnrnoM J?A rnrnoVl mos& ti70
D-6 143.5 f 1.3 4.7 f 0.1,. 93f6 5.8 f 0.3. 68.3 f 1.1 5.1 f0.2. 295f1.1
D2 142.3 f 0.9 4.2 f 0.1 ., 90f6 4.3 f 0.2. 69.3 f 0.8 5.9 f 0.1 292 f 2.9
D9 143.3 f 0.9 4.4 f 0.1 94f8 4.6 f 0.1 70.5 f 1.O 5.5 f 0.1 296 f 1.8
D l6 143.5 f 0.5 4.2 f 0.2: 98f8 4.0 f 0.1 70.8 f 0.8 5.5 f 0.2 293 f 1.7
D23 143.3 f 0.3 4.1 f0.1.. 97f9 4.4 f 0.2 71.3 f 2.1 5.3 f 0.1 291 f 1.8
D30 143.3 f 0.6 4.1 fO.l 97f9 4.7 f 0.5; 69.5 f 0.6 5.7 f 0.2' 292 f 1.9
D37 142.8 f 0.8 4.3 f 0.1; 94f8 4.3 f 0.3. 69.5 f 0.6 5.4 f 0.2 292 f 1.5
D44 143.3 f 0.9 4.1 f0.1.. 95f8 4.4 f 0.1 ** 70.3 f 1.4 5.3 fO.l 296 f 2.6
D5 1 143.3 f 0.3 4.2 f 0.1 98f7 4.4 f 0.2. 71.5 f 1.O* 5.5 f 0.2 295 f 2.1
058 143.3 f 0.9 4.1 fO.l" 96f8 4.7 f 0.1 71 .O f 1.1 5.4 f 0.2 293 f 1.8
R+2 145.3 f 0.3 4.1 fO..l** 96f8 5.1 f0.3,. 70.3 f 1.1 5.5 f 0.1 300 f 3.9
R+8 144.3 f 0.9 4.3 f 0.1 ** 93f9 4.2 f 0.3 67.8 f 0.8 5.7 f 0.2' 290 f 3.6
Nores: Values are presented as group averages f SE. ('p < 0.05 vs. pre-isolation day -6, "p < 0.01 vs. pre-isolation day 4).
o g g g g g g
1
.V (mmollD)
1
1
1
Na+
1
1
0
0
N
**
~
.V (mmol/D)
0
ln
r
1
0
0
e
1
K+
0
ln
1
0
F
R+7
Y,
R+5
10
18
16
50
52
14
38
54
12
56
60
40
20
28
30
48
58
22
34
32
24
42
36
8
44
26
46
2
4
6
o s s z 3 8 z
I
N
.V (mmol/D)
I
N
I
-
CI -
I
I
I
R+S
Ii
234
I I0
10
12
14
16
50
8 30
2 38
Y' 28
48
tz
32
g 44
2
$ 3 6
I 56
u 40
46
4
6
8
8. 42
m 2 4
26
Figure 5. Urinary excretion of sdium, potassium an$ chloride dwjng and after
isolation. Values are presented as group averages f SE ( p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 vs.
mean pre-isolation values of the 4 subjects, which were: Na+ = 125 f 31 ;K+ = 41.1
f 7.4; CI- = 11 3 f 20, all in mmoWD).
'1
4u 1 p4.05 v s B D C
x **p4.01 VL BDC
i
- 30
I
I
I
6oo 1 -
500 1 T .. I -
--
4
60-day confinement period ,
Figure 6. Urinary excretion of creatiqine and urea !:ring and after isolation. Values
are presented as group averages f SE ( p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 vs. mean pre-isolation
values of the 4 subjects, which were: creatinine = 11.9 f 3.1 ;urea = 153 k 88, both
in mmol/D).
isolation period and a return to normal after isolation. The increase over the entire
isolation period is in contrast with the finding of Radzisze~ski,2~ who saw in-
creased urine output only at the beginning of isolation. The loss of lean body mass
of subjects B and G (see Table 6) may be due to the increased diuresis.
Figure 5 shows group averages for the daily cxcretion of Na', K', and chloride.
Na' excretion rose very significantly during the first week of isolation and then
again on days D18, 19,32,38,40,54, and 57. The elevated diuresis and natriuresis
may be direct consequences of the high plasma ANP There were also
increases in the K' excretion on days D8, 19, 20, 30, 40, 52, 53, and 54 during
isolation, and also after isolation on day R+7, though these effects were less marked
Table 5. Dietary Monitoring During Isolation
K+ Intake
8kcayd)
Water Intake Water Balance Na+ Intake Ener y Intake
Days (Vd) Wd) (dd) (dd) (I
~
D2 3.1 3 f .35 1.71 f . 1 7 4.8 f 1.4 3.7 f 0.8 2.6 f 0.5

D3 2.95 f .34 1.91 f .26 5.6 f 0.7 4.1 f 0 . 5 2.6 f 0.1
D4 3.20 f .38 1.66 f .34 4.8 f 1.6 3.2 f 0.2 3.1 f 0 . 5
D5 1.82 f .37 0.27 f .42 8.1 f 0 . 4 * 3.3 f 0.3 2.6 It 0.1
D6 3.05 f .57 1.04 f .83 4.9 f 0.6 4.8 f 0.6 3.0 f 0.2
D7 3.47 f .47 2.1 5 f .39 3.1 f 0 . 3 3.2 f 0.4 1.9*0.1*
D8 3.95 f .50 1.89 f .23 6.0 f 0.5 5.0 f 0.4 3.6 f 0.3
D9 2.24 f .49 0.39 f .51 4.0 f 0.7 3.9 f 0.4 2.1 f 0 . 2
D10 3.48 f .40 1.66 f .54 4.5 f 0.4 4.3 f 0.7 3.1 f 0 . 2
D11 2.90 f .59 1.21 f .40 3.3 f 0.6 5.2 f 0.3 2.6 f 0.3
D12 2.07 f .46 0.30 f .59 4.2 f 0.5 3.1 f 0 . 8 2.8 f 0.2.
D13 2.45 f .43 0.97 f .72 4.2 f 2.1 2.8 f 0.8 1.8 f 0.4
D14 2.89 f .70 1.56 f .70 4.3 f 0.4 4.4 f 0.5 2.6 f 0.1
D15 3.06 f .36 1.42 f .50 5.3 f 0.5 3.6 f 0.8 2.8 f 0.2
D22 3.47 f .19 2.05 f .23 4.5 f 0.6 3.2 f 0.8 2.9 f 0.1
D29 2.07 f .31 0.96 f .21 3.7 f 0.4 3.3 f 0.3 2.7 f 0.2
D36 2.37 f .53 0.75 f .49 4.3 f 0.3 2.8 f 0.5 2.5 f 0.2
D43 2.37 f .59 0.70 f .41 4.5 f 0.8 3.3 f 0.2 2.6 f 0.1
D50 3.49 f .40 1.78 f .35 3.8 f 0.7 4.8 f 0.3 2.8 f 0.3
D57 2.45 f .39 0.98 f .32 7.1 f 3.1 3.8 f 0.8 3.1 f 0 . 5
Nofe: Values are presented as means f SE. (p < 0.05 vs. D2).
Source: Data obtained from Carrar.
Table 6. Body Weight and Total Body Water During Isolation

Parameter B D G H
Body weight pre-isolation D-14 (Kg) 81.0 74.0 87.0 84.0
Body weight during isolation D27 (Kg) 77.9 73.8 85.4 62.5
A Body weight D27 - D14 (Kg) -3.1 -0.2 -1.6 -1.5
A Lean body mass D27 - D14 (Kg) -1.9 +0.7 -5.0 +0.6
A Body fat D27 - D14 (Kg) -1.2 -0.9 +3.4 -2.1
Body weight at end of isolation D60 (Kg) 77.5 73.5 85.5 63.5
A Body weight D60 - D14 (Kg) -3.5 -0.5 -1.5 -0.5
Total body water before isolation D14 (I) 47.6 42.5 50.6 34.5
Total body water during isolation 0 2 7 (I) 46.3 43.0 47.0 34.9
A Body water D27 - D14 (I) -1.4 +0.5 -3.6 +0.4
Notes: B, D, C, and H are the four crew members. Total body water was determined with the doubly labeled
water method.
70
than for Na'. Chloride excretion was, like that of Na', markedly increased during
the entire isolation period and on post-isolation day R+7. On the other hand, urinary
excretion of creatinine and urea was barely changed, only incidentally (Figure 6).
During the isolation period daily intake of water, sodium,potassium, and calories
was monitored. The group averages are presented in Table 5 . The daily water
balance, obtained by deducting the daily urine output from the water intake, is also
shown. During the entire isolation period the subjects had a positive water balance
and an elevated daily sodium intake. Although the elevated sodium intake was only
significant on day D5,it is noteworthy that three of the four subjects had daily
sodium intakes above 10 g per day during most of the isolation period. The high
sodium intake and positive water balance may explain the observed high plasma
ANP level, urine output, and sodium excretion.
Table 6 presents data on body weight and total body water for each of the four
subjects. All subjects lost weight during isolation, noticeable after 27 days as well
as after 60 days. D27 corresponds not only to the mid-isolation point in EXEMSI,
but also to the total duration of isolation during ISEMSI. In ISEMSI 4 out of 6
subjects had lost weight after 27 days of i~olation.~'
Total body water was measured once before isolation, on day D-14, and once
during isolation, on day D27. Two subjects (B and G) decreased their total body
water after 27 days of confinement.
IV. COMPARISON OF ISEMSI AND EXEMSI FINDINGS

The ISEMSI project, which took place in 1990,involved the isolation of a crew of
six males for 28 days.* In EXEMSI a crew of four, one female and three males, was
isolated for 60 days. The living and work volume per person was larger in EXEMSI
than in ISEMSI (12.1 m3 vs. 9.5 m3). In Table 7 the main differences between the
physiological findings of the two projects are summarized.'It is striking that none
Table 7. Differences Between ISEMSI and EXEMSI Findings

ISEMSl EXEMSI
Parameter (6 males) ( 1 female, 3 males)
SystoIic blood pressure 4-
DiastoIic blood pressure +
Atrial natriuretic peptide +
Renin
Aldosterone
Cortisol
MHPC
Urine output per 24 h +
Note: MHPC = 3-Methoxy 4-Hydroxy Phenyl Glycol, a catecholamine derivative.
72 MAILLET ETAL.
of the effects observed in ISEMSI were reproduced-during EXEMSI. These

differences are discussed below in more detail.
A. Blood Pressure
The blood pressure data from the two projects are summarized in Figure 7. The
absence of a raised systolic blood pressure during EXEMSI, in contrast to the
significant increase during the first two weeks of isolation in ISEMSI, could be the
direct consequence of the lessons learnt from the latter The ISEMSI
crew found the daily workload during the training period preceding isolation and
the first two weeks of isolation too high, leading them to ask for reduction while
the experiment was in progress. For this reason, in EXEMSI the daily workload
during training and isolation was reduced. This may have had the desired effect,
since in EXEMSI there was no elevation of the systolic blood pressure, except for
BLOOD PRESSURE
ISEMSI'W (6 men)
...
+SBP
tDBP
pcO.05 V S . BDC-5
BLOOD PRESSURE ~4.01 VS. BDC-5
iiini H C
I.
EXEMSI' 92 ( 1 female. 3 men)
.. -C+
-0-
**
SBP
DBP
5 BDC-6
* ~ 4 . 0 VS.
1 BDC-6
~ 4 . 0 vs.
.
-
3
CL
2
Days
EXEMSI'92
-
a
*:
a
ISEMSI'W
28-day or 60-day confinements
Figure 7. Blood pressure effects (SBP = systolic, DBP = diastolic) durint ISEMSI (+ p
c 0.05 vs. pre-isolation day D-5, + + p c 0.01 vs. D-5) and EXEMSI ( p c 0.05 vs.
pre-isolation day D-6, **p < 0.01 vs. D-6). Values represent group averages with SE in
vertical bars. BDC is pre-isolation period.
the initial reaction to the new environment, and no defense reactions against the
other crew members were noticed. This is surely the goal to be achieved in planning
a long duration ~ p a c e f l i g h t . ~ ' ~
B. Hormonal Effects
Comparison of the hormonal effects found in the two studies is difficult, because
not only were several operational parameters different, but the crew composition
was different. The presence of a woman in the EXEMSI crew should have a
pronounced effect on the hormonal results, since it is well known that women
present different hormonal patterns and responses than men!14 This is undoubt-
edly one of the reasons for the large individual differences in hormonal effects
observed during EXEMSI.
During ISEMSI, the hormonal changes were attributed to stress (cortisol,MHPG
sulfate and glucuronide) and to the combination of poorly hydrated status and
reduced physical activity (blood volume regulating hormones renin and aldos-
terone, and plasma creatinine level^).^ In order to obtain more precise data on the
hydration status of the subjects, measurements of total body water by means of the
doubly-labeled water method were included in the EXEMSI protocol.
Figure 8 presents a comparison of the findings for atrial natiuretic peptide (ANP)
and active renin. Opposite effects were observed: ANP was elevated in EXEMSI,
but not in ISEMSI; renin was increased in ISEMSI, but not in EXEMSI. The
pre-isolation levels of renin were much higher in ISEMSI than in EXEMSI. This
may be due to the high workload and stress levels of the ISEMSI crew in the last
days prior to i~olation,~ and the very low renin level of the female crew member in
EXEMSI.
For the ISEMSI study we postulated that the changes in renin, aldosterone, and
vasopressin and the elevated plasma creatininelevel were due in part to the reduced
physical activity. Plasma creatinine is a good indicator of striated muscle metabo-
lism!' Although it is easy to quantify a defined physical activity exercise program,
it is more difficult to measure inactivity itself. During ISEMSI physical activity
during isolation was evaluated from exercise logs and individual pedometer read-
ings. The physical activity of all subjects during isolation in ISEMSI was greatly
reduced compared to that observed during the pre-isolation period.
During EXEMSI a glucose tolerance test was included, because it is well known
that reduced physical activity lowers glucose tolerance, as is found during hypo-
kinesia in bedrest studies'2 and in trained subje~ts.'~,'~The results shown in Figure
9 indicate that glucose tolerance was reduced during the isolation period. Not only
was the increase in plasma glucose level after a 50 g oral glucose load significantly
enhanced, but after 59 days of isolation (D59) the increase was maintained for a
longer time (90 to120 min.) than before isolation. Even after 6 days of recovery
(R+6), the glucose tolerance was still not back to normal. Unfortunately, we were
unable to obtain later measurements. This raises the question: How much time is
ANP
p u m l plasma
50 t l S E M S I ' 9 0 (6 men)
T
+EXEMSI'92 (1 female. 3 men)

fl.05 VS. BDC-6
40 ** pc0.01 vs. BDC-6
30
2u
10
0 ACTIVE RENIN
pdml plasma
. ..
ACTIVE RENIN
.
t l S E M S I ' 9 0 (6 men)
pc0.05 vs. BDC-5
pc0.01 vs. BDC-5
i@
00
-0-EXEMSI'92 (1 female, 3 men)
4
T
T
-
4
- 0 0
a
Days
EXEMSI'92
28-day or 60-day confinements
Figure8. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and active renin $ring ISEMSI (+ p < 0.05
vs. pre-ist!ation day D-5, + + p < 0.01 vs. D-5) and EXEMSI ( p < 0.05 vs. pre-isolation
day D-6, p c 0.01 vs. D-6). Values represent group averages with SE in vertical bars.
BDC is pre-isolation period.
74
I PLASMACLUCOSE 1
mmdn
15 0 BDC-6 D24 13 D31 DS9 Ri4
p<O.O5 vs T 0 ** p<O.O1 VS. T 0 *** pc0.001 V& T 0 S p<O.O5 VS. B DW
10 T.. s
.I_n T 30 TBO
Figure 9. Time course of plasma glucose levels after oral glucose tolerance tests.
Glucose was measured before and 30,60,90 and 120 minutes after a 50 @ oral gluc$!e
load. Values: !? presented as group averages with SE in vertical bars. ( p < 0.05, p
< 0.01 and p < 0.001 vs. T 0; $ p < 0.05 vs. pre-isolation day D-6; BDC is
pre-isolation period.)
needed after an experiment of such duration (60days) for the subjects to recover
their normal physical status? This question is still a matter of debate among those
responsible for planning spaceflight programs.

The EXEMSI experiment has made it clear that it is difficult to perform psycho-
logical and physiological protocols satisfactorily in the same study. It is, therefore,
essential that the objectives of the study be defined clearly before the start. While
behavioral and psychological studies may be possible and provide valid results for
a small group of mixed gender, it is more difficult to conduct valid physiological
studies due lo large differences between individuals and even in the same individual
over time. As stated before, it is unusual in space research on humans and even
during space simulation studies to have large and homogeneous groups of subjects.
The consequence is that the results remain tentative. For a better understanding of
the physiological data collected during the ISEMSI and EXEMSI experiments,they
should be correlated with the results of the psychological studies.
One of the conclusions drawn from the ISEMSI e~ p e r im e n f "~was that confine-
ment provides a valuable parallel to other simulations of weightlessness, such as
76 MAILLET ETAL.
bedrest. The samepattern of changes in parameters like the blood volume regulating
hormones renin and aldosterone was observed as in bedrest.46 After the EXEMSI
study we can say that the conditions imposed by confinement, high work load, and
stress, potentiate these effects. This implies that in using head-down bedrest as a
weightlessness simulation the confinement effects must be identified by setting
adequate control conditions for the head-down position, for short-term as well as
for long-term simulations. Indeed, we have seen in the two isolation studies that
confinement may have its effect at the beginning of the isolation period (EXEMSI)
as well as during the entire isolation period (ISEMSI).
In planning for EXEMSI we wanted to obtain more insight in some of the
phenomena observed during ISEMSI by the introduction of new techniques such
as the doubly labeled water method for determination of total body water. However,
in some cases the opposite effects of those encountered in ISEMSI were found. This
was probably due to the many changes in the experimental scenario, like number
of subjects, mixed gender, living space per subject, and workload. Thus, for future
isolation studies the operational scenario should be better examined and preferably
standardized. Nevertheless, in such studies as well as in long-term sojourns in a
space station, the crew size will not be larger than that of the EXEMSI crew.
Physiologists will, therefore, have to become familiar with the study of small
groups of subjects and to try to overcome the problems of large individual
differences and statistical analysis of data from small groups.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the four chamber crew members and the five ground control team
members for their excellent cooperation during the entire EXEMSI project. The authors
would also like to thank Jouan Company for its help and technical support during the
operations.
This work was supported by grants from ESA-Long Term Program Office and in part by
grants from DRET, (Region RhBne-Alpes). GIP Exercise (St. Etienne), GIP Nutrition
Humaine (Lyon),and BMFT. The Department of Environmental Physiology (Lyon)acknow-
ledges financial support from CNES for its space related research.
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35(8):547-552, 1995.
Chapter 5
FOOD INTAKE AND NUTRITIONAL

STATUS DURING EXEMSI
Hubert Milon. Bernard Decarli.

Anne-Marie Adine. and Emmanuelle Kihm
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
I1. Food and Nutrition Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
A . Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
B . NutritionalProgram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
C . Foodhgistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
D. Software for the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
111. Assessment of Nutritional Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A . ExpectedFoodIntake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
B . Energy and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
C . Nutrientlntake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
D . Food Appreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
E. Scheduling and Organization of Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Volume 5. pages 79-91
AU rights of reproductionin any form reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
79
80 H. MILON, B. DECARLI, A.-M. ADINE, and E. KIHM
IV. Discussion .................................... 88

A. Food and Nutritional Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
B. Assessment of Nutritional Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V. Conclusions and Summary ............................ 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1. INTRODUCTION
Nutrition during extended manned space missions is obviously of great importance,

and this topic has recently been extensively reviewed.' Providing merely a nutri-
tionally adequate<dietis not sufficient, since food and eating are usually perceived
by the crew as a compensation for the hardships of living and working in a
constrained community, confinement, and isolation. These factors tend to increase
in importance with the duration of the mission.2Therefore, the social, psychologi-
cal, and cultural aspects of food in a broad sense must be considered in defining
the food system, because these can play an important role in the success of a
mission.
Since the EXEMSI project was a ground-based simulation study of the effects
of isolation and confinement, the problem of providing an adequate food supply
was greatly facilitated by the availability of a large storage capacity, freezers,
refrigerators,and a combination microwave oven. This made it possible to offer the
crew a variety of fresh, frozen, canned, and dehydrated foods.
Therefore, the first objective of our study was to validate acomputer-based Food
and Nutrition Management System, which included food store updates, instructions
for choice and preparation of meals, on-line food consumption, and nutrient intake
recordings. In designing the system, it was borne in mind that such a system must
be suitable for use in a real spaceflight.
The second objective was to assess the nutritional status of the crew and the
eventual effects of isolation.The computer-based system greatly simplifiedthe task
and ensured adequate results by eliminating the need to maintain handwritten food
intake diaries and manually to convert them into nutrients.
A brief description of the Food and Nutrition Management System is presented
in the next section before discussing the nutritional status of the crew, since these
two aspects are closely linked.
11. FOOD AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A. Requirements
Few nutritional data were available from ISEMSI, the previous ESA simulation
~roject.3.~
The daily energy intake was supposed to be 3,000kcal., but although
each crew member daily logged his food intake, no nutritional analysis was
Food Intake and Nutritional Status 81
performed to our knowledge. Hence, data on their actual energy intake were not
available.
The following recommendations were obtained from the crew members who
participated in ISEMSI, and were carefully considered in the design of the system:
Investigate the normal eating habits of the selected crew members as well as
their preferences and dislikes, and consider these in the definition of the food
SUPPIY.
Provide maximum flexibility and autonomy to the crew members for meal
selection with respect to their cultural habits and nutritional needs.
Provide foods in sufficient variety.
Provide two hot meals per day.
Provide tools for food management during isolation, allowing supply of fresh
food and identification of the location of foods.
Provide suitable utensils for preparation and consumption of food and suffi-
cient space for food preparation.
On the basis of the above recommendations,the Food and Nutrition Management
System for EXEMSI had to satisfy two main requirements:
1. Provide nutritionally adequate food during the entire experiment: nutrition-

ally balanced, palatable, adequate variety and choice.
2. Provide convenience of use in all food-related operations: storage, prepara-
tion, consumption, and cleaning. It should require little time for these
operations and, of prime importance, permit an accurate and complete
collection of nutritional data.
B. Nutritional Program
The nutritional program was based on the composition of the crew (four Euro-
peans, 1 female and 3 males, aged 25 to 35), their presumed physical activity (1 6
hours of light to moderate activity, no compulsory physical activity) and their
environment (absence of day light, not compensated by a UV lamp). The physical
characteristics of the four crew members are presented in Table 1. The recom-
Table 1. Characteristics of Crew Members

Crew Member D B H G
sex M M F M
age years 27 29 27 24
height cm 178 184 173 1 79
weight (nominal) k 72 77 62 85
weight (before) kg 74 81 64 87
weight (after) k 73.5 77.5 63.5 85.5
82 H. MILON, B. DECARLI, A.-M. ADINE, and E. KlHM
Table 2. Nutritional Program

Energy TotaUDay (k]) Protein (%) Lipid (%) Carbohydrate (%)
11,300-11,700 12-1 7 3540 45-52
breakdown breakfast lunch dinner snacks
energy (%) 25 30 35 10
water 3 liter mineral water per day for drinking and rehydrating f d
supplement vitamin and mineral tablets
mended daily allowances (RDAs) for a standard European population with light to
moderate physical activity’ and adapted for their assumed special needs of water,
vitamins, and minerals were used, shown in Table 2.
C. Food Logistics
In order to satisfy the recommendationsdescribed under I1 A, a 7-day nutritional
investigation was performed two months before the start of isolation. Question-
naires were used to collect data on food habits, preferences, and dislikes of the
candidate crew members. Apreselection of foods was evaluated by the candidates.
More than 170food items (from sugar lumps toprepared dishes) were then selected,
and menu suggestions were prepared for 14 days. To ensure the crew members
choice and variety throughout the experiment, a 30% excess of the expected
consumption was supplied.
Each food item was identified by a barcode label. Thekitchen waS equipped with
storage capacity for 4 days, including a freezer and a refrigerator. Additional food
items were stored in the storage module of the isolation facility. Kitchen equipment
included a scale, a flat LCD screen, a simplified keyboard, a bar code reader, and
a water-resistant keyboard connected to a computer located in the control room.
D. Software for the System
The heart of the Food and Nutritional Management System is a dedicated

software program, which receives information from the barcode reader and the
keyboard and records it in the computer memory. In addition, it can make stored
information available to the user.
All individual food and water consumption is recorded via the barcode reader.
Before each consumption, a crew member enters his personal code number and
then reads the bar code of the food item to be consumed. The system allows
deduction of leftovers after weighing and making other corrections.The food store
inventory is automatically and continuously updated and can be consulted on the
screen, along with food location, expiration dates, nutritional information, prepa-
ration procedures and menu suggestions.
Food Intake a n d Nutritional Status 83
A data base is included in the program, which contains the energy and nutrient
contents of every food item availableto the crew. Each time a crew member records
the consumption of a food item, its nutrient content and the time of consumption
are automatically added to his energy and nutrient intake record for that day. Thus,
daily energy and nutrient intake figures for each crew member are immediately
available.
111. ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS

A. Expected Food Intake
The physical characteristicsof the four crew members, presented in Table 1, were
used with the nutritional data base in the Food and Nutritional Management 8 s t e m
to determine for each of them the expected daily food intake. Food intake was
converted by the computer system into energy and the following nutrients: water,
fiber, protein, lipid, carbohydrate, vegetable protein, animal protein, total protein,
total carbohydrate, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, saturated fatty acids (SFA),
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), total
fat, cholesterol, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, niacin, vitamin C,
calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), sodium (Na) and potassium (K).
B. Energy and Water
Table 3 presents group averages of the usual energy and water intake (from the
pre-isolation questionnaire), the expected intake (calculated from the physical
characteristics in Table 1 and the national recommendations in Table 2), and the
actual intakes during isolation. The mean actual energy intake over the 9 weeks of
isolation was slightly less than expected and less than usual, but the differences
were not significant. Water intake agreed with the expected figure.
The pre-isolation 7-day questionnaires on food habits, although only partially
completed, showed that the crew members had very irregular food habits, both in
terms of meal patterns and of day-to-day energy intake. They maintained these
Table 3. Usual, Expected and Actual Mean Intake of Energy and Water
Usual Intake Expectedlntake Actual Intake
Mean Range
energy intake/day kJ 11,442 11,300-1 1,700 11,022 10,584-1 1,477
from protein Yo 13.6 12-1 7 13.7 13.1-1 5.5
from lipid YO 38.8 3540 40.8 38.142.4
from carbohydrate Yo 43.1 45-52 47.2 44.3-50.8
water (total) I 2.5-2.7 2.7 1.9-3.1
12000
1lo00
loo00
9OOo
8OOo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9weeG
17500
15000
0 m
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 days
Figure 1. Energy intake of crew member D. Top: average daily intake per week;
Bottom: daily intake.
habits during the experiment, but their energy intake on a weekly basis remained
rather constant.This is illustrated for one of them, subject D, in Figure 1: the weekly
averages of daily energy intake show much less variation than the day-to-day
energy intake.
C. Nutrient Intake
The average intake over the 60-day isolation period for seventeen macronutrients
is shown for each crew member in Table 4. These values indicate that the four crew
members had rather homogeneous eating patterns, which correspond to the average
European population. There is a slight deviation from the national recommenda-
Table 4. Individual Mean Intake of Macronutrients and Related Data

Crew Protein Lipid CHO
Member Energy (kl) Water (g) Fiber @) Energy % Energy % Energy %
D 10,584 1,908 16.8 13.2 38.1 50.6
B 11,009 2,722 23.0 13.1 40.9 47.9
H 11,019 2,904 26.3 13.1 42.4 45.8
G 11,477 3,088 22.5 15.5 41.8 44.3
Mean 11,022 2,655 22.1 13.7 40.8 47.2
Crew Veg. Protein Animal Total Total CHO Oligosacch. Polysacch.

Member (g) Protein @) Protein @) (g) (g) (g,
D 31 .O 50.8 81.8 31 3.7 163.9 149.8
B 34.1 49.0 83.1 298.6 160.0 138.6
H 37.3 47.1 84.4 282.2 124.9 157.3
C 35.8 67.1 102.9 291.5 147.6 143.9
Mean 34.5 53.5 88.0 296.5 149.1 147.4
~~ ~
D 45.6 39.1 15.7 106.1 286.2 0.34

B 49.9 41.7 18.4 1 1 6.7 306.5 0.37
H 51.2 44.9 20.7 123.4 331.3 0.40
G 52.5 44.1 21.2 125.5 372.4 0.40
Mean 49.8 42.4 19.0 117.9 324.1 0.38
Abbreviations: CHO = carbohydrate;SFA = saturated fatty acids, MUFA= monounsaturatedfatty acids; PUFA
= polyunsaturated fatty acids.
tions on which the nutritional program was planned. They consumed on average
more fat and less carbohydrates than recommended, despite their very irregular
meal patterns.
Vitamins
In order to ensure an adequate intake of vitamins and minerals the crew members
received vitamidmineral supplement tablets of which they were to take one per
day. According to the food log files, they only started to take these tablets during
the fourth week. Even then, they took only 3 to 5 tablets per week.
The vitamin intake in Table 5 corresponds to the vitamin supply from food and
excludes the contribution from the tablets. Compared to the RDAs, vitamin B1
intake was too low for all crew members, especially for subject D. The vitamin A
intake was too low (< 10% of RDA) for subject B and the niacin intake was too
Table 5. Individual Mean Intake of Vitamins

Crew Vit. A vit. B7 Vit. B2 Vif. 86 Niacin vit. c
Member (Pi?) (mg) (mg) (mgl (mg) (mg)
RDA 1,000 1.3-1.5 1.5-1.8 2.0-2.2 1 5-1 8 60-1 00
D 1,005 0.7 1.4 1.1 11.3 167
B 890 1.o 1.4 1.4 18.8 167
H 1,000 1.1 1.4 1.6 18.1 170
C 1,129 1.1 1.8 1.6 21.5 243
Mean 1,006 1.o 1.5 1.4 17.7 182
low for subject D. For vitamin B6, as has been found in most nutritional investiga-
tions, the intake from food has probably been underestimated.
Some plasma vitamin levels were determined before and after the isolation.Large
differences between the two periods were found, although the levels remained
within normal ranges. Higher post-isolation values can be explained either by the
tablet intake or by “over-eating’’of fresh food during the first three days out before
blood was sampled.
Minerals
The mineral intake in Table 6 corresponds to the supply from food and excludes
the contribution from tablets.The minerals supplied by the food provided sufficient
amounts to cover the needs. This indicates that with the diet supplied to the crew,
a mineral supplement is not required.
D. Food Appreciation
Satisfaction regarding food was investigated by a daily questionnaire available

on the ESA SPET system. The questionnaire was completed every evening and
contained five questions: rating of the food of the day, satiety feeling, foodstuffs
Table 6. Individual Mean Intake of Minerals

Crew
Member Cahg) P(m@ Fe(mg) Na (mg) K(mg) NflRafio
RDA 1,200 800-1,200 10-18 N/A N/A 1
~~ ~ ~
D 1,187 1,267 10.6 3,250 3,347 0.97

6 1,312 1,274 14.5 3,686 3,700 1.oo
H 1,268 1,194 17.6 4,594 3,077 1.49
C 1,685 1,803 18.8 5,895 4,178 1.44
Mean 1,367 1,409 14.9 4,381 3,575 1.23
Table 7. Individual and Mean Index of Satisfaction with the Food

Satisfaction
(%) D B H G Mean
~~
very good 35.6 78.9 21.3 35.4 42.2

W d 62.7 19.3 77.0 61.8 55.6
acceptable 1.1 1.8 1.6 3.6 2.2
Poor 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
they would have eaten with pleasure (whether available or not on board), physical
exercise performed, and any gastric or intestinal problems. Space was available for
additional comments.
As shown in Table 7, the rating of the appreciation of the food was exceptionally
good. This was due in part because of the high quality of the food supplied (thanks
to the available facilities and to the few constraints) as compared to other similar
experiments, but also to the fact that it was selected partly on the basis of the crew
preferences and that enough extra food was available to allow choices and to make
eating a pleasure.
Satiety feelings were also investigated by means of the daily questionnaire.The
ratings of these untrained subjects were rather subjective, and sometimes do not
appear relevant (subject D). However, the results shown in Table 8 demonstratethat
enough food was provided and that variety helped to decrease the feeling of hunger
that could have appeared with less variety.
E. Scheduling and Organization of Meals
A detailed review of the log book provided basic information on meal scheduling
and organization. Most of the meals were taken by all crew members at the same
time (89%). The time required for meal preparation was in the range of 15-20 min.
(breakfast) to 30 min. (brunch, lunch, and dinner). However, these values may be
overestimated, since they correspond to the time between the beginning of meal
preparation and that of eating. No significant decrease of preparation time was
observed during the mission.
Table 8. Individual Mean Index of Satiety

Satiety D B H C
Feeling Fullness Hunger Fullness Hunger Fullness Hunger Fullness Hunger
mean 79.7 20.3 62.1 35.5 84.2 5.5 60.1 24.9
(n) (57) (57) (55) (55) (58) (58) (57) (57)
Ratings
fullness empty stomach = 0 100 = full stomach
hunger nothungry =O 100 = very hungry
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Food and Nutritional Management System
Food Selection and Supply
Oral and written comments from the crew clearly demonstrated that food was
not considered a problem during the isolation period. The crew mentioned that food
was one of the most pleasant parts of the experiment, due to:
a high palatability, especially of frozen foods;
0 an adequate selection with direct prior involvement of the crew;
sufficient variety;
0 the extra supply made available,which helped the crew feel freeregardingeating.
For future simulation projects, more complete tasting sessions should be organ-
ized early in the project. For logistics reasons, such sessions were not implemented
for EXEMSI. Efforts should also be made to introduce space-likefoods in the daily
food intake (Russian space food would be a relevant candidate). Lastly, less frozen
food compensated by more shelf-stable food should be considered.
The results of the experiment clearly demonstrate that menus should not be
imposed on the crew; but menu suggestions should be available. In such an
experimental context in which stress factors are numerous, food should be consid-
ered as an area of personal freedom and fantasy, a pleasure not a burden.
Food Storage Management
According to the crew, the presence in the kitchen of a temporary storage area
sufficient for 4 days gave a good flexibility to the system. The option to have an
area specificallydesigned for food storage is probably the best way to manage food.
In a more constrained environment (e.g., real flight simulation) 20% of the storage
volume could have been saved by repackaging.
Galley Design
Considering the space available, the kitchen was efficient and functional. The
selection of a combination microwave oven permitted many cooking procedures,
and was judged as very good by the crew.
Food Management Software/Peripherals
According to the crew, the food management software was easy to use and
reliable. Even though in the beginning it took some time to log the food by means
of the barcode reader, no complaints were expressed by the crew after a few days.
Analysis of the food logging results clearly demonstrates that very early in the
simulation the use of the software was completely integrated as one of the food
preparation procedures. The "Record" option has been used more than 6,000times
over the entire period.
The peripherals were well-adapted for the procedures. The hardware imple-
mented in the kitchen was acceptable, except that it would have been more
convenient if the LCD screen would have directly faced the operator.
The Food and Nutrition Management System software could be improved for
future applications. In particular, it would be desirable to install a software module
that provides the crew with a weekly nutritional feedback and a set of recommen-
dations to adjust their food intake to their actual nutritional requirements.
B. Assessment of Nutritional Status

No change in food-related behavior was detected during isolation. The crew
members did not change their eating habits over the isolation period. Neither did
they change their food intake From that in their normal environment.
The nutritional program was based on present recommendations to the general
population. These do not exactly correspond to the actual eating habits of the crew,
which were more in agreement with the present habits of the European population.
The only point of concern could be the vitamin status of the crew. Even in these
particularly favorableconditions,vitamin intake from food alone was not sufficient
or borderline. The recorded intake values generally correspond to the lower RDA
limits. In a situation of high stress, the vitamin intake may have been insufficient
to permit a positive response of the immune system. This indicates that vitamin
supplements should be included as a mandatory item in future simulation studies,
and even more so in the case of actual long-term spaceflights.
Considering age and personality of the crew members, they would have been
expected to spend more energy on physical activity. Due to the difficulty of having
physical exercise in the experimental environment and to the fact that it was not an
obligatory part of their program, physical activity was certainly less than normal.
The lack of mandatory physical activity was surprising; such activities should be
included in future simulation studies.
The good quality and accuracy of the nutritional data obtained prove that the
software tool designed for EXEMSI can be used for nutritional input calculations
in other similar environments or even in space. This tool can now clearly be
considered as a facility for scientific teams working in nutrition or in any field of
human physiology where metabolic outputs (minerals, water, etc.) must be com-
pared to nutritional inputs.

Modifications of food intake by astronauts during long-duration spaceflights have
been observed. Various psychological stress factors, such as isolation, confine-
ment, constrained community and boredom, are thought to play a role in this
REFERENCES
1. Hinghofer-Szalkay. H.G., Ktlnig, E.M. Human Nutrition under Extraterrestrial Conditions. In:
Advances in Space Biology and Medicine (S.L.Bonting, ed.), vol. 2, pp. 131-179, JAI Press,
Greenwich. CT,1992.
2. Stuster, J.W. Space station habitability recommendations based on a systematic comparative
analysis of analogous conditions. NASA Contractor Report no 3943,1986.
3. Nyborg, J., Parrson, J., Maillet, A. Informal EMSInauts report, ESA, 1990.
4. Vzmes, R.J., et al. General Description of ISEMSI. In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine
(S.L.Bonting. ed.), vol. 3. pp. 51-53, JAI Press, Greenwich, Cr,1992.
5. Tremolitres.J., ed., Manuel d’alimentationhumaine, 10th ed.. Vol. 1, ESF Paris, 1984.
Chapter 6
NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND

IMMUNE RESPONSES AFTER
CONFINEMENT
David Husson, Michel Abbal,

Mathieu Tafani, and Didier A. Schmitt
I. Introduction .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. . . . .94

11. Immune Responses and the Endocrine System ....., ...... .. .. . . 94
A. Immune Responses toNeurohormones andNeuromediators . . . . . . . . 94
B. Immune Responses to Non-Neuropeptide Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
C. Interaction between Immune System and Nervous System . . . . . . . . . 98
III. MethodologicalAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
A. Confinement Conditions and Test Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
B. Plasma Isolation and Protein Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
C. Neuropeptides and Other Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
N. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A. PlasmaProteins.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
93
94 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. SCHMIll
B. Prolactin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,101
C. Growth Hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
D. 1.25-Dihydroxyvitamin D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
E. Triiodothyronin and Thyreotropin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
V. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lo5
A. HormonalChanges and Immune Responses inspaceflight . . . . . . . . 105
B. Immune Responses and Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
C. The EXEMSl Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lo6
VI. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I08
1. INTRODUCTION
The immune system contributes to the overall homeostasis of the body by elimi-
nating external pathogens as well as virus-infected and neoplastic body cells. It
comprises certain organs, circulating cells and various signalling substances, and
interacts with all, or nearly all, other physiological systems in the body.
Neuroimmunology is a new field of research, which has developed from the
finding that there is an interaction between the immune system and the central and
peripheral nervous systems. Clinical observations first suggested the existence of
this interaction. The earliest observation is that phagocytosis of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis is decreased during emotional distress.’ Another example is the expe-
rience that acute or chronic stress can favor the reactivation of herpes simplex virus.
More recently, an increasing number of studies deal with behavior and pathology,
both from a psychological and from a psychiatric point of
The most common way to shed light on these interactionsis by studyingthe effect
of stress on the immune system.”’ Two types of stress can be distinguished: (1)
cognitive stress, which is the response of the body to intense or prolonged changes
in its physical or social environment, (2) metabolic stress, or non-cognitive stress,
which is a consequence of a disturbance in the physiological homeostasis.*
In view of what is now known of neuroimmunology,it appeared useful to study
the effects of the stress of long-term isolation and confinement on the immune
system in the context of the EXEMSI experiment.Before describing the procedures
used and the results obtained, a review of our current insight in the mechanisms
underlying the interaction of the endocrine and immune systems is presented.
II. IMMUNE RESPONSES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A. Immune Responses to Neurohormones and Neuromediators
The central nervous system can act on immune functions, directly or indirectly,
through neurohormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (Figure 1).
Corticotrophin-releasingfactor (CRF)” is a potent stimulator of the adrenocorti-
cothrophic hormone (ACTH) and P-end~rphin.”.’~ In turn, ACTH stimulates the
Abbreviations: CNS = central nervous system; CRF = corticotropin releasing factor; RF = releasingfactor; IF =
inhibitoly factor; ACTH = adrencconico-tropic hormone; CH = growth hormone; PRL = prolactin; LH =
Iuteinizinghormone; SP = Substance P; VIP = vasoactive intestinal peptide; FSH =follicle stimulating hormone;
TSH = thyroid stimulating hormone; ICF-1 = insulin-like growth factor 1; T3 = triiodothyronin; end. = p
endorphin; STH = somatotropin hormone.
Figure 1. Interactions between the central and peripheral nervous system and the
immune system.
95
96 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. SCHMllT
Table 1. Influence of Neuroendocrine Peptides and other Hormones o n Immune

Function
Acetyl-choline + +/-
ACTH -
Androgens - - -
P-Endorphin +/- +/- +/- + + +/-
Catecholamines - - - - + -
Corticoids - _ _ _ -
CRF + +/- - + + +
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D- - - -
Enkepha1in - + +/- + +/-
Growth Hormone + +/- + + +
hCG - - - -
IGF-1 + + + +
I nsuI in - -
LH + - + +/-
Neurotensin/Neuromedin + + + +
Oestrogens + - + +
Ocytoci n - + +/-
Progesteron - -
Prolactin + + + + + +
Substance P + + + + + +
Triiodothyronin - -
TS H + + + + +
Vasopressin + - + + + +
VIP - - - - +/- -
Abbreviations: ACTH = AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone; CRF = Corticotropin Releasing Factor; hCG = human
Chorionic Gonadotropin; IGF-1 = Insulin-like Growth factor 1; LH = Luteinizing Hormone; TSH =
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone; VIP = Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide.
release of corticoids from the adrenal gland. Adrenaline and enkephalins are also
released by the adrenal gland.
All these neuromediatorsand neurohormoneshave variouseffects on the immune
responses (Table 1). CRF has an immunostimulatoryeffect on T-cell proliferation
and cytokine production1"I6 and a variable effect on Natural Killer cell
while ACTH has immunosuppressiveactivities.'s21 Endogenous opiates such as
P-endorphins are reported to have contradictory effects on immune
Neuroimmunology and Confinement 97
Table 2. Presence of ReceDtors for Neuroendocrine PeDtides on Immune Cells

Receptors on Immune Cells
Neurohormonesand
Neurotransmitters Monocytes Lymphocytes
Acetylcholine
ACTH
Catecholamines
CRF
Dopamine
Beta-Endorphin
CH
CHRH
LH
LHRH
Neurotensin
Prolactin
Substance P
TRH
TSH
Vasopressin
VIP
Abbreviations: ACTH = AdrendorticoTropic Hormone; CRF = Corticotropin-ReleasingFactor; C H = Growth

Hormone; GHlH = Growth Hormone Inhibitory Hormone; GHRH = Growth Hormone Releasing
Hormone; hCC = human ChorionicGonadotropin; LH = Luteinizing Hormone; LHRH = LH Releasing
Hormone; TRH = Thyreotropin Releasing Hormone; TSH = Thyroid Stimulating Hormone; VIP =
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide.
Their activitiesdepend on the dose and experimentalmodels used. Growth hormone

(GH) plays an important role in the development, maintenance and function of the
immune system. This hormone is a macrophage-activating factor and may be
involved in the regulation of neutrophil granulocyte functions.24Prolactin can
increase the activities of B cells and T cells by enhancing interleukin-2 and
interleukin-2-receptorinduced In addition, prolactin and growth
hormone stimulate thymic function?' Other neuropeptides,such as substance P,28
vasoactive intestinal peptide ocytocin, vasopressin3' and neuroten-
~in/neuromedin?'*~~ have recently been described as acting on the immune system.
The effects of neuropeptides on the immune system are often related to the presence
of specific receptors on monocytes or lymphocytes (Table 2).
B. Immune Responses to Non-Neuropeptide Hormones

The immune system is not only directly modulated by the neuropeptides but also
by the hormones under control of these peptides in peripheral organs. Glucocorti-
coids, secreted by the adrenal gland under control of ACTH, have a well known
immunosuppressive a ~ t i v i t y . Clinical
3 ~ ~ ~ observations strongly suggest that sex
hormones, controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitaryaxis, can influence immune
98 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. SCHMIlT
responses. Autoimmune disorders are more common in High progester-

one levels are immunosuppressive and may have a beneficial effect on the autoim-
mune disease rheumatoid arthritis.36On the other hand, high estrogen levels and
lower androgen production favor autoimmune disorders.37Unlike the neuroendo-
crine system, there are only a few reports indicating possible mechanisms for the
interaction of sex hormones with the immune system. Receptors for sex hormones
have been discovered on lymphoid tissue3' and T lymphocyte^.^^ Estrogens are
thought to decrease the activity of T suppressor function?' whereas androgens
increase this activity.39 Therefore, estrogens enhance37 and progesterone de-
c r e a s e ~mitogen-induced
~~.~ lymphocyte proliferation.
Triiodothyronine, another hormone under neuropeptide control, seems to de-
crease T lymphocyte proliferation, probably through direct action on these cells!'
Bone metabolism and the immune system are also tightly linked in a bi-directional
manner!2 It has been known for a long time that thymectomized neonatal mice
develop ricketsP3 and that inborn osteoporosis induces thymus atrophy.44On a
molecular level, the multi-functional cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a strong
stimulant of bone resorption as well as tumor necrosis fact0rs.4~Interestingly, IL- 1
and other cytokine-like substances can also be synthesized by bone!6 On the
cellular level, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol), a hormone active in bone
metabolism, has receptors on monocytes and activated T lymphocytes!' It can
modulate immune responses by increasing interleukin-148and decreasing inter-
leukin-2 and interferon-y prod~ction.4~ Finally, activated macrophages can trans-
form 25-hydroxyvitamin D into the active form 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD.
Metabolic stress by changes in the blood glucose level is controlled by glucocor-
ticoids, adrenalin,growth hormone and insulin.These hormones, including insulin,
are also immune modulators. For example, therapeutic administration of insulinm
significantly reduces the lymphocyte proliferative response to mitogen stimula-
tione5'On the other hand, a positive correlation has been found between the serum
level of insulin-likegrowth factor (IGF-1) and the secretion of the thymic hormone
thymulin?2
C. Interaction between Immune System and Nervous System
Primary and secondary lymphoid organs, such as thymus, spleen, lymph nodes
and even bone marrow, are possibly under neuromediator control by direct inner-
vation via parasympathetic, ~ y m p a t h e t i c or
~ ~ VIP-peptidergic
.~ neurones.
Catecholamines,mainly coming from the adrenal gland, have negative impacts on
various immune functions.55
Interestingly, leukocytes themselves can produce and secrete a number of
neuroendocrine peptides, such as CRF, ACTH, P-endorphin, VIP, prolactin, lute-
inizing hormone releasing factor (LHRH), and IGF-I . Therefore, the immune
system can be regulated by its own neuroendocrine peptides, but in turn it can also
influence the central nervous system. This cross-talk between the immune and the
nervous systems can also be mediated by cytokines. For example, interleukin-ls6

has receptors in the brain,” especially in the hypothalamus, through which it can
initiate hyper-thermia during an infection. Interleukin-1 can also directly trigger
CRF release from the hypothalamus, and it can alter the release of many other
neuro-peptides.” In addition, interleukin-2 and interferon-a can increase the
circulating levels of ACTH and cortisol. The cross-talkis completed by the fact that
astrocytes and microglial cells produce interleukin-1 and interleukin-3.59
111. METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS

A. Confinement Conditions and Test Subjects
The confinement simulation was performed by isolating and confining four

volunteers for a period of 60 days inside a slightly pressurized diving chamber,
located at the Center for Aerospace Medicine, Deutsche Forschungsanstaltfur Luft-
und Raumfahrt (DLR), Cologne, Germany. The diving chamber consisted of a
habitat module and a laboratory module.60During the entire confinement period
the living and working conditions resembled those in a space station.
Nine healthy volunteers (age ranging from 26 to 38) were selected on medical
and psychological criteria.60Four of them, one female (H) and three males (B, D,
G), formed the chamber crew and served as confinement test subjects. The other
five subjects, three females (F, K, J) and two males (C, E) worked outside the
chamber as ground control crew and served as controls. All actions on the confined
group were at the same times duplicated on the non-confined control group. All
nine subjects were revaccinated subcutaneously with Tetavax vaccine two weeks
before the end of confinement. All experiments were performed with the prior
agreement of the medical board of DLR. The psychosocial aspects of this study
were addressed by several investigators and are reported elsewhere in this volume.
B. Plasma Isolation and Protein Analysis
Plasma Isolation
Blood samples from all subjects were collected seven days before the beginning
of confinement (CF-7), on the day after confinement (R+O),and for some experi-
ments 21 weeks later (R+145). No samples were collected during isolation. Periph-
eral blood was diluted with one volume of RPMI 1640 medium (Gibco, Paisley,
UK), supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine and 1% penicillin-streptomycin.
Blood cells were separated on an MSLdensity medium (Eurobio,Paris, France) by
centrifugation for 20 min at 400 g. After isolation of peripheral mononuclear blood
cells (PMBC), the diluted plasma on top of the MSL medium was collected and
frozen at -80°C. This procedure was chosen in view of the small amount of blood
available.
100 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. SCHMlll
Protein Analysis
Complement factors C3, C4 and B factor, a2-macroglobulin, haptoglobin, pre-

albumin, albumin, al-glycoprotein acid, C 1 esterase inhibitor, ceruloplasmin,
orosomucoid and a1 -antitrypsin were determined with a Behring Nephelometer-
Analyzer using the appropriate reagent for each of these proteins (Behring, Mar-
bourg, Germany). P2-microglobulin was determined by a microparticle
immunoenzymaticassay using the IMX system (Abbot, South Pasadena, CA). Total
IgE was determinedby the AlaSTAT sandwich immunoassay (DiagnosticsProducts
Corporation, Los Angeles, CA). All plasma proteins were determined simultane-
ously at the end of the experiment. The proteins studied were chosen on the basis
of scientific relevance (immune system effectors, inflammation, basal protein
anabolism and catabolism)and availability of a suitable assay. The half life of most
of these proteins is in the order of days, allowing any changes induced by
confinement to be detected after the 60-day isolation period.
C. Neuropeptides and Other Hormones
Plasma prepared as described above was used. 1,25-DihydroxyvitaminD levels

were measured by a competition receptor-ligand [3H] radioisotopic assay kit
(Nichols Institute Diagnostics B.V., Wijchen, Netherlands). Free triiodothyronin
(FT3)was determined with the RIA-gnost FT3 radioimmunoassay (Behring);
human thyreotropin or thyronin stimulating hormone (hTSH) with the RIA-gnost
hTSH radioimmunoassay (Behring); prolactin with the Prolactin IRMA ['*'I]
radioimmunoassay kit (international standard WHO 84-500, Immunotech,
Marseille, France). Human growth hormone (hGH or somatostatin)was determined
with the ELSA-hGH solid phase two-site [1251]immunoradiometric assay (CIS bio
international,Gif-sur-Yvette,France); insulin-likegrowth factor 1 (IGFI) with the
SM-C-RIA-CT [ Iz1] radioimmunoassay kit (Medgenics Diagnostics, Fleurus,
Belgium). All neuropeptides and hormones were determined simultaneouslyat the
end of the experiment.
IV. RESULTS
A. Plasma Proteins
There were no differences in the plasma protein levels analyzed pre- and
post-confinement, except for haptoglobin which was slightly but significantly
lower before confinement in the chamber crew (Table 3). Total IgE concentrations
were highly variable among the subjects. However, when comparing pre- and
post-confinement values for each subject no significant changes are observed
(Table 4). No changes in protein levels were observed in the control group (data
not shown). Immunoglobulins G , Aand M6' exhibited no changes, either between
the confined group and the control group, or within the groups.
Table 3. Immunologically relevant plasma protein concentrations before (CF-7)

and after (R+O) confinement. For each individual the ratio of the data before and
after confinement was calculated. Results are expressed as mean f SE.
Protein Vl) CF-7 R+O Ratio CF-7/R+O
c3 1.05 f 0.04 1.08 f 0.06 1.04 f 0.1 3
(34 0.30 f 0.04 0.30 f 0.05 0.97 f 0.25
Prealbumin 0.33 f 0.02 0.33 f 0.02 1 .OO f 0.1 4
Albumin 42.6 f 0.66 45.3 f 2.14 1.07 f 0.20
a2-Macroglobulin 2.10f0.12 2.1 6 f 0.1 5 1.04 f 0.1 5
Orosomucoid 0.26 f 0.09 0.24 f 0.08 0.94 f 0.09
Haptoglobin 0.45 f 0.1 1 0.57 f 0.11 1.40 f 0.41
a 1-Clycoprotein acid 0.48 f 0.05 0.48 f 0.05 0.99 f 0.1 1
B Factor 0.27 f 0.02 0.27 f 0.03 1.06 f 0.1 3
C1-esterase inhibitor 0.1 8 f 0.02 0.1 8 f 0.01 0.98 f 0.1 4
a 1-Antitrypsin 1.43 f 0.1 2 1.50 f 0.1 7 1.04 f 0.1 4
Ceruloplasmin 0.30 f 0.04 0.30 f 0.05 0.96 f 0.25
fl2-Microglobul in 1.49 f 0.07 1.49 f 0.1 0 1.01 f 0.22
B. Prolactin
Since prolactin levels in blood depend on the hormone cycle in females, only
data from the male subjects are shown (Figure 2). Prolactin plasma concentrations
were decreased in all confined subjects after confinement. Comparison with the
control group is hardly meaningful, because there were only two males in the
control group, one of which showed no change whereas the other had a decreased
level of prolactin after the confinement period.
C. Growth Hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factor
Plasma concentrations of human growth hormone from the confined subjects

were stable (Figure 3), except for subject H which had a very high level of growth
Table 4. Total IgE Level (IU/ml) Before (CF-7) and After (R+O) Confinement in
Each Subject
Subject CF-7 R+O Ratio CF-7/R+O
6 18 15 1.20
D 48 57 0.84
G 711 567 1.25
H 21 18 -
1.17
average 1.12
102 D. HUSSON, M . ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. S C H M l l l
0J
CF-7 R+O
Figure 2. Prolactin plasma concentrations from the confined and control male
subjects, before (CF-7) and after (R+O) Confinement.
hormone before (6.3 ng/ml) and even a higher,levelafter (9 ng/ml) confinement.

In the control group a small increase was observed at R+O, except for subject J who
had a very high level of growth hormone before (1.5 ng/ml) and an even higher
level after isolation (4.8 ng/ml).
No difference was observed in the plasma concentrationsof insulin-like growth
factor-1, since all confined and control subjects showed an increase after the
confinementperiod, except subject D who had stable values (Figure 4).
CF-7 R+O
Figure 3. Human growth hormone (hCH) plasma concentrations before (CF-7) and
after (R+O) confinement. The results from the control subjects (CT) are expressed as
means f SE.
+B +G - - -*-- CT
+ D - H
1.8
CF-7 R+O
Figure 4. Human insulin-like growth factor 1 (somatomedin) plasma concentrations

from three confined subjects before (CF-7) and after (R+O) confinement. The results
from the control group (CT) are expressed as mean f SE.
D. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D
Plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD (calcitriol) levels in the four confined subjects

and the control subjects are shown in Figure 5. Except for subject G, who had a
two-fold increase in 1.25-dihydroxyvitamin D after confinement, no significant
differences in this hormone were observed before (CF-7) or after confinement (R+O
and R+145), within each group or between the control group and the confined
group.
0'
CF-7 R+O R+145
Figure 5. 1,25-Dihydroxy vitamin D plasma concentrations from the confined sub-

jects, before (CF-7) and after (R+O and R+145) confinement. The results from the
control group (CT) are expressed as mean f SE.
104 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. S C H Ml l l
CP.7 R+O
Figure 6. Free triiodothyronin (FT3) plasma concentrations from the confined sub
jects, before (CF-7) and after (R+O) confinement. The results from the control group
(CT) are expressed as mean f SE.
E. Triiodothyronin and Thyreotropin
Plasma concentrations of triiodothyronin were decreased by about 10%at R+O

in all confined subjects, whereas the average for the control group showed an
increase (Figure 6). However, the triiodothyronin values were not sufficiently
altered to induce a feedback change in the thyreotropin (THS)concentrations
(Figure 7).
+B +H --*--
CT
+ D + G
15-
2-
3
J
X
10-
2
CF-7 R+O
Figure 7. Human thyronin stimulating hormone (hTSH) plasma concentration from

the confined subjects, before (CF-7) and after (R+O) confinement. The results from the
control group (CT) are expressed as mean f SE.
V. DISCUSSION
A. Hormonal Changes and Immune Responses in Spaceflight
Alterations in immune responses during and after spaceflighthave been reviewed

recently for humans6*- as well as for a11imals.6~The observed changes include:
reduced PHA-stimulated T lymphocyte proliferation, decreased Natural Killer cell
cytotoxicity, and in vivo depressed delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity. The de-
crease in immune responses might be a consequence of hyperoxy-
genation during extravehicular a c t i ~ i t i e s , 6 environmental
~.~~ stressors?' or an
indirect effect of microgravity on various body systems. The physiological adap-
tations of the body to the space environment, and especially to microgravity, have
been investigated for the cardiovascular, skeletal, muscle, and immunohematologi-
cal systems. The fluid shift induced by microgravity in the early days of flight leads
to certain hormonal changes, such as a decreased release of the atrial natriuretic
factor by the heart?' The fluid shift probably leads to increased diuresis, loss of
electrolytes, and in turn, a reduction in plasma volume. A decrease in serum
erythropoietin and an increase in femtin, which have also been reported, can
explain the decrease in total red blood cell mass?' Fluid shift and the related
hormonal changes may influenceimmune responses by an as yet unknown mecha-
n i ~ m . 7Loss
~ of bone mass, an elevation in ionized calcium, with a decrease of
parathyroid hormone74and probable changes in 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD levelsy5
could also have an effect on immune cells.
Stress factors may play a major role in inflight and post-flight changes in immune
responses. However, the effects of environmental stressors are difficult to quantify.
Isolation, confinement, artificial circadian rhythms, sensory deprivation due to
microgravity,changed social interactions,quality of life in general,and hypokinesia
alternated with exercise as countermeasure might severely and chronically affect
crewmembers during long duration flights. During the Skylab program, increases
in inflight and post-flight urinary cortisol were reported?6 However, in Space
Shuttle astronauts no change in serum cortisol was found po~t-flight?~ but an
increase in ACTH was observed during a Spacelab flight?8 These contrasting
findings might be explained by alterations in circadian rhythms or by differences
in flight duration. In addition, cortisol might not be a good indicator of stress in
humans. A decrease in urinary epinephrine, norepinephrine and their metabolites
was found in crew members from both Skylab76and Salyut-7 mission^.'^ However,
an increase in plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine levels was observed post-
flight?' which could be due to landing stress. Growth hormone, which has positive
interactions with the immune system, was elevated post-flight in Skylab and Space
Shuttle asmnauts.8' Growth hormone levels are usually increased after a period of
weakness, e.g., after an infection, presumably to restore growth rates and immune
responses.
Apart from changes in hormones and other plasma proteins which can affect the
immune system, it is also possible that the number or affinity of receptors for these
factors on immune cells are changed through up and down regulations. For
example, the number of receptors for insulin and insulin-like growth factor on
monocytes from astronauts were significantly reduced post-flight?’ Studies with
rhesus monkeys showed a decrease in triiodothyronin and in growth hormone after
~ p a c e f l i g h t . 6These
~ ~ ~ ’findings
~ ~ ~ can be correlated with an impairment of immune
function^.^^^^
B. Immune Responses and Confinement
Confinement, and especially isolation or grouping, has been shown to have a

major effect on immune responses in animal^.^' Mice show increases in cortisol
after apparently trivial changes in their environment. Changes in immune responses
in humans have been observed after confinement in deep sea diving,86 cave
i~olation,~’antarctic ~ v e r w i n t e r i n g ,and
~ ~ .isolation
~~ in a hyperbaric chamber.%
More specific confinement studies have been undertaken to discriminate between
space-related factors and environmental factors in their effect on psychological and
physiological changes?’ In contrast to head-down bedrest experiments?* no sig-
nificant immunological changes occurred during or after ~onfinement?~ However,
when cabin atmosphere parameters, such as CO,, CO, or temperature, were
changed to unusual values, Natural Killer cell activity and mitogen-induced T
lymphocyte proliferation were decreased.”*”
C. The EXEMSI Study
In the EXEMSI study we investigated a large number of soluble effectors and

mediators and immune responses before and after 60 days of confinement under
normal atmospheric conditions.60Upon comparing pre-isolation and post-isolation
data from test subjects and from controls no significant changesin immunologically
relevant plasma proteins were observed. Other immune parameters, such as lym-
phocyte subsets, mitogen-induced T lymphocyteproliferation, interleukin-2recep-
tor expression, a-and y-interferon production or natural killer cell activity and
plasma immunoglobulin levels, were also unchanged?’ The production of oxygen
superoxide by neutrophils was also unchanged (unpublished results).
Various hormones, which are known to interact with immune responses, were
also studied: cortisol, 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD, prolactin, growth hormone, insu-
lin-like growth factor 1, triiodothyronine and thyrotrophin. Their plasma levels
were determined before and after confinement. The neumpeptides P-endorphin and
ACTH could not be determined due to the effects of transport and storage of the
blood samples. Plasma cortisol was not significantly changed after confinement?’
but transient elevations in salivary cortisol levels were found during the confine-
ment period.% Urinary epinephrine and norepinephrine had a tendency to decrease
during confinement?’
Since prolactin blood levels are influenced by the female cycle, pre- and post-
isolation data were only compared in the male subjects. The levels in the confined
subjects were decreased after confinement. These results are difficult to interpret,
since the control group was only composed of two males. However, other investi-
gators showed also a decrease in prolactin in the confined male subjects two days
after confinement with an increase after four days post-confinement98
Triiodothyronin was decreased in all four confined subjects. However, the
decreases were too small to induce a feedback change in the level of thyreotropin
(thyronin stimulating hormone, TSH), a neuropeptide which controls the release of
thyroid hormones. Free triiodothyronin, the active form of thyroid hormone,
generally has a negative effect on immune responses, while prolactin has a positive
effect. Therefore, the changes observed in the plasma levels of these two hormones
may have counteracted each other.
Growth hormone levels were unchanged. Insulin-like growth factor-1levels were
higher in three of the four confined subjects after confinement, but they were not
significantly different from the corresponding values for the control subjects. No
significant changes were found in 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD levels, suggesting that,
unlike in bedrest experiments, the relative lack of mobility in the isolation facility
did not affect bone mineral metabolism and the related hormone levels. The sex
hormone testosterone was decreased in two of the three male test subjects post-con-
fi nement.98
The absence of significant changes in immune responses can therefore be
correlated with the present results on hormone levels. The vaccination against the
tetanus toxoid, which took place three weeks before the end of the confinement
period in both test and control subjects, might have increased immune responses at
the time of post-confinement blood sampling, and thus have masked a decrease in
immune responses. However, this is unlikely, as no increase in immune parameters
were observed in the control group.
From studies in the field of occupational medicine it is known that stress factors
can have an impact on immunity in Correlations between stress-in-
duced modifications of behavior and a decreased immune status have also been
In the present study, the behavioral and cognitive studies did not
show major abnormalities or deviation^,'"^'^^ indicating that individual psycho-
logical state and social relationships did not suffer during the 60-day isolation
period. These findings correlate well with our biological results.
In future experiments of this kind it would be important to further extend the
length of isolation in order to potentially induce more boredom and chronic stress,
but also to add psychological stressors during confinement. In immunological
studies undertaken in such experiments the immune status should be evaluated
several times during confinement. Neuropeptides should also be determined,
because habituation might hide some changes in neuroimmunologicalparameters.
108 D. HUSSON, M. ABBAL, M. TAFANI, and D.A. SCHMllT
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

A confinement experiment in a normobaric diving chamber was undertaken to
obtain more understanding of the effects of confinement and isolation on human
psychology and physiology. Pre- and post-confinement blood samples were ob-
tained from four test subjects and five control subjects for the analysis of plasma
proteins, hormone levels and immune responses. The absence of significant
changes in the immune responses correlates with the absence of major changes in
neurohormones and other hormones such as cortisol, prolactin, growth hormone,
insulin-like growth factor 1, triiodothyronin, thyrotrophin and 1.25-dihydroxyvi-
tamin D. It is increasingly recognized that the immune system is not an independent
physiological system, but a system that interacts multidirectionally with other
organs and body functions. It seems that the conditions of this confinement
experiment were not stressful from a psychological point of view. The presence of
a female crew member had probably a positive effect on group behavior of the test
subjects. In conclusion, the data suggest that confinement for 60 days in a small
habitat without particularly stressful situations has no significant impact on a
variety of neuroimmunological parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of the crew members and the logistic
support by the staff of ESA and DLR. We thank Mrs. Catherine Emond for assistance with
the manuscript, Mr. Jason Hatton for the computer assisted figures, and Professor Pierre
Rocbiccioli and Dr. Gtrard Mauco for their kind collaboration. This work was supported by
ESA grant no. 9768192 and CNES grant no. 92/315.
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%. Hennig, J., Netter, P. Local immunocompetence and salivary cortisol in a restricted environment.
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Greenwich, CT,1995.
97. Maillet A. et al. Hormonal, water balance, and electrolyte changes during sixty-day confinement.
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98. Gunga, H.-Chr. et al. Body weight and body composition during sixty days of isolation. In:
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Press, Greenwich, CT. 1995.
Chapter 7
LOCAL IMMUNOCOMPETENCE A N D
SALIVARY CORTISOL IN
CONFINEMENT
J . Hennig and P. Netter
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
I1. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
A. Saliva Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
B . Determination of Salivary Cortisol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
C. Determination of Secretory Immunoglobulin A . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
D. StatisticalAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
111. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
A. Change with Time of Cortisol and Immunoglobulin Levels . . . . . . .. 118
B . Comparison of Individual Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
C. Time Series Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
D. Cortisol and Immunoglobulin A Before and After Mental Stress . . . .. 127
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
V. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Copyright @ 1996 by JAI Press Inc .
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
115
116 J.HENNIG and P. NETTER
1. INTRODUCTION
The "local immune system" protects the body mucosa, such as that of the upper
respiratory tract and the oral cavity, against viral infection and bacterial adherence.'
This system seems to be controlled by the central nervous system as indicated by
innervation of the intestinal lymphoid tissue,' by hormonal control of the secretory
immunoglobulin A (sIgA) secretion in saliva and plasma cell migrati~n,~ and by
effects of s t r e s ~and
~ ~relaxation
~.~ techniques'**on sIgA responses. The effects on
sIgA of emotional, mental, or physical exposure to a challenge or adverse event
have been investigated? sIgA thus appears to play an important role in the local
immune system.
Cellular stress responses of the immune system are known to be altered during
spaceflight" and after four weeks of head-down bedrest."*'* A decrease of the
number of T-inducer, T-cytotoxic, and natural killer cells and of the mitogenic
stimulation by phytohemagglutinin (PHA) point to a reduced immunocompe-
tence." In virro studies have shown that these effects can occur in microgravity,
but it is unclear whether confinementplays arole. Theeffect on sIgAofconfinement
during actual or simulated spaceflight has not yet been studied.
Cortisol, the classical "stress-h~rmone,"'~is known to be increased after space-
flight.I4*l5In the ISEMSI isolation study transient changes were observed coincid-
ing with certain social conflicts and specific events.I6 The effect of changes in
biorhythms on cortisol have not yet been investigated in actual or simulated
spaceflight.
According to the current insights of psychoneuroimmunology, there exists a
bidirectional relationship between central nervous system, immune system, and
endocrine system. Hence, the present study tries to investigate the influences of
confinement stress on salivary sIgA and cortisol levels, and to determine whether
responses to acute mental stress will change upon repeated exposure during the
period of isolation.Both cortisol and sIgAcan be easily determined in saliva, which
obviates the need to obtain frequent blood samples.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Saliva Collection
Four subjects (3 males and 1 female) between 25 and 35 years of age were
selected according to astronaut selection criteria for participation in a 60-day
exposure to isolation in a space module on the ground, the EXEMSI project. The
subjects were submitted to an extensive and complex schedule of activities and
experiments during isolation.
For the purposes of our study the subjects were asked to sample their saliva every
morning before breakfast (7:30am) and at night (1 1 :OOpm). Sample collection was
to last exactly 5 minutes, because the sIgA level is dependent on the saliva flow
Local lmmunocompetence and Cortisol 117
rate. This time schedule was smctly standardized and there were no large deviations
from the hour of sampling throughout the experiment. In addition, saliva was
sampled before and after a mentally stressful complex decision-making test per-
formed on Tuesdays and Fridays of each week during isolation. Details of this test
are described by Hockey and Sauer in this v o l ~ m e . ' ~
Saliva was collected by the subjects by means of the Sarstedt Salivette. After
collection the tubes with saliva samples were stored in a freezer at -30°C until the
assays were carried out.
B. Determination of Salivary Cortisol
Cortisol was determined by radioimmunoassay ("Magic Cortisol," Ciba Corning,

Giessen, Germany).The normal assay procedure was slightly modified by 10-fold
dilution of the CibaCorning standards with phosphate-buffered saline (0.1 M, pH
8.0) and by extending the time of incubation to 3.5 hours.''
Aliquots of 100 p1 sample (or standard) were added to 100pl specific anti-rabbit
cortisol covalently bound to paramagnetic particles (CibaCorning) and 50 pl
'251-labeled tracer (CibaCorning) were added. After incubation for 3.5 hours a
magnetic separator (CibaCorning) was used to isolate the particles from the
solution, which was decanted. The tubes were washed with 1.0 ml distilled water,.
decanted a second time, and counted for one minute in a gamma counter. The mean
coefficient of variance between different points of the standard curve was 5.2,
ranging from 0.45 to 8.6.
C. Determination of Secretory Immunoglobulin A
Secretory immunoglobulin A concentrations in the saliva samples were deter-

mined by means of a novel laser nephelometric analyzer N600 (PasteurDiagnostica
Kallestad, Paris). The N600 is a highly adaptable computerized system for deter-
mining concentrationsof proteins.
Sample aliquots were mixed with phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4; 0.1 M) and
a solution of human anti-IgA [a-chain] (Pasteur Diagnostica Kallestad). The
suspension was stirred for 6 seconds on a multitube stirrer (Pasteur Diagnostica
Kallestad). Immediately after stimng, a blank value for determination of diffuse
light scattering was obtained. After 30 minutes of incubation the cuvettes were
stirred again for 6 seconds in order to obtain a homogeneous suspension. The
response values were read and these values were corrected for diffuse light
scattering by deducting the blank responses. In a similar way a standard curve
ranging from 0.25 to 32.5 mg/dl IgA was determined. By using the standard curve,
the sIgA concentrationsin the samples were computed from the corrected response
values. The mean coefficient of variance for all samples was 7.64 ranging from 0
to 19.6.
sIgAconcentration depends on the salivary flow rate. If a significant correlation
over time between saliva volume (measured on a balance with 0.01 g resolution)
118 J. HENNIG and P. NElTER
and sIgA concentration was found, the latter concentration was divided by salivary
volume to yield the sIgA secretion rate.
D. Statistical Analysis
Autocorrelations and moving averages were calculated to establish patterns of

rhythmicity. Analysis of variance for repeated measures and the Student t-test for
dependent samples were used to establish changes in the biochemical parameters
due to differences in schedule between weekdays and weekends, time of day, and
bet ween weeks.
111. RESULTS
A. Change with Time of Cortisol and Immunoglobulin levels
Cortisol
Indications for a circadian rhythm in the salivary cortisol level were found for
each of the subjects. Figure 1 shows that the levels in early morning were much
higher than at night.
--.-morning ---evening
T
1 0 15 22 29 36 43 50 57
consecutive days
Figure 1. Group averages of morning and evening salivary cortisol concentrations
on days 1 through 60.
A
A T
'- G H
A A 2- T
A
- A = T
Figure 2. Evening salivary cortisol concentrations for each of the four subjects (dotted line-adual measured values; solid line-moving
averages computed for three consecutive days).
120 J. HENNJG and P. NEUER
Table 1. Dates of Cortisol Peak Concentrations

Cortisol peak Subject B Subject D Subject C Subject H
1 15/09 15/09 15/09 15/09
2 30109 30109 29/09 30109
3 1 411 0 1 411 0 1 511 0 11/10
4 30110 2911 0 30110 31/10
A remarkable observation is that each subject shows a more or less clear peak at
four different days (Figure 2). Table 1 indicates that these peaks occur on almost
the same day for all of the subjects. Therefore, they are also revealed in the curve
for the group averages. These cortisol peaks have not yet been explained as being
due to any specific external stressor.
Immunoglobulin
The sIgA secretion rate shows changes which seem to follow a random pattern
(Figure 3). However, computation of ‘moving averages’ (average between three
consecutive values) shows a significant linear increase of this rate in 3 out of 4
subjects early in the isolation period. Aplateau is reached at different times by the
four subjects. This early increase may reflect an adaptation phenomenon.
B. Comparison of Individual Means
Morning-Evening Comparison
Means and standard deviations for morning and evening concentrations of sIgA
and cortisol in saliva of each subject are shown in Table 2. Significant differences
between morning and evening concentrationsof cortisol are found only for subjects
D and G, indicating a circadian rhythm in cortisol values for these two subjects.
For sIgA this is the case for subjects B and G.
Analysis of variance with the factors “time of day” and “workday/weekend”
explains why subject H did not exhibit an overall circadian rhythm in salivary
cortisol. As indicated by Figure 4, subject H exhibits the ‘‘normal” circadian
fluctuation in salivary cortisol during weekends, but not on weekdays. Subject B
does not show any circadian rhythm in cortisol level, either on weekdays or on
weekends.
Although in another study no circadian rhythm was found for sIgA,’’ we also
investigated the weekday-weekend differences for this parameter. Table 3 shows
for 2 out of 4 subjects significant interactions between the factors “time of day”
and “weekend-schedule.” While morning values are higher than evening concen-
trations on weekdays, the opposite is true for weekends for subjects B, G, and H,
but not for subject D. The effects are significant only on weekdays for subjects B
and G.
R =0.42926
SD = 27.47682. N = 24 R =0.52355
12O-l P = 0,03633 SD = 33.30506.N = 40
P = 0.00053 a
- 150{
~
a *rl
-0
-
'-1 a
H 50
$ 1
o ! , . , . 3 . , . , . , . , ,
"1d , . , . , . , . , . , . , .
10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1807 consecutive days consecutive days
35 3 T
7 R = 0.03528
-- 1w- 30j H
140-
' G T SD = 11,06301. N = 18
P=O.88947 T
T T
120 . T
E 15- T
6 10-
A
A 4 , .
1 5-
R =0.70823 A
-u . A
SO = 21.73863. N i 25 0-
20 - A &
P = o.ow07
o ! , . , . , . , . , . , . , , 5 ! , . , . , . , . , , , . , <
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
consecutive days consecutive days
Figure 3. Immunoglobulin A secretion rate for each of the four subjects on consecutive mornings for days 1 through 60.
122 I. HENNIG and P. N E T E R
Tab/e 2. Salivary Immunoglobulin A and Cortisol

in Morning and Evening
Subject and
Dependent Variable Morning (mean f s.d.) Evening (mean f s.d.) P
Subject 6
slgA (pdrnin) 55.0f 24.6 42.5 f 23.1 < ,001
Cortisol (pddl) 1.20 f 0.85 1.31 f 1.64 n.s.
Subject D
slgA (pdrnin) 73.8 f 38.7 63.0f 27.5 n.s.
Cortisol (pg/dl) 1.33 f 0.81 0.56 f 0.37 < .001
Subject G
slgA @s/rnin) 86.0f 32.5 72.9 f 32.3 < .05
Cortisol @g/dl) 2.05 f 1.45 0.88 f 0.87 < .001
Subject H
slgA (rnddl) 9.59 f 6.00 8.86 f 4.21 ns.
Cortisol @g/dl) 0.62 f 0.56 0.57 f 0.62 n.s.
Note: s.d. = standard deviation; n.s. = not significant; slgAexpressed as secretion rate for subjects B, D, and
C, as concentration for subject H.
-morning (during the week)

-morning (at weekend)
2-01 T
evening (during the week)
=evening (at weekend)
B D G H
Figure4. Average morning and evening salivary cortisol concentrationson weekdays
and weekends for each of the four subjects (bar represents SEM). Subjects B and H
partly or completely lacking circadian rhythm (!I.
Table 3. Salivary Immunoglobulin A

on Weekdays and Weekends
Subject and Morning Evening
Dependent Variable (mean f s.e.) (mean f s.e.) P
Subject B
Weekdays 56.2 f 4.0 36.1 f 0. < .01
Weekends 51.5 f 5.2 60.0 f 7.2
Subject D
Weekdays 71.8 f 6.2 59.4 f 4.0
Weekends 79.2 f 8.4 72.9 f 7.0
Subject G
Weekdays 92.8 f 4.6 69.6 f <0.01 < .01
Weekends 66.8 f 8.1 82.1 f 8 . 4
Subject H*
Weekdays 10.3 f 1 .O 8.7 f 0.6
Weekends 7.6 f 1 .O 9.2 f 1.2
Notes: 'slgA expressed as concentration (mg/dl)

s.e. = standard error
Week-to-Week Concentrations
Investigationof the effects of long-term isolation stress on local immunocompe-

tence requires comparison of weekly averages. The results for cortisol are presented
for each subject in Figure 5 . There are clear differences from week to week during
the 60-day isolation period. Elevated values are seen in week 4 in subjects B, D,
and G, while subject H shows significantly elevated levels of cortisol in weeks 1,
2, and 8.
The week-to-week pattern of the sIgA secretion rate, shown in Figure 6, is
different from that for cortisol. It is enhanced in the middle of the isolation period
in all subjects.
These effects have also been tested statistically by means of analysis of variance
and a post hoc test (Tukey's HSD). Table 4 shows the results, with the weeks
between which a significant difference is found in column 3 and the level of
significance in column 4.
C. Time Series Analysis
Morning Concentrations
Autocorrelation coefficients were computed for cortisol and for sIgA. Morning
and evening levels were tested separately in order to avoid serial dependency. The
autocorrelation patterns for the morning values of salivary cortisol, presented in
c)
124
m
Figure 5. Weekly averages of salivary cortisol concentrationsfor consecutive weeks for each subject (bar represents standard deviation).
120
1'" B ]'4120
1 D
1401 ConsecutiveWeeks 24 - Consecutive Weeks

22 -
20 - H
18-
16
14
1
4-
8
20 -
2-
o . ,
1
. ,
2
. ,
3
. ,
4
. , .
5
, .
6
, .
7
, .
8
, .
9
:j 1 1 -..p&-i-I
0-I , . , . , . , . , . , .
Consecutive Weeks
Figure 6. Weekly averages of salivary immunoglobulin A secretion rates for consecutive weeks for each subject (bar represents standard
deviation).
126 J.HENNIG and P. NEUTER
Table 4. Week-to-WeekChanges in Salivary Immunoglobulin A and Cortisol

(Analysis of Variance)
Subject Parameter Tukey's HSD' p between weeks
B SlgA 4,5>1 < .01
cortisol 8 > 1-7 < .001
4 > 3, 5, 7
SlgA 4,5>1 < .01
cortisol 0.06
s1sA ns.
cortisol 2,4,6,8 > 1, 3, 5, 7 < .05
5lgA n.s.
cortisol 1,2>3-8 < .001
Note: 'only weeks with significant differences are indicated
Table 5, exceed the standard error range. This indicates the existence of a biological
rhythm over a longer period of time.
The morning values for sIgA exhibit very small correlation coefficients for each
subject (not shown). This suggests that the morning level of the sIgA secretion is
not subject to a biological rhythm over an extended period of time.
Evening Concentrations
The autocorrelationcoefficients for the evening values of cortisol, shown in Table

6, are comparable to those of the morning values (Table 5). This is not surprising
in view of the high correlation between these values (see Figure 2).
On the other hand, the autocorrelationcoefficients for the evening values of sIgA,
presented in Table 7, are much higher than those for the morning values of cortisol
(Table 5). At least two of the four subjects exhibit a 7-day rhythm which in the case
Table 5. Autocorrelations for Morning Concentrations

of Salivary Cortisol
Subject Autocorr. Coefficient Lag (days)
B 0.368 1
0.294 2
D 0.403 1
G 0.458 1
0.572 15
H 0.476 1
Local lmmunocompetenceand Cortisol 127
Table 6. Autocorrelationsfor Evening Concentrations

of Salivary Cortisol
Subject Autocorr. Coefficient Lan (days)
6 0.506 1
D 0.579 1
0.278 15
C 0.541 1
0.276 15
H 0.71 1 1
of subject B starts at the beginning of the experiment and in the case of subject G
with a delay of 4 days. For subject H a day-to-day dependence seems to exist.
D. Cortisol and Immunoglobulin A Before and After Mental Stress

On Tuesdays and Fridays of each week during isolation the subjects performed
a mentally stressful test.I7 In order to determine the effects of mental stress on the
two biochemical parameters, the mean. concentrations of sIgA and cortisol before
and after the 18 sessions were computed and are presented in Table 8. Statistical
analysis by the Student t-test shows that there were changes in the biochemical
parameters for the individual subjects.
Table 8 shows that salivary cortisol concentrations were not increased after
mental stress, except for subject H. In contrast, sIgA secretion was significantly
increased in two of the four subjects. Since there were also increases in the salivary
flow rate, these results are difficult to interpret. It cannot be excluded that the
sampling period after stress exceeded the limit of five minutes due to concurrent
experimental activities of the subjects at this time.
Although the cortisol averages do not reveal a response to mental stress, the
response curves shown in Figure 7 indicate large differences between the subjects.
However, nearly all before- and after-stress salivary cortisol values were consider-
ably elevated for all subjects during the last three sessions. Another point to be
Table 7. Autocorrelations for slga Secretion Rate

~ ~~ ~
Subject Autocorr. Coefficient Lag (days)

6 0.384 7
0.249 14
D none
C 0.276 4
0.295 11
H 0.338 1
128 I. HENNIG and P. NElTER
Table 8. Values of Cortisol, Immunoglobulin A and Salivary Flow

Rate Before and After Mental Stress
Saliva Now Rate
Cortisol pddl slgA Secretion pdrnin rnV5 rnin
Subject Mean P Mean P Mean P

B before 0.87 45.5 1.74
after 0.97 ns. 52.6 n.s. 2.09 < .01
D before 1.62 54.0 2.1 9
after 1.64 ns. 78.8 < .01 2.58 < .01
G before 1.24 83.2 2.74
after 1.29 ns. 102.0 < .05 2.82 < .06
H before 0.75 7.6' 0.47
after 1.05 < .06 9.6' ns. 0.42 ns.
Note: Means for each subject and significance of change (p from paired t-test)
'IgA concentration in mg/dl
-0-before
--.-after
41
consecutive sessions
Figure 7. Individual salivary cortisol concentrations before and after completion of
complex decision-making test.
Local lmmunocompetence and Conisol 129
mentioned is that on several days subjects D and H exhibit large variations in

cortisol levels both before and after stress, while subjects B and G do not show such
variations during the first 15 sessions.
IV. DISCUSSION
The reason for studying salivary cortisol and sIgA during the 60-day isolation
period was that we expected a gradual change in the daily values of these two
biochemical parameters due to the stress of confinement, whether through lack of
physical activity, lack of daylight, or effects of crowding. However, instead of a
decrease in sIgA secretion rate towards the end of the isolation period, we found a
decrease at the beginning, followed by an increase to a plateau in the middle of the
isolation period, at least for the three male subjects. This suggests an early
adaptation to the confinement condition.For the unexpected finding of peak values
in the sIgA secretion rate in week 4 we have no satisfactory explanation. We have
not seen any reports of a similar time course in the literature.For cortisol no clear
trend during isolation is visible, although there are differences from week to week.
Cortisol levels were elevated in week 4 in subjects B, D, and G, and in weeks 1,2,
and 8 for subject H.
The effects of mental stress by completion of a complex decision-making taskI7
on the two biochemical parameters was also studied. No effect on either parameter
was detected. The subjective ratings of the emotional state after this test did not
show evidence of pronounced mental stress. Individual differences in responsivity
to mental stress may be due to the degree to which the individual subject experi-
enced the stress of isolation.
The effects of isolation on biorhythmicity have been studied,because it is known
that shifts in behavioral cycles or sensory input, as in shift exercise22or
changed light-dark cycle,23may have such effects. Changes of sleep-wake cycles,
such as induced by traveling or shift work, are associated with subjectiveexperience
of stress?ov21 Therefore, it is not surprising that we found a weekday versus weekend
shift in circadian differences of cortisol levels, since at weekends the work schedule
for the subjects was greatly reduced. This may have been experienced as a
relaxation leading to the restoration of the circadian cortisol variation, which was
lost during the stressful weekdays. Individual differences in sensitivity of the
cortisol rhythm may be due to different balances between physiological functions
(e.g., cardiovascular). Furthermore, differences in responsiveness to the stress of
isolation can also explain the heterogeneity of cortisol responses after mental stress.
For sIgA it was more difficult to detect a circadian rhythmicity. Such an effect
may have been masked by variations in the time of sampling or unsuitable choice
of these times. In two other studies no circadian variation was found for sIgA in
healthy volunteers" or in children with respiratory tract infection^.^^ In the latter
study neither a circadian variation nor a systematic day-to-day variation could be
observed, either in the sick children or in the controls. However, circadian rhythms
130 J.HENNIC and P. NElTER
for sIgA in nasal washings have been observed, with the highest concentrations in
the early morning (4 am) and the lowest about 6 hours later (10 am).2628Since the
samples in our study were collected at 7:30 am and 11:00 pm, this may explain why
we could not detect any circadian variations for sIgA. It may also explain the
negative results in another study, in which 12 healthy volunteers were asked to
sample saliva every 30 minutes throughout a normal workday between 9 am and 9
pm.I9
In an earlier study the salivary flow rate exhibited significant rhythmicity in 9
out of 16 subjects with lowest values between 24.00 hr and 04.00 hr in one group
and between 14.00 hr and 17.00 hr in a second If the secretion of nasal
fluid follows the same pattern, the study cited above may have been biased by not
correcting sIgA concentrations for the nasal secretion volume.
The present study describes the effects of a 60-day isolation period on the salivary
levels of cortisol and secretory IgA. The study took place in the context of the
EXEMSI project in which four volunteers were isolated in a space station-like
chamber in the DLR Instituteof Aerospace Medicine in order to examine the effects
of long term isolation.
Inspection of the individual immunoglobulin A secretion rates revealed different
patterns of cyclic variation with respect to the weekday-weekend schedule, and
different time lags for the adaptation leading to a plateau for this parameter.
The salivary cortisol levels showed a circadian rhythm with high concentrations
in the early morning (7:30 am) and lower concentrations in the late evening (1 1:OO
pm). Moreover, in all subjects marked increases of salivary cortisol were observed
in a 12- to 14-day cycle. In two subjects the marked morning+vening differences
were only visible at the weekends.
The salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin A levels were determined twice
weekly before and after completion of a complex decision-making test. The results
reveal a changed responsiveness in all subjects at different times.
REFERENCES
1. Tomasi, T.B. Secretory immunoglobulins. The New England Journal of Medicine. 7500-506.
1972.
2. Bienenstock. J., Croitoru, K., Emst, P.B.. Stead, R.H., Stanisz, A. Neuroendocrine regulation of
mucosal immunity. Immunological Investigations, 1869-76.1989.
3. McDmott, M.R.. Clark, D.A., Bienenstock, J. Evidence for a common mucosal immunologic
system 11. Influence of the estrous cycle on B Immunoblasts migration into genital and intestinal
tissues. Journal of Immunology, 124:2536, 1980.
4. Jemmott J.B.. Magloire, K. Academic stress, social support, and secretory immunoglobulin A.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 55803-810. 1988.
5. Kubitz. K.A.. Peavey. B.S.. Moore, B.S. The effect of daily hassles on humoral immunity.
Biofeedback and SelfRegulation. 11:115-123, 1986.
6. McClelland, D.C., Alexander, C., Marks, E. The Need for Power, Stress, lmmune Function and
Illness among Male Prisoners. Journal ofAbnonna1 Psychology. 961-70, 1982.
7. Jasnoski. M.L.. Kugler. J. Relaxation, imagery, and neuroimmuno-modulation. Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, 496722-730, 1987.
8. Green, M.L., Green, R.G., Santoro, W. Daily relaxation modifies serum and salivary immuno-
globulins. Biofeedback and SelfRegulation, 13:187-199, 1988.
9. Hennig. J. Die psychobiologische Bedeutung des sekretorischen lmmunglobulin A im Speichel,
Waxmann, MiinsterNew York, 1994.
10. Meehan, R.T.. Neale. L.S.. Kraus, E.T.. Stuart, C.A., Smith, M.L., Cintron, N.M., Sams,C.F.
Alteration in human mononuclear leucocytes following space flight. Immunology, 76:491-497,
1992.
1 I . Cogoli. A. Space flight and the immune system. Vaccine. 11:496-503, 1993.
12. Gmiinder, F.K., Baisch, F., Bechler, B.. Cogoli, A,, Cogoli. M.. Joller. P.W.. Maass, H.. Miiller, J.,
Ziegler, W.H. Effect of Head-Down ‘lilt Bedrest (10 Days) on Lymphocyte Reactivity. Acta
Phwiol. Scand., 144:131-141, 1992.
13. Selye, H. Stress and general adaptation syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1:1383-1392. 1950.
14. Popova. LA., Afonin, B.V.. Davydova. N.A. and Ushakov, A S . Hormone regulation in space
flights of varying duration. In: Stress: Neurochemical and Humoral Mechanisms (G.R. van Loon.
R. Kvetnansky, R. McCarthy, and J. Axelrod. Eds.), pp. 1015-1020. Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers, New York, 1989.
15. Dovidova, N.A., Kvemansky, R.. Ushakov, A.C. Activity of sympatho-adrenal system of cosmo-
nauts during prolonged space flight on station Saljut-7. In: Stress: Neurochemical and humoral
mechanisms (G.R. van Loon, R. Kvetnansky, R. McCarthy, and J. Axelrod, Eds.), pp. 1021-1025.
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York. 1989.
16. Vzrnes. R.J., Bergan. T., Warncke. M., Ursin. H.. Aakvaag. A.. Hockey, R.Workload and stress:
Effects on psychosomatic and psychobiological reaction patterns. In: Advances in Space Biology
and Medicine (S.L. Bonting. Ed.), pp. 95-120, vol. 3. JAI Press Inc., Greenwich, CT,1993.
17. Hockey, G.R.J., Sauer, J. Cognitive fatigue and complex decision-making under prolonged
isolation and confinement. In: Advances in Space Biology andMedicine (S.L. Bonting, Ed.), vol.
5, pp xx-xx. JAI Press, Inc., Greenwich, CT. 1995.
18. Kirschbaum. C., Strassburger. C.J., Jammer, W. , Hellhammer, D.H. Cortisol and behavior: 1.
Adaptation of a radioimmunoassay kit for reliable and inexpensive salivary cortisol determination.
Pharmacology and Biochemistry of Behavior. 34:747-75 1. 1989.
19. Hennig, J.. Netter, P. Secretory Immunoglobulin A: An indicator of the local immunocompetence
and biochemical marker for psychobiology. Journal of Psychophysiology. 7 :136. 1992.
20. Caplan. R.D., Cobb, S.. French, J.R. White collar work load and cortisol: Disruption of acucadian
rhythm by job stress? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 23:181-192,1979.
21. Fujiwara S. Studies on fatigue and shift work in nurses, Sangyo Igaku, 34:225-235, 1992.
22. W i s t DJ,Culpepper-Morgan, J.A.. Ragnarsson. K.T.. Pemllo, C.R., Kreek,M.J.Neuroendocrine
changes during functional electrical stimulation. American Journal of Physical Medical Rehabili-
tation. 71:156163. 1992.
23. Nakagawa, H.. Sack, R.L., Lewy, A J . Sleep propensity free-runs with the temperature, melatonin
and cortisol rhythms in a totally blind person. Sleep, 15330-336. 1992.
24. Harada, T.. Hamaguchi, Y., Sakakura, Y., Miyoshi, Y. Circadian variation of secretory IgA in nasal
secretions from normal subjects. Acta Otolaryngolia, Stockholm, W359-362, 1984.
25. Fliedner, M., Mehls, 0.. Rauterberg, E.W., Ritz. E. Urinary sIgA in children with urinary tract
infection. Journal of Pediatrics, 109:416421. 1986.
132 J.HENNIG and P. N E l l E R
26. Passali. D., Bellussi. L., Lauriello. M.Cyclic activity of the nasal mucosa. Relationship between
mucociliary transport and local productionof secretory immunoglobulin. Acra Orohinolaryngolo-
gia, Italia, 10161-171, 1990.
27. Passali, D.. Bellussi, L., Lauriello. M.Diurnal activity of the nasal mucosa. Relationship between
mucociliary transport and local production of secretory immunoglobulins.Acta Otorhinolaryn-
gologia. Srockholm. 110437442. 1990.
28. Passali. D.. Bellussi, L. Circadian changes in the secretory activity of nasal mucosa. Acta
Otorhinolnryngologia, Stockholm. 1M281-285. 1988.
29. Ferguson, D.B.. Fort, A., Elliot, A.L., Potts, A. Circadian rhythms in human parotid saliva flow
rate and composition.Archives of Ornl Biology, 18:1155-1 173. 1973.
Chapter 8
CARDIOVASCULAR A N D
RESPIRATORY RESPONSES DURING A
COMPLEX DECISION-MAKING TASK
UNDER PROLONGED ISOLATION
C.J.E. Wientjes, J.A. Veltman, and A.W.K. Gaillard
I. Introduction . . . . . . , . . . . . . ...................... 133

11. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . ................... ... 135
A. Aim and Design of the Study . . ................... ... 135
B. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. , . . 135
C. Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . ................... ... 136
111. Results . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . ................... ... 137
A. GroupAverages.. . . . . . . . . ..... . .. .......... ... 137
B. SubjectB . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... ............ .. . 138
C. SubjectD . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. .... ... 139

ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
133
134 C.J.E. WIENTJES, J.A. VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
D. SubjectG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
E. SubjectH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A. Self-Administered Psychophysiological Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . .142
B. Physiological Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
1. INTRODUCTION
Motivated and skilled human operators are usually able to maintain high levels of
performance for longer periods of time. However, when working conditions are
suboptimal (e.g., due to excessive demands, long working hours, sleep loss,
emergencies), the operators may encounter serious problems. Performance can then
only be maintained at a satisfactory level by the investment of compensatory
effort.'*2The effort investment serves to enhance the focussing of attention and to
improve the efficiency of performance. This is accompanied by a state of increased
autonomic, central nervous system and neuro-endocrine activation, which is instru-
mental in the execution of the task.
States of increased effort investment can only be maintained for short periods of
time, since the physiological and psychological costs are quite high. Prolonged
periods of highly demanding work may eventually lead to the development of a
state of stress. Stress states are characterized by a disruption of normal, homeostatic
physiological regulatory processes, increased cognitive strain and fatigue.'*2In a
state of stress the increased activation is no longer adequate for the execution of the
task. Rather, a state of stress is characterized by dysfunctional modes of energy
mobilization: overreactivity, enhanced base levels and protracted recovery. On a
performance level these states are associated with an increased risk of breakdown.
In environments where high levels of performance must be maintained and where
errors may have grave consequences, it is mandatory to be able to identify the
development of a state of stress before breakdown actually OCCUTS.~
The present study aims at contributing to the development of methods for the
assessment of the psychophysiological status of the crew during spaceflight. The
ultimate goal of this approach is to be able to identify states during which there is,
on a group level as well as on an individual level, a risk of breakdown of
performance, due to an increase in the cost of maintaining a high level of perform-
ance. In order to accomplish this goal, methodologies have to be developed that
allow for repeated and simultaneous evaluation of subjective, performance and
physiological state measure^.^ An essential part of this development is the choice
of appropriate and practical psychophysiological assessment techniques, the choice
of physiological parameters that are sensitive and reliable, and the feasibility of
repeated psychophysiological measurements during the mission.
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses during Prolonged Isolation 135
Such psychophysiological assessment on a routine, daily basis during a space-

flight mission has rarely been performed. As a consequence, not much is known
about the overall psychophysiologicaleffects of prolonged mission demands, about
differences between various psychophysiological measures, and about individual
differences in response profiles. Recently, important empirical evidence concerning
the effects of extended isolation upon psychophysiological stress indices has been
obtained by VEmess, et al! during the ISEMSI campaign. Heart rate, heart rate
variability, and neuro-endocrine measures (catecholamines, cortisol and testoster-
one) failed to show any evidence of stress responses. This strongly suggests that
workload and stress levels during the 28-day isolation period were low, and that no
instances of increased risk of breakdown occurred, possibly because of the rela-
tively short duration of the isolation. However, it should also be emphasized that
the number of samples that was obtained during the isolation period was very small.
Catecholamines, cortisol and testosterone were collected on four different days
(pre-isolation,and on days 4, 12, and 2 1 during isolation).Heart rate and heart rate
variability were only assessed twice (at the beginning and at the end of the isolation
period).
Therefore, in the present EXEMSI study measurements were made on a daily
basis (weekdays only), in orderto obtainadetailedpicture of thepsychophysiologi-
cal response profile across the entire 60-day isolation period. Furthermore, meas-
urements were made before and during execution of a demanding and complex
decision-making task (see Hockey and Saue?). Hence, not only the day-to-day
variations in base levels were assessed,but also a task-related reactivity. In addition
to heart rate two other physiological measures were included: blood pressure and
respiration. Respiration was chosen because respiratory measures have been found
in many investigations to be sensitive to variations in mental effort, mood and
affect
's',6

A. Aim and Design of the Study
The aim of this study was to address three issues: (1) the feasibility of routine,
daily, self-administered in-mission psychophysiologicalassessmenttechniques,(2)
the across-subject and within-subject patterning of cardiovascular and respiratory
base levels and reactivity measures during prolonged isolation stress, and (3)
evaluation of the validity of this type of assessment by examining the relationship
between changes in psychophysiological state, performance and subjective re-
sponses over time. The first two issues will be examined in the present paper. The
validity issue involves extensive cooperation between different research groups,
and will be reported separately in collaboration with Hockey and Sauer.
The study was carried out with three male and one female volunteers (subjects
D, B, G, and H). They served as the chamber crew during the EXEMSI mission
136 C.J.E.WIENTJES,J.A.VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
and remained for 60 days in isolation in a restricted environment. Ages of the

subjects ranged from 25 to 35 years. Communication with the outside world was
restricted during the mission. The work schedule of the crew was very tight, and
the demands made on the crew were high. The mission comprised many routine
activities, as well as various scientific experiments. On weekdays, the crew had
relatively little free time, rest and sleep (average sleeping time during weekdays
was 5.2 (+ 0.8) hours). During the weekends, the crew had time off and were free
to relax.
B. Procedures
The same procedure was used for all four subjects and repeated on each workday.
The measurements were performed by pairs of subjects, who alternated as subject
and as experimenter.The subjects had received extensive training in the experimen-
tal procedure before commencement of the mission. Although the measurements
were planned for the end of each workday, they were sometimes carried out at other
times of the day due to constraints in the time schedule. Each measurement session
included the following phases:
1. preparation of the subject (attachment of bioelectrical sensors, etc.);

2. calibration of the respiratory equipment (see below);
3. administration of a two-minute baseline measurement period, during which
the subject was instructed to relax as much as possible, and during which
respiration, heart rate and blood pressure were measured;
4. completion of a computer-basedquestionnaire on subjectivestate relating to
anxiety and fatigue (SSM1);
5 . 10 minutes of performance of the computer-based contaminant monitoring
task (CMT), during which physiological measurements again took place;
6 . completion of a second subjective state questionnaire relating to fatigue,
anxiety and perceived effort during the CMT performance (SSM2; see
Hockey and Saue? for details of SSMl, SSM2, and CMT).
In addition to the physiological measurements, saliva was collected during the

baseline period and after completion of the CMT period in order to determine
pre-task and post-task cortisol levels. The cortisol findings are reported by Hennig
and Netter in this v ~ l u m eEach
. ~ measurement session had a duration of approxi-
mately 30 min for each individual subject.
Heart rate was measured via disposable ECG-electrodes and an ECG amplifier.
Blood pressure was measured continuously and non-invasively with an Ohmeda
2300 Finapres BP Monitor, employing the unloaded artery measurement princi-
ple." Respiration was monitored by inductive plethysmography (Respitrace),
employing elastic bands with coils (Respibands) that were worn around the chest
and the abdomen, an ambulatory Respitrace oscillator, and demodulator modules.

The Respibands were secured by means of an elastic vest (Bandafix). The respira-
tory measurement equipment was calibrated before each measurement session,
employing 800 ccm plastic bags (Spirobags)! ECG and blood pressure were
digitized with a sample frequency of 100 Hz, and the respiratory signal with a
sample rate of 25 Hz. The data were stored on the SPET system of the on-board
mission computer for later analysis.
C. Statistical Analysis
Mean heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure
(DBP) were calculated during the data analysis for the baseline and task periods.
Artefacts were rejected by visual inspection of the data. Analysis of the respiratory
volume parameters turned out not to be feasible,due to unreliable calibration of the
respiratory equipment. Therefore, only the respiratory timing parameters, respira-
tion rate (RR) and duty cycle time (DCT), were employed in the analysis. DCT is
the ratio of inspiratory time and cycle time, expressed as a percentage, which
reflects the periodicity of the respiratory rhythm generator in the brain stem.6s"
Baseline and task averages were determined for all parameters. Response measures
were determined by subtracting the baseline values from the corresponding task
values.
Unfortunately,data from several measurement sessions were missing due to loss
of data files, technical problems, and time constraintsduring the mission. Approxi-
mately 16% of the data from the sessions of subjects D and H were missing, and
approximately 12% of the data of subjects D and G.
111. RESULTS
' h o sets of statistical tests were carried out on the averages for the entire crew, as
well as on the values of the individual subjects. The influence of confinement was
assessed by linear regression of the physiological measures on the successivedays
of the mission period. The data of the first week of isolation were not included in
the regression analysis, because many data were missing in this week.The effect of
performance of the CMT on physiological reactivity was evaluated by comparing
baseline and task levels by means of paired t-tests.
A. Group Averages
Figure 1 shows the mean baseline and task levels of the physiological measures
for weeks 1-8 of the isolation period. The overall means are presented in Table 1.
The results of regression analysis are shown in Table 2.
6o
50
90
1 100
11° L
H- 50
50
.- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
54
.--
42
-EASEL!&€
TASK
WEM
Figure 1. Baseline and task means of the physiological measures for all subjects.
138
Tabre 1. Group Averages of Physiological Parameters

Parameter Baseline Task Level Difference
Heart rate (b/min) 67.4 f 10.9 69.7 f 10.6 2.4 f 3.8.:
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 130 f 15.9 1 33 f 12.8 3.0 f 12.3
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 65.9 f 12.8 66.3 f 12.3 0.7 f 6.5,*,
Respiration rate (dmin) 19.2 f 3.9 17.7 f 2.1 -1.5 f 3.6***
Duty cycle time (percent) 50.2 f 3.8 47.4 f 3.3 -2.8 f 4.5
Notes: Averages f standard deviation; asterisks indicate significant differences between baseline and task
levels: "'p < 0.001,"p < 0.01, 'p c 0.05.
Heart Rate
Performance of the CMT caused an increase in heart rate (see Table 1). The
magnitude of this heart rate response did not alter during consecutive days of
isolation, because both baseline and task heart rate levels increased steadily during
isolation (see Table 2).
Systolic Blood Pressure
The CMT caused an elevation of the systolic blood pressure compared to the
baseline level (see Table 1). The magnitude of the response increased during
isolation (see Table 2). This was due to the fact that baseline systolic blood pressure
levels decreased during isolation, whereas task levels were unaffected.
Diastolic Blood Pressure
A different picture emerged for the diastolic blood pressure. Overall, the CMT
caused no change in diastolic blood pressure (see Table 1). Furthermore, baseline
diastolic blood pressure did not change during isolation, but task diastolic blood
pressure levels increased (see Table 2). As a result, the magnitude of the diastolic
blood pressure response increased as isolation continued (see Table 2).
Table 2. Regression Coefficients for Group Averages of Physiological Parameters

on Consecutive Days in Isolation Weeks 2-8
Heart rate 0.69.'. 0.74'** -
Systolic blood pressure -0.33. - 0.43..
Diastolic blood pres- - 0.41 * 0.42.
sure
Respiration rate - -0.40. -
Duty cycle time - -0.61 *** -0.37.
140 C.J.E.WIENTJES,J.A. VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
Table 3. Averages of Physiological Parameters for Subject B

Heart rate (bhin) 63.8 f 6.2 64.8 f 5.7 1 .O f 2.6'
..
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 131 f 9.4 1 40 f 9.4 9.9 f 8.8'"
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 76.5 f 7.3 78.1 f 7.8 2.0 f 6.2
Respiration rate (dmin) 17.6 f 2.8 16.4 It 1.6 -1.3 f 2.7*,,
Notes: Averages f standard deviation; asterisks indicate significant differences between baseline and task
levels: "'p < 0.001, "p < 0.01, ' p < 0.05.
Respiration Rate
Performanceof the CMT caused a decrease in respiration rate (see Table 1). There
was no change in baseline respirationrate during isolation, but task levels decreased
(see Table 2). Nevertheless, there was no significant change in the respiration rate
response during isolation (see Table 2).
Duty Cycle Time
Compared to baseline, the CMT resulted in a substantial decrease in duty cycle

time (see Table 1). Baseline duty cycle time did not change during isolation, but
task levels decreased (see Table 2). As a result, the magnitude of the duty cycle time
response increased during isolation.
B. Subject B
for subject B across weeks 1-8 of isolation. The averages are presented in Table 3,
the results of the regression analysis in Table 4.
Table 4. Regression Coefficientsfor Physiological Parameters of Subject B on

Consecutive Days in Isolation Weeks 2-8
Heart rate 0.79*** 0.86'" -
Systolic blood pressure - 0.45::, 0.58::.
Diastolic blood pres- - 0.53 0.45
sure
Respiration rate - -0.72*** -
Duty cycle time - -0.75'" -0.37.
Notes: "'p < 0.001, "p < 0.01, 'p < 0.05; coefficients that failed to reach significance are omitted.
B
80
70
r B
9
150
l',
130
B
E 1- 120
60 B
110
50 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
._
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
i 1
WEDC
Figure 2. Baseline and task means of the physiological measures for subject B.
141
142 C.J.E.WIENTJES,J.A. VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
Heart Rate
Performance of the CMT resulted in a small, but significant increase in heart rate
(see Table 3). Baseline, as well as task levels of the heart rate showed a rather steep
incline during isolation (see Table 4). Because the slopes of the baseline and task
changes were highly similar, there was no change in the heart rate response during
isolation (see Table 4).
The CMT resulted in a substantial systolic blood pressure response (see Table 3).
Baseline levels of the systolic blood pressure did not change, but task levels
increased considerably (see Table 4). As a consequence, there was a large increase
in the magnitude of the systolic blood pressure response during isolation (see Table
4).
In contrast to the systolic blood pressure, there was no significant effect of the
CMT on the diastolic blood pressure. In fact, the task diastolic blood pressure levels
were lower than the baseline levels during weeks 2 and 3 of isolation (see Figure
2). Baseline levels of the diastolic blood pressure did not change, but task levels
showed an incline (see Table 4). As a consequence, diastolic blood pressure
reactivity increased substantially during isolation, in particular after week 4.
Respiration Rate
Overall, the respiration rate decreased during the CMT with respect to the
baseline level (see Table 3). Baseline respiration rate did not change, but task levels
showed a decline (see Table 4). Nevertheless, there was no significant change in
the respiration rate response during isolation.
Duty Cycle Time
Performance of the CMT resulted in a substantial decrease in the duty cycle time
(see Table 3). Baseline duty cycle time did not change, but task levels decreased
substantially (see Table 4). Consequently, duty cycle time reactivity increased
during isolation.
C. Subject D
for subject D across weeks 1-8 of the mission. The averages are presented in Table
5 . Results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 6 .
'./
50 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 J
90 , 1
I I
I I
14 1 ,'
, \\ ,
10
, , , , ,
j2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 3. Baseline and task means of the physiological measures for subject D.
143
Table 5. Averages of Physiological Parameters for Subject D

~

Heart rate (bhin) 64.0 f 7.9 69.8 f 8.0 5.8 f 3.7***
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 121 f 1 5 . 0 132 f 12.8 11.4 f 9.0***
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 59.7 f 9.1 62.3 f 8.6 3.1 f 6.2::.
Respiration rate (chin) 15.9 f 2.2 17.3 f 1.3 1.3 f 2.2
Nofes: Averages f standard deviation; asterisks indicate significant differences between baseline and task
levels: "'p c 0.001, "p c 0.01, 'p c 0.05.
Heart Rate
The CMT caused a considerable increase in heart rate, compared to the baseline
level (see Table 5). As was the case with subject B, both baseline and task levels of
the heart rate increased substantially (see Table 6). In contrast to the findings for
subject B, however, the slope of the increase for the task levels was greater than the
baseline slope. Hence, the heart rate reactivity of subject D increased during
isolation.
Systolic blood pressure increased considerably during performance of the CMT

(see Table 5). There were, however, no significant changes in the baseline and task
levels of the systolic blood pressure during isolation (see Table 6). Yet, systolic
blood pressure reactivity increased during this time.
The CMT caused an increase in diastolic blood pressure (see Table 5). Baseline
diastolic blood pressure did not change, but task levels increased (see Table 6).
Consequently,diastolic blood pressure reactivity increased during isolation.
Table 6. Regression Coefficients for Physiological Parameters of Subject D on

Heart rate 0.48.. 0.63*** 0.39:
Systolic blood pressure - - 0.40***
Diastolic blood pressure - . 0.33' 0.56.
Respiration rate 0.43. - -0.39
Duty cycle time 0.39. - 4.39.
Notes: "'p c 0.001, "p c 0.01, 'p c 0.05; coefficients that failed to reach significanceare omitted.
Respiration Rate
In contrast to the findings for subject B, performance of the CMT resulted in a

small, but significant increase in the respiration rate (see Table 5 ) . Baseline
respiration rate increased, in particular from week 3 to week 4.On the other hand,
task levels of the respiration rate remained unaffected (seeTable 6). Consequently,
the respiration rate reactivity decreased during isolation.
Duty Cycle Time
The duty cycle time did not change during performance of the CMT (see Table
5 ) . Like the baseline respiration rate, the baseline duty cycle time increased,
particularly from week 3 to week 4. On the other hand, task levels of the duty cycle
time were not influenced by isolation (see Table 6). Consequently, duty cycle time
reactivity decreased during isolation.
D. SubjectG
for subject G across weeks 1-8 of isolation. The averages are presented in Table 7.
Results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 8.
Heart Rate
Performance of the CMT resulted in an increased heart rate (see Table 7). As was
the case with subjects B and D, both baseline and task heart rate levels increased
(see Table 8). Because the slopes of the baseline and task level changes were highly
similar, the heart rate response was not affected by isolation.
The CMT did not affect systolic blood pressure (see Table 7). Baseline and task
levels of the systolic blood pressure decreased substantially (see Table 8). Because
Table 7. Averages of Physiological Parameters for Subject G

Heart rate (b/min) 60.2 f 7.3 61.5 f 7.0 1.5 f 2.9'.
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 122 f 12.1 124 f 13.6 0.9 f 10.9
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 51.1 f 6.2 51.9f7.9 0.8 f 6.7,**
Respiration rate (dmin) 21 .Of2.9 17.5 f 2.2 -3.5 f 3.6**,
Duty cycle time (percent) 51.2 f 3.1 46.3 f 2.7 4.9 f 4.0
Notes: Averages f standard deviation; asterisks indicate significant differences between baseline a@idtask
levels: "'p < 0.001, "p < 0.01, 'p < 0.05.
,
I------
90
lI
le0
150
P
d
B $t
la-
130 -
3q 120 -
P 110 -
22-
2
2 20 -
?
E! 18 -
a2 18 -
301 ' '
1 2 , 3
' '
4
'
5
"
6 7
'
8
I 12
l4 L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 4. Baseline and task means of the physiological measures for subject G.
146
Table 8. Regression Coefficients for Physiological Parameters of Subject D on

Parameter Baseline Task level Difference
Heart rate 0.60"' 0.65:: -
Systolic blood pressure -0.64''' -0.65 -
Diastolic blood pressure - -0.40' -
Respiration rate - - -
Duty cycle time - - -
Nofes: "'p < 0.001, "p < 0.01, 'p < 0.05; coefficients that failed lo reach significance are omitted.
the slopes of the changes in baseline and task levels were practically identical,there
was no effect of isolation on the systolic blood pressure response.
As was the case with systolic blood pressure, the CMT did not result in a change
in diastolic blood pressure (see Table 7). Baseline diastolic blood pressure did not
change, but task levels decreased (see Table 8). There was no change in diastolic
blood pressure reactivity during isolation.
Respiration Rate
Overall, performance of the CMT caused a decrease in the respiration rate (see
Table 7). There was no evidence for any influence of isolation upon baseline and
task levels of the respiration rate, or upon respiration rate reactivity (see Table 8).
Dufy Cycle Time
During the CMT, duty cycle time decreased considerably compared to baseline
(see Table 7). As was the case with the respiration rate, there was no evidence for
any influence of isolation upon baseline and task levels of the duty cycle time, or
upon duty cycle time reactivity (see Table 8).
E. Subject H
for subject H across weeks 1-8 of the mission. The averages are presented in Table
9. Results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 10.
90 186, . . .
ao
j
-g 70
.$
60
50
' 2 3 4 5 8 7 8
90 26 , , I , , , , ,
24 1
\
80
B
1
f 70
B- 6o
9" 5c
A0 121 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

' 2 3 4 5 6 ' 8 1 2 3 4 s a 7 8
Figure 5. Baseline and task means of the physiological measures for subject H .
148
Table 9. Averages of Physiological Parameters for Subject H

Heart rate (b/min) 81.5 f 6.5 83.2 f 5.6 1.2 f 3.8
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 147 f 10.6 137 f 8.3 -1 0.3 f 6.0::.
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 73.7 f 8.5 71 .O f 6.9 -3.1 f 5.4
Respiration rate (dmin) 22.1 f 4 . 0 19.5 f 1.6 -2.5 f 3.9"'
Duty cycle time (percent) 52.1 f 3 . 9 50.8 f 2.2 -1.3 f 4.0
Notes: Averages t standard deviation; asterisks indicate significant differences between baseline and task
levels: "'p c 0.001, "p < 0.01, 'p c 0.05.
Heart Rate
Unlike the other subjects, subject H showed no heart rate response to the CMT
(see Table 9). The only effect of isolation that emerged, was found for the task levels
of the heart rate, which decreased (see Table 10).
Again in contrast to the findings for the other subjects, performance of the CMT
resulted in a decrease of systolic blood pressure (see Table 9). There was no
evidence for any influence of isolation on baseline or task systolic blood pressure
levels, or on systolic blood pressure reactivity (see Table 10).
The findings concerning diastolic blood pressure were comparable with those for
systolic blood pressure. There was a negative diastolic blood pressure response to
the CMT (see Table 9), and there were no effects of isolation on baseline or task
levels of diastolic blood pressure, or on diastolic blood pressure reactivity (see Table
10).
Table 10. Regression Coefficients for Physiological Parameters of Subject H on

Consecutive Days in isolation Weeks 2-8
Heart rate - -0.37'
Systolic blood pressure - -
Diastolic blood pressure - -
Respiration rate -0.38' -0.46.'
Duty cycle time - -0.47"
Notes: "'p c 0.001, "p < 0.01, 'p c 0.05: coefficients that failed to reach significance are omitted.
150 C.J.E. WIENTJES,].A. VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
Respiration Rate
During the CMT the respiration rate decreased, compared to baseline levels (see
Table 9). Baseline, as well as task levels of the respiration rate decreased, so there
were no effects of isolation on respiration rate reactivity (see Table 10).
Duty Cycle Time
The CMT had no significant effect on the duty cycle time (see Table 9). Baseline
levels of the duty cycle time were unaffected by isolation, but task levels decreased
(see Table 10). Duty cycle time reactivity was not influenced by isolation.
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Self-Administered Psychophysiological Assessment
In this study, levels of cardiovascular and respiratory activity,as well as reactivity

to a demanding and complex decision-makingtask were studied during 60 days of
isolation in a restricted environment. The aims were (1) to evaluate the feasibility
of repeated, self-administered psychophysiological measurements during the mis-
sion, and (2) to assess the effects of isolation stress upon physiological levels and
task responses on a group level as well as on individual levels.
The results show that the first aim was accomplished. The experiment was
successfully carried out by the crew, notwithstanding the tight time schedule during
the mission. Due to technical problems and time constraints, 12-16% of the session
data were missing. Yet, since most missing data fell in the first week of the mission,
sufficient data were available to yield reliable results during weeks 2-8 of the
mission. The initial problems during week 1 might have been avoided by more
extensive pre-mission training of the crew. The quality of the physiological meas-
urements was generally high. However, problems arose with regard to the calibra-
tion of the respiratory measurementequipment, so the respiratory volume measures
were unreliable. Again, insuficient training in the complicated calibration proce-
dure can probably be held responsible. Overall, it can be concluded that this type
of self-administered psychophysiological assessment during extended isolation
studies is indeed feasible.
B. Physiological Findings
Group Results
Concerningthe response during the CMT, the group results were quite consistent.
Most cardiovascularmeasures (i.e., heart rate and systolic blood pressure) showed
an increase during the task, and the respiratory measures a decrease. It is important
to note that the magnitude of the task responses did not diminish during isolation,
but remained constant for heart and respiratory rates, or even increased in the case
of systolic and diastolic blood pressure and duty cycle time. Hence, there was no
evidence of any habituation of reactivity during isolation. The cardiovascular
response resembles the beta-adrenergic response that is typically found during
active coping task^,'**^^*^^ but the response was quite small. In contrast, the
respiratory responses were quite dissimilar to the increases in these parameters
usually found during active Rather, the decrease in respiratory rate and
the shift to longer expiratory periods, indicated by the decrease in duty cycle time,
suggest that the subjects were more relaxed during the task performance than during
the baseline period.I6
The regression analysis of the baseline and task levels provide a background for
the interpretation of the reactivity changes that were observed during isolation.
Accordingly, the reactivity increase in systolic blood pressure turned out to be due
to the decrease in baseline levels of this parameter. The reactivity increase in
diastolic blood pressure, on the other hand, was associated with an increase in task
levels. Lastly, the decreased drop in duty cycle time response was primarily the
result of a decrease in the task levels.
Subject B
Subject B showed an interesting pattern of cardiovascular responses. During
isolation there were rather steep increases in baseline and task level heart rates and
in systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Moreover, systolic and diastolic blood
pressure reactivity increased substantially during isolation. Taken together, these
changes strongly suggest that isolation stress increasingly compromised cardiovas-
cular functioning in this subject. It is noteworthy that subject B served as the
commander during the mission, and that, as such, he carried much of the responsi-
bility for the success of the mission. Close scrutiny of the graphs for systolic and
diastolic blood pressure in Figure 2 reveals that the reactivity increase in these
measures began to manifest itself particularly after week 4, and declined again in
week 8. Week 4 may probably be regarded as a turning point after which mission
stress began to take its toll on this subject. Problems with the rest of the crew,
particularly with subject D, concerning leadership became manifest in the middle
phase of isolation (see Gushin, et al.”). These probably played a significant role in
the stress encountered by subject B. A further point is that sociopsychological
assessment established that in week 5 of isolation there was a “critical phase” with
high emotional content due to a conflict between the chamber crew and the “outside
world.”’8The respiratory responses of this subject, in contrast to the cardiovascular
responses, showed little evidence of the influence of stress.
Subject D
There were several similarities between the cardiovascular response patterns of
subjects D and B. Baseline and task levels of heart rate, task levels of diastolic blood
pressure, and heart rate, systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure
reactivity all increased during isolation.The main differences between the response
profiles of subjects B and D concerned the heart rate response (i.e., this response
was much greater in subject D, and increased during isolation), and the task levels
of systolic blood pressure, which did not increase significantly in subject D. Again,
close inspection of the graphs in Figure 3 suggests that week 4 may have served as
a turning point, after which stress levels gradually increased, to decline again in
week 8. This conclusion appears to be substantiated by the profile of the baseline
respiratory rate and duty cycle time levels. These measures showed a sharp increase
in week 4,and remained relatively high throughout the mission. Probably, the
conflict between subjects B and D (i.e, the vice-commander) and the “critical
phase” that were referred to above, may help to explain these findings.
Subject G
While the cardiovascular response profiles of subjects B and D showed many

similarities, the response pattern of subject G was quite different from that of the
other subjects. Again, there was a gradual increase in baseline and task levels of the
heart rate. However, there was a simultaneous decrease in baseline and task levels
of the systolic blood pressure and in task levels of the diastolic blood pressure.
Furthermore, there was no evidence of any blood pressure response to the CMT,
and there were no changes in reactivity of heart rate, and systolic and diastolicblood
pressure during isolation. Similarly,the substantial respiratory task responses failed
to show any change during isolation. Taken together, the cardiovascular findings
for this subject suggest that isolation did not lead to increasing stress levels. Rather,
the combination of heart rate increase and blood pressure decrease suggests a
successful and healthy cardiovascular adaptation to the mission demands.
Subject H
The cardiovascularresponse pattern of subject H differed both quantitatively and

qualitatively from that of the other subjects. The most striking difference revolves
around the fact that systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure decreased during
the CMT, compared to baseline. There is no obvious explanation for this paradoxi-
cal finding. However, it should be mentioned that heart rate and systolic blood
pressure levels, particularly the baseline levels, were exceptionally high in this
subject. Therefore, it is conceivable that a ceiling effect may have played a role.
There was, like for subject G, no evidence for any increase in stress levels during
isolation. Except for a small decrease in task levels of the heart rate, the cardiovas-
cular parameters remained quite steady, while respiratory activity gradually de-
creased during isolation.

Self-administered psychophysiological assessment during a mission is not only
feasible, but yields reliable data that can be related to mission demands in a
meaningful way. The unique methodology that has been employed during the
EXEMSI campaign, may be of great promise for the development of techniques
that provide daily monitoring of the physiological cost of mission demands. This
approach can thus be used for obtaining a better understanding of problems that
can arise with regard to the functioning of individual crew members?
The response profiles of the individual crew members showed remarkable
quantitative and qualitative differences during isolation. Due to the limitations of
this study, these differences could by no means all be explained in terms of mission
demands, operator workload or other relevant parameters. However, the findings
do seem to permit some tentative conclusions. In subjects B and D the cardiovas-
cular response profiles suggested that cumulativestress effects emerged, in particu-
lar during the second part of the mission. It is important to note that both subjects
carried specific responsibilities for the success of the mission, and that there was
evidence for a conflict between them.”
Concerning the question which physiological measures are most appropriate for
in-mission psychophysiological assessment, these results appear to imply that
cardiovascular measures yield more valid information about the effects of mission
demands than respiratory measures. However, it should be noted that important
aspects of respiratory activity, namely, respiratory volume measures and ventila-
tion, could not be reliably determined in this study. Therefore, definitive conclu-
sions concerning the choice of measures wait until the validity of the measures has
been more extensively evaluated.
Although the methodology that was developed for this study appears to be
promising, it is obvious that its value can only be properly assessed when the
physiological findings are correlated with behavioral, performance and subjective
data. An extensive analysisof the covariationof the daily variations in physiological
response, performance measures, and subjective assessments of workload and
mood, is currently in progress in collaboration with Hockey and Sauer.’
Finally, if the usefulness and validity of this type of in-mission self-administered
psychophysiological assessment are confirmed in ongoing and future studies (e.g.,
the 1994 HUBES mission), protocols will have to be worked out for practical
implementation during actual spaceflights. In this regard, it has been advocated that
psychophysiological monitoring techniques should include feedback and support
policies, make crew members aware of potential risks for breakdown, and enable
them to take appropriate measures when Initially, this can perhaps
best be realized by procedures which include a data-link between the spacecraft and
ground mission control. On the basis of ground-based analysis and evaluation of
the data, psychologists at mission control may decide to provide information to the
crew concerning potential individual or intragroupoverload or stressproblems, and
154 C.J.E. WIENTJES, I.A. VELTMAN, and A.W.K. GAILLARD
to implement specific supportive measures. The effectiveness of the supportive

activities should be closely monitored by mission control. Future work should also
be aimed at developing expert-systems, which will enable the crew to maintain an
appropriate degree of inflight biobehavioral self-regulation by providing a range
of support techniques, like biofeedback, coping techniques against individual and
group stressors, workhest and sleep/wake schedules, and emergency procedures.
REFERENCES
1. Gaillard A.W.K., Wientjes, CJB. Mental load and work stress as two types of energy mobiliza-
tion. In: Work and Stress (T. Cox, Ed.), 8 141-152. 1994.
2. Hockey, G.R.J. A state control theory of adaptation to stress and individual differences in stress
management.In:EnergeticsandHurnan Information Processing (G.R.J. Hockey. A.W.K. Gaillard
and G.H. Coles. Eds.). pp. 285-298. Nijhoff. Dordrecht, 1986.
3. Ursin, H. Integral monitoring in space. In: Integral Monitoring in Space (A.W.K. Gaillard, Ed.).
pp. 40-45. Space Psychology Days, March 1992, Villefrance-sur-Mer. France, 2 2 4 2 7 , 1992.
4. Vaemes. R.J.. Bergan. T., Wamcke, M., Ursin, H., Aakvaag. A., Hockey, G.R.J. Workload and
stress: effects on psychosomatic and psychobiological reaction patterns. In: Advances in Space
Biology and Medicine. vol. 3 (S.L. Bonting. Ed.), pp. 95-120. JAI Press, Greenwich, Cr,1993.
5. Hockey, G.R.J., Sauer, J. Cognitive fatigue and complex decision-making under prolonged
isolation and confinement. In: Advances in Space Eiology and Medicine, vol. 5 (S.L.Bonting.
Ed.), pp. 309-320. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT,1995.
6. Wientjes. C.J.E. Respiration in psychophysiology:methods and applications.Biological fsychol-
ogy, 343179-203, 1992.
7. Wientjes,C.J.E. Psychological Injluences upon Breathing: Siruarional and DispositionalAspects.
Ph.D. Thesis. Catholic University of Brabant, 'Illburg. 1993.
8. Grossman, P. Respiration. stress, and cardiovascular function. Psychophysiology. 20284300.
1983.
9. Hennig, J., Netter, P. Local immunocompetence and salivarycortisolinconfinement.In:Advances
in Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 5 (S.L. Bonting, Ed.), pp. 115-132. JAI Press,Greenwich,
Cr,1995.
10. P e w , J. Photoelectric measurement of blood pressure, volume and flow in the finger. Digest of
the 10th International Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering, 104. 1973.
11. Milic-Emili, J. Recent advances in clinical assessment of control of breathing. L w g , 1rn1-17.
1982.
12. Obrist, P.A. Cardiovascular Psychophysiology. Plenum Press, New York, 1981.
13. Allen. M.T.. Crowell M.D. Patterns of autonomic response during laboratory stressm. Psycho-
physiology, M:603414. 1989.
14. Langer, A.W.. Stoney, C.M., McCubbin. J.A.. Hutcheson, J.S..Charlton, J.D. Cardiopulmonary
adjustments during exercise and an aversive reaction time task effects of beta-adrenergic
blockade. Psychophysiology,225948,1985.
15. Boiten. F., Frijda. N.H., Wientjes, C.J.E. Emotions and respiratory patterns. International Journal
of Psychophysiology, 17103-128. 1994.
16. Wientjes. C.J.E., Grossman. P., Gaillard A.W.K. Respiratory and cardiac responsesduring mental
task performance: the effects of variations in effort investment. Psychophysiology,submitted for
publication.
17. Gushin. V.I.. Kolinitchenko,T.B., Efmov, V.A.. Davies, C. Psychologicalevaluation and support
during EXEMSI. In: Advances in Space and Medicine vol. 5 (S.L. Bonting, Ed.),pp. 283-295.
JAI Press. Greenwich, Cr. 1995.
18. Sandal. G.M.. Vanes, R.J., Ursin, H . Crew Compatibility and Interaction. In: Advances in Space
Biology and Medicine vol. 5 (S.L. Bonting. Ed.),pp. 213-231. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT,1995.
19. Psychology Working Group Report. In: MonriedAspecrs on Lunar Exploration (Drafr).MALE-1,
April 19-21, Avignon, France, 1994.
Chapter 9
PERFORMANCE AND BRAIN

ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY DURING
PROLONGED CONFINEMENT
Bernd Lorenz, Jurgen Lorenz, and Dietrich Manzey
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .. ... 158

11. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . .. ... 159
A. S u b j e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .. ... 159
B. PerformanceTasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . .. ... 160
C. Electroencephalographic Recording and Analysis ....:..... ... 161
D. Procedure . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .. ... 162
E. Statistical Evaluation of Single-Subject Data . . ........ .. ... 162
111. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ... 163
A. Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ... 163
B. Electroencephalography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 168

Copyright 0 1996 by JAI Press h c .
ISBN: 1-5593897&2
157
158 BERND LORENZ, JURGEN LORENZ, and DIETRICH MANZEY
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

A. Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,176
B. Electroencephalogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I79
1. INTRODUCTION
Living and working in space involves exposure to several different stresson. The
most important stressor is microgravity,causing various physiological changes like
body fluid shifts, as well as clinical syndromes such as space motion sickness.’
Other stresson are: confinement, sleep disturbances, high workload, and specific
environmental conditions caused by the artificial life support Exposure
to this multi-stressor environment may have detrimental effects on the operational
capacity of astronauts. Hence it appears to be widely accepted that in-flight
monitoring of the mental state of astronauts is important for the conduct of
long-duration manned space mission^^^^ However, opinions differ as to which
behavioral measures should be chosen to provide a comprehensive assessment of
changes in individual performance status under exposure to environmental stress6
Human factors research in space is faced by a lack of applicable models of task
behavior that could guide the selection of space relevant performance indicators.
The variety of methodological approachesadopted by the investigators involved
in the ISEMSI and EXEMSI projects reflects to some extent this problem. Some
investigators monitor performance by means of highly structured laboratory
tasks:-* whereas others prefer more complex task scenarios’ (see also Gushin, et
al.”). In addition, sampling of performance measures inherent in the actual opera-
tional tasks has been suggested for performance state evaluation.” The weakness
of using comparatively simple laboratory tasks is their poor operational fidelity. On
the other hand, more complex or realistic tasks are often associated with unknown
measurement problems that may lead to serious deficiencies in reaching adequate
interpretations.’*Apart from these shortcomings, there are practical constraints in
the design of a performance study in a space mission or a space simulation study.
The most critical limitation is the small number of subjects which does not allow
the application of techniques proposed to counteract the threats to the various types
of validity generally encountered in field settings.13
The aim of the present study was twofold: (1) the application of an integrated
monitoring device for the assessment of the individual psychophysiological state.
In particular, we were interested in the feasibility of self-administration and the
quality of performance and physiological data which can be obtained under these
conditions and (2) the experiment was to provide data about human performance
changes under conditionsof confinement, lack of privacy, and experimental work-
Performance and Brain Electrical Activity 159
load. These data are to serve as reference data for the evaluation of possible
performance changes during long-term space flights.
In view of the methodological constraints mentioned above, we decided to rely
on standardized laboratory tasks with (1) a background in human information-proc-
essing theory and (2) empirical evidence of suitability for repeated app1i~ation.l~
The advantages of such an approach are twofold. First, repeated sequential testing
is required for monitoring the time course of adaptational processes. Secondly,
standardization guarantees a comparability of results with other field-experiments
focusing on the effects of environmental stressors on human performance in space
or in a space simulating Precise guidelines for a battery of
performance tasks which fulfill these requirements have been published recently
by the Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD).”
A subset of the AGARD battery of Standardized Tests for Research with Envi-
ronmental Stressors (STRES),including Sternberg memory search, grammatical
reasoning, unstable tracking, and a dual task, was applied during an 8-day mission
in the Russian orbital station MIR.Decrements in tracking and dual-task efficiency
were observed.” A further study using the same tasks was used to examine the
effects of high ambient pressure on task performance during a 3Oday deep-dive
simulation (450 meter) in a hyperbaric complex.16 A slowing down of general
performance at maximum depths was the main type of deterioration observed in
this study. A recent study of the effects of sleep deprivation on performance in the
AGARD battery showed stronger impairment of single-task tracking than of
dual-task tracking.” These divergent patterns of performance changes associated
with suboptimal internal and external conditions are difficult to integrate into a
single dimension of inadequate arousal level. They support the assumption of
multidimensional activation states underlying task
Physiological indicators may help in assessing changes in state of alertness and
effort, which are not reflected in performance data. A recent review by Kramer 21
suggests that the continuously recorded electroencephalogram(EG).particularly
frontal theta rhythm2”” and alpha attenuation,z is a useful physiological indicator
of changes in alertness and effort.

A. Subjects
The study involved two groups of subjects: (1) the chamber crew consisting of
three males and one female, who worked and lived for 60 days in the EXEMSI
isolation facility and (2) the ground control crew of two males and three females,
who were not confined. The average age of the chamber crew was 29 years with a
range of 26 to 34 years, that of the ground crew was 33 years with a range of 29 to
39 years. Subjects had different nationalities: France (2), Italy (2). Austria (l),
Canada (l), Great Britain (l), the Netherlands (I), and Sweden (1). They were
160 BERND LORENZ, JURGENLORENZ, and DIETRICH MANZEY
submitted to a thorough medical and psychological screening. Operational aptitude

was tested by methods chosen from those used for ESA astronaut selection for
which a normative database was available.26
B. Performance Tasks
Three tasks were selected for this study from the AGARD-STRES batter^:'^
Memory Search Task (two levels of memory load), Unstable Tracking Task, and
Dual Task (two levels of memory load). In addition a SubjectiveState Questionnaire
was completed.
Memory Search Task
This task is based on the experimental paradigm proposed by Sterx~berg~~ for

evaluating short-term memory function. First, a set of letters, the “memory set,”
has to be memorized. Then a single probe letter is presented, and the subject has to
indicate whether or not the probe letter belongs to the memory set by pressing an
appropriateresponsekey. Immediately after the response the probe letter disappears
from the screen, and a new probe letter appers after a 1-secondresponse-stimulus
interval (RSI). Letters belonging to the memory set (targets) and letters not
belonging to the memory set (distractors) are randomly selected from all 20
consonants of the alphabet. In deviation from the AGARD standard, the vowels A,
E, I, 0, and U were excluded from the memory set in order to avoid the effect of
verbalizing on memorizing the set. The memory load was varied by presenting
memory sets of two or four letters in separate test runs. Reaction times and errors
were recorded for each probe.
Unstable Tracking Task
This task requires fine manual control: a horizontally moving cursor has to be
centered by means of a joystick within a fixed target in the center of the screen. The
instability results from a positive feedback loop that drives the cursor to the left or
right edge of the screen at a velocity proportional to (a) the tracking error and (b)
a divergent element determined by the parameter “lambda.”28When the cursor
reaches the boundary lines, a “control loss” is recorded. The difficulty of the task
is essentiallydetermined by the value of lambda. When this was kept at a subcritical
value of 2, control loss usually did not occur after sufficient training. The perforrn-
ance measure, the root-mean-square tracking error (RMSE), was integrated over
1-second blocks, and the total number of control losses were recorded.
Dual Task
This is a combination of the Unstable Tracking Task and the Memory Search
Task. Two levels were used, one with a 2-letter memory set, the other with aCletter
memory set in the Memory Search Task. The subject was instructed to pay equal
attention to both tasks, i.e., not to neglect one in favor of the other.
Subjective State Questionnaire
Subjective mood of the subject was assessed by means of a Subjective State

Questionnaire. Fourteen mood attributes were presented sequentiallyon the screen,
and subjects were instructed to rate each on a 5-point scale ranging from 0
“absolutely inappropriate”to 5 “absolutely appropriate.” The attributes were: fresh,
sad, strained, fatigued, nervous, happy, interested, balanced, aggressive, carefree,
distracted, bored, concentrated,relaxed.
Computerization
All tasks were computerized using a commercially available code generating

~ystem.2~ Presentation of tasks, recording of reaction times and tracking errors were
controlled by an IBM-286 compatible personal computer (Dell” 2 10). Responses
in the Memory Search Task were given with non-dominant hand via the standard
AGARD 4-button key-pad. The tracking tasks were controlled with the dominant
hand using a joystick.
Operation of the battery was programmed in a standard menu-driven format to
facilitate self-administration.Task duration was fixed at 5 min for each task, 2 min
more than proposed by AGARD in order to improve the reliability of the frequency
estimates derived from the analysis of heart rate variability (not reported here). The
intertask interval could be set by the subject between 20 s and 1 min. Completion
of the battery took 60 min with and 35 min without physiological data acquisition.
Task sequence was always: Memory Search TasWZletter set, Memory Search
TasWCletterset, Unstable Tracking Task, Dual TasW2-letterset, Dual TasW4-letter
set. and Subjective State Questionnaire. Randomization of the task sequence was
not performed in view of the small number of subjects.
C. Electroencephalographic Recording and Analysis
Biosignals were recorded from the midline sites Fz, Cz, and Pz according to the
international 10-20 system.30Ag-AgCI electrodes were used with the left mastoid
as the reference site. An additional electrode positioned half way between Fz and
Cz served as the ground. To permit correction for eye movement artifacts, an
electro-oculogram (EOG) was recorded from two electrodespositioned above and
beside the subjects’ right eye . Electrode impedance was kept below 5 KOhm.
EEG and EOG were amplified by means of a portable amplifier (VITAPORT”)
with a 5-s time constant. Biosignals were recorded continuously throughout the
session and stored on line by an APPLE LC” microcomputer after 8-bit A/D-con-
version at a sampling rate of 128 Hz. Frequency analysis was based on 2-s periods
that were filtered by a Hanning window algorithm and then subjected to Fourier
transformation. This provided an analysis of the power spectrum between 1 and 20

Hz with a frequency resolution of 0.5 Hz.Periods containingocular artefacts(criterion:
+/- 50 microvolt) or movement artifacts were excluded from the analysis.
D. Procedure
The study comprised four phases: training, pre-isolation baseline data collection,
isolation and post-isolation.
Training sessions: These focused on handling of the hardware as well as perform-
ance of the whole task battery (all tasks in sequence). This provided sufficient
knowledge for dealing with the main hardware and software components and an
introduction to typical sources of EEG contaminating artefacts (neck and face
muscle tension, movements and eye blinks). All subjects completed the perform-
ance battery four times for practice. During that phase they received feedbackabout
their performance. These sessions were conducted without acquisition of physi-
ological data.
Pre-isolationbaseline data collection: This comprised two sessions, which were

run as a joint experimental session with another experiment involving EEG record-
ing.3’
Isolation period: The sessions started on day 10 for subjects B and G, and on day
11 for subjects D and H, and were then repeated at weekly intervals for a total of
16 sessions per subject. The tests for subjects B and H always started at 11:OO am,
those for subjects D and G at 2:OO pm.
Posr-isolafionsessions: These took place five and seven days after leaving the
isolation facility.
A confrolgroup, consisting of the ground control crew, was included to obtain
further experience with the single-subject experimentation technique (see below)
adopted in this study. The control group completed a total of 12 sessions in their
normal ofice. Only the two members, who served as “back-ups” during the
pre-isolation phase, performed the same number of 16sessions as the chamber crew.
The control group sessions could not be synchronized with those of the chamber
crew, since they had to be scheduled during the ground control crew’s spare time
with intersession intervals ranging from 2 to 6 days, and without control over the
time of day. No physiological data were recorded for the control group, another
important difference in the overall workload between the two groups.
E. Statistical Evaluation of Single-Subject Data
The statisticalanalysis of response latencies was based on responserates obtained

by reciprocal transformation. This was done to reduce the skewness usually found
in the distribution of reaction times and to improve homogeneity of variances.
Response rates as well as the RMSE-data from the Unstable Tracking Task were
averaged over 10-s blocks, providing 30 performance scores per 5-minute trial.
Response rates from false responses were not included in block averaging. For the
chamber crew this procedure resulted in a sequence of 360 performance values
obtained for all 12 sessions in each task and each subject. The training sessions
were not included in the analysis. For the control group 240 performance values
were obtained.
Performance differences between sessions were statistically evaluated by analy-
sis of variance (ANOVA) with the experimental sessions as the independent
variable. The ANOVAs were performed separately for each individual subject.
Significant effects of session were analyzed in more detail by pairwise comparison
of averagepre-isolationperformance with all other means (two-tailed non-orthogo-
nal, a priori contrasts with Bonferroni adjusted p = O.OS/number of comparison^^^).
In these an,alyses,the series of ANOVA residuals was used for estimation of error
variance. Such an approach is justified when a series represents independent
successive observations (white noise), i.e., does not show significant autocor-
relations. Positive autocorrelations, which may cause a substantial inflation of
F-scores,must be regarded as critical when ANOVAis applied to ~ingle-casedata.~~
Our analyses revealed that positive autocorrelations found in the sequence of
ANOVA residuals of all reaction time data disappeared after removal of a linear
trend within each 5-minute trial. In the tracking task data autocorrelation was
evident because of the inherent dynamics of the task. Here, data aggregation across
10-s intervals was sufficient to obtain negligible departures from white noise. This
means that sometimes negative autocorrelations were present at unsystematic lags,
which resulted in a bias towards a conservative significance test. To correct for
possible speed-accuracy trade-offs, which could be confused with effects of re-
sponse rates, between-session differences in error rates for the memory search data
were evaluated by simple X*-statistics.
111. RESULTS
This section first presents the results of the single-subject analyses of the perform-
ance data. Secondly, results of the EEG frequency analyses are presented, and
finally, an attempt is made to integrate behavioral and physiological sources of data
for a diagnosisof operator state. Results obtained from one subject will be presented
in more detail.
A. Performance
Memory Search
Figure 1 presents the individual sequences of mean response rates in the Memory
Search Task (left panel Chamber Crew, right panel Ground Control Crew) under
Chamber Crew Ground Control Crew
__--
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s 180. - - - , A '
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S 140.
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A 100.
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T
801-3'-1'-2 -3 . 4 5 6 7 8
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ISOLATION I
R 200 i n q l e / m e m o r y set 4-
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0160.
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T A 100
80'-3'-1' 2 3 4 5 '6 7 8 9 '+1.+1'
m
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rPR0 WEEK E80 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112

1 ISOLATION I SESSION
E
s 180. . .. .. . ......
R
A
T 1001 R
A 100.
T
80'-3'-1' 2 . 3 ' 4 5 6 7 . 8 9 '+1'+1'
rmcn WEEK
ISOLATION I
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N \ ,
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'"-3.-1' 2 3. 4 5 . 6 7 8 9 '+1'+1'
m
' '
rPR0 WEEK "'1 ' 2 ' 3 4'5'6.7'8'9'10.11'12

ISOLATION I SESSION
Figure 1. Individual time courses of average response rates in the Memory Search
Task under different levels of task load.
164
Table 1. Distribution of Results Obtained by the Planned Comparison Tests in the

MEMORY SEARCH TASK
Chamber Crew GroundControl Crew
Task Load + 0 - z + o - z
Single + set 2 abs. no. 9 29 1 39 16 21 1 38
memorysearch percent 23.1 74.4 2.6 42.0 55.3 2.6
Single+set4 abs. no. 8 28 3 39 18 19 1 38
Sum abs.no. 17 57 4 78 34 40 2 76
percent 21.8 73.1 5.1 44.7 52.6 2.6
Dual +set2 abs. no. 13 25 1 39 6 27 5 38
memory search percent 33.3 64.1 2.6 15.8 71.0 13.2
Dual +set4 abs. no. 10 26 3 39 9 21 8 38
Sum abs.no. 23 51 4 78 15 48 13 76
percent 29.5 65.4 5.1 19.7 63.2 17.1
Total sum abs. no. 40 108 8 156 49 88 15 152
perceflt 25.6 69.2 5.1 32.2 57.9 9.9
Notes: Values based on single-subject ANOVAs of chamber crew and ground control crew. For each offour
task load levels the following number of comparisons were computed: chamber crew 10 + 10 + 10
+ 9 = 39; ground control crew: 10 + 10 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 38.
Column headings:
-
+ significant increases, 0 non-significant changes, significant decreases in mean response rate, Z
sum of values in previous three columns.
Comparisons represent tests between session averages relative to pre-isolation baseline levels.
different levels of task load (from top to bottom: single mode -memory set 2, single
mode - memory set 4, dual mode - memory set 2, dual mode - memory set 4).
Visual inspection reveals only a slight tendency for increasing speed with test
repetition. This was interrupted by occasional drops spread over the entire period
without a clear systematic pattern. This general pattern applies to subjects of both
groups and was more or less present under all levels of task load. All ANOVAs
performed on each single sequence revealed significant F-values for the main effect
of the session (p < 0.01). This supports the impression of a lack of performance
stability between sessions.
To provide a more detailed insight into the pattern of changes that occurred in
both groups, results obtained by the total number of t-tests (156 for the chamber
crew, 152 for the ground control crew) were divided into three categories: signifi-
cant increases, insignificant changes, and significant decreases in mean response
rates. Table 1 contains the absolute numbers and relative percentages of these
categories obtained in each group. The results are separated for all four levels of
task load. It is evident that in both groups the main source of the significant session
main effects was due to increases in mean response rates (25.6% increases in the
chamber crew, 32.2% increases in the ground control crew). Task load had a
different effect among groups. Whereas the ground control group had much more
frequent speed increases under single task conditions (ground control crew: 44.7%,
chamber crew: 21.8%), irrespectiveof memory load, an oppositetendency emerged
under dual task conditions. Here, the chamber crew displayed more speed increases
(29.5%) and less decreases (5.1%) than the ground control crew (19.7% increases,

15 [single unstable trackin
R lo' R lo'
M
S M
S
5.
5.
"-3 -1'
rn
2 ' 3 4 ' 5
WEEK
6 7 8
m
9 '+1'+1' 1.- 1 2
---.>-
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-_______-
.
..........................
4 5 6 7 8 9101112
[ ISOLATIO N 1 SESSION
m e m o r y search
m- m
"-3'-l' 2 3 .4 ' 5 6 7 8 9 '+I'+l'
WEEK
. . . . . . . . .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
ISOLATION I SESSION
15 unstable tracking + set 4 1s

memory search m e m o r y search
R lo
M
S
E 5
m-
o - T 7 ' 8 9 +I +I
WEEK lPosrl 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
[ ISOLATION I SESSION
Figure 2. Individual time courses of average tracking error (RMSE) in the Unstable
Tracking Task under different levels of task load.
17.1% decreases).Error percentages were generally not different between the levels
of memory load and between sessions and were kept well below 10%by all subjects.
Only one subject of the ground control group (C), and one subject of the chamber
crew (B) committed significantly more errors towards the endof themission: under
the task load condition singlehigh memory-load B had x2 (df = 11) = 24.71, p <
0.01; and C had x2 (df = 11) = 22.16, p = 0.02). Under the condition dualhigh
memory-load significant error-rate differences were found again in subject C: x2
(df = 11) = 24.57, p < 0.01. and also in subject K of the ground control group: x2
(df = 7) = 16.78, p = 0.02.
Unstable Tracking
Figure 2 presents the time courses of the average root mean square tracking error
(RMSE) for both groups. It is apparent that in three subjects of the chamber crew
tracking errors increased several times during confinement under all three levels of
task load. Whereas the groups did not differ at the second pre-isolation baseline
session, no subject of the ground control crew displayed similar performance
decrements in the subsequent sessions. The main feature in the ground control crew
was performance stabilization,as was supported by the pattern of results obtained
by the t-tests (Table 2). In the chamber crew 50 of the total number of 117 (42.7%)
comparisonswith pre-isolation baseline values indicated aperformance decrement.
Table 2. Distributionof Results Obtained by the Played Comparisons in the

UNSTABLE TRACKING TASK
Task Load + 0 - Y' + 0 - z

Single abs. no. 12 13 14 39 26 10 1 37
percent 30.8 33.3 39.9 70.3 27.0 2.7
Dual + set 2 abs. no. 12 11 16 39 26 9 3 38
Dual + set 4 abs. no. 7 12 20 39 32 4 2 38
Total Sum abs. no. 31 36 50 117 84 23 6 113
Dercent 26.5 30.8 42.7 74.3 20.4 5.3
Notes: Values are based on single-subject ANOVAs of chamber crew and ground control crew.
For each of the three levels of task load the following number of comparisons were computed:
chambercrew lO+lO+lO+9=39;groundcontrolcrew:lO+lO+6+6+6=38.
Column headings:
+ significant increases, 0 non-significant changes, - significant decreases in mean RMSE, X sum of
values in previous three columns.
Comparisons represent tests between session averages relative to pre-isolation baseline levels.
Table 3. Subjective Fatigue Ratings from Eight Sessions During Isolation Period
Experimental Session
~~
cc B 4 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2.9
D 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 3.6
G 5 5 5 4 2 4 2 3 3.8
H 3 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4.0
mean 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6
GC C 1 3 4 3 4 3 1 4 2.9
E 4 3 5 3 5 3 1 5 3.6
F 4 2 1 3 1 5 4 3 2.9
I 3 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 1.1
K 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1.4
mean 2.6 2.6 2.8 2.2 2.4 2.4 1.4 2.6 2.4
Key: Group CC: subjects of chamber crew (confined);

Group GC: subjects of ground control crew (not confined)
Decrements became more frequent with higher task load. In the ground control
crew only 6 of 113 (5.3%) comparisons revealed reduced tracking accuracy.
Subjective State
Evaluation of the subjective ratings given after completion of the task battery
generally did not indicate any mood disturbancesin either group. Table 3 contains
the individual fatigue ratings of both groups. The chamber crew shows a tendency
towards higher fatigue than the ground control crew for the entire isolation period:
F(1,7)=4.12; p=O.O8.
In summary, analyses of the memory search task and the unstable tracking task
revealed that there was no difference in performance of memory recognition, speed
and accuracy between the two groups. However, the chamber crew showed a lower
performance in tracking under all levels of task load, and a tendency toward higher
subjective fatigue ratings.
B. Electroencephalography
The EEG results will be described under three headings: (1) task-related spectral
changes, (2) relation between time spent in isolation and alpha and theta changes,
.ressed by single-subject analysis of one subject, and (3) correlation of behav-
Jral, subjective, and EEG changes in this subject.
Task-Related Changes
For the evaluation of task-related effects, the EEG power spectra were averaged
across all sessions for each of the five task conditions. Figure 3 shows the average
power spectra obtained over the Pz lead (upper part) and over the Fz lead (lower
part) from each member of the chamber crew. Reliable EEG alpha waves (8-12
Hz) and theta waves (5-7 Hz) were observed only in subjects G and H. The EEG
of subjects B and D was mainly characterized by desynchronized traces. Alpha
power in G and H was greatest over Pz and differed between tasks with higher
values during both memory-load levels of the Memory Search Task compared to
the Unstable Tracking Task, Dual Task, set 2, and Dual Task, set 4. In addition,
subject H showed a shift in the alpha center frequency depending on the task
condition. A peak at 9.5 Hz was observed under both memory load levels of single
memory search. The peak shifted to 10.5 Hz when tracking was performed under
single as well as dual-task conditions. Theta power predominated over Fz and
exhibited a tendency to be higher during the Memory Search Task than during the
Unstable Tracking Task.
Relation Between Time Spent in Isolation and Alpha and Theta Changes
The statistical significance of task- and session-related Pz-alpha and Fz-theta

waves was determined by performing single-subject analyses on thedata for subject
G. For subject H the first three sessions were contaminated by excessive eye-blink
artefacts, which left too few data for a quantative single-subject analysis. The data
for subject G had 151 (10.1%) missing values due to artefacts, but no complete
session needed to be excluded from analysis.
According to the procedure described for the performance data, the power density
estimates were averaged across 10-s blocks, yielding 30 spectra per 5-minute task
and 150 spectra for the entire session. The following band widths were defined for
subject G on the basis of his individual power spectra:
Fz-Theta: 5.5-7.5 Hz;
Pz-Alpha: 8.0-1 1 .O Hz.
Separate two-way ANOVAs were computed on the Fz-theta and Pz-alpha series of
1500spectral density estimates (30 blocks of 10 s, 5 tasks, 10 sessions)with TASK
and SESSION as experimental factors. The source of the between-task difference
was furtherexamined by computing four orthogonal aposferiori contrasts. The first
and second contrasts, c l and c2, compared the effects of low and high memory
loads for the single and dual Memory Search Tasks. The third contrast,c3, compared
the averagesingleMemory Search Task with the averagedual Memory Search Task.
The fourth, c4, compared all Memory Search Task levels with the single Unstable
Tracking Task. Thus, the first three contrasts represented comparisons between the
experimental levels of the memory task, whereas the fourth compared conditions
PZ
Subject D
--
,.L
--
.
: 8 11 14 17 20
Hz
Subject H
',+ i e 11 14 17
Hz
FZ
Subject B Subject D
6,
4' 5 8 11
HZ
1'4 17 i0
OJ
2
' .
5 0 11
HZ
14 17
Subject C Subject H
1
1 . 6 1 1
.
N
I
2
!
Oh 5 6 1'1 1'4 1.7 i0 O: 5 8 1'1 1'4 1'7 i0
HZ Hz
Figure 3. Individual average FFT power spectra over Pz (top)and Fz (bottom) under
different task conditions (solid light MST-2; solid dark: MST-4; dotted UlT; dot-
dashed: DT-2; dashed: DT-4).
170
with involvement of memory with the condition of single-task tracking, i.e., a

condition without involvement of memory. As described for the performance data,
ANOVA residuals were evaluated for autocorrelation.
Alpha changes were studied by means of residual analysis. A strong autocorre-
lation was found in the sequences of alpha power density estimates. Therefore,
hypotheses were evaluated by means of the general linear ARIMA (Auto-Regres-
sive Integrated Moving Average) approach.34Computations were carried out with
the statistical software package SPSS-Trendsm(151 missing values were replaced
by session means). The main effects of session and task load and their interaction,
including the above specified contrasts, were tested by using an appropriate coding
scheme for the generation of the necessary set of dummy variables (0/1 coding for
the session effect, orthogonal contrast coding for the task load effect). Figure 4
presents the time course of the alpha power density estimates found in subject G
(light solid line) and the fit of a general linear model (dark solid line) including
parameters for the ANOVA model and a highly significant parameter for a first
order autoregressive process (AR[11 = 0.18; p c 0.0001). The mean level of alpha
was highest in the pre-baseline session and attenuated significantly in all subsequent
sessions including post-baseline (p < 0.0001 for all parameters for the session main
effect).The lowest levels were observed in isolation weeks 2,3,4, and 8, and at the
post-isolation session. Thus, alpha was lowest during the first half and at the end
of the isolation period. Alpha attenuation in these sessions, except for the session
in week 3, was stronger for single-task than for dual-task memory search, as
revealed by the corresponding parameters of the sessiodtask load interaction (p <
0.005). Obviously, the involvement of tracking provoked a decline in alpha that
dominated over the influence of the environmental condition. A comparable effect
is found for the influence of task load. Higher memory load decreased alpha under
single-task mode (cl: p c 0.005) but only slightly under dual-task mode (c2: p >
0.05). As argued above for the impact of the environmental condition on alpha
power attenuation, it appears that the involvement of tracking also reduced alpha
to an extent that no further effect of memory load was detectable. The single-dual
comparison showed the strongest contribution to the overall task-load effect in
terms of an alpha attenuation upon changing from single- to dual-task operation
(c3: p c 0.0001). However, as can clearly be inferred from Figure 4, the drop in
alpha power occurred on starting single-task tracking, which was the main source
for the significanceof the fourth contrast (c4:p c 0.01).
Them changes showed a behavior differing from that of the alpha changes. The
series of 10-s estimates of Fz-theta power density displayed uncorrelated (white
noise) ANOVA residuals. Therefore, significancetests using the ordinary ANOVA
method were accepted. Figure 5 shows the series of the Fz-theta power density
estimate observed in subject G, presented in the same manner as described above
for Pz-alpha. Among the above specified contrasts only c4 reached significance (p
c 0.05),revealing lower theta under single-task tracking compared to all levels of
memory search. Alarge amount of variance in the series of subject G was accounted
power (micmml+/Hz) in the alpha band (8- 1 1 Hz) power (micmmt?flz) in the alpha band (8-1 1 Hzj
.:a, r - - ---I
.: a ,
I P R E - ~i s e , n e I
7 a 7,a 1 I I I I l
a 5
2 5 2.5
1 I I I I
I 1
'2.5,
a.
I week 4
I
~
I I 1 I
' 2 a
week 6
10
I I
I I I I I
*a
:.a
11.3
week 9
1 0
I I
7.5 7.5
5 5
2.5
0 I I I
MST-2 MST-4 Ull DT-2 DT-4 MST-2 MST-4 Ull DT-2 DT-4
figure 4. Time changes of 10-s estimates of alpha power density (8-1 1 Hz) in subject
G (solid line) and the fit of an AR(1) intervention model (solid dark line).
172
power (micmwll?/Hz)in the theta band (5.57.5 Hz)
PRE-Baseline
2.5 2.3
2.5
I I
7 . 7.¶
I week 6 t
. -
I
A s e w
-
I I
2.3
: : . ' P O S T - B a t e l ine
1.3 2.3
MST-2 MST-4 UTT DT-2 DT-4 MST-2 MST-4 UTT DT-2 DT-4
figure5. Time changes of 10-sestimates of theta power density (5.5-7 Hz)in subject
G (solid light line) and the fit of an ANOVA regression model (solid dark line).
173
OX4
2 5 8 11 14 17 20
Hz
Figure 6. FFT power spectra obtained from subject G in week 6 of isolation over three
electrode sites (Pz:solid; Cz: dashed; Fz: dotted).Note the distinct peak at 7 Hz found
only over Fz.
for by a highly significant between-session main effect. Only the mean theta at the
session in week 4 of isolation was at the pre-isolation baseline level. Theta was
enhanced in all other sessions, including the post-isolation session, relative to the
pre-isolation baseline level (p < 0.001).
The most striking theta increase occurred in week 6. Figure 6 shows the power
spectra obtained over Fz, Cz, and Pz and demonstrates that the theta peak at about
7 Hz over Fz occurred independently from simultaneous alpha activity peaking at
9.5 Hz over Cz and Pz. Thus, this 7-Hz frontal rhythm can most likely be attributed
to theta rather than to the slow alpha. This point is considered further in the
discussion section.
Correlation ofBehavioral, Subjective, and EEG Changes
The data for subject G were chosen for a study of the correlation between
behavioral, subjective,and physiological changes. The series of mean performance
scores (response rate, RMSE) of all ten sessions for which the EEG was evaluated
and the respective mean alpha and theta values were z-transformed in order to
obtain a common metric. Between-task differences are not considered. All seven
performance z-scores were averaged to provide one global performance score per
session. From the Subjective State Questionnaire only the ratings for the items
week
CONFINEMENT I
Figure 7. Covariance of performance (dashed), Pz - alpha power.(solid);Fz - theta
power (dotted),andwbjective state (“fatigue”:hatched bar; “concentrated“:open bar)
in subject G as a function of length of isolation.
“fatigue” and “concentrated” were selected (no SSQ ratings were obtained at the
pre-isolation baseline session). The result of this analysis is presented in Figure 7.
Alpha reduction displayed a good correlation with the subjective fatigue state as
both prevailed during the first half of isolation and at the post-isolation session. Of
particular interest is the performance and subjectivestate at session 5 after six weeks
of isolation where the described marked increase in fronto-central theta O C C U K ~ ~ .
At this session subject G achieved the best performance of the whole isolation
period. The subjective rating of a low value in the item “fatigue” and a high value
in the item “concentrated” agrees with good performance eaciency at this session.
IV. DISCUSSION
During the ground-based simulation EXEMSI four crew members worked and
lived for 60 days under conditions of confinement and isolation analogous to a
long-term space mission. Our experiment focused on intra-individual changes in
basic cognitive and psychomotor performance as a function of time spent under
these environmental conditions. A subset of the AGARD-STRES battery of tests
was repeatedly performed before, during, and after isolation. Results were derived
from thorough single-subject analyses.
A. Performance
No deterioration of short-term memory functions was found during and after the
60-day isolation period. Occasional performance decrements that occurred during
isolation were also present in the non-isolated control group. Similar results were
obtained with a short-term memory task during the 28-day isolation period of the
ISEMSI study' and during a short-term mission to the Russian orbital station
MIR.'' In the latter study the authors applied the same AGARD tasks twice a day
and performed the same type of single-case analysis as in the present study. After
a training period of 29 sessions each task was performed 23 times (6 pre-flight, 13
in-flight, 4 post-flight sessions). Comparisons of in-flight performance with pre-
flight and post-flight baseline sessions revealed the following pattern of effects: (1)
Speed and accuracy of short-term memory retrieval and logical reasoning remained
unimpaired during the stay in space, (2) Clear disturbances of unstable tracking
were found at the beginning and at the end of the mission, and (3) Time-sharing
performance was impaired throughout the stay in space.
Significant decrements of tracking performance were also observed in two
subjects (B and G) in the present study. The time course of tracking accuracy
followed in both subjects a distinct triphasic pattern with an initial deterioration,
an intermediate recovery to pre-isolation baseline level after the first half of the
isolation period, and a second deterioration at the end of isolation. An initial drop
in tracking performance, though masked by the effects of further practice, could
also be detected in the data from a third subject (H). Nearly equal decrements in
tracking performance consistently emerged in single-task mode and dual-task
mode. A weakness of the present study is that the five tasks were performed serially.
Hence, accumulating fatigue towards the end of the session, rather than a specific
impact of isolation on fine manual control, may be responsible for the observed
decrements in tracking. This explanation is supported by the findings of Mecklin-
ger, et al?' during the EXEMSI project. Their 34-min auditory classification task
always preceded the present experiment and demanded a high level of sustained
vigilance. They found decreased P300 amplitudes and increased reaction times
elicited by rare tones in the chamber crew, which were not observed in their control
group and which became more pronounced towards the end of the experimental
session. Moreover, this time-on-task effect became stronger at the end of the
EXEMSI mission. It is likely that in both experiments fatigue caused a suboptimal
state of attention.
An important difference in the MIR space study is that under real spaceflight
conditions increased interference between tracking and concurrent memory search
~ccurred.'~ These findings suggest that the mechanisms involved in tracking
deterioration appear to be different during adaptation to weightlessness than during
a state of fatigue. It is likely that fine manual control disturbed by weightlessness
causes a more profound re-structuring of the dual-task that also involves an impact
on memory resource allocation. The AGARD-STRES battery was also applied in
a study of the effects of sleep deprivation.I8The authors reported an even stronger

effect in the single-task tracking test than in the dual-task tracking test. They
concluded that “concurrent memory search maintained vigilance at a level suffi-
cient to temper the effects of sleep deprivation on tracking.”” The same task battery
was also applied to assess the impact on four professional saturation divers of a
30-day stay under a high ambient pressure environment reaching the equivalent of
a depth of 450 meters below sea level.16The pattern of results was quite different
from that obtained in space, isolation, and sleep deprivation. The most prominent
feature was a general slowing of performance during the first 11 days, which
included the compression phase and the bottom phase, with subsequent recovery
to pre-dive baseline levels during the long return-to-surface period. Tracking was
slightly impaired during the two days of the compression phase. Accuracy of
memory retrieval and dual-task efficiency remained unimpaired. These different
patterns of performance changes obtained with the AGARD tests under various
kinds of suboptimal internal and external conditions are difficult to integrate into
a single dimension of inadequate arousal level. They seem to support the assump-
tion that multidimensional activation states are underlying task perf~rmance.’’*~~
B. Electroencephalogram
Two crew members of the confined crew displayed a consistent relationship

between task demands and EEG power spectral activity of the alpha wave over Pz
and, to a much weaker extent, of the theta wave over Fz.Alpha was markedly lower
during tracking and both levels of the dual-task than during single memory search.
Statistical confirmation of this observation was obtained by computing the power
spectra of one subject over EEG segmentsof 10-sduration.The resulting time series
were analyzed with the same technique of single-subject analysis as applied to the
performance data. Changes in alpha power typically behave inversely to task
difficulty, a less demanding task yielding a higher alpha power. This has been
proven for simple laboratory tasks as well as for rather complex tasks such as during
flight performance with varying mission complexity.21The attenuation of alpha
power found in subjects transferring from a single-task to a dual-task has also been
reported?’ The appearance of the alpha wave is obviously accompanied by a state
of relaxed wakefulness, where mental activity is uncoupled from sensory inputs?6
Therefore, alpha attenuation on the transfer from single-task to dual-task may be
due to an extension of perceptual cue utilization, which obviously takes place when
continuous tracking is involved.
The hypothesis of a link between alpha attenuation and perceptual cue utilization
is further supported by the observation that a decrease in alpha power already
emerges under single-task tracking, when continuous visuo-motor coordination is
required. The same two subjects, who generated reliable alpha waves under task
load, displayed a higher fronto-central theta wave during memory performance than
during tracking. The effect could be substantiated statistically only in one subject
by a single-subject analysis. In this particular subject a 7-Hz theta wave had a clear
Fz topography accompanied by an alpha wave that peaked at 9.5 Hz over Cz and
Pz. Because of the presence of slow alpha activity at the latter electrode sites it
seems unlikely that the 7-Hz activity belonged to slow alpha. Thus, we suggest that
this rhythm corresponds to a type of frontal theta activity that is associated with
mental task engagement described in the literature. Gundel and Wilson22found an
increased theta power with higher memory-load in a Stemberg memory search task
with acoustically presented probes. Mecklinger, Kramer, and Strayerz3also found
an increased power in the theta band as a function of memory load in a semantic
memory search task. Similar appearances of fronto-midline theta during mental
task performance were described by Mizuki, Takii, Nishijima, and Inanaga3’ and
were attributed to concentrated attention. In a deep-sea diving simulation, Lorenz,
Lorenz, and Heineke24observed a correlation between theta power and memory
load in a memory search task, which also used letter stimuli. The effect increased
markedly during the 33-day dive to a simulated depth of 450 meters. This suggests
a synergistic effect of task load and suboptimal environmentalconditions.The most
striking theta increases occurred during the mid decompression phase, where
performance deteriorations had already recovered. Thus, in accordance with the
present study, Fz-theta was accompanied with an efficient rather than a degraded
performance during the dive. The correlation with the high subjectively reported
level of concentration in the present study further supports the assumption that
mental effort is linked to the generation of the frontal theta wave.

A subset of the AGARD-STRESbattery including memory search, unstable track-
ing, and a combination of both tasks (dual-task), was applied repeatedly to the four
chamber crew members before, during, and after the 60-day isolation period of
EXEMSI. Five ground control group members served as a control group. A
subjective state questionnaire was also included. The results were subjected to a
quantitative single-subject analysis. Electroencephalograms (Em)were recorded
to permit correlation of changes in task performance with changes in the physi-
ological state. Evaluation of the EEG focused on spectral parameters of spontane-
ous EEG waves. No physiological data were collected from the control group.,
Significant decrements in tracking ability were observed in the chamber crew.
The time course of these effects followed a triphasic pattern with initial deteriora-
tion, intermediaterecovery to pre-isolation baseline scores after the first half of the
isolation period, and a second deterioration towards the end. None of the control
group subjects displayed such an effect. Memory search (speed and accuracy) was
only occasionally impaired during isolation, but the control group displayed a
similar pattern of changes. It is suggested that a state of decreased alertness causes
tracking deterioration,which leads to a reduced efficiency of sustained cue utiliza-
tion. The assumption of low alertness was further substantiated by higher fatigue
ratings by the chamber crew compared to those of the control group,
Analysis of the continuous EEG recordings revealed that only two subjects
produced reliable alpha wave activity (8-12 Hz) over Pz and, to a much smaller
extent, Fz-theta wave activity (5-7 Hz) during task performance. In both subjects
Pz-alpha power decreased consistently under task conditions involving single-task
and dual-task tracking. Fz-theta activity was increased more by single-task and
dual-task memory search than by single-task tracking. The alpha attenuation
appears to be associated with an increasing demand on perceptual cue utilization
required by the tracking performance. In one subject marked attenuation of alpha
power occurred during the first half of the confinement period, where he also scored
the highest fatigue ratings. A striking increase in fronto-central theta activity was
observed in the same subject after six weeks of isolation. This change was
associated with an efficient rather than a degraded task performance, and a high
rating of the item “concentrated” and a low rating of the item “fatigued.” This
finding supports the hypothesis that the activation state associated with increased
fronto-central theta activity accompanies efficient performance of demanding
mental tasks.
The usefulness of standardized laboratory tasks as monitoring instruments is
demonstrated by the direct comparability with results of studies obtained fromother
relevant research applications using the same tasks. The feasibility of a self-admin-
istered integrated psychophysiological assessment of the individual state was
illustrated by the nearly completecollection of data. The large number of individual
data collected over the entire period permitted application of quantitative single-
subject analysis, allowing reliable determination of changes in the individual state
in the course of time. It thus appears that this assessment technique can be adapted
for in-flight monitoring of astronauts during prolonged spaceflights. Parallel EEG
recording can provide relevant supplementary information for diagnosing the
individual activation state associated with task performance. The existenceof large
individual differences in the generation of task-sensitive EEG rhythms forms an
important issue for further studies.
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23. Mecklinger, A., Kramer. A.F.. Strayer, D.L. Event-Related Potentials and EEG Components in a
Semantic Memory Search Task. Psychophysiology. 2 9 104-1 19,1992.
24. Lorem. J., Lorenz. B.. Heineke, M. Effect of Mental Task Load on Frontc&mral Theta Activity
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25. Van Winsum, W.. Sergeant, J., G e m . R. The Functional Significance of Event-Related D ~ ~ -
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Clinical Neurophysiology. 58519-524. 1984.
26. Fassbender. C.. Goeters. K. Definition of Psychological Testing of Astronaut Candidatesfor
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30. Jaspers. H.H. The Ten-?\verity Electrode System of the International Federation. Electroencepha-
lography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 20:37 1-375. 1958.
31. Mecklinger. A., Friederici, A,, Giissow, T. Attention and Mental Performance in Confinement:
Evidence from Cognitive Psychophysiology. In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 5
(S.L. Bonting, Ed.), pp. xx-xx. JAI Press, Greenwich, C
l', 1995.
32. Kirk, R.E. Experimental Design, 2nd ed., Brooks/Cole, Belmont. 1982.
33. Hibbs, D.A. Jr. Problem of Statistical Estimation and Casual Inference in Time-Series Regression
Models. In: Sociological Methodology (H.C. Cosmer, Ed.), pp. 252-308, Jossey-Bass. San
Francisco, 1974.
34. Glass. G.V., Willson, V.L. Gottman, Y.M. Design and Analysis of lime-Series Experiments,
Boulder, Associated University Press, 1975.
35. Sirevaag. E., Kramer. A., de Jong. R.. Mecklinger, A. A Psychophysiological Analysis of Multi-
Task Processing Demands. Psychophpiology. 25(Suppl.):482, 1988.
36. Bhel. R. Langsames Alpha im EEG-Powerspektrum als Indikator fiir konzeptuelle Bean-
spruchung (Slow Alpha in the EEG Power Spectrum as Indicator for Conceptual Load). Zeitschrifr
fur experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 3372-395, 1992.
37. Mizuki, Y.. Takii. 0.. Nishijima, H., Inanaga, K.The Relationship between the Appearance of
Frontal Midline Theta Activity and Memory Function. Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophysiology. 56.56, 1983.
Chapter 10
ATTENTION AND MENTAL

PERFORMANCE IN CONFINEMENT:
EVIDENCE FROM COGNITIVE
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY
A. Mecklinger, A.D. Friederici, and T. Gussow
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 185
A. Subjects.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
B. Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
C. Recording of Event-Related Brain Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
D. Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
111. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
A. Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
B. Event-Related Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
IV. Discussion . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Volume 5, pages 183-u)o
All rights of reproductionin any fom reserved.
ISBN:1-55938-970-2
183
1 84 A. MECKLINGER, A.D. FRIEDERICI, and T. GUSSOW
1. INTRODUCTION
Studies on human subjects during confinement and isolation for extended periods
have shown that performance under these extreme conditions can be substantially
degraded. Weybrew' reported decreases in motor performance and in visuomotor
coordination within the first two weeks of a 60-day confinement period. Other
studies suggest that prolonged isolation and confinement can lead to mild intellec-
tual impairment and motivational d e ~ l i n e . ~ . ~ ~ ~
The goal of the present study was to examine to what extent confinement and
isolation affect mental performance and attention. Attention is constituted by two
primary aspects: intensity and ~ e l e c t i v i t y . It
~ ~is~ *generally
~ assumed that the
intensity aspect is an energizing force required for adequate task performance.
Attention is considered to be a resource with a limited capacity, which can be
allocated in a flexible way to various information processing activities,constituting
~ * ~ ~ capacity can be raised or lowered by the
the selectivity a ~ p e c t . 8 *Attentional
subject or by influences outside the subject's control. Given these characteristics
of the attentional system, failures in human performance can be attributed to a
shortage in the supply of attentional resources necessary for task performance.
Various ways of measuring attentional capacity have been proposed, which can
be divided in subjective and objective methods. Subjective measurements (e.g.,
verbal reports) are criticized because of their retrospective nature. Direct objective
measurements of performance on a given task are considered to be a poor indicator
for the allocation of attention for two reasons: (1) these measurements often do not
reflect changes in attention investment due to changes in task difficulty, and (2)
they do not indicate the source of the attentional I.imitati0n.6.~Another direct
measurement involves the recording of event-related potentials (ERP)from the
brain. These potentials have repeatedly been found to provide reliable information
on the allocation of attentional resources.
The event-related potential is a transient series of voltage oscillations in the brain
that can be measured from the scalp in response to the occurrence of a discrete
event." It can be partitioned in a number of components, which are identified by
their polarity and minimum latency. The most prominent event-related potential
component is the P300 wave, a large positive deflection with a latency of at least
300 ms after stimulus onset. The P300 is influenced by stimulus recognition and
evaluation processes, while response-related processes have little or no impact on
this component.6." The observation that the P300 is elicited by unexpected and
task-relevant events has led to the assumption that it is a manifestation of neuronal
activity, invoked whenever there is a need to update or modify an inferred internal
model of the en~ironment.'~.'~ Its latency depends.on the time needed to evaluate
task-relevant events, while its amplitude reflects the amount of attentional resources
allocated to these proce~ses.'~
Given these characteristics, the P300 component of the event-related potential
seems to be a suitable parameter for the attentional capacity during task perform-
ance, because it not only indicates attentional limitations but, in conjunction with
Event-related Potentials in Confinement 185
reaction time measures, also allows to localize the limitations to specific informa-
tion processing structures.
In this study, we have examined how 60 days of confinement and isolation can
affect the allocation of attention in an auditory classification task by recording
event-related potentials in a confined experimental group and a non-confined
control group.

A. Subjects
A total of nine subjectsparticipated in the study. There was an experimental group

of four subjects and a control group of five subjects. All subjects were in good
health, physically and psychologically.
The experimental group comprised the four subjects selected to form the EX-
EMS1 chamber crew, who were isolated and confined inside a space station-like
complex for a period of 60 days. The mean age of the experimental group was 29
years (range: 2634).
The control group was made up of five college students from the Free University
Berlin, who were paid for their participation in the study. The mean age was 24
years (range: 2 1-30). The subjects in the control group continued to live according
to their individual pace throughout the 10-week experimental period.
6. Experimental Procedure
Stimuli
The stimuli were pure tones presented binaurally with headphones. The tones
lasted 50 ms with a risdfall time of 5 ms, and their intensity was adjusted to a sound
pressure level of 60 dB. The tone pitches were 1000 Hz and 1500 Hz.The tones
were presented with an interstimulus interval of 1700 ms. Tone presentation and
the collection of the behavioral data were controlled by a 386-IBM compatible
computer in both groups.
Task of the Subjects
The task of the subject was to respond to the low tones by pressing the space key
of a computer keyboard, and not to respond to the high tones. The subjects were
instructed to respond as quickly as possible, while maintaining a high level of
accuracy. Each session included 4 blocks of 300 tones.each (see Figure 1).
After two blocks there was a short break of 2-3 minutes. In each session the
proportion of low tones within a block was changed, e.g., from 20% in the first
block to 80% in the second block. After the break, the proportion of low tones within
a block was again changed, e.g., from 80% in the third block to 20% in the fourth
block. The order of the changes in low tone proportion (from 20% to 80% or from
1 86 A. MECKLINCER, A.D. FRlEDERlCl, and T. GUSSOW
1
r--- I I
T
Block ~
- -
R1 I ---
F2
I
low 20% low 80% low 80% low 20%
high 80% high 20% high 20% high 80%
i l I-- ,
17 min 17 min
figure 1. Structure of the experimental sessions.
80% to 20%) was balanced across sessions and subjects. Thus, the experimental
design yields the following four conditions within each session:
0 The first block with a high proportion of low tones (80%):F1.
The second block with a high proportion of low tones: F2

The first block with a low proportion of low tones (20%): R1.
0 The second block with a low proportion of low tones: R2.
Experiment Schedule
The subjects in the experimentalgroupperformed the task once before and once after
the isolation period, while they performed the task once a week on pre-determined
weekdays during the isolation period. This yielded a pre-isolation and a post-iso-
lation baseline session as well as eight sessions during the isolation period.
The subjects in the control group participated in 10 sessions within a 10 week
period in order to provide the same session timing as for the experimental group.
The control group sessions were held in the Cognitive Science Laboratory of the
Free University, Berlin. Each of the sessions lasted approximately 1.5 h. The
subjects in both groups were informed of the importance of avoiding large move-
ments during the recording session.
C. Recording of Event-Related Brain Potentials
In the experimental group, the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded with

Ag/AgCl electrodes from three midline sites (frontal, central, and parietal) accord-
ing to the international 10-20 system. All EEG electrodes were referenced to linked
mastoids. One ground electrode was positioned halfway between the frontal and
the central electrodesites. The scalp and mastoid electrodeswere aftixed with Grass
electrode cream. The electro-oculogram (EOG) was recorded from two electrodes
positioned above and beside the right eye. Electrode impedance was kept below 5
KOhms. The EEG and EOG were amplified with a portable amplifier system
(VITAPORT) with a 5-sec time constant. All signals were recorded continuously
during the entire session and were A-D converted with 8-bit resolution at a rate of
128 Hz.Data collection was controlled by an Apple LC computer.Electrode fixing
and data acquisition were performed by the crew members.
For the control group the recording procedures were the same, except that (i) tin
electrodes were used for EEG recording and (ii) an amplifier system with a 1.6 sec
time constant (ESMED) with 12-bit resolution for A-D conversion was employed.
D. Data Analysis
Performance Data
The reaction time (RT) was defined as the interval between the onset of tone
presentation and the subject’s response. Reaction times of less than 200 ms and
more than 1200 ms were excluded from the analyses. All reaction time averages
were composed of correct responses only.
Event-Related Potential Data
Event-related potentials, time-locked to the tones, were recorded from 200 ms

prior to probe onset until 1000 ms after onset. Only epochs with correct responses
were included in the analysis. A baseline, averaged across the 200 ms period
preceding the tones, was subtracted from each data point in the waveforms. Epochs
containingocular artefacts (criterion:+/-50 microvolt)or movement artefacts were
excluded from further analysis. Rejection rates for ERP trials in the experimental
group were 30%, 19%,21%. and 21 % for the subjects B, D, G,and H,respectively.
The rejection rates in the control group were 5 % , 5.4%, 20%, 6.7% and 42.7% for
the subjects 1 to 5,respectively.For subjects 1-4 they were thus considerably better
than in theexperimental group. Subject averages werecomputed separately for each
tone in the four conditions (Fl, F2, R1, and R2) and for each of the sessions. Prior
to the estimation of the P300 components, the individual waveforms were filtered
by means of a digital low pass filter (-3dB at 10Hz,-45dB at 23 Hz).Theamplitude
of the P300 was defined as the maximum positive deflection (relative to the
pre-stimulus baseline) occurring between 280 and 600 ms after the stimulus. The
latency of the P300 was defined as the time elapsing between onset of stimulus and
reaching of the maximum positive amplitude.
Performance data and event-related potential data were analyzed by analysis of
variance in ANOVA designs with the between-subject factor group (experimen-
tal/control). In order to increase the power of the statistical tests the within-subject
factor ‘time’ was considered to be composed of three levels: beginning, middle and
end. The first level included the data of the first two weeks of the isolation period
(sessions 1 and 2), the second level was composed of the sessions performed in
188 A. MECKLINGER, A.D. FRIEDERICI, and T. GUSSOW
weeks 4 and 5. whereas the third level included the data collected in weeks 7 and
8. For thecontrol group the correspondingsessions were selected. In order to correct
for violations of sphericity for the repeated measure ANOVAs, degrees of freedom
were adjusted if necessary according to the Greenhouse-Geisser procedure.l5
111. RESULTS
This section is organized in the following manner: First, the results of the analysis
of the performance measures, reaction time and accuracy, are reported. Secondly,
the event-related potential data, focusing on the analysis of the P300 component,
are described. Thirdly, a series of analyses, addressing the relationship between
.--.
performance and event-related potentials, are reported.
0-0 F1
0-0 F2
0-0 Rl
R2
I pre
: 91
: 52: 53: S4: 56: S8: W: 98: post
:
Sesaion
Erp. Group
.--.
0-0 P1
0-0 P2
0-0 R1
R2
1604 : : : : : : : : : :
pro 91 52 53 51 s6 S6 97 S8 post
ssplon
Conk. Group
Figure 2. Group averages for reaction times during isolation and pre- and post-iso-
lation periods. Top panel: experimental group, bottom panel: control group. S7-8
weekly sessions during isolation period; F 7: frequent low tones; F2:frequent low tones;
R7: rare low tones; R 2 rare low tones. Bars represent standard error.
Event-relatedPotentials in Confinement 1 89
A. Performance Measures
Figure 2 presents the group averages for the reaction times for the eight sessions
during isolation as well as for thepre- and post-isolation sessions forthe twogroups.
The data are superimposed for the four experimental conditions, R1,R2, F1,and
F2. As is apparent from Figure 2, the reaction times were shorter in the two
0-0 Fl
0-0 n
0-0 R1
.-a R2
pre S1 S2 53 S4 55 S6 S7 SE post
Session
Exp. Group
0-0 F1
.-a p2
0-0 R1
a-0 R2
8 0 4 : : : : : : : : : :
pro S 1 S2 99 S4 SS S6 S7 S 8 p w t
S.msion
Contr. Group
figure 3. Group averages for performance accuracy during isolation and pre- and
post-isolation periods. Top panel: experimental group, bottom panel control group.
Symbols as in Figure 2.
190 A. MECKLINGER, A.D. FRlEDERlCl, and T. GUSSOW
Session 1 Session 8
Contr. Group
-Low tone
.... H l g h t o n e
...:"
:iIl'
10
0
,I
1
I
:
0.5 1
. ... :. . _.."......._...... lfjlk,

10
I
.. ...
.. ..
.. ...
0.5
;
1
..._........ ......,_..
5
0 0.5 1
: i
. I
Figure 4. Group averages for event-related potentials of control group recorded at

frontal (Fz), central (Cz) and parietal site (Pz). (a) Elicited by the tones in condition R1
in session 1 (left panel) and session 8 (right panel) (b) Same in condition F1.
(continued)
conditions with frequent responses (F1 and F2) than in the conditions with rare
responses (R1 and R2). This is true for both experimental and control group.
Reaction times in the two conditions with rare responses (R1 and R2) were longer
for the experimental group than for the control group. These observations were
confirmed by a significant main effect of condition, F(3,21) = 66.85, p c 0.0001,
and a two-way interaction of condition x group, F(3,21) = 8.43, p < 0.003, in an
ANOVA with factors, group (two levels), condition (four levels) and time (three
levels).
Session 1 Session 8
Contr. Group
-lok ........ . .
0 . - .L . . - ' : L
................
I i:.
... .$..
:,
10 .. ..
.. .
.
5
0 0.5 1
tone
-LON
....... High tone
' 0 l 0 [ ..........
6 ........
.. .
10
. ..
.. ....
..
. ..
.. I
0 ..: 0 5 . 1
......
... ...
. .
0 0.5 1 0 0 5 1
Figure 4. (Continued)
Figure 3 presents the performance accuracy for the eight sessions during isolation
as well as for the pre- and post-isolation sessions for the two groups. Performance
accuracy in both groups was lower for the frequent response conditions (F1 and
F2) than for the rare response conditions (R1 and R2): F(3,21) = 14.16, p c 0.001.
Moreover, the experimental group seems to have made more errors in the third time
period (sessions 7 and 8), especially for the frequent response conditions. These
observations were confirmed by a three-way interaction of group x condition x
time, F(6,42) = 2.59, p c 0.03. It is noteworthy that for both reaction time and
Seasion 1 Session 8
Exp. Group
-10
I:t
-10
Figure5 Group averagesforevent-relatedpotentials of experimental group recorded

at frontal (Fz), central (Cz)and parietal site (Pz).(a) Elicited by the tones in condition
R l in session 1 (leftpaned and session 8 (right paned (b) Same in condition F1.
(continued)
performance accuracy the group factor had a weak effect, which suggests that the
overall performance was not different for the two groups.
The behavioral data suggest that confinement affects performance in auditory
classification differently for conditions with rare and frequent responses. There was
a decline in performance when responses to tones presented with low probability
were required, whereas no such decline was observed in the conditions with
frequent responses.
Sesaion 1 Seasion 6
Ekp. Group
FZ
0 ... '5. . . . . _ ~ _
. . 0 : 5. ...._.... .
... ... ... ....... .:.. ...
:. .. . . . . . . . .
.... ..
..
-10 -10
l/jJyy
5
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
a
-LON tone
....... High tone 0 . ?:
>.:: : .............7
-10 .i i.
i/
S
0 0.5 0 0.5 1
lok lok
0 . ..
" - -. 0 ......
::
...
.. . ..... '
......... ._. i'
.!, . ..
.-. .... .......
I
... .. ....
-10
.. .. -10 ,...
! . .
: : t i
5 5
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 I
Figure 5. (Continued)
B. Event-Related Potentials
General Characteristics
Figure 4 presents the grand average event-related potentials in sessions 1 and 8

for the control group; Figure 5 those for the experimental group. The conditions
with rare low tones are displayed in Figures 4a and 5a; those with frequent low
tones in Figures 4b and 5b.
1 94 A. MECKLINGER, A.D. FRIEDERICI, and T. GUSSOW
The event-related potentials in both groups show a negative component with a

latency of about 100 ms, which decreases in amplitude from the frontal over the
central to the parietal electrode site. Based on latency and scalp distribution this
component will be referred to as N100. The NlOO has an amplitude of the same
magnitude for low and high tones at each electrode site. It is followed by a large
positive deflection, which reaches its maximum amplitude between 300 and 400
ms after stimulation and becomes increasingly positive from the frontal to the
parietal electrode site. This is the P300 component.
Visual inspection of the waveforms reveals three noteworthy aspects:
1. Rare tones elicit larger P300 components than frequent tones in both groups
and for both sessions 1 and 8. However, this probability effect, defined as the
difference in P300 amplitude for rare and frequent events, yields different scalp
distributions for rare low tones (Figures 4a and 5a) and rare high tones (Figures 4b
and 5b). For rare low tones the probability effect is most pronounced at the parietal
site, whereas for rare high tones it is broadly distributed over the scalp.
2. The NlOO and P300 components have a higher amplitude for the control
group than for the experimental group. Since the NlOO amplitude covaries with the
characteristics of the physical stimulus, it is reasonable to assume that the reduced
amplitude of the two components in the experimental group reflects the higher
acoustic noise level in the isolation chamber, as compared to that in the silent
laboratory room where the control group sessions were performed.
3. The probability effect in the P300 amplitude for rare low tones is almost
absent at the frontal and central sites in the experimental group, whereas in the
control group it can be observed at those sites (Figures 4a and 5a). This result is
probably due to the fact that one of the four subjects in the experimental group
showed a large negative motor potential over the frontal and central cortex prior to
the responses to the low tones, which presumably overlapped the P300 component.
Hence, the absence of the probability effect at the frontal and central sites for the
experimental group is probably an artefact of the overlapping motor potential in
this one subject. For this reason the analysis of the P300 component is restricted to
that recorded at the parietal electrode site.
P300 Amplitude
The group averages for the P300 amplitude at the parietal electrode site for rare
low tones (condition R1) are displayed in Figure 6 and for rare high tones (condition
F1) in Figure 7. The figures show that a probability effect is obtained for the P300
amplitudein both conditionsfor both groups of subjects. In the experimental group,
the P300 elicited by rare low tones appears to decrease in amplitude during the
isolation period, but not in the corresponding sessions of the control group (Figure
6).
low tonu: rare

90
0 low
Sdon
Contr. Group
low tones: rare
(7 low
hieh
Seadon
E.P. Group
figure 6. Group averages for P300 amplitude recorded at the parietal electrode for
each session in the R1 condition. Top panel: control group, bottom panel: experirnen-
tal group. Bars represent standard error.
In contrast, in the condition with rare high tones the P300 amplitude was constant
throughout the experimental sessions in both groups. These observations were
again quantified in ANOVAs performed separately for P300 amplitude elicited in
the R1 and the F1 conditions. The factors were group, time (beginning, middle,
end) and probability (20% vs 80%).The ANOVA performed for the R1 condition
revealed a main effect of probability,F( 1,7) = 32.56, p ~0.00072, and an interaction
group x time x probability, F(2,14) = 5.81, p c 0.01. For the F1 condition a main
Control Croup
Mghwrsre
ZO
is
10
0
pros1 82 s9 84 ss 88 57 88poIt
W o n
Experimental Croup
Mgh bum r u m
pro 91 92 93 S4 95 S8 57 58 p o d
Figure 7. Group averages for P300 amplitude recorded at the parietal electrode for
each session in the F1 condition. Toppanel:control group; bottompanel: experimental
group. Bars represent standard error.
effect of probability was obtained, F(1,7) = 34.32, p < 0.006.whereas the triple
interaction was not significant (p = 0.24).
In summary, the waveforms of the event-related potentials show no group
differences in the time period within 200 ms after stimulus onset, suggesting that
the early phase of auditory information processing is not affected by confinement
and isolation. The results for the P300amplitude,however, reveal substantial group
differences, especially, for the processing of rare low tones starting in the middle
of the isolation period.
Ratio of Reaction Time and latency of P300
An important question is whether the increase in reaction time to the rare tones
observed for the experimental group is due to the slowing of processes occurring
before or after the P300 component. This was examined by computing the ratio of
reaction time and P300 latency (RTP300 ratio) at the parietal electrode site
separately for each session, condition and subject. This ratio gives an indication of
the proportion of the stimulus evaluation process that has transpired at the moment
the response is released.I6
Figure 8 presents the group averages of the RTP300 ratio for both groups in all
sessions. A reference value in the figure is the horizontal line plotted at a RTP300
ratio of 1 which reflects equality of P300 latency and reaction time. Values larger
than 1 indicate that P300 appeared before the end of the reaction time, whereas
Control Group
pro S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S8 57 S8 post
Session
Experimental Group
Figure 8. Group averages ratio of reaction time to P300 latency for each session and
condition. Top panel: control group, bottom panel: experimental group. Symbols as
in Figure 2.
values smaller than 1 indicate that P300 followed the reaction time. As apparent
from the figure, in the conditions with frequent low tones (F1 and F2) the RT/P300
ratios were nearly equal for the two groups, and they slightly decreased from the
first to the last session. However, for rare low tones the ratios were markedly
different for the two groups. While the RTP300 ratios started at about the same
level in the pre-mission session, the ratios decreased with time in the control group
(Figure 8, top panel). In contrast, the ratios for the experimental group increased
and yielded values larger than 1 throughout the isolation period (Figure 8, bottom
panel). A three-way ANOVA with factors group, condition, and time reveals a
significant main effect for condition,F(3,21) = 23.32, p c 0.0001. and an interaction
between group and condition, F(3,21) = 14.54, p c O.OOO1.
The results obtained for the RTP300 ratio allow us to extend the results found
for the reaction time to a diagnosis of the source of the performance decrement in
the experimental group. The control group is capable of emitting fast and accurate
responscs after a shorter stimulus evaluation in the conditionswith rare and frequent
responses, but this is not so for the conditionswith rare responses in the experimen-
tal group. Thus, it appears that the extraction of perceptual information,especially
in conditionswith rare responses, becomes less efficient during isolation.The large
RTP300 ratios obtained in these conditionsindicate that accurate responses require
more extensive evaluation of the tones during isolation.
IV. DISCUSSION
The present study examines the effects of confinement and isolation on mental
performance and the allocation of attention. Although the small group sizes made
statistically reliable comparisons within each group impossible, the between-group
comparisons reveal some important results.
The analysis of the performance data, reaction time, and accuracy indicates that
mental processes underlying tone classification are differently affected by confine-
ment and isolation. While performance in the conditions with frequent responses
was comparable in the experimental and the control group, the responses to rare
tones were prolonged for the experimental group. These prolonged responses were
associated with a decrease in performance accuracy within the last two weeks of
the isolation period. This suggests that the observed performance changes are not
due to a change of strategy, i.e.. a slower reaction in order to maintain accuracy.
Two conclusions can be drawn from this study of recorded brain potentials. First,
the proportion of EEG recordings, which were rejected because of an electro-ocular
response and other artefacts, was only slightly smaller in the control group than in
the experimental group (16% vs 23%). This suggests that the between-group
differences found for the event-related potentials were not due to differences in the
signal-to-noise ratio of the waves. Secondly, between-group differences in the
event-related potential waveforms did not occur within 200 ms after tone onset.
€vent-relatedPotentials in Confinement 199
This suggests that the early sensory phase of information processing is not affected
by confinement and isolation.
Further conclusions are drawn from the P300 component. The P300 amplitude
elicited by rare low tones decreased with increasing duration of isolation, while it
remained constant for the control group. These results resemble those found in other
studies where decreasing P300 amplitude was correlated with time-on-task and
fatigue" as well as with increasing task diffi~u1ty.l~ It is reasonable to ascribe this
reduction of P300 amplitude to a lowering of attentional capacity in conditions
where infrequent responses are required. This suggests that with increasing length
of isolation it becomes increasingly difficult to keep the allocation of attentional
resources on a constant level throughout the session, or that more fluctuations in
attentional state occur. This lowering of attentional capacity occurs only when rare
responses are required, whereas the P300 amplitude after frequent responses does
not differ between the two groups. Apparently, isolation has a strong impact on the
attentional state especially during monitoring tasks in which rare responses are
required for extended periods of time.18
An important question is which cognitiveprocesses are affected by these limita-
tions of attentional capacity. In order to answer this question, the ratio of reaction
time to P300 latency was computed. This ratio provides a measure of the efficiency
of perceptual information extraction: low values indicate that subjects are able to
respond quickly and accurately on the basis of shorter evaluation of the stimulus,
while high values suggest that responses can be released only after complete
evaluation of the s t i m ~ l u s . ' ~The
" ~ results indicate that extraction of information
in conditions with rare responses is less efficient during isolation. Apparently,
attentional limitations during isolation mainly affect extraction of perceptual infor-
mation from rare events, whose detection and classification requires more process-
ing capacity than frequent events.20

In summary, the results provide several lines of evidence for the assumption that
confinement and isolation for a period of 60 days attenuate attentional capacity
differentially during auditory classification: the extraction of information from low
probability events, but not from high probability events, is decreased by attentional
limitations.
With the advent of automatic control systems there is an increasing number of
operations which require the monitoring of information sources for low probability
critical stimuli for extended periods of time. Given the functional similaritiesof the
task employed in this study and the monitoring tasks in practical settings,the results
of this study should be considered as a human factor concern for control operations
taking place under conditions of confinement and isolation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the European Space Agency (ESA), the Alfried Krupp von
Bohlen und Halbach-Stiftung and by a grant from the Stlndige Kommission fur Forschung
und wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchs (FNK) at the Freie Universitat Berlin. We wish to thank
Erdmut Heifer, Jiirgen Lorenz and Bernd Lorenz for their helpful assistance in this study.
REFERENCES
1. Weybrew, B.B. Impact of Isolation upon Personnel. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 3290-
294, I%].
2. COMO~S. M.M., Harrison, A.A., Akins. F.R. Psychology and the resurgent space program.
American Psychologist, 41(8):90&913, 1986.
3. Smith, S. Studies of small groups in confinement. In: Sensory Deprivation: Fifeen Years of
Research (J.P. Zubek. Ed.), pp. 374-401. Appleton-Century-Crofts.New York, 1969.
4. Oberg, J.E.. Oberg, A.R. Pioneering Space. McGraw-Hill,New York. 1986.
5. Shiffrin, R.M. Anention. In: Stevens 'Handbookof Erperimental Psychology, Vol. 2. Learning and
Cognition ( R.C. Atkinson, R.3. Hermskin, L. Gardner, G. Lindzey, D.R. Luce. Eds). Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1988.
6. Gopher. D.. Donchin. E. Workload, an Examination of the Concept. In: Handbook of Perception
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1984.
7. Kahneman. D. Anention and Efon. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1973.
8. Kramer. A.F.. Spinks.J. CapacityViews of Human InformationProcessing. In: Psychophysiology
of Human Information Processing: An Integration of CentralaridAutonomic Nervous System (J.R.
Jennings, M.G.H. Coles, Eds). Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1990.
9. Kramer, A.F.. Sirevaag. EJ., Braune, R. APsychophysiologicalAssessment of OperatorWorkload
during Simulated Flight Missions. Human Factors. 2 9 145-160. 1987.
10. Kramer, A. F. Event-RelatedBrain Potentials. In: Psychophysiology and the Electtvriic Workplace
(A. Gale, B. Christie, Eds.). Wiley, Chichester, 1987.
11. Donchin. E., Coles. M.G.H. Is the P300 Component a Manifestation of Context Updating?
Eeliavioral and Erain Sciences, 11:375-372, 1988.
12. Donchin, E. Surprise! ... Surprise? Psychophysiology. 18493-515. 1981.
13. Mecklinger, A.. Ullsperger, P. P3 Varies with Stimulus Categorization Rather than Probability.
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 8 6 3 9 5 4 7 , 1993.
14. Mecklinger, A., Knmer. A.F.. Strayer, D. Event-Related Potentials and EEG Components in a
Semantic Memory Search Task. Psychophysiology,2 9 104-1 19. 1992.
15. Greenhouse, S.W., Geisser, S. On Methods in the Analysis of Profile Data. Psychometrika.
24~95-112. 1959.
16. Coles, M.G.H., Granon. G. Cognitive Psychophysiologyand the Study of States and Processes.
In: Energetics and Human ltlformation Processing (G.R.J. Hockey, A.W.K. Gaillard M.G.H.
Coles, Eds.), Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1986.
17. Humphrey, D.L.. Travis, K., Stanny. R.. & Kramer, A. Effects of Fatigue on Automatic and
Non-Automatic Processes. Psychophysiology, 28:S30. 1991.
18. Fisk, A.D., Schneider.W. Memory as a Function of Attention,Level of Processing, and Automat-
ization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memoy, and Cognition. 1 0 181-197,
1984.
19. Kramer, A.F., Strayer. D.L. Assessing the development of automatic processing: An application of
dual-task and event-related brain potential methodologies. Eiologicnl Psychology, 2623 1-267.1988.
20. Warm, J.S. Sustained Anention in Human Performance. Wiley, New York, 1984.
Chapter 11
SIMULATIONS OF CIRCADIAN SYSTEM

A N D VIGILANCE DURING SPACE
MISSIONS
Peter Achermann and Alexander A . Borbdy
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
I1 . Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
A . Modeling the Circadian System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
B . Modeling Alertness and Sleepiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
111. Sleepwake Cycles during Space Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
A . The D-1ShuttleBpacelab Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
B . The STS-35 Shuttle Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
IV. Simulation of the Circadian System under Space Conditions . . . . . . . . . 205
A. The D-1ShuttleBpacelab Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
V. Simulation of Alertness in the Space Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
A . The D-1ShuttleBpacelab Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Advances in Space Biology and Mediiine

All rights of reproductionin MYform reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
201
2 02 PETER ACHERMANN and ALEXANDER A. BORBELY
C. Simulation of Sleep Deprivation due to Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . .208

VI. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
VII. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,211
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1. INTRODUCTION
During space missions the crew lives in a very special environment, which may
have repercussions on the sleep-waking cycle and on daytime vigilance. Two types
of disturbances must be anticipated. Sleep may be impaired due to noise, tempera-
ture, weightlessness, stress and unexpected operational demands. These factors
may interfere with sleep continuity and also lead to a curtailment of sleep duration.
A second type of disturbance arises from the absence of the terrestrial 24-hour
light-dark cycle which serves as a natural cue for synchronizingcircadian rhythms.
As a result, the circadian pacemaker, which regulates metabolism, hormone secre-
tion, performance and other parameters, may deviate from its optimal phase-rela-
tion to clock :ime. This may lead to the impairment of sleep and vigilance.
The degradation of sleep is particularly deleterious in long-term missions, since
it may give rise to increased daytime fatigue, impaired performance, disturbed
interpersonal interactions,reduced motivation and deterioratedmood. In evaluating
the risk of sleep disturbances, individual characteristics of the crew (e.g., age,
gender), the type of schedule (e.g., single or dual shift) and the task characteristics
must be taken into account.
In this study models of sleep regulation and the circadian system are used to
simulatethe time course of vigilance and the changes of the circadian system during
realistic space scenarios.The simulation of vigilance is based on the hypothesisthat
an additive interaction of a homeostaticprocess (reflecting the prior history of sleep
and waking) and a circadian process (independent of sleep and waking) underlies
the time course of changes in vigilance.
II. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

A. Modeling the Circadian System
Scheduled exposure to bright light induces parallel phase shifts in the circadian
rhythm of variables, such as core body temperature, levels of plasma cortisol and
plasma melatonin, subjective alertness, cognitive performance and sleep.I4 The
response of the human circadian system to bright light exposure has been formal-
ized in a mathematical model? We used this model to investigate entrainment
properties of the circadian system, and as the circadian component for simulating
alertness. The equations are given in the Appendix.
Circadian System and Vigilance 203
B. Modeling Alertness and Sleepiness
Sleepiness, alertness, and sleep latency have been simulated by different groups
on the basis of an additive interaction of a homeostatic and a circadian process.
These studies have been reviewed by Achermann and Borbd:ly.6
The approach is similar to that of Folkard and Akerstedt? Alertness was simu-
lated by assuming an additive interaction of a circadian and a homeostatic compo-
nent. Additionally, a sleep inertia process was postulated to account for the drop in
SLEEP WAKING SLEEP WAKING

1.0 's--
i Y
-0.4 -- I
1.0
0.5
r---
- 9
(-7 I
0.0-
'O -- I
I
0.0 --.-.-------_~l
0124 12 0124 12 0124
TIME OF DAY [h]
Figure 1. Simulation of alertness and sleepiness.S: homeostatic Process S, increasing

during waking, decreasing during sleep; 1 4 : inverse of Process S; C: circadian process;
I: inertia component; AL: alertness (dots: values sampled at hourly intervals); SL:
sleepiness (dots:values sampled at hourly intervals).The ordinate is scaled in arbitrary
units.
204 PETER ACHERMANN and ALEXANDER A. BORBELY
alertnessin the first few hours after awakening. As proposed in the compositemodel
of sleep regulation? the homeostatic component is directly linked to Process S of
the two-process model of sleep The equations are given in the
Appendix.
Figure 1 illustrates a simulation with this model. In the top four panels the
contributions of the three components are plotted. The dots in the alertness (AL)
and sleepiness (SL) plots indicate that these measures were usually obtained at
discrete time points (in the simulation at hourly intervals). After waking up alertness
showed a transitory decrease, then rose to a plateau level, and finally gradually
declined until sleep onset. Sleepiness showed the opposite pattern. It should be
noted that alertness and sleepiness are subjective measures that can be assessed by
different methods, e.g., visual analog scales or the Stanford Sleepiness Scale.
111. SLEEP-WAKE CYCLES DURING SPACE MISSIONS

Mainly three shift systems have been used so far:
0 single shift operation: all crew members have the same work-sleep schedules;
0 dual shift operation: half of the crew is approximately 12 h out of phase with
respect to the other half;
0 staggered shifts: sleep is organized around the operational constraints.
The latter two shift systems may result in a non-24h sleepwake cycle. It is not
uncommon, due to operational constraints, for several consecutive sleep episodes
to be scheduled on a 22.5-h day."
A. The D-1 Shuttle/Spacelab Mission
For a number of Spacelab missions crew activities were scheduled according to

a dual-shift system: Crew members were divided into two teams, one on-duty, the
other off-duty. Figure 2 (left panel) illustrates the sleep-wake schedule for the two
teams of the D-1 ShuttldSpacelab mission.12 Demands of the mission required for
one part of the crew (red shift) a phase advance of their sleep episodes by 7-1 1 h
with respect to their normal phase. For the other crew a phase delay of 3 h was
scheduled. Phase shifts were already initiated 7 days prior to launch.
B. The STS-35 Shuttle Mission
The STS-35 Shuttle mission provides another example of a dual-shift system.

One team was scheduled to work a regular day, the other team to work regularly at
night and to sleep during the day throughout the mission (time indications are
relative to Houston time). For a better adaptation of the team working at night, a
bright light treatment was administered to them prior to launch. Data from previous
normative studieslP2showed that bright light treatment induces physiological
D1 MISSION STS-35 MISSION
1
- 12 18 0 6 12
TIME OF DAY [h]

Figure 2. Sleep-wakeschedules of two space missions. The data are plotted in raster
format: bars indicate scheduled sleep episodes. Left panel: double-shift operations of
the D-1 Shuttle/Spacelab mission; dark bars represent sleep periods for the “red shift”,
light bars for the “blue shift”; AD: adaptation, M: mission, PM: post-mission (adapted
from Fig. 2 of Wegmann, et aI.l2).Rightpanel: Astro-1 Space Shuttle mission (STS-35).
Solar symbol in the open box indicates the timing of bright light exposures during
quarantine (1 0,000 lux), dashed horizontal lines indicate maintenance light exposure
during quarantine (1,500-3,000 lux). Q: quarantine, M: mission (adaptedfrom Fig. 2
of Czeisler, et al.”).
adaptation to an anticipated schedule.The light-dark schedule for the team working

at night is illustrated in Figure 2 (right panel).”
IV. SIMULATION OF THE CIRCADIAN SYSTEM UNDER

SPACE CONDITIONS
We investigated the effect of various space scenarios on the circadian system. The
following simulations were based on the model of Kronauer.s Without forcing (no
light input) the circadian oscillating variable x has an amplitude of 1 (arbitrary
units).
The timing of rest (sleep) and activity was determined from Fig. 2 in the paper
by Wegmann, et al." The following assumptions on light intensities were made:
Mean light intensity pre-adaptation 1000 Lux, during adaptation 500 Lux, during
mission 150 Lux, and post-mission 500 Lux. The entire protocols of the two shifts
were simulated.
In Figure 3 (left panel) the phase position of the circadian system of the two shifts
are compared (only the mission phase is depicted). No stable phase position of the
circadian system was reached during the mission for the red shift. Aphase-advance
of about 4 h of the minimum with respect to the reference time on ground was
achieved. For the blue shift aphase-delay of about 3 h of the minimum with respect
to the reference time on ground was obtained during the mission. The minima of
the two crews differed by about 7 h.
The timing of rest (sleep), activity, and light treatment were derived from Figure
2 in the paper by Czeisler, et al." The following assumptions on light intensities
were made: Mean light intensity pre-quarantine 1000 Lux, during quarantine
10,000 Lux (4 days) and 2,250Lux (2 days), in-flight 150Lux, otherwise 500 Lux.
The entire protocol was simulated.
* r --REDSHIFT
___
-----I r---
1
6
t
z
3 0
m
U
d
x
I
I
0 6 12 18 24 o 6 12 18 24
TIME OF DAY [hj
Figure 3. Comparison of the simulations of the circadian system of the two shifts of
the 0-1 mission and the shift of the STS-35 mission which was subjected to light
treatment. Only the phase during mission is depicted. Variable x is indicated in
arbitrary units.
Figure 3 (rightpanel) showsthe resultofa simulationfor the crew with light treatment
(only the mission phase is depicted). During quarantine marked transients were
observed (not shown) and a stable phase position (steady state) with a 12 h delay with
respect to the situation on Earth was obtained. The simulation demonstrated that the
timing of the light treatment had been properly chosen. With respect to the minimum
of the circadian system, the two shifts of the STS-35 mission were 180" (12 h) out of
phase whereas the phase difference in the D-1 mission was only 105" (7 h).
V. SIMULATION OF ALERTNESS IN THE SPACE

ENVIRONMENT
Alertness levels for the two shifts (red and blue) of the D-1 mission were
simulated and the results were expressed as a percentage of the mean baseline level
(mean of the two days prior to adaptation; light intensity 1000 Lux). The assumed
light conditions were the same as described above.
During adaptation the phase-advance of the red shift was accompanied by a
decrease in alertness levels. In Figure 4 (left panel) the alertness levels of the red
and the blue shifts during the mission are compared. At all phases of the circadian
cycle the level of alertness was similar over the entire day. The level of alertness
was somewhat higher for the blue shift, which is due to the increased amplitude of
the circadian component. The red shift, however. exhibited a flatter time course.
150
0 REDSHIFT 0 UGt-t'rTREATMENT
BLUESHIFT o NO UGHT TREATMENT
-E 100
cn
v)
W
z
I-
a
Y
< 50
0 _m, I I 1 I I , 1 1 1 .',
Tm_
6 12 18 24 0 6 12 18 24
TIME OF DAY [h]
figure 4. Comparison of the alertness levels of the two shifts of the D-1 mission and
of the STS-35 mission. Only the mission phase is depicted. Alertness was expressed
as percentage of mean baseline levels (LD 18:6, 1000 Lux).
208 PETER ACHERMANN and ALEXANDER A. BORBtLY

Alertness levels for the two shifts (with and without light treatment) of the
STS-35 mission were simulated. Note that Czeisler, et al." presented only the
schedules for the shift that was treated by light. The simulated alertness levels were
expressed as a percentage of the mean baseline level (the same value as for the D-1
mission). The same light conditions were assumed as described above for the shift
with light treatment. A light intensity of 500 Lux was assumed during quarantine
for the shift that was scheduled with respect to Houston time.
For the light-treated shift marked transients were present during quarantine and
a steady state was reached during the mission. The untreated shift remained in a
steady state during quarantine as well as in flight. In Figure 4 (right panel) the
alertness levels of the two shifts are compared. The modulation was stronger than
for the D-1 mission.
C. Simulation of Sleep Deprivation due to Emergencies
Emergencies and special operational demands may lead to partial or total sleep
loss. To investigate the consequences of such events, sleep deprivation scenarios
were simulated. Based on the schedules of the two shifts during the D-1 mission,
.___ . ..
RED SHIFT
-z
I
50- i. o
*
NORMAL
AFTERSLEEP
v) DEPRIVATION
240 252 264 276 288 300 312 324 336 348 360
TlME[h]
Figure 5. Simulation of sleep deprivation in the middle part of the mission. The
simulations were based on the schedules of the red and blue shift of the D-1 mission.
Alertness was standardized as in Fig. 4. Time zero two days prior to adaptation (see
Fig. 2, left panel).
one sleep episode was skipped around the middle part of the mission. The light
conditions were the same as described above. The result is illustrated in Figure 5.
For comparison the undisturbed situation is also shown.
Due to loss of sleep, alertness decreased to very low levels. Such low levels of
alertness may jeopardize crew safety. After the next sleep episode an almost
complete reeovery to normal levels was observed. Properly scheduled naps may
help to enhance alertness 1e~els.I~
VI. DISCUSSION
Work-rest schedules that are misaligned with respect to the circadian rhythm entail
an increased risk of disturbed sleep. The misalignment is reflected by an abnormal
phase relationship to the rhythms of variables that are under the major control of
the circadian pacemaker (e.g., core body temperature).
If sleep does not occur at the habitual phase of the circadian rhythm, the risk of
disturbances (e.g., reduced sleep duration, increased number of arousals) is en-
hanced and the recuperative function of sleep may be impaired.
The maintenance of sleep quality during spaceflights is a major problem. Sleep
complaints are common in reports of space missions. A survey of 58 crew members
from nine Shuttle missions revealed that most crew members suffered from sleep
disruption and were able to sleep on average only six hours per day as compared
to 7.9 hours on the ground. Nineteen percent of the crew members on single-shift
missions and 50% of the crew members in dual-shift operationsreported the use of
sleeping pills during their mission^.'^
Poor sleep in space may impair mission efficiency and jeopardize crew safety,
e.g., by the occurrence of sleep episodes while on duty.
To test the adaptation of the circadian system to weightlessness, the D-1 protocol
was experimentally simulated by Samel,et al.’*with a head-down bedrest condition
to mimic weightlessness. It was concluded: “Pre-mission adaptation similar to that
used in this study will not achieveacceptable synchronization with target shift work
schedules and will be associated with rhythm disturbances lasting longer than
expected. Under operational conditions when the pre-mission schedule cannot be
strictly followed as under laboratory control, the situation could worsen and the
circadian system of astronauts may lengthen and become more destabilized than in
our subjects.” It is known fromjet-lag studies that phase-advance of sleep episodes,
as occurring in eastward travel, causes more difficulties than phase-delays, as
occurring in westward travel (for a review see Akerstedt16).
Bright light treatment is an effective procedure for inducing physiological
adaptation to target shift schedules. However, this procedure is only useful if launch
is not much delayed, since operational demands are scheduled with respect to
mission elapsed time and not to circadian time.
In the empirical data the shape of the circadian component is dependent on the
type of the measured parameter.1*17*18 It is important to keep in mind that the overt
rhythm does not necessarily correspond to the output of the pacemaker, but may
result from its coupling to secondary processes and/or mediators (see Fig. 3.18 in
ref. 19).This complex situation can be illustrated by the rhythm of the core body
temperature, the minimum of which may serve as a phase marker of the circadian
system. Although the rhythms of plasma cortisol and urine output shift concomi-
tantly with the temperature rhythm after exposure to bright light, their shape and
minima are different.' The question thereforearises, how to estimate the parameters
of the circadian process in a model. In the two-process model, the time course of
the homeostatic process (Process S) was derived from EEG slow-wave activity,
whereas the shape and phase position of the circadian process (Process C) were not
based on a physiological variable but were estimated indirectly from data on
circadian sleep duration." In the model of Kronaue? the circadian process is
represented by a Van der Pol oscillator whose output approximates a sine wave and
whose phase and amplitude can be modified by the input of light. The shape and
phase position of the pacemaker is defined for a given light input. Increasing the
light intensity leads to a rise in the amplitude and a phase advance. Depending on
which variable one intends to simulate, transformations (e.g., phase shifts, shape
changes) of the pacemaker output must be postulated. They have not yet been
incorporated in a model, although in simulations of sleep propensity the influence
of various shapes and different phase positions of Process C have been explored.*'
In all simulationsof alertness it is assumed that sleep of equal quality is possible
whenever sleep is scheduled. This assumption was needed, since no data were
available. Obviously, this is a very optimistic assumption. Registration of actual
sleep patterns and assessment of alertness during space missions are needed to test
the predictions of the model.
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

The effects of various space scenarios on the circadian system and alertness were
investigated.
The study of the circadian system under various conditions is important because
core body temperature and many other physiological parameters (e.g., hormone
levels) exhibit prominent circadian variation. The circadian system has a direct
influence on the sleep-wake behavior and thus on performance.
Alertness is an easily accessible subjectiveparameter which is strongly linked to
cognitive performance. Simulation of alertness for different sleepwake schedules
may help to delineate crucial phases during missions and to plan counteractions.
Although the level of alertness can be accounted for by the combination of circadian
and homeostatic processes, additional factors such as motivation or excitementplay
a role.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation grant nr. 31.32574.91
and ESA contract 9702/91FFL(SC).
APPENDIX
Circadian Component (Process C)
(l2.h) . X = X, + 0.13 (X - 4/3 x3) + B

(12h) . X, = -(24/~,)*. x + B X,
*
where B = (1 - m . x) k .I1" and C = A, . x

C: circadian process; x, x,: circadian pacemaker; I: light intensity; B: perceived
brightness; T,: intrinsic period; m: modulation index; k: scaling factor; Ac: scale
factor of circadian amplitude. The model is based on Kronauer.'
Homeostatic Component (Process S)
sleeping: S, = d . S,-l where d = e-Athd
waking: S, = 1 - r(l - S,-l) where r = e-**r

S: homeostatic process, increasing during waking, decreasing during sleep; d:
decay factor of S; r: rise factor of S; T ~ 2,:
, time constants; At: time step.
Note: S is described by a recursive formulation (iteration); time steps indicated by
indices t, t - 1.
lnertia Components
I, = d, I,-l + I, wp + Is sp where d, = e-m~

wp = 1 at waking up, 0 at other times
sp = 1 at sleep onset, 0 at other times
I: inertiacomponent; d,: decay factor of I; T*:time constant;At: time step; wp: pulse
at wake up (initial condition of sleep inertia); I,: force of sleep inertia; sp: pulse at
sleep onset (initial condition of wake inertia); Is: force of wake inertia.
Composition
AL=(1 - S ) + C - I
SL= s - c + I
AL: alertness; S L sleepiness.
Parameters used in the simulations: 5' , = 24.2 h; m = 0.333; k = 0.018; A, = 0.1 333;
~ , = 4 . 2h; T,= 18.2 h; '5, = 0.662 h; I, =0.32; Is =0.32; At =0.1 h.
212 PETER ACHERMANN and ALEXANDER A. BORBCLY
REFERENCES
1. Czeisler, C.A., Kronauer, R.E., Allan. J.S., Duffy, J.F.. Jewett, M.E., Brown, E.N.. Ronda, J.M.
Bright Light Induction of Suong (Type 0) Resetting of the Human Circadian Pacemaker. Science,
W1328-1333, 1989.
2. Czeisler, C.A., Johnson, M.P.. Duffy. J.F., Brown, E.N.. Ronda, J.M., Kronauer. R.E. Exposure to
Bright Light and Darkness to Treat Physiologic Maladaptation to Night Work. New England
Journal of Medicine, 322 1253-1259, 1990.
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4. Shanahan. T.L.. Czeisler, C.A. Light Exposure Induces Equivalent Phase Shifts of the Endogenous
Circadian Rhythms of Circulating Plasma Melatonin and Core Body Temperature in Men. Journal
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Deep Circadian Pacemaker, Based on Human Data. In: Sleep ’90(J.A. Home, Ed.). pp. 306-309.
Pontenagel Press, Bochum, 1990.
6. Achermann, P., BorMly, A.A. Simulation of Daytime Vigilance by the Additive Interaction of a
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Boston, 1992.
8. Achermann, P., BorMly, A.A. Combining Different Models of Sleep Regulation. Journal of Sleep
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9. BorMly, A.A. A’ho-ProcessModelofSleepRegulation.Human Neumbiology, 1:195-204,1982.
10. Dam, S.. Beersma D.G.M.. BorMly, A.A. Tuning of Human Sleep: Recovery Process Gated by
a Circadian Pacemaker. American Journal of Physiology. 246:R161-R178, 1984.
11. Czeisler, C.A., Chiasera, A J., Duffy, J.F. Research on Sleep, Circadian Rhythms, and Aging:
Applications to Manned Spaceflight. Experimental Gerontology, 26217-232. 1991.
12. Wegmann, H.M.,Gundel, A., Klein, K.E.,Samel,A.ImplicationsofShif~orkinSpaceforHuman
Physiology Experiments. In: Proceedings of the 3rd European Symposium on Life Sciences
Research in Space. 14-18 Sept., Austria, pp. 255-258.1987.
13. BorMly, A.A., Achermann,P.Simulafion ofSleepRegulationand Daytime vigilance. Final Report.
ESA Contract 9702/91/F/FL(SC), 1993.
14. Santy, P.A., Kapanka, H.,Davis, J.R.. Stewart, D.F. Analysis of Sleep on Shuttle Missions,
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 5 9 1094-1097, 1988.
15. Samel, A.. Wegmann, H.M., Vejvoda, M., Allmers. H. Shift Schedules in Space: Adaptation
Simulation. Aviation. Space, and Environmental Medicine, Abstract 75, p. 397. 1992.
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Flight Operations. Stress Research Reports 218. Karolinska Institute. Stockholm,1989.
17. Dijk, DJ.. Duffy. J.E. Czeisler, C.A. Circadian and sleep’wake dependenr aspects subjective
alertness and cognitive performance. Journal of Sleep Research, 1:112-1 17. 1992.
18. Johnson, M.P.. Duffy, J.F., Dijk, D.J., Ronda, J.M., Dyal, C.M., Czeisler, C.A. Short-Tern
Memory, Alertness and Performance: A Reappraisal of their Relationship to Body Temperature.
Journal of Sleep Research, 1:24-29, 1992.
19. Moore-Ede. M.C., Sulzman, EM., Fuller, C.A. The Clocks rhar Time Us. Physiology of the
Circadian Timing System. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1982.
20. BorMly, A.A., Achermann. P., Trachsel, L., Tobler. 1. Sleep Initiation and Sleep Intensity:
Interaction of Homeostatic and Circadian Mechanisms. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 4:149-
160,1989.
Chapter 12
CREW COMPATIBILITY A N D
INTERACTION
Gro M. Sandal. Ragnar Vanes. and Holger .Ursin
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
I1. Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
A . Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
B . Communication Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
C . TheSYMLOGSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
D . Daily Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
E . Interpersonal Reaction Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
F. Antarctic Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
G . Post-Isolation Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
I11. Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
A . Communication Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
B . The SYMLOG System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
C . DailySurvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
D . Interpersonal Reaction Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
E. Antarctic Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
F. Post-Isolation Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Advances in Space Biology and Mediiine

All rights of reproduction in MYform reserved .
ISBN:1-55938-97&2
21 3
214 SANDAL, VkRNES, and URSIN
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

A. General Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
B. Group Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
C. Interaction between Crew Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
D. Relationship with Ground Control Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
V. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
1. INTRODUCTION
Interpersonal relationships between crew members can be considered one of the

primary limiting factors for long duration spaceflights.’ Living in a space station
in a small confined area for several months can cause psychological problems.
Interpersonal problems might have a negative impact on performance and well-be-
and may even endanger the mission. Although no systematic psychological
studies have been performed during actual spaceflight, there have been reports of
reduced cohesiveness, territorial behavior, imtability, and interpersonal tension
among astrona~ts!’~’~Similar problems have been found in space simulation
studies’ and groups who have lived together in other isolated and confined envi-
ronments, for example in the Arctic and ant arc ti^.^
The purpose of simulation studies like ISEMSI’ and EXEMSI is to study such
human factor problems and to develop suitable countermeasures in preparation for
long duration missions. In the first simulation study ISEMSI six men were isolated
for 28 days. The studies of the social interaction showed that the crew went through
several distinct stages during the isolation period in terms of cohesion and ability
to relate to one another.8Lasting antagonism was noted early among the three most
dominant crew members, including the Commander, and one of them became
increasingly more unpopular and socially isolated. Group functioning showed a
temporary decline during the second of the four weeks of isolation; the third week
was consistently indicated as the “best” in terms of mood, efficiency and teamwork.
There was a strong tendency towards centralization during the isolation period. The
Commander’s importance increased over time, and also the communication flow
to and from him. A significant increase in emotional expressions, particularly
negative ones, was evident towards the end of the isolation period. Few problems
in relations with ground control personnel were noted. The ISEMSI report’ con-
cluded that more simulation studies are needed in order to expand our under-
standing of the conditions imposed on the crew during future long-term manned
space missions. It was recommended to establish a database on human factors with
varying parameters such as duration, number and sex of crew, and stress, and to
develop such a database according to a well-defined study program over a period
of several years.
This chapter deals with the results from the second simulation study, EXEMSI,
during which a crew of three males and one female were isolated for 60 days. The
Crew Compatibility and Interaction 215
objectives were to study how isolation affected the effectiveness and mood of the
crew, the interaction of the crew members with each other and with the outside
world. In order to compare the results with those of the ISEMSI study, the same
techniques and procedures were used as in ISEMSI. A new questionnaire and a
semi-structured interview were included, because the small number of subjects
made a broad methodological approach desirable.

A. Subjects
The chamber crew consisted of three males and one female, average age 29 years
(range 27-34). The subjects came from different countries, one each from Austria,
the Netherlands, Sweden,and France. One crew member was aphysician, the others
held an academic degree in engineering or physics. One crew member was a trained
astronaut. The subjects were screened for absence of psychopathology, based on
the DSM III criteria and the statistical criteria of the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality InventoIy (MMPI).
B. Communication Analysis
A scoring system based on the speech typology in the Interaction Process

Analysis of Bales was developed? In this method for analyzing interpersonal
behavior in a small group the unit to be scored is a verbal or non-verbal communi-
cation, which in its context can be understood by another member as equivalent to
a single sentence. Each statement is coded into one of the nine categories of
communication listed in Table 1, and in one of the six categories of emotional
Table 1. Speech Act Coding System

Category Definition
Instruction A specific assignment of responsibility by one group member
Acknow ledgment a. Indicates that prior speech act was heard
b. Does not supply additional information
c. Does not evaluate previous speech act
Asks for information Request for factual, objective, and neutral statement
Asks for suggestion Request for recommendation for specific course of action
Asks for opinion Request for statement without limiting nature of response
Gives information Factual, objective, and neutral statement
Gives suggestion Recommendationfor specific course of action
Gives option Statement of subjective, evaluative nature, not limited to factual
information, and which is not a recommendation
Non-codable Speech act which is unintelligibleor unclassifiable with respect to
this coding system
216 SANDAL, VARNES, and URSIN
Table 2. Emotional Quality Coding System

Category Definition
Positive emotion Verbal or non-verbal expressions of pleasure with self, other
persons, or some aspect of task
Negative emotion Verbal or non-verbal expressions of displeasure with self,
other persons, or some aspect of task
Shows tension Signs of anxious emotionality, e.g., laughter, hesitation,
stammering, or confusion
Jokes Humorous remark or expression
Total emotional expression Sum of all the above
Non-codable Act which is unintelligibleor unclassifiable with respect to
this coding system
expression listed in Table 2. The statements are also identified by the speaker and
by the person(s) addressed.
The analysis was based on a 15-minutesequence of the videotape recording of
a weekly group meeting. The videotapes were analyzed in random sequence by two
independent coders who were trained extensively before the experiment. The
intra-class correlation kappa was used to calculate inter-rater agreement.” Satis-
factory level of reliability was set to 0.70.
C. The SYMLOG System

SYMLOG is an acronym for a “System for the Multiple Level Observation of
Groups,” developed by Bales and Cohen as a standardized language for the
description of social behavior.” It consists of an observation system and a ques-
tionnaire, by means of which the personalities of the participating persons and their
relationships with each other are analyzed.
SYMLOG employs three orthogonal dimensions based on factor-analyticstud-
ies, which are presumed to correspond to the most important dimensions on which
people evaluate social behavior:
1. UD dimension, a measure of dominance: U (Upward) vs. D (Downward),

active, influencing, dominant vs. submissive, withdrawing, passive;
2. PN dimension, a measure of social distance; P (Positive) vs. N (Negative),
friendly, open vs. unfriendly, distant;
3. FB dimension, a measure of controlhask-orientation:F (Forward) vs. B
(Backward), controlled, task-oriented vs. emotional expressive.
Through systematic combination of these bipolar dimensions 26 categories are

defined for the coding of social behavior, Reliability for each dimension is 0.98,
0.99 and 0.98 for the UD, PN and FB scales, respectively. Each dimension is
expressed in a numerical scale ranging from -18 to +18.
The questionnaire used is the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Method, which con-
tains 26 items describing different ways of expressing oneself in relation to other
persons in group situations. The subject must state whether the behavior is dis-
played “not often,” “sometimes,” or “often.” The questionnairewas answered once
during the training period, once a week during isolation and once after isolation.
The subjects were instructed to answer according to their impression at the time the
test was taken and not to pay attention to previous ratings. Each subject received
seven copies of the rating form, on which to rate themselves, the other crew
members, the team as a whole, and their perceptions of an “ideal crew member”
and an “ideal team.”
D. Daily Survey
Daily Survey consists of three parts with a total of 19 questions to be answered

on a five-point scale from “negative” (A) to “positive” (E):
Part 1. Team-functioning:Questions on team-functioning, support from ground
control, coordination, and Commander’s performance;
Part 2. Individual mood: Three questions about respondent’s mood;
Part 3. Team mood: Questions on the mood of the team as a whole.
The Daily Survey was completed three times during the training period, every
evening during isolation, and once after isolation.
E. Interpersonal Reaction Scale

This questionnaire,developed by Peter Suedfelt,University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, provides sociornetric information used for developing a picture of
group dynamics (friendship patterns, leadership, subgroups etc.) For 30 descrip-
tions of interpersonal behavior the subject indicates the crew member who best or
least fits the description. It was completed once during the training period, once a
week during isolation, and once after isolation.
F. Antarctic Questionnaire
This questionnaire was developed for use under long duration traverses across
polar regions’* and covers issues assumed to be important for the success of such
expeditions. It consists of 23 questions which are answered on a nine-point scale
from 1 (not at all) to 9 (very much). There are five scales:
1. Homesickness: Three questions on missing and thinking of family/partner;
2. Relationship to Commander: Four questions concerning commander’s per-
formance, his influence on decision-making, agreement with his goals;
218 SANDAL, VARNES, and URSlN
3. Psychological problems: Five questions about tiredness, sleep, anxiety,

worry and depression;
4. Coping and well being: Eight questions relating to physical fitness, self-con-
fidence and feelings about participation in the mission;
5 . Team-functioning:Three questions on relationship with team, whether team
listens to respondent, performance of team, and general spirit of team.
The Antarctic Questionnairewas completedonce during the trainingperiod, once
a week during isolation, and once after isolation.
C. Post-Isolation lnterview
The post-isolation interview consisted of a quantitative and a qualitative part.
Quantitative lnterview
This was a structured interview, consisting of two parts with 50 questions, 42 of

which are answered on a five-point scale. Part 1 consists of questions on group
dynamics and effectiveness during isolation (e.g., “By whom were you criticized
most often”), evaluation of how individual crew members performed their duties
and tasks, functioning of the Commander, teamwork and relations to outside world.
Subjects were asked for a “peer rating” where hdshe ranked the other crew
members according to how well he/she liked them socially and according to whom
hdshe would prefer to work with on a future mission. Part 2 asks for an evaluation
of the overall “atmosphere” of the team on the following dimensions: pleasant to
unpleasant, relaxed to tense, lethargic to energetic, distant to close, cold to warm,
quarrelsome to harmonious, self-assured to hesitant, efficient to inefficient, and
gloomy to cheerful.
Qualitative lnterview
The qualitative interview was semi-structured and consisted of four parts.

Part 1. Answers from the quantitative section were pursued in depth;
Part 2. Questions on composition of chamber crew, problems due to cultural
and language differences, gender relations, feelings about the selection
process, choice of Commander;
Part 3. Questions concerning conflicts and interpersonal attraction in chamber
crew. Subjects were asked about alliances and friendships within the
group, issues causing conflicts, to indicate the person(s) most often
involved in conflicts.
Part 4. Questions about relations to the outside world. Subjects were asked to
indicate issues causing conflicts between chamber crew and principal
investigators (PI), management, ground control crew.
The interviews were run individually during the second and third day after
isolation. They were all performed by the same person (G.S.)and lasted approxi-
mately one hour. Members of the chamber crew as well as the ground crew were
interviewed.
111. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A. Communication Analysis
During isolation there were individual differences in the number of statements

(F = 40.97; p = 0.008) and how often each person was addressed (F = 15.23; p =
0.001). The Commander (subject B) spoke most frequently and was most often
addressed during all meetings, except in weeks 6 and 7 when subject G was most
dominant. In the course of isolation subject G became more verbally active,
whereas subject D became more passive. The activity of subject H was relatively
stable over time.
In week 9 communication was almost exclusively between Commander and
subject G.Communication was most decentralized (participants almost equally
Week 5
Figure 1. Communication network in weeks 3, 5, and 9. Thickness of arrows

indicates frequency of conversation.
220 SANDAL, VARNES, and URSlN
positive joke tension
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
week
Figure 2. Emotional expressions during the isolation period.
active) in week 5 . Review of the videotape showed that the crew members were
discussing the purpose of the simulation study during that session. In that week
there was a marked increase in “Gives opinion.”Figure 1 shows the communication
network in weeks 3,5, and 9 (video recordings from weeks 1 and 2 were missing).
The amount of communication with emotional content changed significantly
over time (F = 5.95; p = 0.002). particularly positive ones (F = 4.15; p = 0.009) and
jokes (F= 3.21;p c 0.05). Positive emotions and jokes were most frequent in weeks
3 and 5 , and became relatively infrequent in the last weeks of isolation. Toward the
end of isolation tension increased markedly.
There were significant individual differences for positive emotions (F = 16.45;
p < 0.05) with subject H showing the highest score in positive emotions. Figure 2
shows the frequency of each category of emotional expression as the percentage of
total number of speech-acts in each week. Negative emotions are not included,
because such expressions were not registered at any time.
B. The SYMLOC System
Ratings at Team level
The crew members described the team as task-oriented on the FB scale (3.7 f
1.2; mean f standard deviation), highly positive on the PN scale (10.6 k 2.2). and
self-assertiveon the UD scale (9.6f 1.2). During isolation the team was evaluated
as more positive and assertive relative to the pre-isolation baseline, but less task
oriented. In the course of isolation the team was evaluated as increasingly more
self-assertiveon the UD dimension (F = 3.47;p = 0.009).The team was evaluated
least positively in week 5.
Ideal Attributes
Descriptions of optimal profile for a team and for an individual crew member
were relatively similar. Ideal characteristics indicated were: high level of friendli-
ness and openness (PN), low task-orientation (FB),and moderate self-assertiveness
and dominance (UD). Most importance was given to friendly, positive qualities in
the beginning and towards the end of isolation, and least in weeks 4 to 5. Values of
the ideal team were close to those of the actual team on all SYMLOG dimensions,
but ideal level of friendliness was consistently somewhat higher than the actual
level of the crew.
Individual Crew Members
Commander (subject B) was rated as highly positive and slightly dominant and
task-oriented. He was rated the second most dominant crew member. His UD scores
changed significantly over time ( F = 2.54;p = 0.37),and were highest in the last
two weeks of the isolation.
Subjects H and D were both described as highly positive, slightly dominant, and
low in task-orientation. Their scores remained relatively stable over time.
Subject G was consistently described as the least positive and task-oriented crew
member, and also the most dominant and self-assertive member. His UD scores
increased significantly over time ( F = 4.42;p < 0.01)and were highest in weeks
8-9.
Individual scores on the PN dimension exhibited little variation (1 1.9 f 2.6),but
the most negative ratings were consistently found between subjects D and G.In
week 5 subject G was also evaluated negatively by subject H. Subject G himself
expressed strong positive feelings towards the Commander (B).
Figure 3 shows the SYMLOGprofile for each crew member based on the average
scores for the entire isolation period.
C. Daily Survey
Team functioning was evaluated as relatively good (4.4f 0.6) and efficient
(4.1 f 0.7) during the entire isolation period. Commander’s (B) performance as a
leader was also rated high (4.2f 0.7).Most of the time the crew reported that they
were well prepared for the day’s work (4.4f 0.6). The chamber crew was also
satisfied with the co-ordination of the activities between them and the ground
222 SANDAL, V&RNES, and URSIN
= influence = control soc.dist.
12
B D H G
subject
Figure 3. SYMLOG profile of each crew member presenting average scores for the
entire isolation period.
control team (4.4 f 0.6). The crew reported some problems due to factors beyond
their control (3.4 f 1.1; 5 being no problems).
Individual mood was evaluated as positive and sociable (4.2 f0.6), and physical
state as moderately good (3.6 f 0.9; 1 = tired, 5 = fresh).
Team mood was described as relatively close, harmonious (4.1 f 0.6), relaxed
(3.1 & 0.6) and efficient (3.1 f 0.7) overall.
There were only small changes over time in these parameters. In the days before
and immediately after entrancein the chamber, the crew felt ieast prepared, reported
most coordination problems and difficulties due to factors beyond their control.
They also evaluated their feelings towards others most negatively, and team mood
was described as relatively tense. In weeks 2 and 5 crew members rated team
functioning, ground control support, their own mood, and their physical condition
least positively, and team mood was reported as somewhat tense and inefficient.
Although the last isolation week tended to be reported as the “best” with respect to
team functioning, Commander’s (B) performance, ground control crew, and team
mood were described as more quarrelsome, gloomy, and distant compared to the
previous weeks.
D. Interpersonal Reaction Scale
Data were only collected in weeks 7 and 9 and after isolation.

Subject B (Commander): Usually described as most energetic and Competent in
dealing with the environment.He was further characterized as less creative,nervous
and emotional compared to his peers. Nearly all “leader” scores were given to the
appointed Commander.
Subject D: Indicated as the least talkative and sociablecrew member. Frequently
evaluated as more bored and moody and less friendly than his peers. In work-related
issues he was often described as responsible, individualistic, and technically
competent, but he was also indicated as least competent in dealing with the
environment.
Subject G: Frequently indicated as most emotional, joyful, sociable, friendly,
likeable and creative. He was further described as more homesick, bored, and less
“enjoying the environment” than his peers. Although considered as the most
knowledgeable crew member, he was described as relatively low in responsibility
and involvement in task-related issues.
Subject H: Frequently characterized as the most social, emotional, and friendly
crew member. Even though she was evaluated as the least knowledgeable and
technically competent subject, she was frequently indicated as the most well-
organized and contributing crew member in relation to the group’s work. She was
also mentioned as the participant who most enjoyed the environment.
E. Antarctic Questionnaire
Homesickness: The crew members reported some homesickness (6.9 f 1.6; 9

being very much) for the entire period with relatively stable scores over time.
Subject H scored considerably higher than the other crew members during the entire
period, while subject D had the lowest scores.
Relations lo the Commander: Overall, crew members were satisfied with their
relationship to the Commander (7.9 f 0.8; 9 being very well) and there were only
minor changes over time. Subject H gave him the most positive evaluation,
followed by subjects G and D.
Psychological problems: Few psychological symptoms were reported (2.0 f 0.6;
9 being very much), most in weeks 3 and 4. The scores for the first half of the
isolation period tended to be higher than those for the second half. Although
individual differences were minor, subject H tended to report more problems than
the others.
Coping/well-being: Crew members reported a high level of coping and well-be-
ing during isolation (8.1 f 0.6). Changes over time were small, but scores were
lowest in week 1 and highest in the last three weeks. Commander’s scores were
somewhat lower than those of the others.
Team-functioning:All participants were satisfied with their relationship to their

peers (8.2 f 0.6). Lowest scores were given in weeks 1 and 2. Subject D was less
satisfied with his relations to the others.
F. Post-Isolation Interview
Chamber Crew
Crew composirion: All crew members approved of the choice of Commander as

distinct, respected and socially compatible with all crew members. All crew
members indicated positive feelings about participation of women in isolation
experimentsand space missions. Two crew members commented that an agreement
about sexual behavior between members is indispensable for a successful mission
with a mixed crew; they stressed the importance of the fact that this specific woman
was manied and not sexually provocative. No romantic feelings or sexual interac-
tion between crew members during isolation were reported. When asked how they
felt the participation of a woman had influenced the group atmosphere, they
commented that men are more likely to behave polite and civilized in the presence
of a woman (N = 2) and that mixed crews make the situation more “normal” (N =
1). The woman was characterized as a “peacemaker,”who reduced competition and
conflicts among the men (N = 3). She was also seen as a warm and caring
“motherly” person, for example, she made the men sit down to eat (N = 3). The
woman commented that she played the role that she felt was expected of her.
Cultural and language differences:No problems were reported. It was empha-
sized that all crew members spoke fluent English and were able to communicate
well with each other (N = 3). Cultural diversity was claimed to have positive effect
on social climate by providing topics of conversation (N = 3).
Relations in chamber crew: In ranking each other as to whom they liked best
socially, Commander (subject B ) and subject G rated each other as their first
preference, and subjects G and D rated each other as least preferred crew mate.
Subject D was ranked third by all other crew members. In ranking each other as to
whom they would like to work with on a future mission, Subjects B and G rated
each other as first preference, while subject B rated subject D as least preferred
crew mate. Here also subjects D and G gave each other a low preference. The peer
rankings by the individual crew members are presented in Table 3.
All crew members said that there were no interpersonal conflicts within the group
and that the social climate was generally agreeable. Displays of open hostility did
not occur and bad temper was infrequent; but there were frequent discussions and
disagreements between the men, mainly about trivial issues. Three crew members
explained this as a manifestation of “male competition.” The woman was rarely
involved in any conflict, nor did she seem to be the source of any conflicts.
Three subjects said that there had been no formation of long-lasting alliances or
subgroups between crew members, and that the bonding had been mainly to the
Crew Compatibility and Interaction 2 25
Table 3. Rankings of Individual Crew Members According to Whom They Liked

Best Socially and with Whom They Would Like to Work on a Hypothetical Future
Mission
Rater
Order of
preference ltem B D G H
1 Liked best G B B G
2 H H H B
3 D G D D
1 Work with D B B G
2 H G D B
3 C H H D
whole group. However, the Commander indicated that a special friendship had
developed between subject G and him already during the training period. He said
that before isolation they had been aware of possible negative impacts of their
relationship on the other crew members, and had tried to “block the tendency to
override other crew members once we had a common opinion.”
Subject G was again indicated as the most often criticized crew member, mainly
for having lost sight of the scientific objectives of the experiment and for being too
inaccurate in the experimental procedures. One subject commented: “He is very
impulsive, is likely to forget things, I was mainly criticizing him when he was
forgetting something during experiments. Not often. It happened much less then I
expected, but sometimes.” Subject D was mentioned as the most critical crew
member. One of his peers commented that: “He is very analytical, he does not mean
his criticism personally, but if he doesn’t understand something, he keeps on asking
and tries to find out why things are like that.”
Relations to rhe outside world: The relationshipbetween chamber crew and ground
control crew was evaluatedas positive,though there was adisplay of tension from time
to time. The tension most often centered on questions related to communication
between chambercrew and outside world (N=4). All crew members indicated conflict
with management as the major source of frustration during isolation. Especially
instructions about trash-emptying and communication,implemented after the first 10
days, were mentioned as very bothersome(N= 4). Three subjectscommented that they
used management as an “enemy,” as an outlet and displacement of aggression, thus
avoiding relational strain within their own group. Although they reported awarenessof
this mechanism, it was not openly discussed within the group. However, humorous
remarks like “who is the enemy?” sometimesoccurred.
Ground Control Crew

Selecriodcomposirion of rhe two crews: All subjects were satisfied with the
selection.There was strong consensus that all members of the ground control crew
were capable and qualified to serve in the chambercrew, except for one female who
2 26 SANDAL, VARNES, and URSlN
was perceived as too “flirty” and “ambiguous” in relation to men (N = 4). Three
subjects suggested themselves as the best candidate if a member of the chamber
crew would have had to be replaced.
Relations in ground crew: When the ground crew ranked their crew mates
according to whom they liked best socially, two of the females indicated highest
preference for each other. Three crew members indicated the third female as the
crew member whom they liked least socially. When the ground crew ranked each
other according to whom they would like to work with in a future experiment, the
rankings varied. The female who was indicated as the least liked socially, received
the lowest preference from two subjects. One subject refused to complete the
ranking. When asked if any lasting alliances had been established, four subjects
indicated that two females had established a close friendship.Both females indicated
that their mutual attraction derived from shared interest for parties and social activities.
Three subjects indicated that the female “alliance” almost consistently supported the
requests from the chamber crew, whereas the others sometimes took the side of
management, for example, when new communication rules were to be implemented.
The different viewpoints did not cause lasting conflicts.
Relations with chamber crew: There was a strong consensus that the two crews
had coordinated their activities well, mainly because members of the two crews
knew each other well throughjoint training and social activities before the mission.
Two females in the ground crew commented that a strong alliance was established
during the training period between them and two males in the chamber crew. They
also felt that this alliance interfered with their ability to implement restrictions with
which the two males disagreed, because as one of them said: “Our friends in the
chamber crew expected that we should defend their interests.”
Relations with principal investigators and management: No conflicts with
principal investigators were mentioned. Conflicts with project management were
indicated as frustrating. All crew members complained about the lackof formalized
rules, especially initially during isolation. Three ground crew members said they
had to “guess” or “make up rules’’ in the absence of formal guidelines.Four subjects
complained about the authoritative leadership of the project manager. All subjects
said they sometimes decided not to carry out instructions from the project manager
when the chamber crew strongly disagreed. One example occurred when the
chamber crew wanted to shift the waking time from 7 pm to 7.30 pm. Despite the
project manager’s refusal of this request, the ground crew started to wake them up
half an hour later than scheduled, because as one said “After all, their request was
reasonable.” Another example concerned the emptying of trash from the chamber.
After 12 days of isolation the project managerdecided that emptyingof trash should
be limited to once daily. Because the chamber crew argued strongly against this
restriction, the ground crew decided to empty the trash oftener: “We could not see
that the restriction was important for the experiment. So we talked to the PIS
(principal investigators) who said that it was OK, so we decided to do as the
chamber crew requested.”
IV. DISCUSSION
A. General Findings
Few interaction problems were identified, but there seemed to be three periods
when group functioning declined. These were immediately prior to and at the
beginning of isolation, and during weeks 2 and 5 . The perceived stress was almost
always related to conflicts with persons outside the chamber, in particular project
management. Despite a marked tendency to deny intragroup conflicts, lasting
antagonism between two of the males was identified. One of them became increas-
ingly passive towards the end of isolation. The other one, perceived as the most
dominant member in the crew, developed an alliance with the Commander. Influ-
ence of this alliance seemed to increase with time.
Chamber crew and ground crew identified strongly with each other. Few conflicts
between the two crews were reported. However, interaction problems between
ground crew and project management were indicated.
B. Group Functioning
The crew members evaluated the team and each other very positively during the
entire isolation period with minor fluctuations over time. Group functioning
declined most noticeably in the middle of the isolation period. In week 5 the team
was described as most negative, unfriendly, inefficient, and tense. In communica-
tion “giving opinion” became more frequent, reflecting increasing discussion and
disagreement. Jokes became frequent, indicating a mechanism for tension release,
as reported in previous isolation studies.* The crew also showed more positive
emotions, which may reflect a way of coping with stress. The crew appeared to
have a low tolerance for conflicts and refrained from expressing negative feelings
for fear of disrupting their relationships. The female crew member expressed more
positive affects than the others, and seemed to have an important role in reducing
tension in the group. This was confirmed by all three males during the post-isolation
interview.
Overt anger and conflicts between crew members were not observed or reported.
As in previous isolation ~tudies,4*~*~.’ aggression seemed to be focused to personnel
outside the chamber, especially to management. Tension was most often related to
lack of explicit rules, e.g., about trash removal and communication with the outside
world. Although the sources of frustration were real, the crew was aware of their
need to displace intragroup tension to more remote individuals outside. This was
expressed through frequent joking about management as the “enemy.” Afterwards
the Commander said that he had been concerned that his loyalty to the crew in these
“conflicts” might interfere with his ability to serve management.
Subjects were homogeneous in their evaluationsof team and peers, which could
indicate cohesi~eness.’~ Whereas high cohesiveness is assumed to have a positive
effect on well-being and sometimes performance in isolated group^,'^ under
external pressure this might also lead to the phenomenon of “groupthink,” marked
by a tendency to channel aggression outside the group and to denial of intragroup
conflict^.'^ Foushee and Helmreich commented that “in such groups, a ‘clubby’
feeling of we-ness seems to develop, which often prohibits group members from
introducing or entertainingunsettling information for fear of upsetting the group.”16
Too much cohesion may thus endanger the mission in a crisis situation, and may
lower performance quality because members are overly concerned with getting
along and reluctant to express disagreement. Although such negative effects were
not noted in EXEMSI,the symptoms of “groupthink” were present in the crew.
The descriptions of the “ideal team” and “ideal team member” also reflect the
strong emphasison social values. As in previous studies,’ the optimal psychological
profile included a strong social orientation, whereas task-oriented qualities were
judged as less important. This finding may be consistent with the Russian experi-
ence, which have shown that social principles seem to take precedence over
individual interests and desires among c o s m o n a ~ t sThe
. ~ ~ ideal profile was rela-
tively constant over the isolation period.
C. Interaction between Crew Members
Despite the suppression of team conflicts, the latent tension between two of the
males was easily identified, based on their low preference for each other as social
companions, mutual negative SYMLOG ratings and data from the post-mission
interview. Consistent with previous studies,18contrasting task motivation seemed
to contribute to the tension between these two crew members. They also had
differences about tidiness. One of them (subject D), who was considered as highly
analytical and critical, was irritated by the disorganization and untidiness of the
other one (subject G), whereas the latter considered the former to be needlessly
slow and obstinate. As in other isolation studies4 individual differences were not
openly discussed. Probably in order to prevent open hostility, subject D tended to
withdraw from interaction as the isolation proceeded. Similar phenomena have
been observed in previous studies!
Subject G was perceived as the most dominant and expressive crew member;
therefore, he seemed to be the social leader. Because he was perceived as low in
task motivation, he might have had a negative impact on the motivation and morale
of the other crew members. Aclose alliance between subject G and the Commander
prevented a potential competitive situation and therefore seemed to be a necessity
for the maintenance of crew harmony and satisfaction. This alliance was docu-
mented by SYMLOG scores, in their indication of each other as the best liked crew
mate, and in the post-mission interview. Although they reported trying to curb their
tendency to “override the two others, once we had a common opinion. . , ,” their
dominance tended to increase over time. Towards the end of the isolation, the
communication went almost exclusively between these two crew members. Nev-
ertheless, the Commander ranked subject G as the least preferred companion for a
Crew Compatibility and lnteraction 2 29
hypothetical future research mission, and said after the isolation that he had been
concerned about the low motivation and impulsiveness of subject G.
Afterward, all crew members approved the choice of Commander, because he
was socially compatible in relation to all crew members. He was perceived as a
weak leader, but highly considerateand sensitiveto the emotional needs of his crew
mates, as reflected in his SYMLOG scores. This profile of leadership has been
found to enhance effectivity in low stress conditions, but has been connected with
reduced productivity and ineffective decision making when groups are exposed to
high task demands.I6Therefore, we believe that performance of the EXEMSI crew
would have suffered in case of an unexpected crisis.
D. Relations with Ground Control Crew

The long joint training period created two crews who identified strongly with
each other. This explains why tension in the chamber crew was directed to
management and not to ground control personnel, as has also been reported in other
studies? Probably due to the strong cohesiveness between the two crews, few
interaction problems between them were reported, but it is worth noting that two
subjects in the ground crew reported that their loyalty to the chamber crew had
interfered with their ability to implement decisions with which the chamber crew
disagreed.
Interestingly, the two crews seemed to agree about the “choice” of management
as their “enemy.” In both crews the lack of formalized rules caused serious
frustrations and negative feelings towards the project manager. Several times they
refused to carry out his instructions and made decisions without consulting him.

Acrew of four (three males and one female) were isolated for 60 days in hyperbaric
chambers at DLR, Cologne, Germany. The aim of the study was to investigate how
group functioning, relations with ground control, and interaction between crew
members would change during isolation. A broad array of methods was used,
including analysis of communication, peer ratings, questionnaires,and a post-iso-
lation interview.
The main findings are:
1. Group functioning declined at three times, immediately before and after the
start of isolation, and in weeks 2 and 5;
2. Conflicts were often focused on project management;
3. Crew members showed a marked tendency to deny team conflicts, making
them vulnerable to “groupthink;”
4. Towards the end of isolation, social factors were given more importancethan
task-related factors;
5 . Lasting antagonism between two of the male crew members was noted,
which madeone of them withdraw from interaction, while the other on-the
most dominant crew member-developed an alliance with the Commander.
Several findings in this study are consistent with our earlier results from the
ISEh4SI study. The existence of several interpersonal issues has been identified,
which are also likely to occur during actual space missions. Many of the interper-
sonal problems could probably be prevented or reduced through behavioral and
sensitivity training,’ composition of crews according to compatibility, and moni-
toring of group functioning during the We suggest that future simulation
studies should be directed towards gaining practical experience in how to influence
interpersonal relations in a desirable way.
The joint training of ground crew and chamber crew created good co-operation
between the two crews, but the adjustment to management requires more experi-
ence and new training procedures. The lack of formalized rules caused serious
frustrations and negative feelings in both crews towards project management. Data
from management and principal investigators were not available, but we suggest
that such information should be collected in future simulation studies.
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Duration Space Missions. NASA, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership. Colorado,
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International Biomedical Expedition to the Antarctic (IBEA).Taylor & Francis, London, 1988.
4. Kanas, N. Psychological, Psychiatric and Interpersonal Aspects of Long-Duration Space Missions.
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6. Kanas. N. Psychosocial Support for Long Duration Space Crews. AIAA Space Programs and
Technologies Conference. Sept. 25-28, 1990.
7. Bonting. S.L., ed., Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 3, European Isolation and
Confinement Study, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT,1993.
8. Bergan. T.. Sandal, G . . Wamcke, M.. V;ernes, R., Ursin, H. Group Functioning and Communica-
tion. In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine. vol. 3 (S.L. Bonting, Ed.), pp. 59-80. JAI Press,
Greenwich, CT, 1993.
9. Bales, R.F. Personality and Interpersonal Behavior. Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York. 1970.
10. Bartko, J.J. Measurement and Reliability: Statistical Thinking Considerations. Schizophrenia
Bulletin, 17(3):483489, 1991.
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Press, New York, 1979.
12. Ursin. H., et al. Psychobiological Studies of Individuals in Small, Isolated Groups in the Antarctic
and in Space Analogues. Environment and Behavior. 23(6):76&781, 1991.
13. Kelley, L., Duran, R.L. Interaction and Performance in Small Groups: A descriptive report.
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14. Howell, W.. Depoye. R. Essentials of Industrial Organizational Psychology. 3d ed., Dorsey Press,
Pacific Grove, CA, 1986.
15. Janis. I.L. Wctirns of Groupthink. Houghton MiMin. Boston. 1972.
16. Foushee. H.C., Helmreich, R.L. Group Interaction and Flight Crew Performance. In: Human
Factors in Aviation, Academic Press, New York, 1988, pp. 189-227.
17. Kana, N. Psychosocial Support for Cosmonauts.Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine,
62:353-355, 1991.
18. Althman, I., Haythorn, W.W. The Effects of Social Isolation and Group Composition on P e r f m -
ance. Hwnnn Relations, 20:313-340, 1967.
19. k i n , H.Integral Monitoring in Space. In: Integral Monitoring in Space (A.W.K. Gaillard Ed.),
Report fmm Space Psychology Days 2, European Space Agency, November 1992.
20. Unin, H., Bergan, T., Sandal, G. M. A BiobehavioralSystem for Space Travellers. In: Biobehav-
ioral Self-Regulation in the East and the West (T. Kikuchi. Ed.). Proceedings of the 3rd Inrerna-
tional Conference on Biobehavioural Self-Regulation and Health. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, 1993.
Chapter 13
GROUP DYNAMICS AND CREW

INTERACTION DURING ISOLATION
K.N. Eskov, M.A. Novikov,

A.G. Viknokhodova, and V.N. Bricksin
I. Test Systems for Group Dynamics Studies . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . 234

A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . ........... . . . . . . . 234
B. The Homeosrur Test System . . . . . . .......,... . . . . . . . 234
C. The krbu Test System . . . . . . . . . ..... ...... . . . . . . . 236
D. Further Developments . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . 237
11. Study of Crew Interaction Effectiveness . . ........,.. . . . . . . . 237
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....,...... .... .. . 237
B. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . ........... .... .. . 238
C. Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . .....,..... ., .. .. . 238
D. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . .. ......... .... .. . 244

Copyright 0 19% by JAI Press Inc.
All rights of repruduction in any form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
233
234 ESKOV, NOVIKOV, VIKNOKHODOVA, and BRICKSIN
1. TEST SYSTEMS FOR GROUP DYNAMICS STUDIES

A. Introduction
In the framework of the joint investigational program between the European

Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency, a group of investigators from the
Institute for Biomedical Problems, Moscow, Russia participated in the EXEMSI
project for the study of the effects of long-term isolation and confinement.
The Institute of Biomedical Problems has long been involved in the study of
selection procedures for space crews. The experience that sociometric methods are
not very effective in the selection of space crews, the institute developed two
instrumental methods, Homeosrar and Verba for this purpose. These test systems
were also thought to be suitable for the study of group dynamics, and thus they
were made available for use in the EXEMSI study. The results obtained with the
application of the Homeosrar system in this study are described in part I1 of this
chapter.
B. The Homeostat Test System

Homeosrar is a biotechnical testing system in which the subjects have to cope
with ajoint task by moving a joystick. The task is constituted by a system of linear
equations with a number of unknown quantities that is equal to the number of
participating subjects.The movement of the joystick by a subject affects his own
indicators and the indicators of the partners visible on the monitor available to each
subject. The system includes a control device, by means of which the investigator
can regulate the strength and direction of the interrelation and a monitor which
allows the investigator to observe the activities of the subjects.
The subject is to bring a needle (indicator)on his control panel (voltmeter) to the
zero-position, taking into consideration the position of the needles of the other
subjects. The task difficulty level is determined by the strength of the interrelation
between the activities of the subjects. When the difficulty reaches a certain level,
the task becomes insolvable for this number of subjects, if they use the natural
strategy of just trying to put their own needle to the zero-position without paying
attention to theirpartners. In this caseit is necessary forone ofthesubjects tochange
the strategy by trying to control the whole process.
Figure 1 presents a block diagram of the Homeosrar device as it was integrated
in the EXEMSI project. Its integration required the resolution of the following
technical problems:
placing the control devices and monitors for the subjects inside the isolation
chamber, and the control panel and pc-AT outside the chamber;
0 providing reliable functioning of the system in the presence of the strong
electromagneticfields produced by the life support system;
solving the problem of prolonged autonomous use of Homeosrar;
Group Dynamics and Crew Interaction 235
Figure 1. Block diagram of the Homeostatdevice.
0 providing the capability of intermediate acquisition, compression, and trans-

mission of the data.
The device consists of four subject panels with control devices and monitors, one
control panel, and an IBM pc/AT. The software system developed for Homeostar
provides for the presentation, storing and analysis of the data. The development of
this system provided an opportunity to create a set of indices for crew activities,
which were used for data investigation and conclusions during the EXEMSIproject.
Figure 2 shows how the parameters of the experimental results during task solution
with Homeosfut are displayed on the monitor. The following information is presented:
- File, date, time - general information

- Task solution dynamics - curve formed by summation of the
potentials on the manipulators;
- Level - level of difficulty of the task;
Group activity parameters:
-Task duration - time for each task solution;
- Curve shape - determined by area under the curve;
- Time constant - result of the real approximation by exponent;
- Group's WF - cooperative activity of the group;
- Group's LW - average level of leadership activity;
Individual activity parameters:
- LF - leadership activity;
- WF - individual activity during task solution;
- LW - level of leadership activity (LFMIF);
- Graphic presentation of individual parameters in bar diagram.
Further improvements in the software of the system were introduced after the
EXEMSI isolation period ended. These permit data processing in real time, which
allows reconstruction of the task solution process on the monitor. It is now also
-Homeostat Result Configuration U1.B ( c ) 1992 IBHP, K.Eskov
Task solution dynamic’s

File : D B l l
Date : 11-89-1992
Time : 12:48
Leve I : -8.5
Task Duration: 77
Curve’s Shape: 8.67
Time Constant: 26
Group’s WF(x): 28
Group’s LW(z): 35
1 . CLE LF - 11 WF - 29 LW - 39 ,
2 . HAT LF - 9 WF - 34 LIJ - 26
3 . HlL LF - 8 WF - 12 LW - 78
4 . Apll LF - ii WF - 36 LW - 38
~~
Figure 2. Display of data on the Homeostat monitor screen.
possible to use the data from previous experiments in order to improve the analysis
of the new data.
C. The Verba Test System
Verbu is a verbal test for two persons, created in 1962 by M.A. Novikov as a
modification of a well-known associative experiment. It has a number of stimulus-
words, organized in groups of 30 words each. The words are offered at 5-second
intervals. The task of the two subjects is to respond to the stimulus-wordsas quickly
as possible, trying to be the first to answer. During the experiment the responses of
the subjects, reaction time, or absence of a response, and a physiological parameter
like the heart rate are recorded.
A computerized version of Verbu was developed. The hardware comprises a
control device, two microphones, two opto-electronic heart-rate sensors, and a
pc-AT computer. The set of verbal stimuli includes 600French words, presented to
the subjects in causal order. The words are spoken by a computer-synthesized voice
without emotional features; they are also presented on the monitor. The computer
records reaction times and RR-intervals.
The software system permits to show on the monitor the average response time,
the mode of reaction time, the average heart rate of the subjects,and the correlation
coefficient of pulse curves.
D. Further Developments
With the data obtained during EXEMSI a database on group dynamics is being
created for ESA. In a further perspective, an expert system is being developed for
selection and training of astronauts.
For future applications of the two systems the following proposals are made:
Homeosfaf
1. to develop a completely automated version of Horneosrur for autonomous

usage by the crew, eliminating the need for the presence of an experimenter;
2. to develop a computer expert system for the analysis of group interactions
and role distribution in the group with feedback to the crew members;
3. to develop computer software for simulating interaction (performance) of
the tested subject with two or three partners in operational tasks in order to
predict the subject’s behavioral strategy in various groups.
Verba
1. to develop a set of professionally relevant word programs for the selection

of professionally oriented crews and for a more accurate definition of their
psychological compatibility;
2. to develop a set of verbal stimuli and their use for testing stress resistance
and for prediction of verbal behavior under highly emotional conditions;
3. to develop an expert system for providing feedback information to the crew
about the level of psychological compatibility and its dynamics;
4. to develop computer software for simulating interaction (performance) of
the tested subject with apartner in different verbal tactics, in order to predict
the subject’s verbal strategy in various groups and to estimate his capacity
to cope with noise in the form of audio signals closely associated with the
stimulus.
II. STUDY OF CREW INTERACTION EFFECTIVENESS

A. Introduction
Effectiveness of cooperative activity plays a critical role in small group life

during prolonged isolation. The term “cooperative activity” means that crew
members are to fulfill some tasks together in good cooperation. Regardless of the
type of activity, the decisive factor, apart from professional preparedness, is the
necessity for interaction between the partners. From this point of view, a prolonged
existence as a group in isolation is in itself a form of cooperative activity, because
it involves personal interaction, mutual influences and communication.
The Homeostat system, described in the first part of this chapter, permits the
assessment of the effectiveness of interaction and functioning in a group. In this
part of the chapter we discuss the general behavior of the EXEMSI chamber crew,
their capability to solve problems of varying complexity together, the change of
that capability during the course of the experiment, and the role distribution among
the crew members.
B. Methodological Aspects
Adescription of the Homeosrat system is presented in section I. B of this chapter.

The test, which takes one hour, was carried out once a week between 11:OO and
13:OO hours.
Two test conditions were applied. In the first test condition every subject
participated in the task solution. In the second test condition one subject was
switched off without his knowledge, so he did not contribute to the problem solving.
Because the influence of his partners on his indicator was preserved, the illusion of
his participation in the interaction was maintained, and he could experience the
successes and failures of the crew. This procedure was used in order to determine
whether the person’s self-concept (role) in the group may cause negative emotional
reactions and disturb the integrity of the group.
The investigation began with the first test condition.The subjects were presented
problems with difficulty levels 4 3 ; -05; -0.7. Then one subject was switched off,
and tasks with difficulty levels 4 7 and -1,0 were presented. The same procedure
was repeated with the other subjects. This was followed by the final test with all
four subjects switched on and with task difficulty levels 4 5 and 4 7 . The time
for each task solution was limited to 180-190 sec. During the second part of the
study, a short break of 5-10 min was inserted at the request of the crew on account
of growing fatigue.
C. Results and Discussion
The results obtained with the Homeosrur test indicate that the crew represented
a complex dynamic system with sufficient internal balance, elements of manage-
ment, and an average level of effectiveness interactivity.
The capability to solve the Homeosrat task fluctuated during the isolation period.
This reflects the influence of some factors, which affect the tendency to decrease
the time for simple time solution. At the same time the capability of solving difficult
tasks by four subjects in cooperation was not reduced towards the end of the
isolation period. This fact testifies to the limitations in group capabilities from the
point of view of interaction.
In considering possible reasons for these limitations, it is necessary to observe
the specific features of the chamber crew. All four crew members demonstrated,to
a varying extent, leadership tendency, which is a rare situation. Subject G demon-
strated leadership tendency most frequently, subject H least frequently.
Group Dynamics and Crew Interaction 2 39
Leadership activity can be divided in four types: (1) highly confident leadership,
(2) confident leadership, (3) uncertain leadership, and (4) occasional leadership. It
will turn out that three subjects (B, D, and G ) displayed confident leadership, while
subject H showed uncertain leadership.
The opposite of leadership activity is the use of a “follower” strategy, which is
necessary for having a stable group. Subject H, and to some extent subject D,
displayed the follower strategy. The absence of this “follower” function decreases
the effectiveness of the group. The detected degree of leadership qualities allows
us to classify the crew as a “complementary” group. This type of group can be
effective in problematic situations.Below average results in solving a difficult task
are compensated by a sufficient interaction of managing elements.
Table 1. Homeostat Task Solution Dynamics

Excluded subject: None Excluded subject: B
Level: -0.5 Level: -0.7 Level: -0.7 Level: -1.0
crs TC crs TC crs TC crs TC

sec sec sec SeC
Isoln., phasel 0.79 27.6 1.02 92.8 0.90 49.5 0.95 80.4
Isoln., phase2 0.89 47.8 1.17 107.7 0.70 22.3 0.85 58.6
Post-isoln. 1.21 69.7 1.36 122.6 1.11 23.9 1.41 127.6
Excluded subject: D Excluded subject: C
Level: -0.7 Level: -0.1 Level: -0.7 Level: -1.0
CrS TC CrS TC CrS TC CrS TC

SeC SeC sec SeC
Isoln., phasel 0.96 41.5 0.87 73.4 1.10 53.8 0.87 49.1
Isoln., phase2 0.90 32.7 0.87 56.7 0.89 31.8 0.97 37.3
Post-isoln. 0.77 31.6 1.43 116.6 1.19 32.7 1.24 112.2
Excluded subject: D
Level: -0.7 Level:-1.0
CrS TC CrS TC
SeC SeC
Isoln., phasel 0.99 54.9 0.97 83.0

Isoln., phase2 0.63 17.5 0.90 55.8
Post-isoln. 0.99 75.9 0.70 33.6
Notes: Level refers to task difficulty; CrS = curve shape, area under the curve formed by sum of potentials on
indicators; TC = time constant
Special attention will be paid to some important points in group process dynamics
in the course of isolation and also to some individual characteristics.Table 1 shows
the results of Horneostat task solution during three periods: the first part of the
isolation period (Isolation, phasel), the second part of this period (Isolation,
phase2) and two months after the experiment (Post-isolation). The table has five
panels: top left are results for the entire group, while in each of the other panels one
subject is switched off (excluded). Each panel has results for two difficulty levels,
which are specified. The assessed parameters are: curve shape (CrS), the area under
the curve formed by the sums of the potentials on the indicators, and time constant
(TC).
In the first panel of Table 1, where results for task solution by all four subjects
are presented, we note an increase in all parameter values during the second phase
of isolation, which was continued in the post-isolation period. This is especially
true for the difficult tasks (difficulty level: 4 , 7 ) , and it means that task solution
became more difficult during the later phase of isolation and after isolation. On the
other hand, the results in the other four panels indicate that task solution by three
subjects in the second part of the experiment improved, even for the more difficult
tasks.
Time constant dynamics, which is presented in Figures 3 and 4, confirms this
conclusion. In Figure 3 the time constant is shown before and during the isolation
period with the entire group working on a difficult task (level 4 . 7 ) . At the start of
isolation the experienced difficulty increases sharply, but then decreases rapidly
during the first phase, then increases again during the second phase.
Figure 4 clearly shows the opposite effects during the second phase of isolation:
for the complete group with a difficult task (level 4 . 7 ) the experienced difficulty
increases during the second phase, while for a group of three subjects without
I
-10 0 10 20 30 10 50 60 70
daqs
Figure 3. Group average of time constant during the course of the experiment.
Croup Dynamics and Crew Interaction 241
130 -
50 .........................................
30
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
days
r-Level:-0.7 14 -Level: -1.0 /3 1

Figure 4. Time constant average. Top: for entire group at task difficulty level -0.7.
Bottom: for three group members at task difficulty level -1 .O.
subject G (difficulty level -1 .O) the opposite is true. In the post-isolation period the
time constant increased in all trios with subject H present.
Table 2 shows work activity (WF) and leadership activity (LW) for each subject
and the averages for the entire group during the three phases of the project. The two
parameters appear to be correlated to some extent: when one goes down, the other
one generally does so too.
Figure 5 shows the leadership activity (LW) for each subject and the averages
for the entire group before and during isolation. Leadership activity was high for
all subjects, since the normal value of LW is 30-35. Subjects B and G showed the
highest leadership tendency. Subject D demonstrated more leadership than others
during weeks 2 4 of isolation, coinciding with a decrease in leadership activity of
subject B. The leadership curve for subject H resembles the group curve, but runs
at a lower, more normal level. Figure 6 shows that her work activity (WF) also
resembles the group curve, but at a higher level. These two facts probably reflect
her stabilizing effect on the crew.
Table 2. Work and Leadership Activity Dynamics

Subject 6 Subject D Subject G SubjKt H Group
WF LW WF LW WF LW WF LW WF LW
~~ ~
Isoln., phase1 31.3 45.7 24.9 40.5 13.3 57.3. 28.7 34.5 24.4 44.6
Isoln., phase2 27.5 43.9 24.9 40.5 13.3 53.4 30.5 31.9 25.4 42.3
Post-isoln. 22.9 41.6 20.2 29.5 18.7 51.9 19.0 26.0 20.2 37.3
Notes: WF = work activity; LW = leadership activity

2%10 0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
days
...... ......
figure 5. Leadership activity for each subject and group average during the course
of the experiment.
Figures 7 and 8 present the density distribution for these two parameters foreach
subject. In Figure 7 we see again that subjects B and G demonstrated more
leadership activity than the other subjects.’The curve for subject D reflects equal
possibilitiesto be “leader” and “follower.”In Figure 8 we note that the work activity
of subject G was much lower than that for the other subjects. It appears that the
effectiveness of the crew would have been higher, if subject G would have been
more active. This subject showed infrequent activity and long interruptions in
performance during the experiment, which did not promote group effectiveness.
The increase of the crew effectiveness at difficulty level 1.O without this subject
40
35
30
L. 25 ......
1
20 ........ .D.
1
.........:, .G..
,.-.:..
......................................... <, .....*
-.
i.< ....:I .-
I
_*.- .-.-..-..-/’ ___.-,. ..
-..._____.---
days
Figure 6. Work activity for each subject and group average during the course of the
experiment.
0.6
B
0.5 .................................... ...............................
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LU
-B .......... D ..... 6 ..... H
Figure 7. Density distribution of leadership activity for each subject.
(Figure 4)testifies to this fact. Perhaps the strategy chosen by subject G can be
explained by the wish to suppress his natural emotional reactions during isolation.
Shenyngton’s “struggle for the final way,” which is quite natural for a group of
the complementary type, i.e., a group with several leaders, occurred rather
smoothly, without demonstration of aggressiveness. This was probably due to the
variability of the behavioral strategy of subject B, the increased leadership activity
of subject D in the middle of the experiment, and also to some extent by the
flexibility of subject H.
0.6
D
Figure 8. Density distribution of work activity for each subject.

D. Conclusions and Summary
The Homeosrur test system was used to determine the interaction effectiveness
of the chamber crew during isolation. The group had a complex and unique
structure, reflected in the fact that all four subjects expressed considerable leader-
ship activity. The course of the Homeosfut task solution parameters testifies to the
formation of an intergroup communicative net, which was not completed. This
phenomenon was accompanied by emotional tension in the group. The individual
contributions to the interaction were investigated.
The crew represents a small group with a complex communicativestructure.This
was due to the presence of above normal leadership activity in all four crew
members. The complex course of the leadershipactivity parameter and the presence
of elements of group management allow us to label the crew as a complementary
group, which is capable of coping with a wide range of tasks in problem situations.
At the same time, the complex group structure caused a certain level of emotional
tension in the group. This tension was drained to the outside world by conflicts with
the project management. Subjects B and H played a positive role in the reduction
of intergroup tension.
Chapter 14
GROUP DYNAMICS DURING THE

EXEMSI ISOLATION STUDY
C . Cazes. E. Rosnet. C . Bachelard.

C . Le Scanff. and J . Rivolier
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
I1. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
A. GeneralAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
B . GroupTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C. Individual Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
111. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
A. Re-Isolation Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
B . Isolation and Post-IsolationFindings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
A. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
B . Suggestions for Future Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Copyright 0 1996 by JAI Press h e .
All rights of reproductionin any form reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
245
246 CAZES, ROSNET, BACHELARD, LE SCANFF, and RlVOLlER
1. INTRODUCTION
Road and space accidents have long been studied from the technical point of view.
Now we know that human factors play an important role.' In extreme and dangerous
activities,such as deep diving and aerial combat? it also seems essential to consider
various human characteristicsin addition to technical aspects. These characteristics,
which can be innate or acquired by training, are part of a coping behavior. That is
the reason why selection, preparation and training are so important for these
If in the past only psychophysiological parameters were deemed
important, at present specific psychological factors are considered to be essential.
The importance of these psychological factors should be particularly emphasized
when we are dealing with extreme situations involving long term isolation and
confinement. This is the case for polar wintering, on which topic much has been
and also for service on submarines? In addition to the effects of these
conditionson the individual, it has also become clear that group phenomena, social
interaction, leadership problems, and communication with the outside manage-
ment, are of crucial importance. This insight has led to a wider psychological
approach to selection and training."."
Many incisive factors have been identified in long-term manned spaceflight,such
as isolation, confinement, monotony or extreme activity, interpersonal relations,
cultural factors, gender factors, crew size, leadership,and communication with the
outside ~ o r l d . ' ~There
. ' ~ are many analogies between the effects of polar wintering
and of long-term space mission^.'^ The psychological stress factors operating under
these conditions may lead to depression as a result of individual adaptational
problems, but they also frequently lead to tensions in interpersonal relations which
affect the ability to interact.For example, American''~'~and Russian" authors have
reported negative effects on group cohesion, performance, and leadershipthat occur
in such situations.Various studies on Antarctic mission^^.**'^ have confirmed these
findings, and have also pointed out the difficulty of communication and under-
standing between those in the field and the exterior management. Some anecdotal
stories, cited by Bluth18 and by Oberg and Oberg,"show that similar difficulties
have occurred in spaceflight.
Thus, understanding and prevention of problems during spaceflight require a
deeper insight in the human factors at play. In fact, little has been done to determine
the psychological and interpersonal parameters involved in actual space missions.
In order to acquire more experience, simulation studies have been carried out by
the Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP), Moscow?' by NASA,21and by the
European Space Agency (ESA). After a first study with deep divers isolated at 300
meters below sea level (HYDRA 9), ESA organized in 1990 a simulation study in
the Norwegian Underwater Technology Center (NUTEC). In this study, called
ISEMSI, six males were isolated for a period of 28 days in a diving chamber and a
variety of physiological and psychological studies were conducted.22In some of
Group Dynamics’ Study During EXEMSl 247
the psychological studies it became clear that leadership problems played an

important role during i s ~ l a t i o n . ~ ~ , ~ ~
In 1992, the ESA Long Term Planning Office (LTPO) conducted a second
simulation study, called EXEMSI (Experimental Campaign far the European
Manned Space Infrastructure). In this case three males and one female were isolated
and confined for a period of 60 days. The aim was to extend the data collected
during ISEMSI, especially with regards to group phenomena. This chapter reports
the results of a study of the effects of isolation and confinement on group dynamics.
Investigated were the social behavior of the individual members and of the team as
a whole, team cohesion, interrelations, and efficiency in fulfilling the daily tasks.
Afurtheraimofthestudy was todiscover ways toapply the findings to theselection,
training, and inflight support of space crews. It would obviously be of great
importance for the future of manned spaceflight to have available methods for the
early detection of psychological problems in astronauts, which would permit
intervention and support during flight.

A. General Aspects
The following activities were carried out during the three project phases:
1. Pre-isolation period: Psychological examination provided information about

the social processes occurring during the training period. Baseline data were
collected against which to comparedata obtained during the isolation period.
2. Isolation period: Data were collected as a function of time during isolation.
3. Post-isolation period: Final assessment and debriefing.
A wide variety of tests were used, which generally explored cognitive, affec-
tivdemotional, and social features. Some tests use direct methods, like question-
naires and tests, and lead to quantitative results open to statistical analysis.
Examples: sociometric questionnaires, adaptability questionnaire, space relation
test, embedded figure test, Nideffer’s TAIS, defense mechanisms inventory, Spiel-
berger’s STAI, and Gordon’s Personality Inventory. Other tests employ indirect,
non-obstructive methods, like observations and recordings of behavior, have clini-
cal aspects, and may be called qualitative methods. Examples: Small group test,
Abraham’s MIPG, T-Group, Free observations, Free reports, Specific interviews,
and Privacy questionnaire.
Another way of classifying the tests is as “Group Tests” and “Individual Tests,”
and under these headings they will be described. Since the number of subjects and
several of the tests do not produce quantifiable data, statistical analysis has been
rarely applied. The test schedule during the three periods of EXEMSI is presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. Test Schedule during EXEMSI
A. Pre-Isolation Period
Group Tests
GDIPSG Small Group Test: Group DiscussionProblem Solving in Group
MlPG Matrix of Intra- and Interpersonal Processes in Group
SQlI2 Sociometric Questionnaires 1 and 2
T-Group Classic Group Dynamic Session (with ground crew)
FO Free Observation
Individual Tests
Cognitive
SRT Space Relation Test
EFT Embedded Figure Test
VI D Video-recorded Interpersonal Distance Measure
TAIS Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style
Emotional, affective, social
STAl State and Trait Anxiety Inventory
DMI Defense Mechanism Inventory
GPP Gordon Personal Profile Inventory
SI Special Interview
FR Free Report
B. Isolation Period
Group Tests
FDG 3x Free Discussion in Group (video recorded)
PSG 2x Problem Solving in Group (video recorded)
Individual Tests
AQ 8x Adaptability Questionnaire
PQ 4x Privacy Questionnaire
SQ 112 2x Sociometric Questionnaires
MlPG lx Matrix of Intra- and Interpersonal Processes in Group
C. Post-Isolation Period
Group Tests
T-Group Classic Group Dynamic Session (CC and CC+GC)
SQ 112 Sociometric Questionnaires
AQ Adaptability Questionnaire
MlPG Matrix of Intra- and Interpersonal Processes in Group
FO Free Observation
Individual Tests
FR Free Report
I Interview with Members of Chamber Crew and Ground Crew
AQ 8x Adaptability Questionnaire describing himself
248
Group Dynamics' Study During EXEMSJ 249
B. CroupTests
Small Group Method (SGM)
This method is based on the experience that in an interactive social situation

individuals will reveal a part of their personalities. Behavior, attitudes, roles, what
is said and not said, can reveal certain characteristics of social interaction. The
protocol of an existing test of the Royal Air Force was adapted for use in EXEMSI.
It was applied during the pre-isolation and isolation periods in two forms:
Free discussion in a group (FDG). The topics proposed for discussion are of
a general nature so that no particular knowledge is needed to talk about them. The
group chooses one topic after having discussed the choice together. The individuals
are judged on the form of their participation and not on the content of what is said.
The time allowed for discussion is 20 min.
Problem solving in group (PSG). Each member of the group receives a writ-
ten text, accompanied by a drawing, illustrating an imaginary situation with which
the group is supposedly confronted. Giving information, suggesting approaches
and imposing various constraints, the situation sets a problem to be solved. After
10 minutes for individual study of the problem, the group has 20 minutes for
discussing and proposing a common solution.
Matrix of Intra- and Interpersonal Processes in Group (MIPG)
This test, created by Ada Abraham, allows to compare three images that the
subjects have on their behavior in a group: (1) their real-self(how they think they
behave in a group), (2) their ideal-self(their ideal image of their own behavior in
a group), and (3) their public-self (the way they think the others see them in the
group). Items are the same for the three images: 22 are related to the individual
behavior and 8 to the group leader. Thus, the manifest and hidden levels of the
individual processes and of the group processes are evaluated. This test was used
during all three periods.
Individual and group are analyzed by means of five configurations,each based
on a specific relation between the dimensions of the actual self (S), the ideal self
(I), and the public self (0).The subject rates each item on a 5-point scale. Each
configuration consists of a set of discrepancies and congruence depending on the
individual scores:
S # I # O , withl S-I l > l I - O I (1)
"I am not as I wish to be, but others think I am better than I am." This rep-
resents the fear of being unmasked. There is self-devaluation. If this configuration
is dominant within the group, it results in a lack of spontaneous expression. In such
a group the problems are of a more Oedipean nature with serious anxiety concerning
the expression of love or aggressiveness. If aggressiveness is expressed, it will
manifest itself violently, with arguments and blows. This is an example of a divorce
between speech and action.
S # I # 0 ,with I S - I I c I 1 - 0 I (2)
”I am not as I should be but the others see me even worse than I really am. ’’
This is called “total rejection.” The subject feels misunderstood. He is isolated in
the group. If this configuration is dominant in a group, it marks a strong hostility
between the members. There is a constant danger of disintegration.
S#I,S=O (3)
“I am not as I would like to be and the others see me as I really am.” This
is called “openness-dependence.” The subject tries to express his feelings, to
communicate them to the others, and expects their help. In the extreme case, this
leads to dependence, conformity,and submission. Such a group shows a search for
authenticity, openness, warm exchanges. There is contact and communication
between the members of the group. If this configuration is too dominant in a group,
the group might not be very efficient at work.
S=I,S#O (4)
“I am as I want to be but the others see me differently.” This is called “ac-

cusation of the others.” Self satisfaction leads to the projection of his specific
problems on the others. The subject avoids any “calling into question” with an
absence of will to personally change. There is some projection: it is the other who
is wrong. In the group, characterized by a strong presence of aggressiveness with
a strong feeling of suspicion,the discussion is focused on competence: there could
be an open conflict of power. Ascapegoat may be found.
S=I,S=O (5 )
“I am as I wish to be and the others see me as I am.” This is called “har-

mony,” the absence of conflict and tension. However, if it is overdeveloped, this
configurationcorresponds to an excessive self-esteem, a lack of lucidity concerning
oneself. It is necessary for the good functioning of the group, but if it is dominant
it leads to a group without affective contact and with resistance to change.
Video Interpersonal Distance Measure (VIDM)
This test, developed by Walkey and Gilmour, assesses the extent to which an
established measure of interpersonal distance can predict difficulty to live in a
Group Dynamics’ Study During EXEMSI 251
confined environment. In other terms, it measures the tolerance to be approached

by another person (proxemics), which is possibly linked with aggressiveness.The
video measure consists of a tape showing a series of 35 separate scenes in which
an actor approaches a stationary person from each of five different directions. The
approaching actor stops at each of seven different distances from the stationary
person (150,120,90,60,45,30,15 cm). Subjectsare asked to watch the videotape,
to imagine that they are the person being approached and to rate the condition they
would feel: very comfortable, comfortable, moderately comfortable, uncomfort-
able, and very uncomfortable. This test was applied only during the pre-isolation
period.
Sociometric Questionnaires (SQ)
Two questionnaires were used in free time (about 10min) during all three periods:
SQl: a questionnaire after Moreno’s approach. It corresponds to a reciprocal
choice of the other members of the team for two different situations. The first one
is a difficult one (if the EXEMSI experiment were extended by three extra months
of isolation...), and the second one i s a nice one (if after EXEMSI there would be
the opportunity to spend two months of paid vacation very relaxed in a pleasant
location...).
SQ2:a questionnairedeveloped in our Laboratory. It consists of an appreciation
of the characteristics of group behavior for each member of the group and for the
whole group.
Adaptability Questionnaire (AQ)
This questionnaire, developed for EXEMSI in our Laboratory, was to be com-

pleted once a week by each subject for himself and for the other members of the
chamber crew, and a similar one for the whole crew (five questionnaireseach time).
The questions concern physical fitness, mood, behavior during the various activi-
ties, relations and feelings with the ground crew, etc. Each item is rated on a 6-point
scale from ‘very bad’ to ‘excellent’.An open question calls for aqualitative opinion.
This test was applied during the isolation and the post-isolation periods.
Classical Group Dynamic Session
A discussion between all members of chamber crew and ground crew was
observed by four persons and recorded with two video cameras. The free and
systematized observation allowed to appreciate relations between individuals,
tendencies, roles, attitudes, etc. The duration was one hour. The test was conducted
during the pre-isolation and post-isolation periods.
free Observation
During the periods spent in Cologne between July and November 1992, each
investigator made notes of hisher observations of behavior and interrelations of
the crew members, and their relations with others.
C. individual Tests
These tests were used for describing the psychological characteristics and ways
of coping of the individual subjects.
Space Relation Test (SRT)
This test from the battery DAT of Bennet, Seashore and Wesman, is a cognitive
test, measuring logic and perception. The “Mental Paper Folding Task” consists in
discovering a three-dimensional figure between five two-dimensional ones. Each
item is allowed 60 seconds. This test was used only during the pre-isolation period.
Embedded Figure Test (€fT)
A test of cognitive style, from Oltman, Raskin, and Witkin. It consists of

recognizing a simple figure inside a complex one. Twelve cards of the individual
form were used.This test measured Field Dependence/ Independence; it was used
only during the pre-isolation period.
Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style flAlS)
Another test of cognitive style, from Nideffer. The questionnaire includes 144
items and the subject has to answer each one by the term “never,” “rarely,”
“sometimes,”or “frequently.” It measures 18scales grouped as follows: Attentional
style (broad-external attentiodoverload external information, broad-internal atten-
tiodoverload internal information, and nanow-focused attentiodreduced-atten-
tion); Control (information processing and behavior control); Personal
(interpersonal control, self-esteem, physical orientation. obsessiveness, extrover-
siodintroversion, intellectual expressiveness, negative affect expressiodpositive
affect expression, and depression). This test was used only during the pre-isolation
period.
Defense Mechanism Inventory (DMI)
This test from Gleser and Ihilevich explores affective and emotional responses
to situations. The DMI is a paper and pencil test which aims at measuring the
relative intensity of usage of five major groups of defense: (1) Turning against
object (TAO),(2) Projection (PRO), (3) Principalization (PRN), (4) Turning against
self (TAS), and ( 5 ) Reversal (REV). The inventory consists of 10 brief stories,
Group Dynamics’ Study During EXEMSI 253
followed by four questions regarding the actual behavior, the fantasy behavior,
thoughts and feelings of the subject in the situation described. Five responses,
typifying the five defenses, are provided for each question. The subject selects the one
that most represents and the one that least represents his reaction. There are forms for
males and for females. This test was applied only during the pre-isolation period.
State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
This test from Spielberger,Gorsuch, and Lushene explores anxiety.Three forms,

each one including 20 items, were used. The answers to the items are: “not at all,”
“somewhat,” “moderately so,” “very much so.” Form 1 explores the anxiety level
of the subject when he is answering the questionnaire. Form 2 assesses the anxiety
level of the subject when he has to face a stressful situation (for example to present
to the manager a work whose results are especially important for him and will have
a major impact on his career). Form 3 measures the anxiety trait. This test was
applied only during the pre-isolation period.
Special Interview
This interview, specifically developed for EXEMSI, is not a classical psycho-

logical interview on biography, difficulties of life, mood, and personality traits.
Rather, it attempts todefine the kind of behavior of the subject in difficult situations
due to social stress or other causes, and how he copes with them. This test was
applied only during the pre-isolation period. After isolation a debriefing interview
was held, which essentially concerned the individual and group interrelations and
difficulties, as well as feelings of the chamber crew about ground crew, DLR,
management, and Principal Investigators.
Gordon Personal Profile Inventory (GPPI)
The questionnaire consists of 38 sets of four items. The subject answers by

choosing from each set the most representative and the least representative item for
hidher. It is a social test with nine scales: ascendancy (A); responsibility (R);
emotional stability (E); sociability ( S ) ; self-esteem (SE); cautiousness(C); original
thinking (0);personal relations (P); vigor (V).
Free Report
Just before entering the chamber, each CC is asked to give:

0 hisher own assessment on the pre-isolation period (organization; life and
work conditions; experimental constraints; relationship with ground crew,

Principal Investigators, and persons in charge);
how helshe envisages the isolation period;
0 how hdshe feels now, physically and psychologically.
2 54 CAZES, ROSNET, BACHELARD, LE SCANFF, and RlVOLlER
This test was done during the pre-isolation period. After isolation the subjects wrote
a second free report, in which they are asked to give their impressions and
assessments on the isolation period, especially:
what they found pleasant or unpleasant;

0 what they think of their own behavior, that of the other crew members, and of
the team;
0 what is their personal opinion on the relation of the chamber crew with the
ground crew, with the technical infrastructure, with managers, and with
Principal Investigators;
0 what they think of this kind of experiment, which remarks or suggestionsthey
may have.
Privacy Questionnaire (PQ)
This was specifically developed for our use in EXEMSI. A word from a list of
106 words is presented on the computer screen; the subject checks whether the word
evokes something in h i d e r ; if it does, he presses the space bar, the word
disappears, and is replaced by the next word; if it does not, the word stays for 3
seconds on the screen, and is then replaced by the next word without any action of
the subject. The words are related to confinement, isolation, privacy, food, sex,
leisure, family, and work. The test is supposed to bring out the conscious and
unconscious frustrations due to the lack of personal space and intimacy.
Other Sources
These comprise: interviews with members of the ground crew and the manage-
ment delegate, the daily evening reports filed by chamber crew and ground crew,
and the EXEMSI log book.
111. RESULTS
A. Pre-Isolation Findings
Group Evaluation
The chamber crew describes itself as very structured and efficient in the various
tests administered at the time of the evaluation.The group cohesion is excellent, as
shown in the individual answers and in group behavior. The crew is confident in
its capacity to accomplish their task. Their is mutual trust between the members.
The crew is non-anxious, sociable, able to make decisions and impervious to the
lack of privacy during isolation. The crew members seem highly motivated, and
describe themselves as being capable of coping in the most difficult situations. At
this stage, the crew is conflict-free, but the rigidity of the group structure indicates
that anything threatening group cohesion would be strongly opposed (DMI and
MIPG).
The commander presents a very favorable judgement of himself and denies any
anxiety, problem or difficulty in the group. His defense mechanisms are strong, and
consist of rationalization, intellectualization, and isolation, the last being slightly
overdeveloped. His leadership seems undisputed by the chamber crew as well as
by the ground crew.
Comments
In summary, in the pre-isolation period the crew functioned cohesively and

conflict-free,which seems to be due to rigid group structure,suppression of affects,
and potential opposition to whatever could threaten this cohesion. Criticism was
only expressed to the outside world (management, persons in charge), whereas a
good relationship with the ground crew seemed to exist.
It seemed likely that they would be able to accomplish their task in EXEMSI,
and they appeared to be aware of the length and specific requirements of the
isolation. However, the rather rigid and defensive structure of the team raises the
question whether it could function effectively in a situation of real danger. Does
the frequent joking among themselves reveal an effective defense mechanism in a
hazardous situation, or does it reveal a certain degree of infantilism that could lead
to inappropriate responses to such a crisis? Does the need to assert its value as a
group reflect a hidden anxiety? May their negative attitude towards those in charge
of EXEMSI lead to future problems for the success of the mission?
The choice of the Commander seemed good, as he was balanced, well motivated,
and well-acquainted with his task. However, he might overly try to protect his
self-image and the image the others had of him. Difficulties might arise if his
position would be challenged by his team mates, or if he would believe himself to
be failing in his function. His way of exercising leadership by relying on others’
opinions and by seeking their approval through reasoned dialogue might lead to
rebellion, once they would begin to consider this as manipulation in order to obtain
their recognition and approval. The other crew members seemed to be rather
balanced in behavior and characteristics, and there was a complementaritybetween
them. However, one was often restless, noisy, derisive, paradoxical (acting as a
“buffoon”), which could make him unbearable for the others.
B. Isolation and Post-Isolation Findings
Stress Factors and Manifestations
Although few and slight stress manifestations on the individual level were seen
from the test results, the isolation-confinement factor must not be neglected. The
sex, food and work variables do not seem to have been constraining (PQ and FDG).
Passage of time was experienced as slow in the initial period of isolation, then as
fast, and as slow again during the final weeks.
Answers on condition and feelings rated between “good and “very good,” with
the exception of a few remarks on fatigue (physical, or possibly psychosomatic).
Although there must have been “unspoken” experiences, the tests, AQ in particular,
did not reveal interesting examples. However, other tests (free discussion, free
reports, interviews and evening reports) show unequivocally that there were some
crises, namely:
1 . Communication rules, unspecified before the isolation period, seemed to

depend on the good will of an external authority;
2. EXEMSI was expected to have been a ‘space simulation’ rather than a mere
‘isolation-confinement’study;
3. Roles and goals were never clearly defined;
4. Information before isolation was insufficient, which created difficulties for
which the organizers were responsible. Matters improved after a frank, but
belated discussion with the ESA representative, however comprehensive
information was lacking in the various phases of EXEMSI.
Other problems were minor, and difficulties about experimental tasks did not
cause conflicts.
Group Dynamics
Relations between subjects. Were good without major incident. This may be
due to a real affinity, if not friendship, between team members rather than to a high
level of emotional control. Indeed, the crew often responded in a passionate way
to external stimuli. However, the quality of certain relations in the group definitely
fluctuated. For example, the reciprocal liking between two subjects decreased
toward the end of the mission. Because of the views he expresied in some
discussions, one subject found himself, if not isolated, rather apart from the group.
The SQ1 analysis shows that positive choices outnumber rejections, thus show-
ing the unity of the group. The “Exemsi extension”idea received a positive response
from the crew members, but strangely the “joint vacation” idea drew a less positive
response during the last evaluation than during the previous evaluations.This leads
to the following qualified interpretation: “We are satisfied with our team and quite
happy to continue working together, but we have had enough for now, and we would
rather resume our usual relationship in the future.”
%o subjects received preferential choice in the SQ1 and score a high rate of
popularity, if not for the same reasons. Harmony may be more apparent than real,
since the friendship and popularity ratings clearly diverged. This is illustrated by
the fact that the most popular subject for the “joint vacation” idea is the one who
reciprocated the least, and the same is true for the most popular subject for the
“EXEMSI extension” idea.
The post-isolation SQ2 test shows for the first time that the term ’homogeneous’
hardly applies to the team, though it appeared very apt before.TheMIPG test, which
allows a more specific psychological analysis, shows that in consecutive evalu-
ations the group seems less defensive and more conscious of anxiety. For three
subjects the MIPG increasingly shows their defenses and affective fluctuations,
while the fourth subject is only in harmony with himself and the others.
Relations with Commander. Although there was no open discussion of this

topic, the MIPG results show a group dynamics inversion in the course of time.
Two subjects reverse their opinion on thecommander, one changes from “cautious”
to “positive,” the other from positive to negative. The third subject shows a very
positive opinion about the Commander, who sees himself in an equally positive
light. The SQI results are in agreement with these findings.FD3 clarifies thematter:
by provoking a discussion, the Commander somehow seeks approval for the way
he and two others appreciate his leadership.
Relationship with female team mate. The presence of a female crew mem-
ber was felt to be a good thing, but this judgement must be qualified, as it refers to
a specific woman, namely the one that was with them, and not just to any woman.
Relationship with ground crew. Was largely considered as very good, though
difficulties were experienced in times of crisis, especially in week 3. This excellent
relationship dated from the joint training period. The two crews may be considered
as an entity, due to similaritiesin background,age, occupation,and being “subjects”
(one DLR representative derogatorily described them as “belonging to the same
family”). Although some ground crew members expressed frustration for not
having been chosen for the chamber crew, this did not affect the positive relation-
ship.
The post-isolation T Group and the ground crew’s usual behavior indicate a warm
relationship between the two groups. The Commander appears as the true leader of
the entire group. However, the interviews with some ground crew members showed
that in conflicts the uncompromising attitude of the chamber crew, one of them in
particular, was strongly resented by the ground crew.
Relationship with management. Largely and continuously a bad relation,

already obvious during the training period. Resentment was then directed against
the organization as a whole, but during the isolation period it became focused on
“management,” which we assume to refer to the ESA representatives present in
Cologne. “Management” then appears as a scapegoat. Commander is not alien to
this evolution, as he probably rightly felt that an external scapegoat is necessary for
group cohesion. Obviously, this does not make sense, because without any coordi-
nation the project could not have been executed.
Relationship with DLR. Can be considered neutral, because chamber crew

had no direct contact with DLR and the technical incidents did not disturb the crew,
so did not trigger hostile feelings. The relationshipbetween ground crew and DLR
was different and often difficult.
Relationship with the Principal Investigators (PIS). Both crews seem to have
had neutral or positive feelings toward the PIS. Contacts with the psychologists
varied according to the groups of investigators and the tests used. At some point
the chamber crew suspected the psychologists of tracking their shortcomings, as
this would be the only way to carry out a psychological study. Obviously, this is
not true for a study of group dynamics. This wrong notion may be due to
conversations with the external environment, or to a form of isolation-related
paranoia due to stress.
IV. DISCUSSION
It should be stressed that psychological investigationsinvolve deontological restric-
tions, a fact which is not always sufficiently understood by the management of a
technological organization when it asks for a “psychological data bank” like one
involving mechanical or physical data.
A. Methodological Aspects
Testing Tools
Qualitative and indirect methods have revealed much more information than
quantitative and direct methods. In particular, self-evaluation questionnaires have
proved to be ineffective.
During the isolation and post-isolation periods some investigationsproved more
effective than others (for explanation of abbreviations see Table 1):
0 FDG, MPG, SQ1, T-Group, FO, FR, PQ, and the evening reports, provided
valuable information;
0 AQ, SQ2, and the standard debriefing technique were not very informative,
because these tend to reinforce the subject’s defenses in the wish to avoid
criticism.
Predictive Value of Baseline Evaluation
Our assessment of the individual evaluation during the pre-isolation period

proved to be rather accurate. We anticipated good relationships in the group with
few manifestations of lack of adaptation, and we predicted acceptance of the
Commander. Both proved correct. Our doubts on the ability of the group to cope
with crises could not be checked. because no such extreme conditions occurred.
Group Dynamics’Study During EXEMSl 259
Although we suspected that the rigid structure of the group might have negative
consequences, we could not foresee the nature of these. They were manifested in
three ways:
0 the rather aggressive and vindicative behavior of one crew member, which
caused conflicts with external support;
the somewhat “demagogic” evolution of the Commander;
0 the unfair transfer of most problems to an external scapegoat.
B. Suggestions for Future Studies
The findings in this study permit to formulate suggestions, if not recommenda-

tions, for future simulation studies.
Selection Procedure
The selection procedure needs to be reconsidered. It should be continued during

the preparation-training period. In this practical setting another choice may be
reached.” Special care is necessary in choosing the project manager and his
representative.
Information to Participants
Information provided to subjects and principal investigators should be clear and

consistent, and should be available in time. This was not the case during EXEMSI.
A clear definition of roles, objectives, and rules is necessary.
Relation with Subjects
The subjects are humans and not experimental animals. It is, therefore, of the
utmost importance to establish a relationship based on confidence and cooperation.
Dialogue will engender good results. It also means acceptance of the value of the
opinions and suggestions expressed by the subjects.
Objectives and Selection of Experiments
The scientific objectives should be clearly established in the planning phase.

Experiments should be selected so as to avoid redundances. Techniqueswhich have
been found ineffective in previous studies must be rejected.
Special precautions are needed in the field of psychological investigations. The
guarantee of confidentiality is of utmost importance here.
While EXEMSI represented an experiment on life in isolation and confinement,
future studiesshould focus on life in space.This means that all aspects of spaceflight
(except weightlessness) should be represented, including incidents and difficulties.
Ultimately, the same experiments should be conducted during an actual flight.
Another possibility would be to conduct a field study in a harsh polar area, which
could simulate life in a Lunar base.

The objectives of this study were to investigate the social behavior, interrelations,
cohesion, efficiency and team formation of the crew during 60 days of isolation
and confinement, to make a critical comparison of a variety of test methods used
for this purpose, and to formulate recommendations for their application in selec-
tion, training and support for future studies of this kind.
The study consisted of three phases: (1) the pre-isolation period, in which initial
individual and group assessments were made to understand the motivation, char-
acteristics, and styles of the crew members, the state of the crew, and to make a
prognosis for the behavior of the group and its members, (2) the isolation period,
with tests and observations to follow and analyze behavior and group dynamics of
the crew, and to detect manifestations of stress, and (3) the post-isolation period
with final assessment and debriefing.
During these three periods individual and group tests were carried out. Direct
methods, questionnaires and tests, as well as indirect methods, observations of
behavior, were used. These had cognitive, affective-emotional and social compo-
nents; they were quantitative, qualitative or a combination.
Before isolation the crew members expressed strong confidence in the team and
in their own personal capability. The leadershipof the Commander seemed uncon-
tested. Crew functioning during this period was conflict-free, but was structured in
arather rigid and defensive way (isolation of affects, denial of anxiety). Apparently,
the members strongly needed to present a good image of themselves. The relatively
short period of the experiment,and the absence of real risk suggested that the crew
would be able to maintain their cohesion, but in a real spaceflight situation this
behavior could be inadequate and even dangerous. The pre-isolation prognosis for
crew behavior during isolation was validated to a large extent.
During isolation there were no clear manifestations of stress. Nevertheless, the
confinement and isolation were experienced as the major stress factors. The crew
members described themselves as a heterogeneous but harmonious group that was
successful in their mission. In fact, the team maintained its cohesion by opposing
external authority, using management as a scapegoat. Occasionally, in times of
crisis, they also criticized the ground crew. The Commander supported this attitude.
Strong differences in personality and behavior were noted. Analysis of the so-
ciometric data showed that the asserted harmony was more apparent than real. It is
questionablewhether the group cohesion would have persisted in a life threatening
crisis or even in a prolongation of the experiment.
The most reliable instruments for this type of survey seem to be: group methods,
non-obstructive tests, indirect instruments, and qualitative tools. The least reliable
are: strictly quantitative methods, self-evaluations, standard debriefing techniques,
Group Dynamics' Study During EXEMSI 261
since these reinforced in most cases subjects' defenses in an unconscious avoidance

of criticism.
Several recommendations were made for the organization, definition of objec-
tives, experiment selection, crew selection, roles of external management and
personnel. In particular, it is felt to be necessary to explain the aims of the mission
to the subjects, to give clear and complete information, to establish confident and
cooperative relations with the crew. It is essential to allow dialogue, to take opinions
and suggestions of the crew seriously, and to establish clear rules of confidentiality.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge Mr. Jacques Collet, ESA Long Term Planning Office, Paris for
making possible our participation in the EXEMSI project, and the subjects for their patient
cooperation.
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Chapter 15
ETHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CREW

MEMBER BEHAVIOR:
DISTANCES. ORIENTATIONS. AND POSTURES
Carole Tafforin
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
I1. MethodologicalApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A . Video Recording Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
B . Observed Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
C. DataAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
III. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A . Inter-Individual Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
B . Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
C . Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
D . Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Copyright 0 1996 by JAI Press h e .
All rights ofreproduetion in MYform reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
263
2 64 CAROLE TAFFORIN
1. INTRODUCTION
During a manned space mission the crew members have to adapt to a new
environment, which is characterized on the one hand by new physical parameters,
on the other hand by new psychosocial parameters. New physical parameters are
weightlessness, three-dimensional configuration, and reduced living space. New
psychosocial parameters are small group living, working together in close proxim-
ity, and social isolation. Adaptation to this new environment involves a number of
processes, which include simultaneous physiological, psychological and behav-
ioral modifications in the course of time. The present study is focused on investi-
gating the behavioral modifications.
Previous ethological observations of human motor behavior in parabolic flights
and short-term spaceflights (8-10 days) have revealed the construction of individ-
ual strategies, which involve new patterns of movement, posture and orientation.'
The adaptive process starts during the first seconds of microgravity with a sponta-
neous phase showing sensory-motorreflexes, followedduring the subsequent hours
and days spent in these conditions by an integrative phase in which cognitive
operationsare updated.2v3 The main findings are that the subject builds anew mental
representation of the three-dimensional space and a new body scheme, as demon-
strated by a wider range of body orientations (from head-up to head-down)
associated with flexed body postures.
During the ISEMSI study4 an ethological analysis of the spatial behavior of the
six subjects confined for 28 days was camed out? The analysis showed the need
for body mobility in a reduced space, leading to a decreased frequency of short
inter-individual distances (0-40 cm), defined as intimate space! a predominance
of social space (40-120 cm), and to a large extent personal space (12&360 cm)
between the crew members.
Effects of gender, age, and cultural group on interpersonal spacing have been
observed in psychological experiments on the ground. Mixed groups with one or
more female members are tighter than all-male groups? In interactions of pairs two
females maintain less distance than two Interpersonal distances and body
orientationsalso depend on nationality: Dutch pairs maintain greater distances than
English pairs, which are less proximate than French pairs. However, in a mixed and
transcultural (European countries) group no spatial pattern was clearly differenti-
ated between the subjects." In addition, psychosocial studies during a long-term
stay in the polar region (> 2-3 months) show decreased group cohesiveness,
superficial interpersonal relationships and self-centered behavior, which are as-
cribed to the hostile physical environment and the difficulties in communicating
with each other." All these experiments have in common that they deal with men
and women who must live and work together in a small group in isolation and
confinement for a long period of time, a situation analogous to that of a space crew.
The present EXEMSI project, in which a mixed group of four was isolated for
60 days in a space station-like setting, offered a further opportunity to investigate
the behavioral adaptation of such a group under conditions resembling a long-term
Ethological Analysis 2 65
space mission. The ethological analysis focused on the spatial organization of the
crew members relative to each other. The changes in positions, orientations and
postures during isolation were observed. The adaptive changes in the spatial
activities of the individual subjects and of the group were studied qualitatively and
quantitatively in an attempt to define the behavior governing their individual and
collective strategies.

A. Video Recording Procedure
The technique, which is commonly employed in ethological studies, consisted

of a descriptive and quantitative analysis of video recordings of the spontaneous
motor behavior of the subjects during the performance of professional tasks and
daily life activities in their living and working environment.
The environment was composed of the isolation facility, in which the crew of
one woman and three men lived and worked together during the 60-day isolation
period. The facility with a total volume of 94.4 m3 comprised a habitat module
(length 6.0 m, diam. 2.2 m, volume 23.5 m3), laboratory module (length 6.4 m,
width 3.2 m, volume 43.0 m3), storage module, and transfer module. Inside the
laboratory and habitat modules four wide-angle video cameras were symmetrically
located, one at each end of the modules. The cameras were connected to a video
recording device in the ground control room. The recording device included a timer
(hour/min/sec), a mixer (4 pictures) and a recorder (VHStype; Pal system). The
video signals from the four cameras were synchronized, mixed, and recorded on a
single video picture.
The ground control crew comprised three women and two men, one of whom
was acting as crew interface coordinator (CIC). The latter maintained the recording
schedule according to confidential instructions, which required recording a 4-hr
sequence every Monday from 17:OO to 2 1 :OO during isolation weeks 1 through 9.
This time slot included both collective activities (group meeting and dinner) and
individual activities (working and leisure). During the preparation period, two
months before isolation, the general features of the ethological analysis were
explained to all subjects in a one-hour informative meeting.
B. Observed Parameters
Three parameters were observed for a description of the spatial behavior of the
chamber crew during isolation, which are explained in Figure 1:
1. the posirion of each subject relative to the chamber configuration (geocentric
references) was measured in x,y coordinates (Figure la);
2. the orienrarion of the subject relative to the other subjects (exocentric
references) was evaluated by the number of subjects (from 0 to 3) located in
the visual space bounded by the frontal half-sphere of the subject (Figure lb);
266 CAROLE TAFFORIN
lbl ORlLNTAnONS
(<) rosIuRm
Figure I. Explanation of observed parameters: a) position, b) orientation,c) posture.
3. the posture was represented by the arrangement of the body segments of the
subject (egocentric references; Figure lc).
From the video recording the position, orientation and posture of each subject
were determined every 2 minutes, which provided a total of 120 sets of measure-
ments for each weekly continuous 4-hr recording.
C. Data Analysis
Position and orientation descriptions were digitalized by means of a data plot

and a Macintosh-I1 computer. The posture description was directly typed on the
keyboard of the computer. Specific data processing programs were used to com-
puterize inter-individual distances in cm, frequencies of orientationon a scale from
0 to 3, and postures in percent. In some cases, the distances have been divided
according to Hall's classes (<40 cm; 40-120 cm; 120-360 cm; >360 cm). Non-
parametric tests (standard error, chi2 test, contingency table and correspondence
factorial analysis) were used for the statistical analysis of the data.
111. RESULTS
The results are presented by descriptiveanalysis as a function of two variables: time
(weeks 1 to 9) and individual (subjects B, D, G, and H). Apreliminary remark about
the schedule of the video recordings is in order. The video sequences recorded by
the acting CIC were not always initiated and ended at the scheduled hours (17:OO
and 21:OO) every week. The actual recording hours are listed in Table 1.
Table 7. Schedule of Ethological Video Recordings
week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
start 17:OO 17:OO 17:OO 17:OO 17:OO 18:16 17:OO 18:08 18:06
end 21:OO 21:OO 21:OO 20:24 2100 22:16 2100 22:08 2206
Ajcragc distances lcrn)
uoo ,
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 W - k
04 . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 W - k
Contlngency Table Arulyds

v 1 1"
Total Chi-Square 382 579 plmE

4
G Statistic 376 057
Contingenc) CodIiclent 252
Crdrner'c V 1%
Figure 2. Weekly group averages of inter-individual distances. Top: distances in cm;

middle: frequency of distances grouped in Hall's classes.
267
A. Inter-Individual Distances
Time Course of Group Average
Inter-individualdistances in cm, averaged for the subjects, are presented in Figure

2 (top) for each week during the isolation period. The changes seem to be relatively
minor, except for a decrease in weeks 5 and 6, and a slight increase in week 9.
Detailed analysis of the data showed that there was no change during the first three
weeks, a slight increase in week 4 and again in week 9.
Dirwncc Icm) WEEK 1
1600-
HC
.
'
I 4j&@J
HB HD
0
CB CD BD Subjcca
Figure 3. Box and Wisker plot of the distances between pairs of subjects in weeks 1
to 3 (HG refers to distance between subjects H and G, etc.).
Ethological Analysis 269
Diblancc (cmi WEEK 6

lMll '
Figure 4. Box and Wisker plot of the distances between pairs of subjects in weeks 4
to 6.
The inter-individual distances are grouped according to Hall's classes in the

middle part of Figure 2. No intimate distance (<40 cm) was observed, personal
distances (4&120 cm) were seen in low frequencies, social (120-360 cm) and
public distances (>360 cm) in higher frequencies. The isolation period can clearly
be divided in three phases. During the initial phase (weeks 1 to 4) there was a
predominance of large inter-individual distances (social and public). During the
middle phase (weeks 5 and 6) the frequencies of personal and social distances
Distance(cm) WEEK I
1600 . 7
4(j4:
Dismnce (cm) WEEK 9
..,~-
I(U0.
1400
NU,
HX).
J(X) '
2(X).
,Ew:-(j
0 .
increased, while those of public distances decreased. During the final phase (weeks
7 to 9), the frequency of public distances increased sharply, while those of social
and personal distances decreased.
Distances of Subject Pairs
Distances between each pair of subjects are shown in Box and Wisker plots for
weeks 1-3 in Figure 3, for weeks 4-6 in Figure 4, and for weeks 7-9 in Figure 5.
In the Box and Wisker plots 50% of the values (rectangle)are distributed around a
median value (horizontal line in the rectangle), extreme values as circles above or
Average number 01 SubjeCt.5
Subject H
31
04 . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 Week
Average number of subjects
Subject B
32 1
l!--+
0 l ' l ' U ' I ' I ' I ' I . I . I "
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9Week
Average number of subjects
Subject D
32 1
Figure 6. Average number of subjects located in the visual space of each subject for
weeks 1-9 (bars indicate standard errors).
271
SubjectH
SubJectG
0 SubjectB
Number of subjects 0 SubjectD
Week 1
..............
...............
..............
Week 2
N
v
N
Week 3
3
2
Week 4
1
0
3
2
1
0
Week 7
h
2
v
W
Week 8
womo o w *- m
q
-
Week 9
I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4
Time slot (hour)
Figure 7. Number of subjects located in the visual space of each subject during 4 hours of observation in weeks 1-9.
. .
Relative frcauenc\
H
.
WEEK 1 I G
[D F 1I I chi2 1289 I p= 1.0000E-l I
T- t/rW L t
POSturts
Relative Irequcnc!
H
.
WEEK 2 I G
B.
E4D
[ D F 11 I chi2 389 I p= 1.0000E-4 I
Rclrli\c Ircquenc!
1
1 I-H
WEEK 3 1 I-G
300 1 I-B
Figure 8. Frequency of each of 12 postures for each subject during weeks 1-3.
below the rectangles. Pairs are identified by the code letters for the two subjects
(e.g., HG refers to the distances between subjects H and G).
The closest pairs were HD in week 1, HB and BD in week 2, HB in week 3, GB
in week 4, HG and BD in week 5 , HB and BD in week 6, HG and HB in week 7,
and BD in week 8. No close pairs were observed in week 9. Over all, the female
subject H maintained shorter distances with the male subjects B, D and G. No single
pair predominated in either short or large inter-individual distances, and each pair
has been observed at a very short inter-individual distance at least once during the
isolation period.
Rclatnc Ircqucnc)
3 7
. .
300 1
Relalne Irequcnc)
WEEK 6
3 7
figure 9. Frequency of each of 12 postures for each subject during weeks 4-6.
6. Orientation
Orientation,defined by the number of other subjects located in the frontal visual

space of a subject, is shown in Figure 6 for each subject during each of the nine
weekly recording sessions. Subject B (Commander) shows the most stable course,
although there is a decrease in weeks 7-9. The other subjects showed peak values
in weeks 5 and 6.
The nature of the activities has an effect on the orientation, which is shown in
Figure 7. During collective tasks (meeting and dinner) the number of subjects
located in the frontal visual space of each subject was much higher than during the
pursuit of individual activities (working and leisure).
Rclainc Ircqucnc!
3200 7
Figure 10. Frequency of each of 12 postures for each subject during weeks 7-9.
C. Posture
Twelve postures have been distinguished in the analysisof the video recordings.
They are indicated as symbols in Figures 8, 9 and 10. For each subject the
frequencies of these postures have been plotted in these figures. Figure 8 presents
the findings in weeks 1, 2, and 3, Figure 9 those in weeks 4,5, and 6, Figure 10
those in weeks 7 , 8 , and 9. The patterns did not change much in the course of time.
In all weeks the seatedpositionis the most frequent,and the standingposition next.
A wide range of other flexed postures vaned as a function of the individuals and
over time. Subject D was often lying down (weeks 1,7, and 9). while subject G
Ads contrlbutlon
axis 2: 20 %
axis 3: 10 R:
Figure 11. Correlation of inter-individual distances, orientations and postures ac-

cording to week of isolation. Correspondence factorial analysis was used.
was sitting most frequently. Subject H typically occupied flexed body positions.
Subjects G and H were in more stretched postures in weeks 6-9.
D. Correlations
The frequencies of inter-individualdistances (personal, social, public), orienta-

tions (0-3) and postures (a-l) have been correlated by week by means of correspon-
dence factorial analysis. The results are shown in Figure 11. In weeks 1-3 social
distances (120-360 cm) are linked with orientations towards 2 or 3 subjects. In
week 5 orientations involving the maximum 3 subjects are linked with social
distances. In week 9 public distances (>360 cm) are linked with orientations
towards one subject only.
In a similar way distances, orientations, and postures have been correlated by
subject. The results are presented in Figure 12. Subject H appears to be clearly
distinguishedfrom the others in relation to the horizontal axis fl. The axis f l seems
to separate the gender of the subjects. Subject D is characterized by orienting
AXIScontrlbutlon
Figure 12, Correlation of inter-individual distances, orientations and postures ac-

cording to subject. Correspondencefactorial analysis was used.
himself away from the other crew members, while subject B is associated with a
wider range of orientations.
IV. DISCUSSION
Living and working in a small mixed group during the 60-day period of isolation
and confinement of the EXEMSI project induced changes in spatial behavior, both
at the level of the individual crew member and at the level of the crew as a whole.
Even the members of the ground control crew were found to present behavioral
disturbances in terms of decreased attention in the performance of a simple task
during the experimental period.
The main changes in behavior of the confined crew members must be considered
on an individual basis, because the subjects performed different spatial activities,
characterized by a wide range of inter-individual distances between each pair of
subjects. The female crew member (subject H) kept in closer range to the others
than any of the other crew members did. There were changes in inter-individual
distances in the course of time, but no predominant affinity emerged.
Ethological Analysis 279
The orientations ofthe subjects, defined as number of other subjects faced, varied
with time, but again without evidence of any regular social behavior. Each pair of
subjects appeared to be very tight at least once during the isolation period with a
cycle of a few weeks. Not surprisingly, the Commander (subject B)frequently has
all crew members in his visual field during the entire period. This appeared as a
consistent behavior in the course of time. There were no striking changes in posture
during the experimental period. A very grouped body segment arrangement was
often observed in subject H, while lying positions were typical for subject D.
Considering the crew as a whole, three periods can be distinguished:
1. the initial period (weeks l-3), which is characterized by constant inter-

individual distances, with predominance of social space and frequent orien-
tations towards two or three crew members;
2. the middle period (weeks 5-6), characterized by shorter inter-individual
distances, with an increased use of personal and social space;
3. thc final period (weeks 7-9) shows an opposite behavior, characterized by a
much increased use of public space and isolated positions facing few if any
other crew members.
Dominant postures during the entire period of confinement were seated, standing,
and lying positions. During the second half of the isolation period the frequency of
more or less stretched body positions increased. These relaxed positions may
indicate reduction of tension and stress in this later phase of the mission.
The data do not show dominant changes in the spatial behavior of the crew during
the first three weeks of isolation. A tendency towards closer grouping characterizes
the transitory nature of the middle period of the experiment, while the final period
is marked by a dispersion of the crew members. In contrast, in the ISEMSI study a
dispersion of the crew members in the middle period was noted, and a stable spatial
behavior in the initial and final periods.’ Another difference is that during the entire
28-day isolation period of ISEMSI 5 to 9% of the distances were in the intimate
space range, while in the present study no inter-individual distances in this range
were observed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the spatial behavior towards each other
of a group of three males and one female isolated and confined for a period of 60
days. Video recordings of the individual crew members in the habitat, laboratory,
and transfer modules for a 4-hr period once weekly during the isolation period
provided the material for analysis. The observed parameters were: inter-individual
distance, orientation (number of other subjects faced), and posture.
Three distinct periods are noted. The initial period was characterized by a rather
constant spatial behavior of the crew with few changes in inter-individual distances.
The middle period of isolation (particularly weeks 5 and 6 ) showed a tendency

tQwards closer grouping with decreased inter-individual distances (personal and
social space). The final period (weeks 7-9) was marked by a dispersion of the crew
members with increased inter-individual distances (public space) and more fre-
quent isolated positions.
Individual differences in behavioral strategy were noted. The Commander (sub-
ject B) kept the largest number of other crew members in his visual field. The
orientation of the other subjects showed more variation. Dominant postures were:
seated, standing, lying. Here also there were individual differences, for example,
the female subject H frequently assumed a very grouped posture. During the second
half of the isolation period stretched body positions became more frequent, sug-
gesting reduced tension and stress.
The observed spatial behavior indicates a weak cohesion of the crew with little
tendency towards formation of a true social group in the course of isolation. The
crew remained a group of individuals constituted for the purpose of the experiment.
From her closer positions to the other subjects, it appears that the female crew
member had a positive effect on group cohesiveness through an active social role.
However, it seems that a longer period of confinement would be needed to turn the
four crew members into a cohesive crew.
The findings from these simulation studies and in earlier spaceflight observations
suggest a possible use of ethological observation during space missions for the
purpose of optimizing performance, physical and psychological fitness of the
individual astronauts and group dynamics of the entire crew. It might be possible
to establish a set of individual standards allowing detection of slight behavioral
disturbances in an astronaut during the mission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the European Space Agency through contract ESAMEDES
nr. 9768192iFiFL.
REFERENCES
1. Tafforin. C. The Relationships between Orientation, Movement and Posture in Weightlessness:
Preliminary Ethological Observations.Acra Asrrorinrrrica. 21(4):371-280.
2. Tafforin, C. Synthesis of Ethological Studies on Behavioral Adaptation of the Astronaut to
Spaceflight Conditions. Acrn Asfronoirricn, 32(2):131-142, 1994.
3. Tafforin, C., Carnpan, R. Ethological Experiments on Human Orientation Behavior within a
Three-Dimensional Space in Microgravity. Advnnces in Space Research, 4:4154 18, 1994.
4. Bonting, S.L.(Ed.) Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, Vol. 3. European Isolation and
Confinement Study, JAI Press, Greenwich, Cr,1993.
5. Tafforin, C. Ethological Analysis of Spatial Behavior. In: Advances in Space Biology and
Medicine, Vol. 3. European Isolation and Confinement Study (S.L. Bonting, Ed.), pp.81-94, JAI
Press, Greenwich, London, 1993.
6. Hall, E.T., Ed. Ln Dinlension CaclrCe, Seuil. Paris, 1971.
Ethologica I Analysis 281
7. Baxter. J.C. Interpersonal Spacing in Natural Settings. Sociomerry 33(4):444456, 1970.

8. Hayduck, L.A. Personal Space: Where we now stand. Psychological Birlleriri. 94(2):193-335,
1993.
9. Patterson, M.L., Edinger. J.A. A Functional Analysis of Space in Social Interaction. In: Nonverbal
Behavior arid Cornmirnicariori (A.W. Siegman and S.Feldstein, Eds.), Hillsdale. 1987.
10. Remland. M.S., Jones, T.S., Brinkman. H. Proxemic and Haptic Behavior in Three European
Countries. Joirrnal of Nonverbal B e h i o r . 15(4):215-232. 1991.
11. Rivolier, J., Goldsmith, R.. Lugg. D.J..Taylor. A.J.W.. Eds.Man in rlie Anrarcric.Taylor & Francis.
London, 1988.
Chapter 16
PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION AND

SUPPORT DURING EXEMSI
V.I. Gushin. T.B. Kolinitchenko.

V.A. Efimov. and C . Davies
I . Introduction ................................... 284

I1. MethodologicalAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
A . Analysis of Commander's Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
B . Psychological Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
C . Crew Disposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
I11. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
A . Analysis of Commander's Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C. Crew Disposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
A . Commander's Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
C. Crew Disposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Copyright 0 1996 by JAl Press Inc .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
283
2 84 GUSHIN, KOLINITCHENKO, EFIMOV, and DAVIES
1. INTRODUCTION
The principal aim of this study was to investigate changes in the psychological state
of the individual crew members and in the psychological “climate” of the group
during the 60-day isolation period of the EXEMSI project, and to evaluate the
psychological support of the crew during this period. The approaches and methods
used for this purpose have been widely employed for psychological evaluation
during Soviet spaceflights. Inflight behavioral evaluation forms a regular part of
the Soviet spaceflight medical support system, including analysis of the communi-
cation between crew and ground control and of the video recordings from spacecraft
or space station.’**
Experience from previous Soviet simulation studies and spaceflights testifies to
the fact that the channel of communication between crew and ground control is
regarded by the crew as belonging to the entire crew, not merely to the Commander,
and serves as a “megaphone” of crew opinion.’ For this reason the reports of the
Commander serve as a source of information, not only about himself, but about the
entire crew: relations between the crew members, conflicts, attitude to administra-
tive and service personnel, need for psychological support, and so forth.
Another characteristic of communication during spaceflight and simulation
studies is its “forced” nature. This means that subjects are not free in the choice of
persons with whom to communicate. They can only discuss problems with other
crew members or with ground control operators. Neither are they free in the choice
of the moment of communication, due to schedule or to technical limitations.
Ground control operatorsalso feel some limitations: they cannot refusecontact with
the crew; neither can they immerse themselves completely in the problems of the
crew and the specific social norms developing during the mi~sion.’.~ By studying
the communication between the Commander and the Crew Interface Coordinator
(CIC) on duty we Vied to elucidate how these peculiarities affected the process of
communication during EXEMSI.
Crew disposition, the positioning of crew members relative to each other, was
also analyzed. In combination with other information, this can provide insight in
group formation and the role of each crew member in this process. In analyzing
changes in crew disposition in the course of the isolation period, we relied on the
theory of E.Hall? according to which personal space is to be regarded as a buffer
zone for protection from real or imaginary threats to self-conceptand even the body.
According to this theory each person in close contact with others tries to occupy
the safest position. Threat can be caused by high sensitivity of the person to the
environment, to aggressive feelings or behavior by a partner, and by crowding.’
Maladaptation to the environment, including a group of people, leads to increasing
the personal space and to changes in orientation.Negative feelings in a situation of
crowding can be reflected in an increase in the distance to partners!
Partner orientation. which also determines intensity of contact, has also been
taken into consideration? In analyzing video images we used the concept that
Psychological Evaluation and Support 285
prolonged crowding of a small group in confinement causes certain preferences in

orientations “back-to-back,’’“face-to-face” and “lewright shoulder.”8
The work of the CICs was another target for our interest. We investigated the
question whether their work can be regarded as a form of psychological support for
the crew and as a form of additional stimulation in a monotonous environment.

A. Analysis of Commander’s Reports
The EXEMSI schedule required an exchange of written reports between Com-

mander and CIC on duty on the evening of every workday. These reports were
analyzed for a number of parameters. Weekly averages of the values of each
parameter were calculated.
Parameters that were assessed are: length of the reports, number of discussed
items (by item we mean a completestory),type, or function of each item, percentage
of official and unofficial items discussed, number of negative statements and
self-justifications. Also considered were specific features, like preferences in
contacts, unplanned contacts, use of code words understandable only to certain
persons.’
The items in the reports were divided in three classes: (1) imperative (orders,
demands, claims), (2) emotive (demonstrates emotional state of the subject), and
(3) phatic (subject tries to establish contact).
B. Psychological Support
Reports of theCIC to the chamber crew must be regarded, not only as an exchange
of technical and scientific information, but also as a feedback from the outer world
and a possibility to enrich the monotonous life in the isolation chamber. We have
analyzed the reports also from this point of view, and we have used interviews with
the crew and the CICs in order to define examples of informal psychological
support.
C. Crew Disposition
Positions of the subjects relative to each other can be divided into four categories:
(1) “leading” position-allowing control of the exit, offering the best view of the
other crew members, protecting the subject’sback by the wall (safety),(2) “escape”
position-position near the exit, (3) “opposition” position-face-to-face orienta-
tion of subjects during a discussion,and (4) “safe” position-near the left (“weak”)
hand of the subject.
The main source of information was the analysis of video recordings of the daily
group meetings. Although we could not objectively measure the distance between
the crew members, with the help of the CIC we were able to make schematic
drawings of the position and orientation of each crewmember in the course of these
meetings. From these drawings we classified and quantified the positions of each
crewmember.
Of course, these positions were not only caused by subject preferences, but also
by the previous place of work. However, the CICs also noticed that crew members
were accustomed to use the same chair during these meetings. Since it was not easy
to change the position of the chairs, such a change can be considered as the will of
a subject to be seated in a certain position relative to other subjects.
111. RESULTS
A. Analysis of Commander’s Reports
An analysis of the reports of the Commander to the CIC is presented in Table 1.

Some remarks concerning certain events observed in the analysis are in order; they
are arranged according to the week of the isolation period in which they occurred.
Week 3: Self-justifications and a special informal code appeared. Some restric-
tions on penetrating the life of the crew were proclaimed by the Commander.
Week 4: Increased number of self-justifications and aggressive statements. The
Commander mentioned difficulties in writing reports and also called certain in-
structions from the management ‘novel’. Subject D used the report form for
unplanned communication with the outer world.
Week 5 : Difficulties in writing reports were again stated. Self-justifications and
aggressive statements were the most typical features of the reports during this week.
The Commander divided the outer world “audience”into two groups: management,
which he preferred to give only scientific data, and “friends,” with whom he was
willing to exchange normal communication, for whom he tried.to make reports
using their special code. Many phatic statements to improve and establish real
Table 1. Commander’s Report Structure during Isolation

Week oflsolation
Communication
parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Report length (pages) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.8 1.3 0.7 0.5
Items discussed (nr.) 13.5 10.5 6.5 7.0 10 6.5 7.0 5.5
Informal items (YO) 10 25 45 45 45 30 35 30
Claims 1.0 2.0 1.6 0.5 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.5
Negative statements 0.2 0.6 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.8 1.0 0
Jokes 1.5 3.0 2.0 1.6 2.0 3.0 3.0 5.0’
Code - - + + + -+ + +
Nofe: ‘jokes comprised 30% of the report
5-
4 -
3-
2-
!-
0 ,
Figure 1. Length of reports from commander and CIC.
contact were used by the Commander.A special need for n,ewsfrom the outer world
was demonstrated.
Week 6: Number of self-justifications and aggressive statements decreased. Need
for information from the outer world was.demonstrated again. During this week
the crew began on their own initiative to discuss post-isolation problems. Subject
G used the report form for communication with the outer world.
Report's length
3
- .
0
Figure 2. Communication from commander and subject F.

288 GUSHIN, KOLINITCHENKO, EFIMOV, and DAVIES
Reporl's length
5.7
+-
-0- Sobjwt J
i I
Figure 3. Communication from commander and subject 1.
Week 7: Very few self-justificationsand aggressive statements. Difficulties in

writing reports were stated again.
Week 8: During this last week of isolation there were no negative statements,but
many jokes (occupying 30% of the report). Most claims were for new videos for
relaxation.
6. Psychological Support
Analysis of the comparative lengths of the reports of Commander and CIC

revealed, that the reports of the latter were longer, especially towards the end of the
isolation period (Figure 1). This was particularly true for subject F (Figure 2). On
the other hand, the course of the length of the reports sent by subject J parallelled
that of the Commander's reports to him, though the latter were always shorter
(Figure 3).
Table 2. Crew Disposition during Isolation

Subject
Position B D G H
Leading 11. 4 1 3 (end)
Escape - 4 8 6
Opposition G-6, D-5 B-6 B-5 -
Feels safe near H-8, G-7 H-8 (middle) D-10 D-3 (beginning, end)
B-8 (end) G-8 (middle)
Note: 'numberoftimesthisposition wasobserved forthesubject;G-6= nurnberoftimes

towards subject G .
Psychological Evaluation and Support 2 89
The reports of the CIC on duty voiced approval of the crew members,made phatic
statementsand jokes, and showed attentiveness to the claims of the crew. They also
supported the crew members individually. One CIC found a way to reduce the
psychic tension of subject G, caused by the lack of contact with his pregnant
girlfriend, by preparing a special video recording for him.
Two other examples of psychological support from the ground control crew were
the preparation of a special comic newspaper for the crew, and the organization of
a surprise Halloween party for them. In both cases attempts were made to provide
the prime crew with additional external stimulation.
C. Crew Disposition
An analysis of crew disposition is presented in Table 2. Some comments are in

order. At the beginn’ing of the isolation period the Commanderoccupied the leading
position in the laboratory module. In the course of time he occupied this position
more frequently than any other crew member (1 1 times), and he was never in the
“escape” position. Subject D, the Vice-commander, started in the ‘safe’ position
relative to the Commander, but later during isolation he was frequently located
opposite to subject H (8 times) and still later opposite the Commander (8 times).
Subject G preferred the “escape” position, which he adopted more often than any
other crew member (8 times). For subject H the “escape” position was also more
typical (6 times).
Subjects maintained relatively large distances between themselves at the begin-
ning of isolation,especially between the crew and the Commander.However, soon
two pairs were formed: B-G and D-H.
Figures 4 and 5 present schematic drawings of the position of the crew members
in the laboratory module during the daily group meetings on eight different dates
during isolation. Halfway during isolation (06/10-15/10) the Commander lost his
leading position, which was then occupied most frequently by subject D. During
the same period pair B-Gseparated, and subject H preferred to occupy the ‘escape’
position.
Later (19/10-26/10) “homogenization” of the crew occurred, noticed as de-
creased distances between the crew members and absence of “opposition” loca-
tions. New pairs B-D (both in the leading positions) and G-H were formed.
During a post-isolation debriefing session,when the subjects were free to choose
their position, the two earlier pairs B-G and D-H were again noticed.
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Commander’s Reports
For the purpose of discussion,the isolation period can be divided in three phases:
beginning (weeks 1-2), middle (weeks 3-6), and end (weeks 7-9).
DATE: 14-09-92 TIME: 18.25pm DATE: 0 ~ 1 0 - 9 2TIME: i7.oopm

LAB LAB
- +-
HAB
DATE: 09-10-92 TIME: 17.OSpm DATE: 09-10-92 TIME: 17.05 pm

LAB LAB
D+
f B
G+
i
G f ' rH
H* .fD
-+- HAB
- +
HAB
figure 4. Crew disposition during group meetings on four different dates: 09/14,
10105, 10109, and 10112/92.
During weeks 1-2 the communication was mostly devoted to work matters. The
number of items of discussion was greater than in later weeks, presumably due to
adaptation of the crew to the new environment. There were very few phatic and
emotional statements.
During weeks 3-6 emotional statements, often negative and even aggressive, and
directed to the outside world, began to appear. This could be the result of the
DATE: 13-10-92 TIME: 17.OOpm DATE: 22-10-92 TIME: 17.00 pm

LAB LAB
D B
\ /
0
f k
H
J.
HAB HAB
DATE: 29-10-92 TIME: 17.05pm DATE: 06-11-92 TIME:

LAB
HA0
Figure 5. Crew disposition during discussions on four different dates: 10113, 10122,
10129, and 11/06/92.
existence of some tension in the crew. Soviet space crews sometimes tried to find
an enemy outside, against whom they could direct their anxiety and aggression,and
thus strengthen relations in the team and reduce tension in the confined area.’ This
strategy, which in practice leads the crew to work together effectively by draining
“negative energy” to the outside world, was used by the EXEMSI chamber crew
in weeks 3 4 of isolation.
During weeks 3-6 a certain code language, intelligible only to the CICs and the
crew, appeared. This allowed the group to escape from penetration by other people
in their life and problems, and was a demonstration of the unification of the crew
with the elaboration of their own internal norms. Demands for videos and news
also appeared during this period, repeated several times in reports by subject B and
demonstrating a need for additional external stimulation to withstand monotony
and boredom. This is confirmed by the increased percentage of informal items in a
relatively stable total number of items discussed during this period. The number of
phatic statements, which replace ordinary conversation and thus establish better
contact, also increased.
The decreased length of the Commander’s reports during the final weeks of
isolation and the expressed difficulties in writing reports in weeks 3-6 resemble
the situation during prolonged spaceflights. Soviet experts consider the avoidance
of contacts and the decrease in their number towards the end of a flight an indication
of accumulating fatigue and weakening of the central nervous system, and also of
a preference for self-sufficiencythrough internal contacts? The increasing number
of jokes in the Commander’sreports during this period indicate reduced tension in
the internal relations of the crew as well as in relations with the outside world.
Twice in the course of the isolation period unplanned reports by other crew
members took place. The first one by subject D was connected with the “flowmeter
incident.” The ostensible reason for this report was a technical need, but in our
opinion this was not the only reason. His direct contact with the outside world,
which normally was the Commander’s privilege, can be regarded as a demonstra-
tion of his leadership in the group at this time.
The second one by subject G had another cause. In accordance with his person-
ality, he needed perhaps more than subjects D and H additional external stimulation
to withstand the monotony and boredom, and a channel for draining his negative
emotions to the outside world. He tried to find opportunitiesfor demonstrating his
condition and state of mind indirectly through the Commander’s reports. Many of
the ironical assessments of the situation of the crew and the outside world in these
reports came from him. Weeks 3-6 were the hardest for him, because of his personal
problem with his pregnant girlfriend outside. He needed an additional possibility
for relieving his emotions, for which purpose he used an unplanned contact with
the outside world.
B. PsychologicalSupport
Experience from Soviet prolonged space missions shows that cosmonautsprefer

to communicate with persons of an equal level of experience and knowledge of
space techniques and flight schedules9.” Thus, the choice of the back-up crew
members as ground control personnel was very practical. Equal level of skills
helped chamber crew and ground control crew to cooperate effectively and favored
mutual understanding and trust. This assumption is supported by the fact that it was
the CIC who found a way to reduce the psychic tension of subject G. He chose the
only proper strategy, not by giving him continuous privileges for communication
from thechamber (which is impossibleduringareal spaceflight)and thereby setting
him apart from the other crew members, but by doing something that demonstrated
attentiveness to his feelings (preparing a special video recording of his pregnant
girlfriend for him). During Russian space missions a psychological support group
organizes such special favors, like souvenirs from home or additional video and
audio contacts with families and friends, to relieve monotony and boredom, or to
reduce tension in the crew.” However, to be effective and not harm the team spirit,
such events must be personally oriented and rare.
Throughout isolation the CIC reports were longer than those of the Commander,
especially during the final weeks. This represents a strategy of constantly “feeding”
the crew with data, information and attitudes. The style of communication of CIC
J was the most adequate. The length of his reports correlated with that of the
Commander’s reports, suggestingthat this ground crew operator did not try to force
the partner to communicate, but honored his wish to exchange opinions.
While the fact that the ground crew were the back-ups of the chamber crew had
a positive effect on the quality of communication, it also had negative effects. First,
the feeling of being part of the “fami1y”couldlead to some indulgence for the crew,
especially when an unpopular measure had to be enforced, like restrictions on
contacts with the outside world. The chamber crew could then regard this as a
personal punishment by their friends. Secondly, being part of the “family” implies
intimate knowledge of each other, which could at times blind the ground crew
operator to negative changes in members of the chamber crew. It may thus be
desirable to include some independent experts in the ground crew, who can be more
objective.
C. Crew Disposition
Analysis of the crew disposition, their position relative to each other and to the
surroundings during the daily group meetings in the laboratory module, has yielded
some interesting information about relations between the crew members. At the
beginning of isolation the Commander (subject B) occupied the leading position in
the room and in the crew. In later weeks some hidden tension between him and
subjects G and D became visible, most vividly with subject D. This opposition from
subjects D and G endangered his leading position, but he managed to restore it in
the last weeks of isolation when the difficult relation with D ended. It should,
however, be noted that he never adopted the “escape” position, but always tried to
solve the problems within the crew.
Subject D, the vice-commander, changed his disposition in the crew more
frequently. In the middle of the isolation period he vividly demonstrated leadership
tendencies, but he also occupied the “escape” position several times. Subject G
changed his disposition more frequently than any other crew member. He preferred
to “escape” from direct involvement in the solution of the group problems, and he
was only once found in the leading position (on 26.10), when he was inspired by
the birth of his child. For subject H the “escape” position was also typical, especially
in difficult situations. However, in contrast to subject G, we interpret her position
as an attempt to observe the group and to act as a peacemaker. This is confirmed
by the finding that subjects B and D wanted her to feel safe, as shown by their
dispositions towards her.
The relatively large distances between the crew members during the early weeks
of isolation, especially between crew and Commander,seems a normal initial stage
of group formation. Soon two subgroups were formed (B-G and D-H), but the
hidden tension between subjects B, D and G interfered in the process of group
formation. When this tension diminished and good news from the outer world
inspired the crew (birth of a child to subject G), the process of “homogenization”
started rapidly, and before the end of isolation the group appeared rather effective.
However, the relations grown between them were not stable, as suggested by the
detection of the same two subgroups during post-isolation debriefing.

The aim of this study was to investigate changes in the psychological state of the
crew members and the needs for psychological support during prolonged isolation.
For this purpose methods were employed that have been widely used in psycho-
logical evaluation during Soviet spaceflights. Communication between Com-
mander and Crew Interface Coordinator (CIC) was analyzed. Crew disposition was
observed and analyzed for information about the process of group formation and
the role of each crew member in this process. Operation of the CICs was investi-
gated for evidence of a psychological support function.
During isolation certain adaptive changes in communication took place: (1) use
of unplanned contacts and intensive contacts with apreferred ground crew member,
(2) resistanceto penetration in the life of the crew (increase of aggressivestatements
and self-justifications, reduction of report length and claims), and (3) closing
communication to “outsiders” by using a special code and decreasing discussion
of problems.
A process of group formation was noted in the course of isolation, but the final
structure of the group was not stable. The relations of subjects B, D and G were
crucial in the creation of an effective crew. The woman in the crew was never
involved in conflicts and acted as a peacemaker.
The crew regarded the communication channel between Commander and CIC as
belonging to the entire crew for expressing feelings about crew relations, admini-
stration and services, and the CIC can provide needed psychological support,
confirming earlier experience from Soviet simulated and actual spaceflights.
REFERENCES
1. Distant observation and expen assessment. Moscow, 1982.
2. Gazenko. O.G.,Myasnikov, V.I.. Uskov, EN. Behavioral Control as a Tool in Evaluating the
FunctionalState of Cosmonautsin Flight.Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 47 1226
1227, 1976.
3. Gushin, V.I. Peculiarities of the PsychologicalInvestigationsin Prolonged Spaceflights.Proceed-
ings of Space Psychology Days, pp. 95-99.24-27 March 1992, Villefranche sur mer. ESA, 1992.
4. Hall, E.T. Handbook for Proxemic Research. In: Stud. Anfropol. Hs.Commun. Washington, 1974.
5. Stokols. D. The Experience of Crowding in Primary and Secondary Environments. In: The 82nd
Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. New Orleans, 1974.
6. Altman, 1. The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territoq Crowding.
Brooks, California 1975.
7. Sommer, R. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design. New York, 1969.
8. Shkoporov, N.B., Gostev, A.A. On the Theory of Personal SpaceProtection by Dawsy and Meisels:
InterpersonalDistanceDynamics under the Influenceof Crowding. In: Psychological Science and
Social Practice. Theses of Scientific Reports of Soviet Psychologists to the VIth Congress of the
USSR Psychological Society, vol. 1, pp. 79-86, Moscow. 1983.
9. Grigoriev. A.I.. Kozerenko, O.P.. Myasnikov, V.I.,Egorov. A.D. Ethical Prhlems of Interaction
between Ground-basedPersonneland Orbital Station Crew Members. In: Proceedings of the 37th
Congress of the International Astronautic Federation, Paper IAF 86-398. pp. 1 4 . AIAA, New
York. 1986.
10. Grigoriev. A.I., Kozerenko. O.P.. Myasnikov, V.I.Selected Problems of PsychologicalSupport of
Prolonged Spaceflights. In: Proceedings of the 38th Congress of the International A s t r o t ~ ~ ~ t i c
Federation. Paper IAF 86-398. AIAA, Washington, 1986.
Chapter 17
WORK CAPABILITY DURING

ISOLATlON
V. 1 . Gushin. V. A . Efimov. and T. M. Smirnova
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
I1. Methodological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A. Description of the Joy-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
B . Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
111. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A . Workcapability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
B . Other Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
C . SexDifferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
D . Test Use for Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
IV. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
A . Adaptation and Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
B . Group Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
C . SexDifferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
D. Test Use for Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Copyright 0 1996 by JAI hpss Inc .
All rights of reprodudion in any form reserved .
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
297
298 V.I. GUSHIN, V.A. EFIMOV, and T.M. SMIRNOVA
1. INTRODUCTION
Previous Soviet isolation studies’“ and the ISEMSI study’ have shown that
prolonged isolation can affect higher psychic functions, such as working memory,
attention concentration,problem solving and decision making. The analysis of the
work capability of subjects during isolation is thought to provide an opportunity of
finding a psychological parameter that is sensitive to the effects of isolation.
In addition to commonly used parameters, like speed of work, number of
mistakes and precision, the individual strategy in task completion can provide an
early detection of deterioration in functioning.For this purpose an objectivemethod
for individual strategy analysis was used in the form of the Joy-Test, which is a
computer game. Subjects were purposely given less time for completion during
isolation than they had received before isolation. It was assumed that a continued
learning process would lead to improved scores in the absence of other factors
influencing the test result. The actual scores were compared with a theoretical
learning curve. Differences between the actual and theoretical curves can then be
ascribed to the influence of factors other than learning.
Another factor to be considered is motivation. We assumed that the number of
times the subject tried toplay the Joy-test voluntarily would correlate with his need
to overcome monotony and boredom. On the other hand, accumulating fatigue or
a high level of boredom may decrease the wish to play computer games. In addition,
we determined whether the sex of the subject affects the results, and if so, in what
way.
The Joy-Test was computerized in order to make it suitable, not only for assessing
psychological work capability, but also as a form of psychological support (relaxa-
tion) in the monotony of isolation. Methods of psychological support have proved
their effectiveness during prolonged spaceflights.’ They were used in Soviet
simulated isolation experiments and seemed to be useful in reducing or even
abolishing the negative effects of isolation on psychic state and work capability.
Joy-Test consists of test-games, psychological tasks differing in type and complex-
ity. Its modular organization allows to combine tests according to the topic studied,
to add or to exclude some tests and to present them separately9

A. Description of the Joy-Test
Joy-Test satisfies the following requirements: reliability, validity and sensitivity,

independence of language, suitability for use on IBM-pc type computers.
The Joy-Test permits investigation of the following operator qualities:
1. Eye-motor coordination: “Target,” duration 3 minutes;

2. Attention concentration: “Refuel.” duration 1.5 minutes;
Work Capability during Isolation 299
3. Working memory: “Safe,” duration 2 minutes;

4. Calculation of capability under time deficit: “Reactor,” duration 2 minutes:
5 . Typing skills test: “Motorics,” duration 1 min (used to reveal differences in
ability to work with the keyboard);
6. Attention distribution: “Accumulator,”duration 2 minutes;
7. Spatial orientation: “Keys,” duration 2 minutes;
8. Intellecthntuition:“Maze,” duration 1 minute;
9. IntellectAogical decision making under time deficit: “Repairs,” duration 1
minute.
Tests 1-5 were used as the obligatory part for assessing the work capability of
the subjects (daily at a fixed time, weekends excluded). All tests (1-9) were
available for voluntary use by the subjects during their leisure time as a means of
relaxation (psychological support).
The output parameters include:
Productivity: number of completed operations;

0 Fidelity: percentage of mistakes;
0 Quality: integral parameter representing the number of correctly completed
acts and the time used;
0 General work capability: sum of integral parameters in obligatory tests.
0 Style parameters: these indicate how the subject is completing the test.
0 Latency: time for mistake correction were also estimated.
0 Recreational use: frequency of voluntary test use was recorded.
The difficulty level of the Joy-Test can be modified without changing the task
structure, for example, by decreasing the time allowed for test completion. A
feedback method was used to establish the most informative difficulty level and to
individualizethe training load. Asuitabledifficulty level allows a subject to achieve
70-80% success.
For the mathematical analysis of the data the Student t-test and one- and
two-factor analysis of variance were used.
B. Procedure
The chamber crew (3 males and 1 female) served as the experimental group, and
the ground crew (3 females and 2 males) as the control group. Before isolation the
entire battery of nine tests with the standard set of input parameters was presented
to the subjects in three daily sessions of 1 7 4 1 1each. This enabled us to: (1 ) assess
the basic average level of work capability, (2) bring the subjects to a stable level in
their results, and (3) set the adequate difficulty level of the tests. During these
training sessions the subjects showed a high average level of work capability,
8 0 4 0 % success in the first attempts with the standard set of input parameters.
3 00 V.I. GUSHIN, V.A. EFIMOV, and T.M. SMIRNOVA
Therefore, the difficulty level was increased to ensure that the subjects would reach
70-80% of success during isolation.
111. RESULTS
A. Work Capability
During data collection before isolation there were no significant changes in day
to day results. This means that all subjects had reached a plateau in the learning
process, which was regarded as their baseline level.
The general work capability (GW) was measured as the sum of the integral
parameters of the obligatory tests numbers 1-5. During the isolation period the
following changes in the general work capability were detected for the chamber
crew (Figure 1, top and middle):
0 Week 1: Subjects B, G, and H showed a minimum work capability (p c 0.05)

0 Week 2: Work capability returned to baseline levels
0 Week 3: Chamber crew reached its second plateau (p < 0.05)
0 Week 5-6: Average work capability was higher than in previous weeks, but
due to the large range the difference was not significant
0 Week 7: Work capability reached a maximum level
0 Week 8: No significant changes
0 Week 9: Insignificant increase in work capability with a decreased range
The ground crew, which served as control group, showed a different pattern
(Figure 1. bottom). Work capabilityduring weeks 1 and 2 did not differ significantly
from the baseline level, in week 3 it reached an intermediate maximum (p = 0.08)
and in week 8 an absolute maximum (p c 0.02).
B. Other Test Results
During isolation the significance of the time factor increased, most strongly in
the case of the “typing skill” test for subject B, the “calculation under time deficit”
test for subjects B, D, and H, and the “working memory” test for subject G.
Results for four test parameters are shown in Figure 2, A-D in the form of 95%
confidence intervals from two-factor analysisof variance, the factors being ‘‘group’’
(chamber crew against ground crew) and “week of isolation:”
A. typing skills (Motorics; integral parameter), scores for both groups increased
with time, but significantly higher scores for chamber crew (p c 0.0001);
B. calculation ability under time deficit (Reactor;productivity),increased with
time for chamber crew, no change for ground crew; chamber crew scored
higher (p c 0.01);
-
_--Mean
Min
...... Max
......................
-----------_-/
700 I . . . . I . . . . I . . . . I . . . . ~ . . . . I . . . . I . . . . I . . . ~ I . . . * I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks of IxIlatbn
- Mean
_--
140fi ...... Min
Max
::i
GW
- Mean
---
1200 ...... Max
Min
..........
....... ..........
.................. ............ .......... .............................
..........
1.
.
.............
900
800
0
.. l , . . . I .
1 2
. . . l....I....l....l....I....1..
3 4 5 6 7 8
.. I
9
Weeks of Isolation
figure 1. General work capability during isolation. Top: average scores with minima
and maxima for subjects B, G, H; Middle: same for entire chamber crew; Bottom:
same for control group (ground control crew).
301
95 Percent Conlidence Intervals lor Factor Means 95 Percent Confidence Intervals for Factor Means
Integral Parameter (Motorics) Productivity (Reactor)
IP Pr
1 Experiment Control
0,8t, , , , , 1 , ,,,I..., 1 , ... I . . . , ,..., L

0 3 7 1 5 9 0 3 7 1 5 9
Weeks of isolation Weeks of isolation
F
1-
. Experiment Control Experiment Control
0.9 - 4.5 -
4-
0.8 -
3.5 -
0.7 -
3-
0.6 - ,.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.5 - t . . . . C....,....#....L

0 3 7 1 5 9 0 3 7 1 5 9
Weeks of isolation Weeks 01 isolation
Figure2 Scores for four tests by chamber crew (experiment)and ground control crew
(control) presented as 95% confidence intervals from two-factor analysis of variance,
the factors being “group” (chambercrew against ground crew) and “week of isolation.”
A. (top lefi-typing skills (Motorics; integral parameter)6. (top righfj-calculation ability
under time deficit (Reactor; productivity) C. working memory (Safe; accuracy) D.
attention concentration (Refuel; latency)
302
C. working memory (Safe; accuracy), increased with time for chamber crew;
same for ground crew in weeks 1-7, but decreasing in weeks 8-9; average
score higher for chamber crew (p c O.OOO1);
D. attention concentration (Refuel; latency), decreased slightly with time for
chamber crew, irregular course for ground crew; chamber crew had a shorter
latency (p c 0.02) and made fewer unnecessary movements (p c 0.05).
During isolation the chamber crew scored significantly lower than the ground
crew in only one obligatory test, the eye-motor coordination test (Target; for all
parameters p c 0.001),and in one voluntary test, the logical decision making test
(Repairs; p c 0.01).
C. Sex Differences
In the two crew groups there were 4 females and 5 males. The scores of the 4
females were compared with those of the 5 males for the various tests during the
pre-isolation period as well as during the isolation period.
During the pre-isolation period the following differences were found
In the “calculation under time deficit” test women showed a higher produc-
tivity
(p c 0.03) and shorter response delay (p = 0.05);
0 In the “typing skill” test women reached better integral results (p < 0.05) and
accuracy (p c 0.001);
0 In the “intuition in visual search” test women showed better integral results
(p c 0.05) and spent less time on unnecessary movements (p c 0.02);
0 In the “attention distribution” test women made fewer mistakes;
0 In the “working memory” test women showed a lower productivity (p c 0.05).
During isolation there were also a number of differences:
0 In the “intuition in visual search” test (p c O.OOOl), “typing skill” test (p <
O.OOOl), “attention distribution”test (p c 0.001) and “working memory” test
(p 0.OOOl) the revealed differences persisted and became even stronger. This
is particularly true for the last two tests, where women scored higher in all
parameters.
0 In the “calculation under time deficit” test women still showed higher produc-
tivity (p c 0.05) and shorter response delay (p c 0.02),but the integral result
was higher in men (p c 0.05);
0 In the “attention concentration” test women produced a higher integral score
(p c 0.01) and speed (p c 0.01);
0 In the “spatial orientation” test women showed higher speed (p c 0.0001);
0 In the “logical decision making” test women had a higher integral result (p c
O.OOOl), productivity (p c 0.05),and fidelity (p c 0.02).
D. Test Use for Relaxation

Subject G was the only crew member who frequently carried out the non-obliga-
tory tests and who used the obligatory tests more often than required by schedule,
so he appeared to use Joy-Test for relaxation. For example, he did the “eye-motor
coordination”test more often than required, particularly in week 5 . He was the only
crew member who frequently (1 4x) used the non-obligatory tests “spatial orienta-
tion” and “logical decision making under time deficit.”
Subject D was the only other crew member who played a non-obligatory test,
namely the “spatial orientation” test in week 6.
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Adaptation and Learning Process
The Joy-Test scores generally improved during isolation due to a continuing

learning process. In order to distinguish between the effects of learning and of
isolation, we compared the actual time course for the general work capability with
the theoretically expected learning curve (Figure 3). In analyzing the data it must
be born in mind that the factors at work do not only affect the absolute levels of the
measured parameters but also their stability in time.
During pre-isolation training the scores of the nine subjects reached a first stable
level or plateau. During isolation the chamber crew camed out the tests regularly,
so the learning process continued. During week 1 the scores decreased, which
4 Gw
-
”final
efforr’
-
stable adaptation
acute
- - -
adaptation
fatigue accumulation
0 1 . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 QwccksIC
Figure 3. Actual time course (solid line) and theoretically expected learning curve
(broken line) for the general work capability (Gw) during isolation.
represents the initial, acute adaptation to isolation, as is also the case in spaceflight.
This was followed by the second stage of the learning process during weeks 2-3.
During this period the results were affected by the conflict over communication
limitations, followed by the flow meter accident in week 4. The period of weeks
3-6 can be regarded as a period of stable adaptation to the isolation condition,
accompanied by a slow and gradual improvement of the results, reaching a
maximum in week 7. The instability of the scores with an increased range in weeks
8-9 is ascribed to the effect of accumulating fatigue. Nevertheless, the average
scores did not greatly decrease, which is ascribed to a “final effort” during the last
two weeks of isolation with increased motivation and psychological energy. The
same periods of adaptation,acute adaptation, stable middle stage, and “final effort,”
have been observed during prolonged Soviet spaceflights.”
In general the only direct effects of isolation found in our study are a reduced
fidelity of working memory and attention concentration acting on the work capa-
bility of the subjects and an instability of psychological resources needed for stress
resistance.
B. Group Differences
The ground crew cannot be considered a true control group, because these five
subjects were to some extent (though less than the chamber crew) also isolated from
their usual environment, families and friends, countries of origin, and native
language. Yet, there were three differences between the chamber crew and the
ground crew: spatial confinement in the chamber, different work schedules,and sex
distribution (25%female in the chamber group, 60% in the ground crew).
The differences in test scores between the two groups suggest that the level of
motivation of the chamber crew was considerably higher than that of the ground
crew, possibly because the former were selected over the others as the primary
participants in the experiment. This may have led to a (unconscious)wish on the
part of the chamber crew members to prove that they were indeed superior.
The absolute test scores of the chamber crew exceeded those of the ground crew
for all tests except the “eye-motor coordination,” “spatial orientation,” and ‘‘logic’’
tests. However, the last two tests were voluntary and were completed less fre-
quently. The chamber crew may have been helped by a stronger motivation and
more frequent completion of the test. Some members of the ground crew (the female
members) even stopped Joy-Test completion in the middle of the isolation period
(weeks 4-5).
There is also a differencein the time course of the scores between the two groups,
as shown by a two-factor analysis of variance. The decrease in general work
capability in the chamber crew during week 1 was not found for the ground crew.
Neither did this group show the “final effort” in the last two weeks of the isolation
period.
C. Sex Differences
The women scored higher in 3 obligatory tests and 4 voluntary tests, the men in
2 obligatory tests. The female crew members scored higher in attention concentra-
tion and distribution, spatial orientation, intuition in visual search and logical
decision making under time deficit. The men showed higher psychological re-
sources and better working memory. The scores of the women were less stable in
the “attention concentration” and in “calculation under time deficit” tests. This type
of work capability test may thus be useful in crew selection and assignment of
function in a space crew.
D. Test Use for Relaxation
Only subjects G and D made voluntary use of Joy-Test. In this respect our
expectation that the test would also serve as a means of providing relaxation and
diversion from monotony was not fulfilled.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prolonged isolation on the
higher psychic functions, like working memory, attention concentration, and intel-
lect (problem solving and decision making),and on sensory-motorskills and stress
resistance. Previous Soviet simulation studies and the ISEMSI isolation experiment
have indicated that prolonged isolation can affect higher psychic functions.
A set of psychological tests in the form of a computer game was presented each
workday to the chamber crew and to the ground crew serving as a control group.
In analyzing the data it was taken into account that performance can be affected not
only by the influence of isolation, but also by a learning process and by subject
motivation. In addition, adistinction was made between absolute score and stability
(range) of the score.
Analysis of the chamber crew’s work capability as a function of time showed the
occurrence of three distinct periods of adaptation: (1) a period of acute adaptation
in week 1, (2) a period of stable adaptation during weeks 3-6, and (3) a period of
“final effort” in weeks 8-9.
While in general the effect of isolation on the absolute scores was minor, larger
ranges for the scores in “working memory,” “attention concentration,”and “calcu-
lation under time deficit” tests are an indication of increased instability, probably
due to stress resistance.
The 4 female subjects of the combined groups scored significantly higher than
the 5 males in “attention concentratioddistribution,” “spatial orientation,” “intui-
tion in visual search,” and “logical decision making under time deficit.” Males
presented higher scores in “calculation under time deficit” and working memory,
and higher stability in .“attention concentration” and “calculation under time

deficit.”
REFERENCES
1. Dushkov. B.A., Znachko, V.A., Kozar, M.I., et al. Changes of the Human Organism Functional
State during Chamber Tests. Aerospace Medicine. 1:118-127, 1967.
2. Corbov, ED.. Myasnikov, V.I., Yazdovsky. V.1. About Some Functional Changes in Human
Organism under Prolonged Isolation. Aviation nnd Space Medicine (Moscow) 1963.
3. Gushin, V.I. Soviet Psychophysiological Investigations of Simulated Isolation. In: Advances in
Space Biologyand Medicine (S.L.Bonting, Ed.), vol. 3, pp. 5-14, JAI Press, Greenwich. Cr,1993.
4. Smirichevski, L.D. Operator’s Performance Investigation during the Standard Functions Fulfill-
ment in Conditions Simulating Prolonged Spaceflight. In: Psychologicnl Problems of Spacefight,
pp. 53-60, Nauka, Moscow, 1979.
5. Novikov, M.A., Losev. A.A., Rusakova. I.B. Comparative Study of the Disadaptative Influence
of Hypokinesia and Isolation on the Human Psychic State, Proceedings of the XX Conference of
the Sianding Working Group of the Socinlist Countries on Space Biology nnd Aerospace Medicine.
vol. 2, p. 136, Berlin, 1987.
6. Gushin, V.I. Peculiarities of the Psychological Investigations in Prolonged Spaceflights. In:
Proceedings of Space Psychology Days 2 , 2 4 2 7 March 1992. Villefranche sur Mer, ESA, 1992,
pp. 95-99.
7. Bonting, S.L., Ed. Advances in Space Biology nnd Medicine, vol. 3, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
1993.
8. Zarakovsky, G.M., Rysakova, S.L. Active Rest in Prolonged Spaceflights as a Psychological
Problem. In: Optimization of the Cosmonaut’s Professional Perjormnnce, Space Biology Prob-
lems, 34:191-200, Moscow, 1977.
9. Gushin. V.I.. Efimov, V.A., Rygov. V.A. Computer Games -Prospective Means of Operator’s Work
Capability Estimation. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Isolation Experiment for the
European Mnnned Space Infrastructure (ISEMSI), 25-26 November 1991. Paris. ESA, Director-
ate of Space Station and Microgravity. 1992.
LO. Myasnikov, V.I., Bogdashevski, R.B.. Ioseliani, K.K. Human Psychic State and Work Capability
in Spaceflights on Salut-6 Orbital Station. In: Proceedings of the VII Conference on Space Biology
arid Aerospnce Medicine, pp. 5-6, Kaluga, Moscow, 1982.
Chapter 18
COGNITIVE FATIGUE AND COMPLEX

DECISION MAKING UNDER
PROLONGED ISOLATION AND
CONFINEMENT
G.R.). Hockey and j. Sauer
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . 310
11. The Decision-Making Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 11
A. Rationale and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 3 11
B. Contaminants Monitoring Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 12
C. Subjective State Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 313
D. Patterns of Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 14
III. Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
A. Subjects and General Procedure . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 15
B. Workload Questionnaire , . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 16
C. Training and Practice . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 3 16

Copyright Q 1996 by JAI Press h e .
AU rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938970-2
309
310 G.R.J. HOCKEY and I. SAUER
D. Treatment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316

IV. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
A. Decision-Making Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 18
B. Subjective State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
V. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
A. Overall Pattern of Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
B. Individual Patterns of Change Over Isolation Period . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 2 6
C. General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
VI. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,329
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper reports a longitudinal study of the effects of extended isolation and
confinement on cognitive strain, as observed in the execution of a demanding
decision-making task. Any extended period of spaceflight requires individuals to
adapt to an abnormal set of conditions,in which they are in direct contact with only
a few individuals,have very limited physical space to move around in, little privacy
and a generally impoverished physical and psychological environment. Although
apparently not severe in terms of departures from normal environments, such
conditions may nevertheless be considered to impose a chronic stress on the
effectiveness of the human adaptive system. From a safety and reliability point of
view such effects may cause concern, since they may disrupt the ability of
individuals to maintain essential skills over the full course of the mission. While
such stress may not be expected to affect performance in the short term, the
continued absence of environmental variation and external stimulation may make
a breakdown of skill increasingly likely.
The effectiveness of human performance is frequently used as an index of the
extent to which environmental conditions or job design features impose a burden
on the individual’s capacity for efficient mental activity. Measures of performance
are, however, often unable to detect this state of “cognitive strain”’ either because
they are not sensitive to the particular changes induced by the work conditions,or
because of compensatory adaptation on the part of the individual.Performance may
be seen to be “protected” by the allocation of additional processing
effectively masking any underlying decrement. While direct decrementson skilled
performance are not always observable, indirect effects may be detected by exam-
ining the side-effects of this compensatory activity. Indirect decrements may take
the form of (a) impairment in secondary task activities, (b) shifts towards less
demanding strategies of information processing, (c) increases in subjective costs,
or (d) increased activity in various psychophysiological systems.’ The detection of
a state of cognitive strain is important in operational contexts since it may signal
the beginnings of overt breakdown in skilled performance, or vulnerability to
further increases in workload or stress.
Cognitive Fatigue and Complex Decision Making 31 1
Although these indirect effects of decrement usually provide a more sensitive

test of the impact of ongoing demands, performance tests may sometimes be useful
as a probe measure of the afer-effects of demanding work. The occurrence of
fatigue, which often accompanies sustained periods of a high workload, appears to
be revealed not during the work itself (because of the compensatory protection
strategy) but in the period immediately following this work. A number of theo-
~ . ~argued that this takes the form of a reduction in the level of mental
r i s t ~ ’have
effort expended on the probe task. Tasks designed to measure this “fatigue after-ef-
fect” need to have one or both of the following features: (1) a high level of demands
on the working memory, (2) an opportunity for subjects to choose alternative ways
of carrying out the task, differing in effort requirements. A tendency for effort to be
reduced with cognitive fatigue will produce errors or delays in the first case, and
direct evidence of a shift of strategy in the second. The task used in this study is
designed to have both these features.
Previous work5carried out during an earlier isolation study (ISEMSI, 1990)has
shown that, under suitable conditions, performance decrements may appear during
an isolation period of 4 weeks, though only in the form of periodic disruptions of
otherwise stable skilled behavior, and only during the fourth week of isolation. The
effects were observed for only one of the six participants in that study, though the
others could not be assessed easily, because of a procedural difficulty in training,
which caused them to operate with an unacceptably high error rate in the decision-
making task. In any case, as in other performance studies carried out during
ISEMSI, there was little or no evidence of decrement during the first three weeks
of the isolation period. The 8-week isolation period for the present EXEMSI
isolation study offers the possibility of examining the time course of this process
in more detail. In particular, it allows us to detect any widespread breakdown in
skill maintenance during the second 4-week period. An alternative possibility is
that the observed effects occurred as a consequence of a ‘last-week’effect: rather
than an effect of isolation time per se.
II. THE DECISION-MAKINGTASK

A. Rationale and Background
As in the ISEMSI experiment5the present study makes use of a specially-devised

computerized decision-making task. The modified version of this task, known as
the Current Operational State Test (COST), is based on the management of
information in a dynamic working memory/decision-making environment. The
generic task software is based on an original medical prescribing It is
designed to assess operator performance following an extended period of demand-
ing work. In general terms, the task presents a page of reference information on a
computer screen, which subjects are required to read and commit to memory. The
subject then presses a key for a second screen, which gives the first of a number of
312 G.R.J.HOCKEY and 1. SAUER
status screens. These have to be checked against the reference information held in
the subject's working memory, and any discrepancy has to be indicated. A second
status screen is selected and processed in the same way, and so on. The reference
information is periodically changed, and may be checked at any time by toggling
between information and status screens with the space bar. The program allows
separate measures to be made of memorizing time, checking time and decision time,
as well as the pattern and frequency of information management actions and
decision errors.
This decision-making task offers a demandingchallenge to the working memory,
because of the amount of information which has to be retained in memory while
making comparisons and arriving at a decision. COST is able to detect the
occurrence of cognitive fatigue after prolonged periods of highly demanding work
as changes in the pattern of information use. Increased levels of fatigue are known
to encourage the use of less effortful information processing In the
case of the ContaminantsMonitoring Task this may take the form, for example, of
minimizing memory load by checking reference information more frequently, or
reducing the overall rate of making decisions. Alternatively,the severe operational
constraints of the EXEMSI situation, coupled with the high motivation of the crew
members to perform well, may result in maintained performance, even under high
levels of subjective strain. Performance decrements are often difficult to detect in
highly-motivated subjects, because of a compensatory protection of primary task
requirementsthrough increased effort.'**As already mentioned, secondary features
of the task are more likely to be affected, where these may be measured. In COST
the primary goal of the subject is defined as the maintenance of accuracy in
decision-making,errors being kept to a level of 6%. Speed of decision may thus
be regarded as a secondary task: Subjects are expected to maintain accuracy, and
to go quickly if they can. We may therefore expect the major performance decre-
ments to be in the speed of decision-making.
The present version was based on the task of management of the chemical
environment of the spacecraft (a hyperbaric chamber in the simulation). It was
developed for another ESA-LTPOproject, in which it was extensively tested before
its use in the EXEMSI project.* Its embodiment in a work-specific context provides
an abnormally high degree of user acceptance in comparison with standard psycho-
logical tests, and an increased operational validity.
B. Contaminants Monitoring Task
The version used in the EXEMSI campaign took the form of a Contaminants
Monitoring Task (CMT), requiring the subject to identify one of a set of possible
contaminants which has exceeded safety criteria. The current and previous levels
of each of a number of contaminants has to be checked against previously-supplied
reference information, and a decision must be made about which one has exceeded
Cognitive Fatigue and Complex Decision Making 313
acceptable limits. The reference page contains information about two aspects of
five fictitious contaminants (X34,575, etc.):
1. Spacecraft maximum allowableconcentration (SMAC),in both working and

living quarters (typically lower for the latter);
2. Maximum allowable change (referred to here as Change) in concentration
over a 30-min period (between previous and current status charts), indicative
of leakage, fire, etc.
When reference information has been read and learned, subjects select the first
status screen, which contains information about current and previous (-30 mins)
levels of each of five contaminants (including two of those present on the informa-
tion screen), for both working and living areas of the vessel. On each occasion one
of these 10 values (SMAC and Change for each of the five contaminants)exceeds
the safety criteria. The subject has to check the reference information against the
status inforrnation,decidewhichofthe 10valuesisdiscrepant, then move thecursor
to the appropriate box to select that option. If some of the reference information
has been forgotten,it can be refreshed by toggling back to the corresponding screen
with the spacebar. After each correct decision a new status display is presented, and
a new set of reference information after every four status decisions. If an error is
made, the reference screen is automatically reinstated, and the whole sequencehas
to be re-enacted. As with all such tasks, operational validity is stressed, and error
rates of greater than 5% are strongly discouraged. All actions and timings are
recorded by the system and summarized in the output for each session. For a more
detailed description of the COST software the reader is referred to the user
documentation, which is available from ESA-LTP0.8
C. Subjective State Measures
The different patterns of responseto work demands require that performance tests
are interpreted with respect to concomitant changes in other variables, notably
psychophysiological and subjective state. Work demands are assessed routinely,
using a separate questionnaire, to provide a baseline index of changes in demand.
This includes a measure of the level of cognitive,emotional and physical demands,
as well as the availability of social and cognitive resources for meeting these
demands. As with other self-ratings, visual analogue scales are used, in which
subjects move a pointer on a 100 mm line on a screkn. The level of response is
automatically scored on a 1-100 scale.
Subjective strain is measured within the COST software as Subjective State
Measures (SSM).'*s*8 This includes the two negative mood states of fatigue and
anxiety, and a measure of on-task effort (how hard the individual concentrates on
each task session). SSM consisted of a set of 12 adjectives, asking subjects to
indicate the extent to which each applies to them at that moment. These included 6
314 C.R.J.HOCKEY and J.SAVER
items for each of the state dimensions of anxiety and fatigue, presented before and
after completion of CMT. Respondents use arrow keys to move a screen slider
ranging from 0 (‘not at all’) to 100 (‘very much’), to indicate their level of affect.
At the end of the session subjects are given further items relating to their subjective
response to the task (effort and concentration, informationmanagementdifficulties,
etc.).
Where suitable data are available, these subjective measures may be related
directly to changes in psychophysiological state, measured during the to
provide a detailed analysis of the nature of the strain associated with extended
isolation. The psychophysiological analysis in EXEMSI was carried out separately
by Wientjes et a].? though we refer to their findings where relevant. The two
dimensions of strain-anxiety and fatigue-may be considered to reflect different
features of the affective response to environmental Anxiety is nor-
mally regarded as an indicationof the perceived threat of the environment,resulting
in tension or concern. Fatigue, in turn, reflects the consequences of the individual’s
cognitive and emotional involvement with these demands, resulting in subjective
tiredness,reduced energy, and low alertness. (Fatigue associated with physical work
is not a major factor in work of this nature). Fatigue is thus assumed to play a more
direct role than anxiety in the management of task performance. The requirement
to respond in an increasingly active way to workand other demands over the course
of the isolation period would be expected to increase the level of subjectivefatigue
ratings at the end of each working day, and to induce changes in performance.
These changes in performance are to be estimated with the COST procedure,
which is administered at the end of each working day. This procedure is designed
to measure the state with which subjects begin the task, and to detect the effects of
such changes in terms of performance measures. An observed pattern of increased
fatigue with impaired performance would be consistent with the classical work
fatigue effects of Holding3(with or without changes in subjectiveeffort). Increased
fatigue would be expected to be accompaniedby a slowing in decision speed, andor
more frequent checking of the reference screen.Alternatively,unimpaired perform-
ance accompanied by increased fatigue would be expected to show increased levels
of compensatory effort (as well as psychophysiological signs of strain). Anxiety
would not be expected to play a strong role in these effects, though it is likely to
reflect variations in the level of perceived demands.lS7
D. Patterns of Decrement
The study was planned to permit the analysis of (1) covariation in performance
with both subjective and psychophysiological states, and (2) changes in these
relationships, as a function of both day to day variation in workload, and duration
of the isolation period. From previous work5.*we assume that threats to skilled
performance and state maintenance will increase with an increase in task demands
(workload). One form of this is the increase in subjective costs with the increased
strain of protecting performance from disruption. (Operationally, strain may be

assumed to increase with isolation, though it may also be assessed through subjec-
tive state measures-anxiety, fatigue and task-related effort). Specifically, this
predicts ( 1) a decrement in secondary performance measures (time-based perform-
ance) over the course of the isolation period, with a protection of error rates; (2)
increased subjective andor psychophysiologicalcosts of skill maintenance later in
the isolation period; (3) performance decrements associated with fatigue rather than
anxiety.
111. METHOD
A. Subjects and General Procedure
The subjects were three males and one female, aged 25-37, from four European
states (Austria, France, The Netherlands and Sweden). They were selected, after
extensive screening for medical and psychological health, to participate as members
of the chamber crew. The four crew members received about 2 months training,
then spent a total of 60 days in a state of isolation in the hyperbaric facility at DLR,
Cologne, Germany, during which time they worked on a range of psychological,
medical, physiological, and operational tasks. Testing was carried out during
isolation.
Each of the four subjects carried out the COST task on each workday, a total of
40 sessions for each subject over the 60-day isolation period. This involved both
components; CMT (contaminant monitoring task), followed at the end of the
session by SSM (subjective state measures), which is an embedded assessment of
subjective state related to anxiety, fatigue, and on-task effort. The analysis was
designed to be conducted on a within-subject basis, through examinationofchanges
both over time and between different variables.
Both COST and the Workload Questionnaire (WLQ; see next section) were
implemented as part of a centralized computer-based testing system, under the
control of a specially-devised data management system (SPET). All testing was
self-administeredin accordance with an overall mission schedule, data being stored
automatically on SPET. WLQ, which took around 30 seconds to complete, was
administered twice daily, at the end of the morning and afternoon periods. COST
was completed at the end of each workday, and took around 15 minutes, including
both CMT and SSM.
COST contains a flexible set-up screen enabling the experimenter to customize
the task parameters (session duration, block length, optional inclusion of SSM).
Duration was set at 10 minutes for CMT, with blocks of length 4 (SSM took
approximately 3 minutes to complete). Along with the COST activities, subjects
also collected psychophysiological data (ECG, blood pressure, and ventilation)?
316 G.R.J.HOCKEY and 1. SAUER
B. Workload Questionnaire
The Workload Questionnaire (WLQ) is a computer-based package developed to

measure individual perception of different facets of the workload, environmental
work characteristics, and work-relevant skills. It comprises seven scales; three of
workload dimensions (physical, cognitive and emotional demands), two of re-
sources for dealing with demands (personal control; social support), and two of the
level of personal skills (technical and social skills) experienced by the subjects.
Subjects responded, as with the SSM measures, by moving a cursor over a scale
from &lo0 to register the perceived level of each variable. These may change over
time, often even during the course of a workday. Such changes are known to have
a direct impact on the subjective state, as well as changing the load on operators,
thus indirectly affecting their performance. Since the test took only 30 seconds to
complete, it was included in the testing program twice a day; at the end of each half
day's work, and at the equivalent times on the weekend sessions without work. This
allowed to detect changes in the demand on crew members during morning and
afternoon sessions.
C. Training and Practice
Subjects weregiven extensivetraining on COSTduring the three phases ofinitial

training, operational training, and full mission training. The first two phases
comprised an orientation to the procedures and the rationale of the COST and WLQ
techniques, and 4 to 6 practice sessions of 15 minutes each on CMT. During the
third phase the task was self-administered in 10 to 15 sessions under supervision
of a crew member.
D. Treatment of Data
Data were initially stored on the common data management system (SPET),then
imported into the CSS Statistica for statistical treatment. Changes in skill and
subjective strain from isolation were assessed in the main analysis by examining
trends over the 8-week period. Later phases of the mission were expected to impose
greater demands on the crew members in terms of coping with the problems of
isolation and confinement, and to reveal increasing signs of skill decrement and
fatigue.
It had been expected that the extensivepractice during the training period would
have resulted in asymptotic time and error functions for task performance (stable
levels of performance). In this case, decrements would be readily detectable as
increases in either kind of measure from the steady state baseline levels. However,
the performance data for all subjects showed considerable learning over the
duration of the study, so that cases of absolute decrement were quite rare. In such
a case it is still possible to detect relative decrements, however, by examining the
data for changes in the learning rate with increasing strain. A baseline of improve-
ment (learningrate) may be estimated for the early “low strain” part of the isolation
period, by fitting an appropriate acquisition function to the data, and using this
baseline to predict the values for later measurement points. The first 4-week period
was used to estimate the baseline learning rate (exclusion of data for days 1-4,
where large improvementsdue to warm-upassociated with the brief cognitivephase
of skill acquisition” and familiarization with the learning context might occur,
made no observabledifference to the fit, and was thus not adopted). The assumption
underlying this procedure is that performance during the early part of the mission
is unlikely to be affected by strain, and is a stable period of operational skill. This
assumption is supported by the performance data obtained during ISEMSI, in
particular those from a version of the present COST techniq~e.~ Stable early
performance levels were also typically observed in Russian simulated and actual
spaceflights.’*
The analysis was carried out by fitting an exponential regression function to the
data for weeks 1-4, for each of the time variables, to provide an index of the
operational baseline, and using this function to generate predicted values for the
daily measurements over the last 4 weeks of the study. The residuals (differences
between predicted and observed values) were then examined for systematic trends
or for departures from the expected random variation around the predicted function.
For example, a relative increase in decision time or error rate towards the end of
the isolation period will give rise to increasingly positive residuals, suggesting a
performance decrement. In the context of a general reduction in decision time, say,
this would be interpreted as an inhibition of the anticipated practice effect with
continued isolation.
IV. RESULTS
The main results are those presented below for COST. In addition, the results for
the use of the Workload Questionnaire are summarized briefly to provide a context
for interpreting the changes in performance and strain. The detailed testing of all
four crew members permits the analysis of individual results for all variables. The
measures of performance and subjective state examined are:
Contaminants Monitoring Task (CMT):
Decision time: Mean time needed to arrive at a correct decision for each status
display;
Checking time: Mean time spent checking reference information over the session;
Error rare: Percentage of decision errors made over the session.
Subjective State Measures:
Fatigue: Subjective fatigue rating before completion of CMT

Anxiety: Subjective anxiety rating before completion of CMT
318 G.R.J. HOCKEY and 1. SAUER
Effort: Subjective effort following CMT (mean of ratings for effort and concen-
tration scales)
A. Decision-Making Performance
Despite the extended training program, the subjects showed an overall reduction
in the time taken to carry out the task, particularly over the first few weeks due to
continued learning during the isolation period (See Figures 1 and 2). Regression
analysis could correct for this phenomenon by fitting a learning curve to the data
from the first four weeks of the study, which allows removal of the underlying
learning effect.
From the different mathematical functions used for modelling learning data,”.13
the negative exponential (y = ae-bx)was selected in this study, since it provided the
best fits overall (in terms of explained variance, ?), though the conclusions from
the analyses are not materially affected by the use of a power function model. The
data for ‘errors’ showed no systematic learning curve, and were adequately fitted
by a linear model.
Decision Time
Figure 1 shows the raw data for ‘decision time’ for each subject, together with
the fitted regression functions for the data for the period weeks 2-4. The use of the
analytic technique is shown more clearly as the series of deviations from the model
(observed-predicted residuals) over the entire 8-week period.
Although there are some differences between individuals, there is a consistent
pattern of increasingly positive residuals during the last few weeks of the isolation
period. This means that there is strong evidence for a slowing down in decision-
making over the course of the mission, with an onset varying from week 5 for
subject H to week 8 for subject G.
Checking Time
A similar pattern is observed for the residuals obtained on ‘checkingtime.’ Figure

2 shows the general increase over the isolation period, for all subjects, in the time
spent on further checks of the reference information before making a decision. For
subjects B, D, and G this effect starts in weeks 5/6; for subject H in week 8. This
change may be interprcted as an increased cautiousness before making decisions,
more time being spent on refreshing the information stored in the subject’s working
memory before comparison of the reference data with the status screens. Coupled
with the slowing in the decision phase itself, this pattern of information processing
may be taken as evidence that the crew members are attempting to maintain the
primary goal of accuracy. Because of the self-paced structure of the COST proce-
dure, any tendency for errors to increase under strain may be compensated for by
taking more time before making a decision.
Decision Tune (R) Decision Time (DJ
1c 10
9
-a
u
6
-
9,
2 6
8
u Q
2 4 2 4
2 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ‘ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Week of Isolation Week of Isolarion
Week qf lsolarion Week oflsolation
Decision Time (GI Decision Time (H)

10
-
u
8
9 6
z
G 4
0
3 4 5 6 7 R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Week of Isolation Week of Isolation
2 2
$ 1
4 0
- I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Week of Isolation
figure 1. Mean decision time for each subject over the 8 weeks of isolation, showing
best fitting non-linear regression function for weeks 1-4 and the residual plot for the
same data.
31 9
Checking Time (0)
5 5
-
L
$ 3
4
T
$ 3
2
4
.g 2
h
$ 2
I I
0
' 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Checking Time (G) Checking Time (H)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
- ' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure2. Mean checkingtime for each subject over the 8 weeks of isolation, showing
best fitting non-linear regression function for weeks 1 4 and the residual plot for the
same data.
320
Error Rate
The patterns over time for errors show greater variability than those for the
decision and checking times, though linear regression functions provide adequate
fits for the data (Figure 3). Subjects D and H show stable and low levels of error
throughout the 8 weeks, in accordance with the test instructions to maintain a
maximum 5% error rate. Subject B and especially subject G perform with a higher
error rate, only these less accurate subjects show any evidence of a reduction in
accuracy with extended isolation. The effect is significant only for subject B, who
shows an absolute increase in errors in the second half of the isolation period (t =
2.09; df = 38; p c .05). Error rates are typically much less stable than time data in
complex decision tasks, because of their sensitivity to changes in strategy for the
trade-off between speed and acc~racy.’~
B. Subjective State
In contrast to performance data, subjective reports are generally stable in terms

of baseline, because they are unlikely to be affected by learning. Fluctuations of
moods and perceived well-being are known to be influenced by both short-term
(daily) events (e.g., work demands or social interactions), and longer-term factors
(developing strain, or change in psychological health).’.’ The main purpose of these
reports in this study is to provide a context of subjective state within which to
interpret observed changes in performance.
Subjectivemeasures for any general changes in reported strain areexamined over
the 60-day isolation period. The two strain measures “anxiety” and “fatigue”
indicate the general affective state of the subject at the end of the workday, but
before administration of the CMT task. The third measure, “effort,” indicates the
level of subjective cost or energetic involvement in the task itself, and is measured
at the end of the task. The daily values for anxiety, fatigue, and effort are plotted in
Figure 4 for each subject. There is evidence of some increase in subjective strain
over time, notably in fatigue and effort, although the effects are slight.
Anxiety
As expected, there is little evidence that prolonged isolation leads to increased

anxiety. The general level is low in all subjects, with a general reduction over the
study, as subjects become more accustomed to the working and living environment
(Figure 4). All subjects report lower mean levels of anxiety in the second half of
the study. For subject B: t = 3.57, p < 0.001;for subject D: t = 4.14, p < 0.001; for
subject G: t = 3.38, p c 0.01; for subject H: t = 2.30, p < 0.05 (all with df = 38).
Subject D reports a steady low level of anxiety for the entire period, while the
others report brief phases of increased anxiety, lasting from 3-5 days, but with no
obvious temporal pattern. For subject B this occurs towards the end of the mission
(week 7/8); for subject G in week 5 ; for subject H in weeks 2 and 5.
Error Rue fBI Error Rate (D)
4" 10
1 2 7 4 5 6 7 8 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
20 r
9 10
4
$ 0
-lC
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Error Rate (G) Error Rate ( H )

30 30
& 20
p
u 2o
e
u 5
$
4
10 22 10
0 0
5 6 7 8
20
ia
Figure 3. Mean error rates for each subject over the 8 weeks of isolation, showing
best fitting linear regression function for weeks 1 4 and the residual plot for the same
data.
322
Subjecrive Stare Measures (BJ Subjective Stare Measures (D)
, Subjective Stare Measures (G) Subjective Stare Measures (H)
Week of Isolation Week of Isolarion
figure 4. Mean subjective state measures (anxiety, fatigue, effort) over the 8 weeks
of isolation.
Fatigue
Fatigue is reported at a moderate level, though it is clearly experienced more
strongly than anxiety, and with much greater day to day variability (Figure 4).
Analysis fails to reveal any reliable change in experienced fatigue between the first
and second halves of the isolation period (p > 0.05 for all subjects). This is in
contrast with the consistent fall in the anxiety dimension of strain. Transient
changes can, however, be observed: peaks occur for subject B during weeks 5 and
7; for subjects D and H during weeks 5 and 6. For subject D 6 of the 7 highest
fatigue ratings occur during weeks 5-8.
Effort
The results for task-related effort are the most varied. Ratings are moderate to
high, reflecting both the high demands of the task and the measured involvement
of subjects in it. Although variable on a day to day basis, the average level of effort
is generally stable (Figure 4). This suggeststhat subjects adapt tochanging demands
and mental resources by attempting to maintain constant levels of effort and
3 24 C.R.J. HOCKEY and 1. SAUER
Workload Quesrionnaire(B) Workload Questionnaire (0)

100 100
I I 1
.B
-. .-c
z2 so
-
.-
B
.-3 50
c
3
(?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Week of Isolation
8 ' '" 1l '
o 2 ' 3 ' 44 ' 5 ' 66 ' 77 ' 8 I'
Week of isolation
'
Workload Quesrionnaire(G) Workload Questionnaire (H)
100
..
2
(r"
3 so
.-c
' 1 2 . 3 4 5 6 7 8 O i 2
.~~ 3 4 5 6 7 8
Week of isolation Week of Isolation
figure 5. Mean workload questionnaire measures (workload, resources) over the 8

weeks of isolation.
concentration, with corresponding slowing down in information management

activities (as seen in the performance data). There are individual differences.
Subject D shows a decrease in effort between first and second half of the isolation
period (t = 4.09, df = 38, p c 0.001), and subject H a generally high level, increasing
with the duration of isolation (t = 3.54, df = 38, p c 0.001). While there is no
significant difference between the first and second half of the isolation period, the
data for subject G indicate a general reduction in effort over the first 6 weeks, with
signs of an increase in the last 2 weeks. Note that there are no data for subject B
from week 5 onwards. The screen slider had evidently been left at the center point
of the scale (50) from this time.
Workload and Resources
For the purposes of this overview the Workload Questionnaire scores were
combined to provide two averaged indices of workload and resources, defined as
follows:
Workload: Normally estimated by the unweighted mean of the reported levels of

physical, cognitive and emotional demands. Since these were only slightly corre-
lated, for some analyses the separate dimensions were used.
Resources: Mean of the ratings for the two counter-demand measures ‘personal
control’ and ‘social support.’
In addition, a measure known as the comfort margin (associated with high
resources and low demand^)'^ was defined as the algebraic difference between the
current levels of resources and workload. This difference was used as an index of
the degree of ’psychological comfort’ experienced during the work environment.
The individual levels of workload and resources are shown in Figure 5 . The overall
pattern reflects the generally lower levels of reported workload (and higher re-
sources) at the weekend, when payload operations were reduced to a minimum.
These weekly cycles are evident in the individual plots.
The general level of the perceived workload is quite low, and that of resources
fairly high. This implies that the effective strain on the crew is only moderate, as
was also the case during the ISEMSI project.I6 It does appear, however, that the
comfort margin is reduced during the second half of the isolation period for subjects
D and H, indicating some increase in effective demand. This is not true for subjects
B and G, although the last few weeks for subject B are characterized by workload
ratings of around zero. This probably reflects a reduction in attention to the rating
procedure, rather than a genuine reduction in perceived workload, as was also the
case for this subject’s response to task-related effort, This suggests that all subjec-
tive responses for subject B should be considered with some skepticism. Subject H
shows an absoluterise in reported workload over the study, with the comfort margin
reduced to zero over the last half of the period. This is not shown by the other
subjects, except for subject G for a IOday period just after the middle of the
isolation period. There is no clear interpretation of any of these observed patterns,
but they do provide a context for interpreting the earlier observed changes in
performance and subjective strain.
V. DISCUSSION
A. Overall Pattern of Changes
The pattern of effects described above is not one of simple skill decrement or
increased strain over the course of the 60-day isolation period. Very few of the
performance measures show a direct loss of skill level, and among the subjective
measures only fatigue indicates any marked increaseover this period. The interpre-
tation of these changes is made more difficult by the underlying effects of continued
learning evident in the performance data, resulting in an overall improvement in
measures of task performance over the entire course of the study. This was
overcome by removing the underlying learning curve by the application of a
regression method, allowing us to treat the ‘operationalbaseline’as achanging level
3 26 G.R.J.HOCKEY and I.SAUER
of skill. Decrementsthen become apparent in the time-based performance measures

as a decreased rate of improvement over the last 4 weeks of the study, indicating a
relative loss of decision-making speed. Since this was not accompanied by a
reduced error rate, the slowing cannot be interpreted as a shift in the speedaccuracy
trade-off from ‘fast but inaccurate’ towards ‘slow but acc~rate.”~ Rather, this
pattern indicates a genuine reduction in information processing power.
The subjective data offer useful contextual information for understanding the
nature of these changes over the isolation period. Although the changes are small,
there are broad indications of a distinctive pattern of strain response. The anxiety
component plays only a small part in this. It is generally low, and experienced only
as brief periods ofemotional disruption for individual subjects. Fatigue, on the other
hand, is reported at a consistently higher level, and shows a slight overall increase
across the study. Higher levels of tiredness are reflected in the greater use of
effort-reducing performance strategies in the Contaminants Monitoring Task.’*5
This means that the subject makes a reduction in the speed with which decisions
are made, and carries out more data-gathering before responding. The relatively
steady levels of perceived effort probably reflect the compromisebetween decreas-
ing mental resources (requiring increased mental effort in order to sustain perform-
ance) and the shift towards less demanding task strategies (requiringreduced effort
in task management).
This is consistent with the use of an active adaptive strategy by this highly-rno-
tivated group of subjects.In general, they appeared to adapt to the increasing strain
of maintaining effective performance under such difficult circumstances by pre-
serving the primary goal of error minimization. The effects are not the same for the
individual crew members, as described in the next section.
B. Individual Patterns of Change Over Isolation Period

The patterns of adaptation, in relation to the kinds of decrement profiles outlined
in Section 111, is considered here for each subject.
Subject B
The unreliability of the subjective reports for this subject make any extended
analysis inappropriate. However, there are indications of increased fatigue during
the second half of the mission, with increased checking and slower decisions.
Performance is very fast, and the error rate a little high (around 7%), suggesting
insufficient emphasis on the primary goal of accuracy. Errors do show a slight
increase during the second half of the isolation period, indicating that accuracy of
performance may not be given the priority emphasized in the instructions and
training. This is an unusual profile, not readily classified in terms of regulatory
adaptation, but nevertheless indicating a small overall decrement.
Subject D
This subject was the best performer on the Contaminants Monitoring Task in all
respects: fastest decisions, least use of checks and fewest errors. As with subject B,
the apparent increase in the fatigue ratings during the second half of the isolation
period are associated with compensatory increases in checking and decision time,
but without obvious changes in anxiety and effort.
Subject G
This subject showed the poorest overall performance in the ContaminantsMoni-

toring Task on all three measures. Errors averaged around 10% with occasional
lapses of 20%,making the performance difficult to evaluate in terms of protection
strategiesfor primary taskgoals. There is a marked impairmenton the speed aspects
of the task, coupled with a reduction in both effort and fatigue during the second
half of the isolation period. The effort function for this subject generally follows
that of the comfort margin (resources - workload), with a trough in the middle
weeks, suggesting that the response to task demands is determined largely by
available capacity.
Subject H
She shows the clearest and most reliable pattern of change. Decision time is the
most stable of all crew members with the smallest learningeffect, indicating a more
successful training and practice period. Error levels are also within the required
range. The increase in fatigue episodes during weeks 5-8 is reflected in the effects
on decision slowing and increased checking during this phase, without change in
error rate. This is closely paralleled by the increase in workload (and reduction in
the comfort margin) over isolation. Finally, maintenance of the primary task goal
of accuracy under increasing demands is accompanied by an absolute increase in
task effort, indicating an increasing attempt to compensate for the developing state
of strain by maintaining accuracy. Performance decrements are thus confined to
small changes in secondary (time-based) measures of decision-making.
C. General Comments
Overall, the results illustrate a number of interesting patterns of change during

the isolation period. The absence of a genuine stationary baseline for performance
meant that there were very few clear-cut examples of strain or performance
decrement. Instead, most of our observations have been derived from the applica-
tion of statistical trend-removing procedures. While we are generally quite happy
with these, there is a natural uneasiness about making conclusions of even relative
decrement on the basis of data which generally show overall improvement.
328 C.R.J. HOCKEY and J. SAUER
Nevertheless, on the basis of our present analyses, it is clear that changes do take
place over the final four weeks of isolation. Broadly interpreted, these changes
indicate a gradual loss of efficiency in the use of mental resources. Additional
processing effort appears to be required to maintain accuracy with prolonged
isolation, with a corresponding reduction in the speed of decision-making and an
increased need to check reference information before making decisions. While
subjective strain does not appear to be a major problem with prolonged isolation,
there is a dissociation between the two components of strain. While anxiety and
tension are reduced steadily over the isolation period, fatigue and tiredness are
maintained or even increased. Under more demanding simulationsor actual space-
flight conditions,this may be expected to pose major problems for the maintenance
of mental effort in the execution of sustained tasks; for example during emergen-
cies, or when automated systems fail and manual control is required.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

Cognitive fatigue and subjective state were assessed in four healthy subjects (three
males and one female), confined for a period of 60 days in a hyperbaric chamber
simulating a space station environment. They were required to carry out daily a
working memory/decision-making test, simulating the management of the levels
of contaminants present in a spacecraft atmosphere. Information about a set of
contaminants is presented on a ‘reference screen.’ This has to be memorized, then
used to make decisions about the need for corrective action across a sequence of
four ‘status screens.’ Subjects may check back to the reference information at any
time.
A low error rate was emphasized in the instructions and training. In addition to
error rate, performance was also measured in terms of the time taken to make
decisions and checks of reference screens (decision time and check time). Subjec-
tive measures were also made of workload and environmental resources (personal
control and support), levels of anxiety and fatigue before the task, and cognitive
effort expended during the task.
The search for decrements during the second half of the isolation period was
complicated by evidence of a continued learning process during the first half,
probably because of insufficient practice before isolation. Learning curves (nega-
tive exponential functions) were fitted to the data points for the first half of the
isolation period, and residuals between predicted and observed data for the second
four weeks were analyzed.
All subjects showed increases in decision time and check time during the last
weeks of isolation, with one subject also showing an increase in errors. Workload
levels were reported as moderate, but varied across the four subjects,The same was
true for resources. Anxiety was low and relatively stable over the entire 60-day
period, but fatigue levels were elevated during the second half. This was particularly
true for the two subjects who maintained the required low error rate. Effort was
also quite stable, though it tended to follow changes in work demands and fatigue.
Individual subjects are seen to adapt to the stress of prolonged isolation in
different ways. Two subjects maintained low error rates under increasing subjective
demands by additional cognitive effort and slowing ofperformance. The other two
subjects exhibit more widespread decrement, including high error rates, without
increase in subjective demands. The analysis of individual patterns of adaptation is
recommended as a way of understanding and predicting the impact of isolation and
confinement during spaceflights.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The support of ESA-LTPO is gratefully acknowledged. Jiirgen Sauer was supported by a
contract with the Long term Program Office of the European Space Agency (RFQ 13-
7280/9 1/F/FL).
REFERENCES
1. Hockey, G.R.J. Cognitive-Energetical Mechanisms in the Management of Work Demands and
Psychological Health. In: Anention. Selection. Awareness and Control: A Tribute to Donald
Broadbent (A.D. Baddeley and L. Weiskrantz, Eds.), pp. 328-345. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1993.
2. Kahneman, D. Remarks on Attentional Control. In: Anention and Performance, Vol. 3 (A.F.
Sanders, Ed.), Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1970.
3. Holding, D.H. Fatigue. In: Stress and Fatigue in Human Performance (G.R.J. Hockey, Ed.).
Chichester, Wiley, 1983.
4. Broadbent, D.E. Is a Fatigue Test Now Possible? Ergonomics, 221277-1290, 1979.
5. Hockey G.R.J., Wiethoff, M.Cognitive Fatigue in Complex Decision-Making. In: Advances in
Space Biology and Medicine, Vol. 3 (S.L. Bonting, Ed.), pp. 139-150. 1993.
6. Bergan, T., Sandal, G. Warncke, M., Ursin, H., Vemes, R.J. Group Functioning and Communi-
cation. In: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine. Vol. 3 (S.L.Bonting, Ed.), pp. 59-80, 1993.
7. Hockey, G.R.J., Wiethoff, M. Assessing Pattern of Adjustment to the Demands of Work. In:
Psychobiology of Stress ( S . Puglisi-Allegra and A. Oliverio. Eds.). Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, 1990.
8. Hockey, G.R.J., Sauer, J., Wastell, D.G. Human Skill Maintenance and Error Management.
ESA-LTPO Report No. RFQ 13-7280/91/F/FL. Paris, 1993.
9. Wientjes, C.J.E., Veltman, G.A., Gaillard A.W.K. Cardio-vascularrespiratory response during a
complex decision-making task under prolonged isolation. This Volume. pp. 133-155.
10. Watson, D., Tellegen, A. Towards a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin,
98219-235, 1985.
11. Lane, N.E. Skill Acquisition Rates and Panerns. New York Springer Verlag, 1987.
12. Gushin. V.I.. Nokikov, M.A., Kolinitchenko, T.B. Psychological ControlandSupportin EXEMSI.
Paper presented at EXEMSI-meeting, Paris, March 1993.
13. Newell, A,, Rosenblcmm, A. Mechanisms of Skill Acquisition and the Law of Practice. In:
Cognitive Skills and their Acquisition (J.R. Anderson, Ed.). Hillsdale. NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum,
1981.
14. Rabbitf P.M. Current Paradigms and Models in Human Information Processing. In: Human Stress
and Cognition (V. Hamilton and D.M. Warburton. Eds.). Chichester, Wiley, 1979.
3 30 G.R.J.HOCKEY and J. SAUER
15. Karasek. R.A. Job demands,job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications forjob redesign.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24:285-308. 1919.
16. VErnes. R.J., Bergan. T.. Warncke, M., Ursin, H., Aakvaag. A,, Hockey, G.R.J. Workload and
Stress: Effects on psychosomatic and psychobiological reaction patterns. In: Advances in Space
Biology and Medicine (S.L. Bonting, Ed.). Vol. 3, pp. 95-120, 1993.
Chapter 19
SlMlLARITIES BETWEEN SUSTAINED

SPORT PERFORMANCE A N D
BEHAVIOR IN EXTENDED
SPACEFLIGHTS
G. Gillot, N. Kane-Toure, and S. Mahiddine
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .......... . 332

.
11. Tasks, Subjects and Methods . . . . . . . . ..... . .......... . 332
A. Characteristics of the Investigated Tasks . ..... . .. .. ....... 332
B. Subjects.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ...... . 333
C. Investigative Techniques . . . . . . . . . ..... . .......... . 333
. .
Ill. R e s u l t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... , . . . . . . . . . . . 333
A. Performance during Sustained Operations ..... . .. .. ...... . 333
B. Time Needed for Recovery . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... .... . 335
C. Choice of Recovery Techniques . . . . . .... . ........... . 335

All rights of reproductionin MY form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
331
332 G. GILLOT, N. KANE-TOURE, and S. MAHIDDINE
IV. Discussion ................................... .337

V. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with apparent similarities between sport performance and ex-
tended spaceflight. Common to both types of activities are the negative effects of
long-duration training and operation, and the use of recovery techniques to com-
pensate these negative effects.
Previous studies, reviewed by Krueger,’ have shown for several areas of human
activity that sustained operations are often related to poor performance, reduced
efficiency, reduced effectiveness, loss of sleep, lack of vigilance and attention, and
bad humor. Sustained operations are extended work schedules, which must be
continued until the purpose is accomplished. They are unusually long, up to 48 or
72 hours. Examples of sustained operations include the performance of lengthy
emergency surgical operations, long rescues, fighting forest fires or inundations,
military combat operations, endurance sports activities, and spaceflight missions.
In continuous operations the work requires a non-stop activity, but the workers
operate in shifts with a regular time-schedule of 7 to 12 hours, whereupon they are
relieved by another team. The workers do have time for rest, although they may not
be able to leave the work site. Examples of continuous operationsinclude industrial
work, military operations, polar expeditions, and space missions. Although these
activities generally use shift operation, in an emergency workers must occasionally
cope with a period of sustained operations in the form of ‘overtime’ work, which
cannot be planned beforehand.
In sustained and continuous operations workers are expected to maintain an
acceptable level of performance, and to stave off fatigue and performance decre-
ments. In order to extend our insight in this problem, we carried out an extensive,
three-year study of the mental and physical recovery techniques used by high level
athletes during sustained and continuous trials.*We wanted to know whether poor
performance of athletes, who must be active for a very long period (up to 6 months,
as in around-the-world sail races), appears to be related to different stressors
associated with different characteristics of the situation, such as confinement,
isolation, monotony, and work overload.
II. TASKS, SUBJECTSAND METHODS

A. Characteristics of the Investigated Tasks
The main characteristics of tasks during lengthy sport trials can be described as
follows: (a) Since the athlete is aiming for a top performance, the demands are very
high, which constitutes the “continuous” character of the task, (b) Aiming for a top
Sport Performance and Spaceflight Behavior 333
performance requires unexpected periods of sustained work, (c) Subjects work in

teams, in which they have different roles to play, which makes it difficult to compare
their tasks.
B. Subjects
The subjects in our study were 213 top arhleres, involved in high level trials with
three types of tasks: (a) energetic tasks, like cross-country skiing, football (rugby),
mountain climbing, and rallies, (b) cognitive-decisional tasks, like solo marine sail
races and flying a glider plane, (c) mixed tasks: indoor team games and dinghy
races. An additional 127 recognized athletes were investigated. Also studied were
technical teams (managers, physical and mental coaches) and medical teams
(physicians and physiotherapists dealing with top athletes).
C. Investigative Techniques
Two types of investigative techniques were employed, which we call “recorded

methods” and “reported methods.” The “recorded merhods” were used in the field:
direct behavior observations, performance measures, tests of attention, vigilance,
reaction time, fine movement coordination, perceptual, and cognitive abilities.
The “reported methods” employed road-booklets, activity and sleep notebooks,
interviews, and talks. Several types of questionnaires were designed, based on a
review of the scientific literature (mainly Russian) about recovery after athletic
performance.
The duality of our techniques offered the advantage that in general we could
choose the method that appeared most appropriate for the type of problem studied.
For example, questionnaires were used to investigate subjective information and
ideas, because they are well suited for this purpose. However, the best suited method
could not always be used; the rather invasive field methods were not used during
World Championships. So in this study the choice of the technique was guided, first
by its suitability to the question, and secondly, by technical, financial, or ethical
limitations.
111. RESULTS
A. Performance during Sustained Operations
As mentioned before, sustained operations usually lead to poor performance,

reduced efficiency and effectiveness, loss of sleep, lack of vigilance and attention,
and bad humor. Angus and Helesgrave3have shown by means of a communication
and information processing task under conditions of sustained operation, that
after 54 hours without sleep task efficiency decreases to 35% of the basic level
(Figure 1).
334 G.GILLOT, N . KANE-TOURE, and S. MAHIDDINE
18h 24h 30h 36h 42h 48h 54h
Figure 1. Task efficiency decrease in a continuous communications and information

processing task after 54 hours without sleep.
We have obtained similar findings in a series of systematic observations among

ten experienced gliding pilots (600-1500h flight time) during a 3-week training
session at the French National Training Center. They had to perform a sustained
program of scientific and technical courses from 8 to 12h in the morning, then they
went to the airfield and flew for 4 to 6 hours over the mountains, ending with a
control flight of 1 hour with an instructor. In the evening they had to study for their
final test. Their in-flight performance was assessed throughout in terms of piloting,
map plotting, decision-making, and logical reasoning. Before and immediately
after their daily flights over the Alps the subjects completed batteries of psychomo-
tor and cognitive tests: reaction time, choice reaction time, fine movement control,
and logical reasoning. They also kept a sleep record, and their heartbeat frequency
was ~ecorded.~
Two negative effects, efficiency decrease and sleeplessness, were displayed by
the 6 older pilots, who were 35 to 50 years old. They showed a major efficiency
decrease to the extent that they judged themselves to be ineffective, and after 12
days they decided to stop the flights for 2 or 3 days. Their psychomotor abilities
were unchanged, but there were significant decreases in fine movement control and
complex cognitive ability. Their sleep records showed an irregular sleep pattern,
including difficulties in going to sleep, waking up several times during the night,
and yawning during the lessons or in flight? The effects of the sleeplessness
appeared to be more psychological than physiological, as shown by the fact that
mental ability and mood, vigilance and the more difficult cognitivetasks deteriorate
the most.
After two or three days of recovery, their performance improved, and allowed
them to fly again safely. However, their performance in the cognitive tests admin-
istered immediately after awakening remained low.
B. Time Needed for Recovery

The length of time needed for recovery to an operational level appears to differ
considerably for the various capabilities.According to Volk0v,6~’some capabilities
can be recovered in a few minutes, while others may need up to 48 hours.
Psychological capabilities,like perceptual skills, cognitive skills, and good humor,
appear to be the last to be recovered.
This finding has two major consequences:
a. First, because of these lengthy periods needed for spontaneous recovery, the
repetition of similar efforts for a long time may present a considerable
problem to the subjects.When it occurs, these subjects cannot maintain their
usual level of performance. As predicted by Selye (1962),after a short period
of decreased resistance to the stress of fatigue, their general performance
may break down suddenly, as shown in Figure 2.
b. When their behavior is studied more accurately, these subjects appear to use
certain strategies to suppress the effects of fatigue. They minimize some
functions (a, b) and reduce their functional capabilities to the few that are
essential for maintaining an acceptable level of performance (c, d)6 How-
ever, their performance is not the same as before, and the subjects take many
risks in doing so.
C. Choice of Recovery Techniques
In order to enhance their performance during sustained andor continuous opera-

tion, top athletes try to discover which recovery techniques they should use.
According to Volkov6and Gillot and Volkov? there are two main types of recovery
techniques:
1. General techniques, like showers, baths, saunas, UV-rays, and negative

air-ionization; and
2. Specific techniques, which can be distinguished in three categories:
a. physiological and medical techniques, like massage, electric muscle
stimulation, nutrition and dietetics, sleep regimes (as naps);
b. psychological and mental techniques, like relaxation and concentration
as provided in autogenic training according to Schultz,psychoregulation
3 36 G . GILLOT, N. KANE-TOURE, and S. MAHIDDINE
Distress Stage 1 Stage of high resistance to Stress 1 Exhaustion
Shock-phsse I Reactidn Phase of crossed Phase of

phase resistance mi nr mization
Figure 2. The different aspects of the response to stress according to Selye.
techniques, yoga breathing techniques, self-hypnosis or sophrology,

cognitive methods like visualization, mental repetition, and ideomotor
training.
c. methodogical and pedagogical techniques, used to schedulethe tasks and
to arrange their demands in progressive or degressive microcycles, so
that subjects can support a superior training workload or perform at a
higher level.
Our studies indicate that some French top athletes appear to be at a disadvantage
in this search for a recovery technique. During an International Seminar in 1993
the authors and some invited experts interviewed athletes, who had won champi-
onships in that year.” These interviews showed that some champions have no clear
idea of what they must do to reduce fatigue and loss of efficiency. Recovery is for
them an “unknown territory.”An expert motorcyclist, who participated in the Raid
of Paris to Dakar, told us that he was often nervous before trials. He then rushed to
the nearest pharmacy and bought pills, drugs, and syrups. In response to a question
by Professor Rivolier, he said that he had no time to spend on learning complicated
recovery techniques. However, he was very interested in our discussions of the
various techniques.
On the other hand, other athletes received from their coaches a solid grounding
in scientific training, including management of training schedules, physiological
methods, and medical support. They knew how to prepare before a contest, how to
manage their resources during the matches, and how to recover afterwards. How-
ever, these athletes appear to be less well prepared mentally than physically. This
is particularly true for athletes performing in complex operations, where psycho-
cognitive factors like decision making, information processing, and group judg-
ments are prominently involved. Our observations on the field have always shown
that the techniques used by these athletes are more empirical and subjective than
those used by athletes performing primarily physical tasks.
Arelated finding is that psychological problems occur during such lengthy sport
operations. Errors in perceptual and cognitive decisions, lack of motivation, bad
humor, and team conflicts are clearly related to continuous and sustained work.
These problems seem to be always recognized at the end and are then managed
with spontaneous empirical techniques rather than with systematic, scientifically
founded recovery techniques.
IV. DISCUSSION
Previous studies have shown that sustained work is often related to poor perform-
ance, sleeplessness, lack of vigilance and attention, and bad humor. In our studies
of mental and physical recovery techniques used by top athletes during sustained
operations, we consistently found similar effects. When athletes must operate for
a very long time poor performance occurs, which is related to different stressors
associated with different characteristicsof situationssuch as confinement, isolation,
irregular work periods, and work overload.
Two main problems appear in these situations:
a. the time periods required for recovery of the various capabilities at an

operational level range widely, from a few minutes to a few days. The
repetition of such efforts during a long time leads to a large problem.
b. once aware of their poor performance, top athletes try to find recovery
techniques.
Currently there are many scientific techniques available, which are taught to
athletes during training. However, the athletes appear to be less well prepared
mentally than physically. This constitutes another important problem: during
lengthy sport operations the psychological problems, such as lack of motivation,
bad humor, and team conflicts, appear to be essential, but take the most time for
recovery.
Since these lengthy sport trials seem to be very similar to extended spaceflights,
it seems important to know the real conditionsin which astronauts work, what they
think themselves about these conditions, and how they manage their tasks. It is also
important to learn what are their own strategiesfor coping with the resulting stress.
Then, it will be possible to help them to maintain their mental and physical fitness
during extended spaceflights,where periods of sustained work can suddenly occur.
3 38 G.GILLOT, N. KANE-TOURE, and S. MAHIDDINE
Under these conditions they have a need for coping and recovery techniques, such
as are now available to athletes.

Extended spaceflights seem to be similar to lengthy sport trials, in which top
athletes are stressed by confinement and are still asked to maintziin a high level of
performance, staving off fatigue and performance decrements. The athletes use
coping strategies and recovery techniques in order to compensate for unexpected
workoverload during sustained operation.
Astronauts probably experience similar conditions, and they may use similar
coping strategies and recovery techniques. Since sustained and continuous opera-
tion preferably affects the mental capabilities required for complex tasks, particular
attention should be paid to decrements of mental and psychological performance
and to techniques that could be used specifically for the recovery of a satisfactory
level of performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research program called “Physical and Mental Recovery Techniques” was supported by
a grant of the Human Factors Laboratory, ETAS-DAT Angers, French Ministry of Defense
(Contract number 468-503 1).
REFERENCES
1. Krueger, G.P. SustainedWork, Fatigue,Sleep Loss and Performance: A Review of the Issues. Work
and Stress. 3(2):129-141, 1989.
2. Gillot, G.Fntigue. Forme, Rkcupthtion et Techniquesde R k u p h t i o n Mentale et Physique dons
les kpreuves Sportives de Longue Durie, TREMPE terminal report, grant no. 468-5031. ETAS-
DAT, 1993.
3. Angus, R.G.. Helesgrave. R.J. Effects of Sleep on Sustained Cognitive Performance during a
Command and Control Simulation. Behaviour Research Methods Instruments and Computers,
1755-67, 1985.
4. Gillot. G..Durny, A. Evaluation of Psychomotor Capacities of French Soaring Pilots during a
Sustained Training Session, Communication presented to the XXIIth International Congress of
OSTIV, Uvalde. Texas, USA, 1991. In: Technical Soaring. Journal of tlie Soaring Societ). of
America and Organization Scientijique ef Technique du Vol b Voile 19(2):6244, 1995.
5. Gillot, G., Davenne, A. Sleep and Recovery of French Soaring Pilots during a SustainedTraining
Session. Communication presented to the XXllth International Congress of OSTTV. Uvalde,
Texas, USA, 1991. In: Technical Soaring, Journal of the Soaring Society of America arid
Organization Scientijique et Technique du Vol cf Voile 19(2):58-61. 1995.
6 . Volkov, V.M. ProcessesofRecovery insport. Ed. Revue Culture Physique& Sport, Moscou, 1977
(in Russian) French translation INSEP ed., Paris, 1980.
7. Volkov. V.M., Training and the Process of Recovey, Ed. INCP Smolensk, Russia 1991 (in
Russian). Unpublished French translation by Mahiddine. S., Belova, S., Gillot. G.,UFR-STAPS
Dijon. 1993.
8. Ganiushkin. A., Gillot. G. et al. Psychological Aspecu of Fatigue, in Gillot, G.. Papin. J.P. and
Volkov, V.M. Les Techniques de Rkcupkrution duns les Sports de Longue Duke. Proceedings du
Congres Internationalde Montceau-les-Mines,Universite de Bourgogne. UFR-STAPS, 1995.
9. Gillot. G., Volkov, V.M.. Eds. Sredstu Vosstunovleniyu v Sporte. Smilie, Smolensk, Russia (in
Russian, in press) French edition: Les Techniques de Rkcupkrution ensport. Mgot ed., Paris, 1994.
10. Gillot, G.. Papin. J.P., Volkov. V.M. Les Techniques de Ricupkration duns les Spons de Longue
Durie. Proceedings of the International Congress of Montceau-les-Mines, Ed. UniversitC de
Bourgogne, UFR-STAPS. 1995.
Chapter 20
BIOREGENERATION IN SPACE
Luz ian Wo I f
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
I1. Physiology of Chlorella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
A . Symbiosis of Chlorella and Paramecium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
B . Cultivation of Chlorella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
C. GrowthRate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
D . Maltose Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
E. Oxygen Roduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
111. The EXEMSI Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
A . Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
B . Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
C. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
IV. Further Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
A . Artificial Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
B . Tubular Photo-Bioreactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
C. MaltoseSeparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Copyright Q 1996 by JAI Press Inc.
AU rights of reproductionin any form reserved.
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
341
342 LUZIAN WOLF
1. INTRODUCTION
In the early 80s ESA started the development of the unmanned experimentplatform
EURECA. The spacecraft was designed to stay many months in low earth orbit and
to provide basic services like power supply and data telemetry for the experimental
facilities mounted on it. After retrieval and return to Earth by the American space
shuttle, experiments could be exchanged and EURECA could fly again. The
perspective of long duration missions led ESA in 1984 to initiate a technological
study of a regenerative system to support long duration biological experiments
on-board spacecraft like EURECA. This system would have to regenerate water,
oxygen, and food from the metabolic end products of the biological experiment.
The system had to be small in size, reliable, work fully automatic for up to one year,
and satisfy the needs of the biological experiment at all times.
Starting point for the development of a suitable concept was an idealized
three-compartment model of a natural ecosystem, consisting of a producer, a
consumer, and a decomposer (Figure 1): Photosynthetic organisms in the producer
compartment assimilate inorganic compounds from soil, water, and atmosphere
(e.g., water, CO,, NH;) and convert them with the help of light to organic materials
and oxygen. Consumers use these organic materials as food, digest the usable parts,
oxidize them partially into inorganic materials (e.g., water, CO,, urea), and excrete
them into soil and atmosphere. Decomposers (heterotrophic bacteria and fungi)
complete the catabolic processes by metabolizing waste products which are ex-
creted by consumers.
-
+
I-----,
I
(3
A-
+
PHOTOSYN.
PRODUCER
DECOMPOSER
WATER
Figure 1. Simplified three-compartment model of a natural ecosystem.

Bioregeneration in Space 343
It was quickly realized that the requirements of small size and long term
automatic operation put constraintson the achievablecomplexity and functionality
of such a system. Higher plants like wheat, potatoes, and vegetables, which produce
food of high nutritional quality, have been investigated in many laboratories around
the world for use in a space biological life support system.'" However, they had
to be excluded from the list of candidate photosynthetic producers, since the
technology required to seed, culture, and harvest higher plants automatically in
weightlessness was considered far too complex. Instead an aquatic species was
identified that appeared suitable as photosynthetic producer and whose culture and
control was expected to be manageable in a compact system: a maltose excreting
strain (241.80, GOttingen)'.* of the green alga Chlorella.
II. PHYSIOLOGY OF CHLORELLA

A. Symbiosis of Chlorella and Paramecium
Chforeffais a unicellular alga (chlorophycea)which occurs in freshwater ponds

and on wet soil. Algae have a diameter of 5-8 pm and are almost completely
occupied by a single green chloroplast,the photosynthetic engine of the cell. Strain
241.80 lives primarily in vacuoles inside the cytoplasrna of Paramecium bursaria,
which is a unicellular animal (ciliate) with a typical dimension of 200-300 pm,
occurring in many freshwater habitats.
Chforeffuand Paramecium together form a miniature two-compartmentecosys-
tem, in which Chforeffais the photosynthetic producer and Paramecium the
consumer. The algae assimilate CO, and water from the cytoplasm of Paramecium,
and convert these compounds with the help of sunlight into oxygen and carbohy-
drates, primarily maltose, which are excreted into the cytoplasm of Paramecium.
The latter organism then utilizes the carbohydrates as a source of carbon and energy
under formation of CO, and water, which can be assimilated again by the algae.
In our studies we have cultured Chlorella 241.80, isolated from its symbiotic
association with Paramecium, in a bioreactor as photosynthetic producer (Figure
2). All support and control functions,which are naturally provided by Paramecium,
are implemented by engineeredsystems which are linked to the bioreactor. The role
of Paramecium would in future be taken over by a biological experiment, which
requires oxygen and can utilize maltose as food source.
The use of maltose producing Chiorelfaleads to a simplification of the system
concept and presents a number of operational advantages:
1. Maltose can be recovered from the culture medium and purified by well
known processes like reverse osmosis and dialysis.
2. Maltose is a good carbon and energy source for many consumers. It is
catabolized completely into CO, and water, which can be recycled to the
producer compartment without further processing.
344 LUZIAN WOLF
NUTRIENTS NUTRIENTS
MALTOSE
+ 02
LIGHT, b
+
PHOTOSYN.
c02
PRODUCER 4 - CONSUMER
4
WASTE
+
WASTE
Figure 2. Partially closed artificial ecosystem consisting of consumer and photosyn-
thetic producer compartments.
3. Channeling fixed carbon and photosynthetic energy into maltose formation

reduces algae growth and multiplication rates, avoids the accumulation of
algae biomass and reduces the necessity of a decomposer compartment to
break up waste.
4. Continuous aquatic cultures of Chforelfuare much easier to automate than
continuous cultures of higher plants.
5. Chlorellu has a high specific production rate of oxygen and maltose, and a
high proliferation capacity.
B. Cultivation of Chlorella
Chlorellu 241.80, obtained from “Algensammlung Gottingen” in Germany, was

cultured in the bioreactor shown in Figure 3. The glass culture tube has a capacity
of 1000ml, inner diameter46 mm, length 650 mm. It is surrounded by a glassjacket
through which thermostated water is circulated for temperature control of the
culture. The bioreactor has a filtered gas inlet for aeration, a gas outlet, and a port
for sterile sampling and reagent introduction. For aeration sterilized air with 0.5%
CO, is introduced at a flow rate of 250 mlmin-’, which keeps the algae in
suspension.
Algae were maintained in a culture medium with the compositionshown in Table
1. Fresh medium was continuously added to the culture at a rate of 200 ml.day-’
(dilution rate 0.25 day-’). The temperature was controlled at 20 “C. Illumination
was provided by fluorescent tubes (OSRAM DULUX S 9W/41) giving an intensity
of 25 pE-m-2s-’ (1 Einstein E = 1 mol ofphotons) of photosyntheticactive radiation
at the culture surface. Under these conditions the culture reached a quasi steady
state with an average biomass concentration of 1.0 gel-’dry weight at pH 7.0.
M. gas outlet
,culture
figure 3. Airlift bioreactor.
Rates of growth, maltose excretion, and gas exchange were studied as a function
of medium pH, temperature, CO, concentration, and light intensity.
C. Growth Rate
Chforefla241.80was batch cultured under sterile conditions in 40-ml test tubes,

using the medium shown in Table 1 . Filter sterilized, moistened air with 0.5%CO,
was introduced at the bottom of the tubes at 60 mlmin-'. The tubes were incubated
at 23 "C,and illuminated with white fluorescent tubes (Philips TLD 18W /84) with
a light intensity of 20 pE.m-2s-'. Samples were taken at regular intervals, and
specific growth rates p were calculated from the increase in biomass concentration
X over time t:
p(t) = a In [X(t)]/a t
The growth rate as a function of pH is shown in Figure 4. There is no growth
below pH 5.2, a fast increase between pH 5.2 and 5.6, and a further slight increase
until pH 9. The maximum specific growth rate during exponential growth amounts
to 1.57 day-' = 1.80.10-5s-' =2.25 duplications.day-' at pH 8.5. Maximum biomass
yield was 1.4 gmol-' photons at a biomass concentration of 0.4 g4-I dry weight.
Growth at higher biomass concentrations was limited by light absorption through
Table 1. Culture Medium
ComDound H2 0 Concentration Unit
Macronutrients KN03 0 10.0
MgS04 7 0.20
CaCl2 2 0.07
FeS04 7 0.025
Na2EDTA 2 0.025
Na2HP04 12 0.50
Micronutrients H3BOJ 0 1 .oo
MnS04 1 1 .oo
ZnS04 7 1 .oo
cuso4 5 0.01
(NH4)6Mo7024 0.01
Vitamins vitamin B1 1 1.5
vitamin B12 0 3.7
Buffer MES or HEPES 1 00
specific growth rate ~1 [llday]

2.00
160
t
1.40
1.20
1 .oo 4- 'I
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00 t
4 5 6 7 8 9 PH
Figure4. Growth rateas a function of pH. Temperature 23 "C;biomass concentration

0.1 gl-'; illumination 2 0 pE.m-*.s-'.
346
auto-shading. Higher maximum growth rates are possible, because at a light

intensity of 20 pEm-2 s-' photosynthesis is not saturated.
D. Maltose Excretion
Suspensions of Chlorella 24 1.80 in 20 mM HEPES buffer (without minerals)
were monitored for 30days todetermine maltoseexcretion rates. Mineral starvation
was used for experimental reasons to prevent cell multiplication and favor maltose
excretion. Initial biomass concentrations were adjusted to 0.25 g.1-l dry weight to
avoid auto-shading. Other experimental conditions were the same as in the growth
rate experiments. In samples taken at regular intervals, maltose concentrations c,
were determined, and maltose excretion rates rm were calculated from the increase
in c, normalized to initial biomass concentration X (to):
r,(t) = 1 /X(t,).&,,(r)/ar
Highest maltose concentrations were reached at pH 6.0-6.5, where c, exceeded
6 g4-I after 20 days. The amount of maltose produced during this period was about
25x the initial algal biomass. Figure5 shows the maltose excretion rate as a function
of pH. Optimal maltose production occurs ar pH 6.4 and amounts to 2.5 g maltose
g maltose I g algae I day
day 0
day 5
day 10
5 6 7 PH
figure 5. Maltose excretion as a function of pH. Temperature 23 "C; biomass

concentration 0.25 gl-'; illumination 20 pE.rn-*.s-'.
348 LUZIAN WOLF
per g algae per day. Higher rates can probably be achieved, because at a light
intensity of 20 pE.m-2s-1photosynthesis is not saturated.
E. Oxygen Production
Oxygen concentration was measured with a Clark-typeoxygen electrode, which
formed the bottom of a 2-ml temperature controlled vessel (Hansatech). In this
vessel algae (1.Og.l-' dry weight) were incubated at pH 6.5 with additionsof sodium
bicarbonate (inorganic carbon concentration 1-2000 pmol.1-I) as a carbon source
for photosynthesis. The vessel was illuminated at intensities between 0 and 175
pE.m-2s-1. Oxygen production rates were calculated from the increase in oxygen
. concentration over time.
Oxygen production was nearly saturated at 2000 pmoH-' inorganic carbon (Figure
6). This carbon concentrationis present in water in equilibriumwith an air-1 % CO,
gas phase at pH 7.0. At this carbon concentration and a light intensity of 175
pE.m-2s-1 oxygen production is nearly saturated at a rate of 170 pmol.min-'.g-',
while 50% saturation of oxygen production is obtained at a light intensity of 40
pE.rn-,s-'.
02-production rate [pmoVmin/g]
120
100
80
60
40
20
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Total dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) [pmolll]
Figure 6. Oxygen production rate as a function of total dissolved inorganic carbon

concentration at three levels of illumination.Temperature 22 "C, pH 6.5.
111. T H E EXEMSI EXPERIMENT

A. Experimental Procedure
Bioreactor Rack
A 19-inch rack contained all items required to batch culture Chlorellu and to
monitor the progress of the culture (Figure 7). In the top compartment an Inverted
microscope (Olympus Model IMT), equipped with a Polaroid camera and used for
cell counts and checking on contamination of the cultures, was installed. In the
bottom compartment an airlift bioreactor, as described in Section I1 B, was
mounted. Atmospheric air from the EXEMSI module, aspirated by a small mem-
brane pump (KNF Miniport) at a flow rate adjustable between 100 and 500
mlmin-', was passed through a 0.2 pm filter. It was introduced into the bioreactor
Algae Bioreactor
Microscope
and pH electrode
I
iI Consumables
19-inch rack
Figure 7. Algae Bioreactor in 1 %inch rack in EXEMSI isolation facility. For explana-
tion see text.
350 LUZIAN WOLF
through a gas distribution tube (SCHO'lT, porosity 4) mounted in the bottom port.
After bubbling through the culture, the gas was returned through the gas outlet port
of the bioreactor to the EXEMSI module. Two fluorescenttubes (OSRAM DULUX
S 9W/41) illuminated the bioreactor surface with an intensity of about 20pEm%-'.
Temperature in the bioreactor was not controlled.
Bioreactor Preparation
The bioreactor was filled with 800 ml 10 mM MES buffer pH 6.0, and steam-
sterilized for 30 minutes at 121°C (2.0 bar). After cooling, filter-sterilized culture
medium concentrate was added to achieve the composition specified in Table 1.
The bioreactor was then mounted in the experiment rack.
Algae were harvested from the continuous stock culture and were placed in sterile
20-ml syringes, which were transferred to the EXEMSI facility and stored at 4 "C
for 5 weeks until the start of the experiment.
Cultivation and Measurements
On 11/10/92 the inoculum from one syringe was injected into the bioreactor
under sterile conditions. Illumination (20 pE.m-2s-' ) was turned on, and the air
flow rate set to 300 ml min-'. Samples were taken on day 0, day 1, and then every
second day until the end of the experiment, a total of 14 samples. In the 5-ml samples
the pH was measured. A cell counting (haematocytometer) slide was prepared, a
Polaroid photo was taken at 400x magnification, and the number of algae visible
on the photo (n) was counted. Prior to the experiment the volume visible on the
photo (V) had been determined to be 6.59.10-6 ml. The cell density (X) was
calculated from X = nN. The sample was checked microscopically for possible
contamination.
B. Results
The cell density (X) immediately after inoculation was 6.106 ce1ls.d-'. It then
decreased by 60% during the first 3 days to 2.5.106 ce1ls.d-', after which it
increased rapidly with a maximal growth rate of 1.3 duplications per day until
reaching asymptotically a value of 70.106cellsml-' after 20 days (Figure 8). This
corresponds to a biomass concentration of 1.1 g4-l dry weight. The pH increased
continuously from 6.0 to 8.4. Microscopic observations indicate that the culture
remained free of contamination with other microorganismsthroughout the experi-
ment. The CO, partial pressure (pC0,) in the EXEMSI laboratory module, from
which the air supplied to the bioreactor was aspirated, oscillated around 1 hPa,
corresponding to a CO, concentration of 0.1% at 1 bar (data supplied by DLR). The
temperature in the module, to which the bioreactor was exposed (without tempera-
ture control), oscillated between 25 and 28 "C.
1 Oe6 cells/ml
100 -
- -5 -_
0 days 7 14 21 28
pC02 thPal
3
2
1
0
o days 7 14 21 28
T t°C1
30 .. .
28
26
24
22
LU -
0 days 7 14 21 28
Figure 8. Results obtained with Algae Bioreaaor by EXEMSI crew. Panel 1 : Cell
density as a function of time. Panel 2: Medium pH as a function of time. Panel 3: C02
partial pressure in module air as a function of time. Panel 4: Temperature in module
as a function of time.
C. Discussion
The initial drop in cell density is a common observation in batch cultures (lag
phase), but the drop observed here was considerably higher (60%) than those
observed in experiments conducted in the laboratory, where cultures are routinely
inoculated with fresh samples obtained from a continuous stock culture.This initial
drop can be attributed to cell death in the inoculum caused by the storageconditions:
352 LUZIAN WOLF
5 weeks at 4 "C and little provision for gas exchange. The maximum growth rate
(1.3 duplications/day) and the biomass concentration after 20 days (1 . I gT' dry
weight) observed in this experiment are lower than those measured in laboratory
experiments, in which a maximum growth rate of 2.3 duplications/day and a
biomass concentration of 1.9 g4-l dry weight were achieved at pH 8.4 and a CO,
concentration of 0.5% in the supply air. This difference can be explained by the
relatively low average CO, concentration of 0.1% in the EXEMSI module. The
collected data show no evidence of a cumulative effect of the quasi-closed envi-
ronment on the Chlorella 241.80 batch culture, suggesting that there was no
evidence for accumulation of trace contaminants in the module atmosphere.
IV. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS

A. Artificial Ecosystem
In further development studies a partially closed two-compartment artificial

ecosystem, schematically presented in Figure 9, is employed. Maltose excreting
Chlorella241.80is cultured in the photosynthetic producer compartment (left panel
PROCESS MONITOR GAS ANALYZER

USER INTERFACE
PHOTOSYN. PRODUCEq
FigUre 9. Diagram of the SYMBIOSE bioregenerative life support system.

in Figure 9), and a biological experiment is housed in the consumer compartment

(right panel in Figure 9). The photosynthetic producer compartment features all
processes necessary to maintain a continuous algal culture over long periods of
time, to operate it as a CO, to 0, converter, to generate maltose and separate this
from the medium, and to control growth and photosynthetic activity of the culture
so as to match at all times the needs of the consumer.
The core component is a dedicated bioreactor for algal cultivation. Associated
with it are: a gasniquid phase separator; a circulation pump; an intensity-controlled
illumination system to provide photic energy for photosynthesis; a temperature
control system; a C 0 4 0 , gas analyzer to monitor the gas exchange requirements
of the consumer and the metabolic state of the photosynthetic producer; a liquid
storage and transfer system to supply the bioreactor with nutrients; a photometer
flow-through cell to monitor the pH of the culture and the biomass concentration;
a dehumidifier to remove excess water vapor from gas recycled to the consumer; a
maltose separator to isolate photosynthetically produced maltose from the culture
medium; a cell separator to remove excess biomass; some other storage vessels,
and a process control system with a user interface. Although detailed descriptions
of most of these components fall outside the scope of this paper, the bioreactor and
the maltose separator are described briefly.
B. Tubular Photo-Bioreactor
Efficient gas exchange poses a problem in weightlessness: bubbles do not rise

(in microgravity),and gas and liquid do not easily separate. Permeable membrane-
based gas exchangers currently cannot provide adequate gas transfer rates." This
problem has been overcome by the development of a tubular b i o t e a c t ~ r , ' ~ * ' ~ * ' ~
shown in Figure 10. It consists of 40 transparent glass tubes with an inner diameter
of 4 mm and a length of 2.5 m each. The tubes are folded 4 times to reduce the size
of the bioreactor.They are inserted in a base block, and sealed with O-rings between
the base block and a top plate. The base block containsnumerous ducts and elements
to direct culture liquid and gas to and from the tubes.
Culture liquid and gas, entering the base block through separate inlet ports, are
routed to 40 T-junction gasniquid mixers which are located at the inlet of each
transparent tube. The mixers provide an equal distribution of gas and liquid flow
in the tubes. The continuous injection of gas into the liquid stream produces a train
of gas and liquid plugs, which move through the transparent tubes. Gas exchange
can now take place over a free gasniquid interface, and culture liquid can be
illuminated very effectively through the transparent tubes. The gas and liquid plugs
from all tubes are collected in a collection duct, and leave the base block through
the outlet port to an external gasniquid separator and circulation pump. In initial
experiments this bioreactor has operated in a satisfactory way, prcducing biomass
concentrationsof 9 g4-l dry weight and maltose concentrations of 17 g-1-'.
3 54 LUZIAN WOLF
figure 10. Principle of the tubular photo-bioreactor.
C. Maltose Separator
This component is designed to separate maltose produced by the algae from the
culture liquid and to concentrate it 10-15-fold in order to permit its utilization for
food purposes. This process is implemented by means of reverse osmosis, and a
diagram is presented in Figure 11.
T
D
Figure 11. Design of the reverse osmosis maltose separator. 1 . top plate; 2. viton-
diaphragm; 3. spiral plate; 4. central screen; 5. support screen and reverse osmosis
membrane; 7. drainage plate; 8. O-ring.
A batch of 100 ml cell-free culture liquid is pumped into the space between
diaphragm and spiral plate. The space above the diaphragm is then pressurized
to 14 bar. Culture liquid and electrolytes permeate through the reverse osmosis
membrane (DDSFiltration HC50) and return to the culture. Maltose is retained
by the membrane. An external pump circulates the culture liquid in a spiral path
above the high pressure side of the membrane. A prototype has been tested with
culture liquid containing 7.5 g4-l maltose and 3.3 gT' KNO,. The maltose
concentration in the permeate was decreased to one third, while it reached a
concentration of 80-100 g.1-l in the concentrate. The KNO, concentration was
slightly decreased in the permeate, while in the concentrate it was increased to
5 g.1-1.
ESA has been studying a small-scale bioregenerative system to support long-term

biological experiments on-board spacecraft with oxygen, water, and food. Core
component of this system is a special photo-bioreactor in which a maltose-produc-
ing strain of the green alga Chforeflais cultivated. In initial experiments this
bioreactor has been tested, and the physiology of Chforeflahas been studied. The
optimal conditions for CO, to 0, conversion and maltose production have been
determined, and the possibility of controlling the culture so as to match the needs
of the consumer has been established.
A microgravity-compatiblephoto-bioreactor, and a maltose separator have been
developed and are functioning on the ground according to the design specifications.
Tests in weightlessness will have to be performed in the future. The components
are to be integrated to a complete bioregenerative life support system, which will
then be subjected to extensive testing.
The EXEMSI project afforded an opportunity to study the mutual influence
of a Chlorefla culture and real biological oxygen consumers, the four crew
members in the laboratory module of the isolation facility. Chforeffa241.80 was
batch cultured in an airlift bioreactor by the crew for 25 days with air aspirated
from the module. The crew members determined pH and cell density in samples
withdrawn from the culture. Microscopic observations showed no evidence of
contamination of the culture by other organisms. Growth rates were smaller than
those observed in laboratory conditions. This is attributed to the relatively low
average CO, concentration in the module atmosphere: 0.1% against 0.5% in the
air supply during the laboratory experiments. The data show no evidence of
trace contaminant accumulation in the Chforeffa culture. The results are encour-
aging and suggest the value of further simulated operational testing of the
system.
356 LUZIAN WOLF
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to Alan Dowson and Annette Pfeiffer for their efficient support in the
performance of the experiments, and wishes to thank the staff of the Brunel Institute of
Bioengineering (London) who have developed for ESA the maltose separator prototype.
REFERENCES
1. MacElroy, R.D. The Controlled Ecological Life Support System Research Program. Proceedings
of the AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference.Huntsville,paper no. AIAA-90-3730,
1990.
2. Gitelson. 1.1. et al. Life Support System with Autonomous Control Employing Plant Photosynthe-
sis. Acta Astronautica. 3633450, 1976.
3. Averner. M.. Karel, M., Radmer, R. Problems Associated with the Utilization of Algae in
Bioregenerative Life Support Systems. NASA Report CR 166615,1985.
4. Radmer, R., Behrens, B.. Amen, K., Gladue, R., Cox, J., Lieberman,D. Algal Culrure Studiesfor
CELSS, NASA Report CR 177448,1987.
5. MacElroy, R.D. Artificial Ecological Systems: Activities in the U.S.and Japan. Proceedings of
the CNEWDARA Mrkrhop on Arrificial Ecological Systems in Marseille. 1990. pp. 21-28.
6. Brkchignac, F. Towards bioregenerative life support systems, In: Proceedings IVrh European
Symposium on Life Sciences Research in Space (V. David, Ed.), ESA Publication Division, ESA
SP-307,1990, pp. 421429.
7. Reikr. W., WieEner, W. AutotrophicEukaryoticFreshwaterSymbionts.In: Encyclopedia of Planr
Physiology, vol. 17: Cellular interactions (H.F. Linskens and J. Heslop Harrison, Eds.), Springer,
BerliniHeidelberglNewYork 1984, pp. 59-74.
8. Ziesseniss, E. Symbiose-speufische Synrliese und Excretion von Maltose durch Chlorella spec.
aus Paramecium bursaria. Dissertation, Gem-August-Universitiit, Gottingen, Germany, 1982.
9. Wolf, L.. Brkchignac, F. Biological Life Support System Technology for Biological Experiments
in Space. Proceedings of the International Conference on Life Support and Biospherics.
Huntsville, AL, 1992.
10. Wolf, L. Physiological Pnramerers of Chlorella 241.80. ESA Technical Report, Ref. No. XA
93/159/LW, 1993.
11. Dornier, Environmenral Life Support Sysrem Technology Study, Final Report. ESA CR(P) 2432,
1987.
12. Pirt, SJ. et al. A Tubular Bioreactor for Photosynthetic Production of Biomass from Carbon
Dioxide: Design and Performance.Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 33B:35-
58. 1983.
13. Oguchi, M., Otsubo, K., Nina, K.. Shimada, A., Fujii, S.. Koyano, T., Miki. K. Closed and
Continuous Algae Cultivation System for Food Production and Gas Exchange in CELSS,
Advances in Space Research, 9(nr. 8):169-177, 1989.
14. Oguchi, M.. Nitta. K.. Otsubo, K.,Shimada, A,, Miyazaki. K.. Koyano. T., Miki, K. Application
of Tubular Photo-BioreactorSystem to Culture Spirulina for Gas Exchange and Food Production
in CELSS, Proceedings of the 40th Congress of the InternationalAstronautical Federation, paper
IAFnAA-89-577, 1989.
Chapter 2 1
0PERAT10NAL EVALU AT10N

OF THE EXEMSI PROJECT
J.R. Kass. F. Ellmers. and J . Schiemann
1. Introduction ................................... 358

I1. Goals and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
A. Operational Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
B . Mission Management Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
C. Decision Making and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
111. Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
A. Training Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
B . Joint Integrated Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
IV. Crewoperations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
A . Ground Control Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
B . Chambercrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
C. Housekeeping and Off-duty Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
D. Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
E. Time Allocation and Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
F. Long-Duration Effects on Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

Copyright 0 1% by JAI Press Inc .
.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISBN:1-55938-970-2
357
3 58 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and J. SCHIEMANN
V. Experiment Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369

A. Spaceflight Experiment Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
B. Routine Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
C. Telescience Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
VI. Evaluation Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
A. Observation of Crew Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
B. Debriefings, Meetings, and Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,371
VII. Conclusions and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,373
1. INTRODUCTION
Ground based simulations are a cost effective way to gather practical operational
experience for long-term manned missions as well as understanding of the human
problems involved in such missions. This was the goal of the EXEMSI project, an
extended ground-based simulation study carried out recently by the European
Space Agency (ESA). In this study four persons (three males and one female) were
confined for a period of 60 days in a space station type of environment. During
their confinement a number of experiments were performed, thus both increasing
the resemblance to the conditions existing on a space station, as well as yielding
potentially useful scientific data.
The EXEMSI mission was evaluated by an independent team from OHB-System,
Bremen, Germany. The team was recruited after the project commenced its opera-
tions with the Joint Integrated Simulation. The following aspects were examined:
1)operational scenario and approach; 2) operational implementation and execution;
and 3) efficiency of the crew support equipment.
In each area a set of relevant evaluation criteria were defined and applied in order
to focus the assessment in a structured and relevant manner. The evaluation was
based on the collection and evaluation of source data such as real-time observation,
interviews, activity logs, and debriefings.The real-time observation was performed
during five selected periods during the mission. Although the scientific goals form
an important part of such missions, these are not included in this evaluation of the
mission goals.
The analysis draws on past experience in manned ~paceflight,’***~ but looks
chiefly at the experience obtained from EXEMSI! In addition to presenting a
summary of the results of the evaluation of the operational benefits of EXEMSI,
this chapter looks to the future in terms of the next useful step to be carried out in
preparation for extended spaceflights. Recommendations for future long duration
mission simulations are summarized in ‘LessonsLearned’at theendofeach section.
These are based on the implied questions: 1) What have we done well and should
continue to do?, 2) What have we not done so well and should do differently in
future missions?
Operational Evaluation of EXEMl 359
II. GOALS AND ORGANIZATION
A. Operational Goals
The operational goals of EXEMSI and other simulations of a manned space

station laboratory mission are 1) to collect real-life experience which is to aid in
preparing for operations during future manned space missions; and 2) to evaluate
future operations management methods and techniques for testing and verification.
An important constraint in such a simulation is that these goals are to be achieved
in a cost-effective manner.
These goals require an environment that is similar to that of a manned space
station laboratory, so that lessons learned can be carried over to later manned space
missions. The physical infrastructure of the simulation facility employed in the
EXEMSI project is described in detail by Vaernes’ in an earlier chapter of this
volume.
In the EXEMSI project the operational goals were implemented by isolating a
crew of four persons for 60 days in the simulation facility. During the isolation
period they were closely observed and they carried out a number of experiments 1)
Core Experiments, which included physiological and psychological tests and
experiments with the goal of assessing effects of long-term confinementon the crew
members, and 2) Add-on Experiments, which were mainly technological projects
with relevance to long-duration missions.
B. Mission Management Organization

The Mission Management Organization for the EXEMSI project embodied three
levels:
Level 1: This highest level was essentially concerned with long-term

planning and defining the goals of the project. It was executed
by the Long Term Planning Office (LTPO) at ESA Headquarters
in Paris.
Level 2: This level was concerned with the implementationof the long-term
goals and plans of the project set on Level 1. It involved the short
term planning, management, and decision making. This was the
responsibility of the Mission Management Team. Its task was
divided in two activities: management and maintenance of the
facility operations, and management of the experiment program.
Level 3: This lowest level performed the everyday tasks of the project,
which consisted of the execution of the plans and decisions made
at Level 2. The personnel conducted the training tasks and prepara-
3 60 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and I. SCHIEMANN
tory activities before the isolation period, ground control during the
isolation period, and supervision of the experiment program.
Actually, the organizational structure turned out to be in a continuously evolving

state from the beginning right up to the end of the mission. These changes became
necessary because of the different levels of motivation and professional experience
'
and availability of invited participants. These changes sometimes resulted in

uncertainty as to who was responsible for a decision. Fortunately, the ground crew
team was so adaptable and co-operative that these organizationalshortcomingshad
negligible consequences for the success of the project.
The lesson learned from this experience is that the organization of a simulation
project, involving many persons and positions, should be well defined in advance,
taking into account motivation, professional experience and availability of the
participants. When possible, the assigned responsibilities should then be main-
tained for the duration of the mission.
C. Decision Making and Responsibilities
Ground-Crew Decision Making Process
In general the decision making process on the ground, although not elegant, did
in fact work adequately. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that the pre-deter-
mined organizational plan did not clearly enough define roles and processes.
Decisions affecting the crew, such as limitation of private communications and
letters, were not discussed adequately with the crew (Seeunder Communications).
Decision making was often hampered by unclear or inconsistent understanding
of the mission goals. Often when a decision was being debated or protested, there
was a debate as to what exactly the mission goals were. Had these goals been more
clearly defined prior to the mission and discussed with all parties, it would have
been easier to make more consistent decisions.
Lessons Learned
0 Ensure that clear mission guidelines and goals are set before the start of the
mission.
0 Provide a basis for decision making during the mission.
0 Ensure that scientific decisions are made or vetted by a neutral scientist, e.g.,
by a project scientist or a representative of the principal investigators.
0 Define and formalize the processing of Actions (requests for change or
replanning) to ensure that all parties concerned are informed and their a p
proval obtained when necessary.
I I I. PREPARAT1ON
A. Training Program
The training program, comprising a period of 8 weeks, consisted of three phases,

each representing a goal milestone (Table 1). It was prepared and conducted by the
ESA Astronauts Center, and generally followed the training concept planned for
the Columbus program, the European contribution to the planned international
Space Station.During the first two phases of the program all selected crew members
received the same training. After completion of the second phase they were
separated into chamber crew (three males and one female with two back-ups, one
male and one female) and ground control crew. The assignment was based on
observation of the selected candidates during the first two phases of training. After
assignment, the two back-ups received mission training with the chamber crew.
Lessons Learned
Careful selection of the crew with regard to positive group dynamics pays off
during a long-duration mission.
At least some of the training should be carried out under realistic operational
conditions, and should cover all phases of an experiment, from set-up to data
collection and storage, and close-down.
Include some experiments with equipment and procedures not trained in
depth, as could be the case in a real long-term mission.
Provide the ground control crew with training in ground operations, as well
as in chamber crew tasks.
B. Joint Integrated Simulation
The Joint Integrated Simulation proved to be a very useful exercise by providing

a realistic test environment for the operational activities to follow during the
mission. It forced the participants to follow the task protocol for a given functimal
Table 1. Crew Training

Week
TraininnPhase Milestone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Basic Training Category
Selection *
Special Training Function
Assignment * *
Mission Training Mission
Assignment * * * *
362 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and J.SCHIEMANN
objective right through from the beginning to the end, without any shortcuts and
using the actual interfaces. This was for the crew in many cases the first time that
an experiment was actually run through completely, including important closing
activities such as saving or transferring a file. The simulation provided a good
training environment and a first chance for chamber crew and ground control crew
to work together in a manner similar to their activities during the mission. For a
long duration mission, the importance of such a Joint Integrated Simulation cannot
be underestimated.
Lessons Learned
0 One or more Joint Integrated Simulations should be planned before a long-

duration mission.
0 Verification and acceptance of all systems should take place during this
simulation, after which point no changes be allowed unless the verification
and acceptance tests are repeated.
0 Training and testing of emergency procedures and equipment (e.g., masks)
should be carried out during normal training, and as a surprise during simu-
lations.
IV. CREW OPERATIONS

A. Ground Control Crew
Organization and Operation
The ground crew consisted of three persons (plus two back-ups), each repre-
senting a distinct function:
1. Crew InterfaceCoordinator (CIC), who was in charge of all communications

with the chamber crew (telephone, telefax, video).
2. PlannerReplanner, who was in charge of the daily schedule of the chamber
crew and any changes to be made in it.
3. Operations Supporter, who was responsible for the data handling system and
its operation.
The CIC worked a 25-hour shift (including 1-hour for hand-over), whereas the
PlannerReplanner and Operations Supporter worked 8-hour shifts with an overlap
of 1 hour for hand-over. The 8-hour shifts were chosen to ensure the presence of
an alert operator at all times for the critically important observational activities. The
long CIC shift was followed by 2 days off, and in spite of some prior uneasiness
about the suitability of this arrangement, it turned out to be quite comfortable.
Operational Evaluation of EXEMI 363
The functions, except those of the head of the team, were also rotated among the
ground control crew members. This had the advantage of giving each member a
wide range of experience, as well as reducing monotony.
Lessons Learned
0 The 8-hour shift system was found to be useful in ensuring the presence of an
alert operator at all times.
0 An individual person should be assigned to each area of responsibility.
0 Rotation of the functions among the ground control crew is beneficial in
spreading experience and reducing monotony.
0 The 25-hour shift for the CIC, which was adopted from the Russian space
program, was found to be a suitable scenario for future long-term missions.
8. Chamber Crew
Organization
Six different functions were defined for the chamber crew during the mission.
Since there were to be only 4 crew members, two of them had to perform two
functions. The six functions were:
1. Commander - chairman for briefings, status report communications.

2. Safety and Medical - handled by Commander (1).
3. Vice Commander - supporting the commander.
4. Systems and Hardware - handled by Vice Commander (3).
5. Data Management and Software.
6. Logistics.
Daily Crew Activities
The crew activity plan followed a general schedule, the fine detail of which
differed from day to day during the week. Each week the planned timeline more or
less repeated itself, with occasionally some special experiment planned, such as the
Tele-Science experiment. The typical workday schedule is presented in Table 2.
During the mission there were several technical problems. The crew members
assigned to the various tasks, such as maintenanceand repair, software,and medical
care, proved experts in thesejobs or rose to theoccasion. As also learned in Spacelab
missions, technical training and dexterity should be important criteria for crew
selection and assignment. For long-term missions it is recommended that criteria
for crew selection and assignment should include expertise in hardware, software,
and medical care.
3 64 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and 1. SCHIEMANN
Table 2. Schedule for Typical Working Day

Time Activities
07:OO Wake-up, Morning Sequence (questionnaires, basic physiol. tests)
07:45 Breakfast
08:30 Morning meeting
09 a0 Block I Experimentalwork (-3 hours)
11 :50 Workload questionnaire
12:oo Lunch
13:OO Block II Experimentalwork (-4-5 hours, incl. questionnaires, etc.)
15:30 Bio-signal recording, Psychosomatic complaint
17:OO Evening Status Meeting (varyingstart time depending on work)
19:oo Dinner / Cleaning/ Workload questionnaire
22:oo Evening Sequence (questionnaires, basic physiol. tests)
22:30 End of day
Experiment Program
The experiment program covered a number of disciplines.The distribution of the

experiments over the various disciplines is given in Table 3. The fields of physiol-
ogy, psychology, and psychophysiology covered the majority of the experiments.
These constituted the core experiments,aimed at assessing the effects of long-term
confinement and isolation. The others were add-on experiments, which had mainly
technological objectives relevant to long-duration missions, like contaminants,
food and resource management, and tele-science. The program was arranged in
such a way that it allowed the crew members to perform a variety of tasks.
Lessons Learned
0 Increase the complexity and variety of operations and introduce some unfa-
miliar tasks in order to reduce boredom.
Table 3. Distribution of Experiments

~~
Category of experiment nr. of experimenfs

Physiology 6
Psychology 7
Psychophysiology 6
Contamination 8
Food and Resources Management 2
Medical Telescience 1
0 Introduce planned contingencies and stress situations both for chamber crew
and ground control crew in order to allow them to developmeasured responses
and behavior, especially over the long duration.
0 Challenging and interesting tasks should be planned for the crew, when there
is evidence for loss of motivation, lowered morale or boredom which might
lead to errors in performance.
C. Housekeeping and Offduty Activities
General
General cleaning was planned and carried out twice weekly. Normal cleaning up
after meals was performed daily when necessary. At the start this was time
consuming,but after a few days a routine was established among the crew according
to personal preference. There were 6 daily cleaning/cooking tasks, which had not
been assigned in advance. Each crew member ticked off a task performed on a
weekly list. Each person tried to perform the same number of tasks by the end of
the week, an arrangement which worked out well.
Cleaning and Hygiene
Guidelinesand procedures for cleaning and hygiene were absent for this mission.
The condition of the modules after the mission demonstrated the consequencesof
this omission.
1ogisfics
It had been planned that trash would be egressed once a day. However, this
became several times daily, because the crew was unwilling to keep the dirty
underwear on board, as this would have required folding and stowing it.
Offduty Activities
Real-time TV and radio transmission were not allowed for the chamber crew.
Video, however, was permitted: The crew were permitted to request video films,
which were then up-linked from ground control for use during the off-duty time.
They were allowed a limited number of music cassettes on board, which were
extensively used. Video games were also available on board; these were also
extensively used and were logged for reference.
Physical exercise was not required or planned, in contrast to the custom during
space missions. The ergometer was the primary source of physical activities of the
crew. Its use was noted in the log, but other ergometer data (joules, torque,
hean-beat) were not recorded.
lessons Learned
0 Organization of housekeeping activities can be left to the crew. However,

guidelines and procedures for Cleaning and Hygiene should be provided and
trained before a mission.
0 On board provision of entertainment facilities, like music, video, and com-
puter games, promotes a feeling of well-being among the crew, and reduces
their feeling of isolation.
0 Physical exercise should be included in the daily schedule for scientific and
health purposes, and relevant parameters (physiological and contamination
measures) should be recorded.
0 A policy on removal of soiled clothes and trash should be planned, and
training, testing and simulation of these tasks should take place before the
mission.
D. Communications
Facilities
Video cameras were set up in the laboratory module, habitat module, kitchen,
bath, and storage module, so almost all comers of the isolation chamber were
covered.This allowed theground crew to see what was going on during the isolation
period.
Laboratory module and habitat module were each equipped with a ceiling-
mounted high fidelity microphone. This permitted following most of the conver-
sation of the crew members, thus allowing ground control to know what they were
doing at any time.
In addition there were telephone lines, a fax line, and an electronic mail link for
two-way communication.
Communication Policy
In order to increase isolation and contribute to professionalism and discipline,

rules were introduced during the mission setting limitations on communications
with outside parties, such as family and friends. It was intended that all communi-
cations would take place between the CIC and the chamber crew commander. Most
ground communications were indeed carried out through the CIC during the
isolation period.
Communication Practice
The policy was changed with time because it was experienced as being imprac-
tical. The chamber crew members began to communicate individually with ground
control and vice versa.
Operational Evaluation of EXEMI 367
In the field of experiment execution the enforced communication through the

CIC became a problem, because the latter did not possess the required expertise
and could only relay a message to and from the expert, a principal investigator.
After some time direct communication between the ground expert and the affected
crew member became the practice, as has also been thecase during ShuttldSpacelab
missions. In the end the limitation on the exchange of letters was only practiced for
outside parties, but not for the ground crew.
Lessons Learned
0 The communication policy should be defined before the start of the mission,
and should have the agreement of the crew. Changes during the mission should
be avoided, and only implemented with the understanding of the crew.
Introduction of new rules during the mission without adequate consultation
of the chamber crew causes confusion and unease among the latter.
0 Audio-visual coverage of the simulation should be available to all ground
operators, including principal investigators and evaluation teams. Video pan-
ning and remote zooming features will maximize the usefulness of this
communication.
0 The presence of microphones in habitat and laboratory modules was helpful
to the ground crew in obviating the need for frequent status reports from the
crew and queries from the ground.
The presence of several microphones in the laboratory module would provide
a more even coverage of this long module.
E. Time Allocation and Scheduling
Allocation of Time
The timeline had been prepared with sufficient pauses built in so that time lost
due to unforeseen events could be absorbed without much postponementof planned
events. This proved to be helpful during the Joint Integrated Simulation and the
first mission week.
After the first mission week, the timeline seemed to offer such large pauses and
breaks for the crew that it could e a d y be followed with very little rescheduling. A
contributingfactor was that for repetition of tasks the same time was allowed as for
the initial performance during the first mission week.
This relaxed time line planning allowed clockwork running of experiments, but
certainly did not resemble a real manned space mission, where the tight planning,
task changes, contingencies, and breakdowns usually force the crew to a much
longer workday than planned. This had some unwanted effects on long-term
effectiveness, which is discussed in the next section.
3 68 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and I.SCHIEMANN
Scheduling
The planned policy in EXEMSI was that scheduling would be carried out by the
ground personnel, so that the crew would not have to spend time on this. Although
in general this makes sense, the chamber crew often found other ways of performing
their tasks, e.g., by doing a task together instead of alone, or by performing tasks
in a sequence different from that planned on the ground. This should not be a
problem as long as it is made clear to the crew when the event time and the sequence
of events are of critical importance.
lessons Learned
0 Crew members should be allowed some flexibility in scheduling their tasks,

when this does not conflict with operational or scientific objectives.
0 This requires that the time schedule and the task sequencebe made transparent.
0 The time scheduleshould take intoaccount that the time required forrepetition
of tasks is usually less than that for first time performance.
F. Long-Duration Effects on Effectiveness
Living and working for long periods in space exposes humans to many trying
and difficult conditions: cramped quarters with limited privacy, primitive comforts,
isolation from the earth without any quick and easy way to return, boredom, loss
of morale, and the stress of continuously being exposed to danger without possi-
bility for escape. Notwithstanding these adverse conditions, the crew must work
effectively and efficiently with a minimum of operational errors during experimen-
tal work, or even no errors at all where it concerns a matter of life and death.
Under these common spaceflight conditions it has been observed that morale
exists for a certain length of time, but tends to decrease as the mission progresses!
Morale typically decreases towards the middle of a long-duration mission, when
the end is not yet in sight. Decreasing morale of an individual can affect that of the
entire crew. Gaging the state of morale of the individual and of the crew is of great
importance for ensuring their well-being and effectiveness, reducing operational
errors and safeguarding the mission.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to analyze this question properly within the
context of EXEMSI. After the first few days, which were somewhat busier and not
quite so efficient as the following weeks, the rest of the mission ran very much
within the timeline and actually a little ahead.
Interviewing the crew on the subject of errors gave the impression that there was
no increase in errors with the progress of time during the mission. The contrary was
true over the short term, as mentioned above, when the crew members became
adjusted to living and working in the closed environment.
The absence of an increased error rate over the long term is understandablefrom
the high degree of repetition in the experiments and daily tasks. Few novel
Operational Evaluation of EXEMl 3 69
experiments or complex operations were introduced during the mission, which

could have allowed observing and measuring loss of concentration or increase of
other error-contributing and effectiveness-reducing tendencies.
1essons 1earned
0 If long-term effects on effectiveness are to be observed and measured, the

crew member needs to be brought to the limits ofconcentration and efficiency.
0 This requires an activity plan that is so full and diverse throughout the mission
that the crew members are operating at the limits of their capacity, at least
periodically if not for the greater part of the mission.
0 Such diversity and heavy workload are, however, unsuitable when a certain
scientific objective, such as analysis of boredom by task repetition, is to be
studied.
V. EXPERIMENT OPERATION
A. Spaceflight Experiment Scenarios
The theme of experiment operations in manned spaceflight has been the subject
of many studies in recent years, especially with the prospect of a permanent manned
space station. Experiment operations in Spacelab entails a high degree of investi-
gator participation on the ground during the flight? The ability to observe the data
in real time, to make changes in the experiment protocol, and to deal with
contingencies when arising, has become routine for all participating investigators.
This can now be done in ground stations remote from the flight control center. This
way of operating experiments in space can be called ‘telescience.’
B. Routine Experiments
In general the experiment operations during the EXEMSI project were highly
repetitious and routine. Most experiments were performed on a daily basis, some
once a week, and some others several times daily. This was a rather unrealistic
simulation of a real space mission, and certainly did not provide a basis to measure
long term operational effects such as reduced proficiency and increased error rate.
Moreover, as mentioned before, there was little, if any, communication between
the crew and the investigators during the mission, and generally the investigators
had no access to the data during the mission.
Data communication between laboratory module and ground control room was
effected by a direct line between the main 486-computer in the module and the
ground computer. No computer network (LAN) was installed in order to keep costs
down. This was most unfortunate because it did not allow real-time or near-real-
time observation of the experimental data. There was no nominal procedure for
collecting and checking data on the ground. This was no major disadvantage for
the large bulk of psychologicalexperimentsthat consisted mainly of questionnaires.

However, it was a distinct disadvantage for experiments involving physical meas-
urements, where data for the entire mission could well lose value if a sub-optimal
setting of the measuring equipment were not detected in time during the data
collection.
The absence of real-time data certainly reduced the interest of the investigators
in following the mission and being present during the mission. It also did not
contribute to the motivation of the crew. Hearing from the investigatorhow the data
look and whether the results are interesting can certainly boost the morale on board
an orbiting spacecraft.
C. Telescience Experiment
It is evident that the continuous presence of the investigator in the control room
during a long-duration spaceflight is not practical. For this reason other methods
of performing telescience operations from the experimenter’shome base have been
conceived and studied.8s9During EXEMSI a successful telescience experiment was
carried out to demonstrate the possibility of performing such operations from an
investigator’s home base.
A tele-medicine experiment was performed with the aim of providing medical
diagnosis and therapeutic advice to a remote group of persons. The tele-medicine
assistant in the isolation chamber examined the patient, a fellow crew member, and
transmitted the observed symptoms to the tele-medicine center in Toulouse. There
the medical team made the diagnosis and prescribed the therapy, which the
tele-medicine assistant then had to implement. The medical data were transmitted
via satellite link between the EXEMSI facility in Cologne and the tele-medicine
center in Toulouse. The experiment was carried out four times during the isolation
period.
The main objectives of this experiment were to define the requirements for the
tele-medicine procedure between the crew in space and the medical team on the
ground, for the training required by the crew member selected as tele-medicine
assistant, and for the tele-medicine equipment (telecommunicationfacilities,medi-
cal diagnostic equipment, medicine chest).
The simulation scenario for the tele-medicine experiment was very realistic and
provided a good demonstration of the usefulness of telecommunication techniques
in bringing medical care to a remote group. This experience showed that tele-op-
erations experiments in general can be a useful technique for space experimenta-
tion. It is recommended that tele-operation experiments be performed in future
missions, where feasible in the form of real rather than simulated experiments.
Lessons Learned
0 In a future mission avoid too much repetition of the same experiment, and a
highly repetitious daily and weekly routine.
0 Make clear the unique significance of the presence and task of the crew for
the experiment al work.
0 Allow direct communicationand data transfer between investigatorsand crew,
which is stimulating and advantageous for both parties.
0 Include telescience operations in future missions, as this is also foreseen for
the international space station.
0 Encourage the presence of investigators during the pre- and post-mission
collection of baseline data.
VI. EVALUATION ASPECTS
A. Observation of Crew Activities
Direct observation of the crew activities was camed out by means of video and
audio coverage. This provided excellent and continuous coverage, not normally
available during a space mission. Nevertheless, this type of observation proved to
be an arduous task, because there was no arrangement whereby the crew members
could announce the start and the completion of a task.
In a future mission, especially where no direct coverage by audio, video or data
recording is provided, it would be desirable to require the crew members to
announce what task they are commencing and when they complete it, or else have
this information transmitted by computer.
All communications, other than those concerning private or medical matters,
should be availableto the observation room as well as to the control room. Aparallel
down-link of all on-board computer and crew PC commands should be available
in the observation room.
B. Debriefings, Meetings, and Interviews

There was a debriefing after the Joint Integrated Simulation, which did not
include the entire chamber crew. In addition, there was a series of debriefings after
the isolation period, attended by selected groups. Other interested parties could not
be present at these sessions, but could send in their questions.
This resulted in a rather large number of debriefing sessions, where the same
questions were asked over and over again to the crew members, who were patient
but not enthusiastic.The problem was that each group had the reasonable desire to
have the information as quickly as possible instead of having to wait for the
availability of the transcripts of these sessions.
Since the evaluation team could not attend any of the debriefings,they conducted
a series of very short interviews with the chamber crew and a few members of the
ground control team. The same problem as in the debriefings occurred in the case
of these meetings.
3 72 J.R. KASS, F. ELLMERS, and 1. SCHIEMANN
There were regular Mission Management meetings, and meetings between the
Mission Management and the ground control team, but the observation team did
not have access to these meetings. Fortunately, the minutes of these meetings were
made available to the evaluation team. They proved to be a valuable source of
information. However, problems and sensitive issues that were discussed were
often not documented, although these form an invaluable source of information. It
was left to the evaluation team members to attempt to glean as much information
as possible from the various parties, and then try to piece the somewhat conflicting
and disparate accounts together to form a picture of what actually happened. This
may sometimes have led to a biased view.
Lessons Learned
0 In future inissions the evaluation team should be integrated in the program

from the start.
0 The evaluation team should be present more frequently,and possibly be given
a more active role. This would allow the team to become more accepted as an
integral part of the program, and thus perform their task more effectively.
0 Integration of the team from the start will ensure that its presence is accepted
when there is a need for observation.
0 Plan structured and coordinated debriefingswith chamber crew, ground crew,
and other key personnel, preferably in a fixed hierarchical order.
VII. CONCLUSIONSAND SUMMARY

In general the EXEMSI project has proved to be a very successful mission. It has
demonstrated that it is indeed possible to perform a major and useful project in a
short time and on a moderate budget. In addition to achieving the scientific
objectives, this simulation project provided valuable experience in the training of
members of chamber crew and ground control crew for their tasks. It covered all
aspects of a mission from call for experiment proposals, crew selection and training,
integration and testing of the facility and its equipment, to daily monitoring and
managing of the mission, and finally post-isolation data collection and evaluation.
These and other activities were accomplished by a small team of experts in the
astoundingly short time of 8 months. What was lacking in manpower, time and
funds, was more than made up for by enthusiasm, expertise, team spirit, hard work
and long hours well beyond the call of duty of all those involved.
In addition to the scientific and technological objectives reached, many lessons
learned in this operation have been identified, which could help to improve future
missions. The experience has shown pitfalls to be avoided in future mission, as well
as points where some small increase in effort can make a considerable difference.
With the prospect of long-term manned spaceflights looming in the near future
and the ever increasing costs of such endeavors, the possibilities offered by running
Operational Evaluation of EXEMl 3 73
simulated missions on the ground should be seriously considered. Such simulations

permit the study of scientific and operational aspects of a space mission prior to its
actual implementation. A ground based simulation of an extended space mission
may be run at a fraction of the cost of an in-orbit precursor mission of even one-week
duration. However, careful planning of the simulation mission is required so that it
may yield relevant information and useful experience. Lessons learned from the
EXEMSI project should be taken into account in such planning. At the start clear
goals should be formulated, that can provide clear guidelines for building up the
infrastructure and defining the operational scenario.
A long duration mission simulating the conditions on the Russian space station
MIR could provide a valuable source of information and experience in preparing
for the MIR '95 Mission.
REFERENCES
1. Kass,J. R.. Atkov, 0. Yu., Alexandrov, A. P. Crew Ermrs: Soviet Approach. Doc. No.COSUP-
OHB-TR. OHB-System, 9 Dec. 1992 (Unpublished).
2. Kass,J. R.. Schafhauser, E. SovietAppmach to Trainingfor Long Term Space-flight,COKOTRider
1: WP-I, OHB-System. Bremen, Germany, January, 1992 (Unpublished).
3. Kass,J. R., Schafhauser, E., Viberti, C., Payload Related Crew Operations: From Past Missions
to Columbus. Proceedings of the Space & Sea Colloquium. Paris 24-26 September 1990, ESA
SP-312, 1991.
4. Kass. J. R.. Ellmen. F.. Schafhauser, E. EXEMSl '92 Simulation: Operations Evaluation Report.
Doc. No. OHB-I-EXEMSI-ER, OHB-System, 12 July, 1993 (Unpublished).
5. Vzmes, R J . EXEMSI: Description of Facilities, Organization, Crew Selection and Operational
Aspects. This volume, pp. 7-38.
6. Kass,J. R., Schafhauser. E. Crew Operations for Columbus: A Human Approach, DGLR Congress,
1 4 October; 1990. Friedrichsshafen DGLR Jahrbuch 1990 11.951-954.
7. Kass,J. R., Bruzek W., Probss Th., Thiimler, R., Vieville. Th., Vogel, H. European vestibular
experiments on the Spacelab-l mission: 2. Experimental equipment and methods. Experimental
Brain Research, W247-254. 1986.
8. Kass,J. R., Schafhauser, E. AMMl-UP Columbus Crew Activiry Simulation, Crew Evaluation
Report. OHB-System, Dec. 1992 (Unpublished).
9. Schafhauser, E.. Kass,J. R., Gibson, E. G. Automation & Tele-operations in Manned Spaceflight.
42nd Congress of the Internntionnl Astronautical Federation, October 5-11, 1991, Montreal.
Canada, IAF-IAA91-567.
Chapter 22
LESSONS LEARNED FROM

ISEMSI AND EXEMSI
Ragnar J . Vaernes
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
I1. Crew Selection and Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
A . ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
B . EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
I11. Trainingperiod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
A . ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
B . EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
IV. Isolation Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
A . ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
B . EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
V. Post-IsolationPeriod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
A . ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
B . EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
VI . Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
A . ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
B . EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Volume 5. pages 3754%
ISBN: 1-55938-970-2
375
3 76 RAGNAR J.VJRNES
VII. Crew Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387

A. ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
B. EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
VIII. Principal Investigators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
A. ISEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
B. EXEMSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
IX. Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
1. INTRODUCTION
With the completion of the second ESA-sponsored simulation study of life and
work in a space station, it should be useful to consider the lessons learned from
these two studies.In the first study, called ISEMSI (Isolation Study for the European
Manned Space Infrastructure), six males were isolated for 28 days in a hyperbaric
chamber at the Norwegian Underwater Technology Centre (NUTEC),Bergen, Norway
in 1990. During isolation the crew was evaluated by a series of psychological and
physiologicaltests, and carried out a number of space-relatedexperiments.The results
were published in volume 3 of Advances in Space Biology and Medicine.'
In the second study, called EXEMSI (Experimental Campaign for the European
Manned Space Infrastructure),a mixed crew of three males and one female were
isolated for 60 days in a space station-like facility at German Space Agency DLR,
Cologne in 1992. The second study was designed to approximate the future space
station situation more closely by the following points: 1. crew selection performed
by the European Astronauts Centre (EAC); 2. longer duration (60 days); mixed
(maldfemale) crew, more limited space with separate habitat, laboratory and
storage modules; 3. communication between crew and ground control center
similar to that for a space station. The results are published in this volume of
Advances in Space Biology and Medicine.
A description of facilities, organization, crew selection and operational aspects
for ISEMSI is presented in vol. 3 of this series? and for EXEMSI in chapter 2 of
the present ~ o l u m eIn
. ~the present chapter the lessons learned from these two
studies are discussed with conclusions and recommendations for future simulation
studies. For each topic evaluated, ISEMSI is discussed first, followed by a discus-
sion of the same topic for EXEMSI. An independent evaluation of the operational
aspects of EXEMSI is presented in chapter 2 1 of this volume?
11. CREW SELECTION AND ASSIGNMENT

A. ISEMSI
When eight medically and psychologically qualified candidates had been se-
lected, the assignment to chamber crew and ground control crew was made by ESA
Lessons Learned 3 77
Headquarters. The candidates had difficulty in accepting this assignment, since to

them it was strictly a management decision. The reason for this procedure was that
management wanted to ensure a suitable distribution of nationality, language and
education. The problem could have been avoided if the selection procedure would
have been clarified in writing to the candidates at the beginning of the selection
procedure.
B. EXEMSI
The points made here are mainly based on the final report of the European
Astronauts Center and on the Crew Reports. The assignment to chamber crew and
ground control crew again caused some difficulties. Earlier and more explicit
information on this part of the selection process would have been appreciated,
particularly that criteria, other than those mentioned in the information provided to
the candidates, were used. Moreover, the male crew members felt that the assign-
ment procedure favored the female candidates. They understood that 2 of the 6
preselected males (one left early during training) had already been designated for
the ground control crew before training had started. This could have had a negative
psychological impact on some crew members with possible operational implica-
tions. One ground control crew member expressed the opinion that the role
assignment should have occurred before training, as this would have benefited the
training.
One of the 10 selected crew members left the project after 6 weeks. From a critical
look at the selection procedures followed, it appears that nothing could have been
done to predict this. In future it should be made clear to applicants that the selection
is never ‘final’ and that at any moment until the start of isolation a candidate can
be selected out for lack of motivation, skill, or compatibility with team members
or project objectives.
While judging the selection procedure to have been valid, Fassbender (DLR,
Hamburg) recommends that in future an ESA official with knowledge about the
function requirements be included in the psychological selection board, as is
customary for astronaut selection. This is particularly important for verification of
professional motivation. He also points out that evaluation of social competence
and leadership competence requires group exercises conducted by an experienced
assessment center. Such an assessment center, developed by DLR, proved its
usefulness in the EXEMSI selection procedure. However, final assignment should
then await the evaluation of social skills and group acceptance in this center, which
also means that more candidates should be admitted to this evaluation than can be
placed in the chamber and ground crew. It is also advisable to balance the sexes of
the candidates for these positions.
It should be pointed out that the evaluation by the assessmentcenter was preceded
by the psychological selection testing general aptitude and personality aspects, and
followed by special psychological training on group and individual level.
3 78 RAGNAR J.VARNES
111. TRAINING PERIOD

A. ISEMSI
The training period of 3 weeks proved to be too short to provide training for the
36 experiments, medical examinations, and establishment of baseline values. A
better sequence would have been: 1. medical examinations, 2. operational training,
and 3. experiment training, concluded by a short rehearsal on operational aspects
and a short final medical check.
A 5-day period of operational training was concluded with a 24-h ‘dry run’. The
‘dry-run’should have been performed earlier, so that logistic problems could have
been dealt with. It should also have been longer, because more problems were
discovered when procedures were carried out for the first time during isolation.
Interference between experiments (noise, EMC, power needs) should also have
been studied before isolation, which would have avoided some problems during
isolation. In this respect, there should have been criteria for postponing the start of
isolation (a ‘go-no go’ check list) in case of residual unresolved problems.
B. EXEMSI
The length of 2 months was adequate, but the division in Basic Training,
Specialized Training and Mission Training was not effective. There was overlap
between the first two parts, and specialized mission training (e.g.. communications
and emergencies for ground crew; computer hardware and software for the crew
member responsible for these) was lacking.
The crew members felt that theory and procedures of the 30 experiments were
sufficiently taught, but that practical training was insufficient. Equipment, includ-
ing some software, was installed too late in the training period. Integrated simula-
tions and specific operational training for the ground crew were lacking. The
program could have been more intensive: after the first week with a busy lecture
schedule, the following weeks had frequent vacant hours with occasional bursts of
heavy work. The last two weeks were very crowded.
The crew members made the following suggestions:
Two months of training is sufficient,if the schedule is optimized and adhered

to;
Assignment to chamber and ground crew should be made early in the training
period in order to allow more time for specialized training;
The lectures on experiments and systems are very useful;
Regard the chamber crew members as co-investigators;
Practical training should begin as early as possible, requiring that the equip-
ment must be available and installed at the start of the training period;
For each crew function there should be specialized training;
Lessons Learned 379
0 Several integrated ‘dry runs’ are required in order to find problems and solve
them before start of isolation.
IV. ISOLATION PERIOD
A. ISEMSI
Most of the experimentswere successfullyperformed, making the isolation phase

a success. However, a number of lessons were learnt on the operational side:
1. Rescheduling was continuously needed during the isolation period, because

exact duration of most experiments was not known, generally insufficient
time had been allotted for meals, briefings, and technical contingencies.
2. Crew role in experiments had not been properly defined. Were they to be
passive operators of equipment, or were they to be active participants with
the principal investigator, suggesting and jointly deciding about changes.
The principal investigators had different opinions on this in the absence of
a central directive, which led to problems in their relations with the crew.
3. At the start of isolation no system operation tasks had been assigned to
members of the crew, other than the position of commander. The crew
devised their own distribution of such tasks, to which they adhered success-
fully during isolation. In the absence of a formal specification of the duties
of the commander, it was never clear whether he had any power of decision,
or whether he was merely the communication channel between chamber
crew and ground control.
4. Some experimentswere to be performed after dinner, which restricted social
activities that would have strengthened the group.
5. Physical exercise had not been scheduled.With some crew members desiring
more exercise than others, this caused some disturbances.
6. The table in the laboratory module could seat only five persons, which caused
problems for joint meals and group meetings.
7. The habitability and ergonomy of the isolation facility were inadequate in
several respects, e.g.,: 1. collection of the urine samples was unpractical and
unhygienic (was later changed and simplified); 2. inadequate prior calibra-
tion of the contamination monitoring equipment inside the chamber womed
the crew. Accurate, on-line monitoring of environmental parameters should
be available to the crew.
B. EXEMSI
Crew and management reports (DLR and ESA) have been used in this evaluation
of scenario, crew operations, and facility design.
3 80 RAGNAR J.VARNES
Scenario
The Operations Plan contained 14 objectives.The objectives aimed at simulating

a space mission sometimes conflicted with those aimed at satisfying requirements
of the scientific activities. To always find the right balance between the various
objectives was at the same time challenging and complicated. These conflicts
created some confusion among the crew. The Operations Plan referred to a study
of long-term ‘confinement’,but nearly all other ESAKTPO literature cited ‘isola-
tion’ as the main objective. One crew member felt that the division in scientific,
operational, simulation,and technological objectives provided a bias toward simu-
lation of a long-term space mission, rather than a study of the effects of isolation
and confinement.
Crew Operations
The high motivation of both crews had a very positive effect. The chamber crew
reported that having such a dedicated ground crew was essential to the success of
the mission. They felt that their questions were always immediately taken care of
by ground control; delays being due to unavailability of principal investigators or
other external persons. The evening reports were useful as a summary of all events
of the day; being stored on the harddisk of the main computer inside the chamber,
information received from outside could always be retrieved later if required.
Chamber crew members shared all housekeeping tasks on a rota of their own
design: cleaning of dishes, dining table, kitchen, and toilet once a day; cleaning of
entire chamber on Saturdays.There was a sufficient supply of clothes and towels.
Some articles were prewashed to avoid allergic reactions, but some shorts were not
and caused an allergic reaction in one crew member.
In view of problems caused by the high workload during ISEMSI, care had been
taken to provide a lower and better distributed workload. The crew felt that this was
successful, and that they had a considerableamount of free time, both in individual
breaks on workdays and together on weekends. Busy days were Fridays in October
when the Telemedicine sessions were performed.
Before entering the chamber it was very difficult for the chamber crew to
understand what they would do with the free weekends. However, those proved to
be very necessary for relaxation and generating energy for the next workweek. As
in normal life, the crew began to look forward to the free weekends. The crew
member, responsible for maintenance and repair, had a particularly high workload
on some occasions (breakdown of water system, taking two free days and much
creativity for repair; an afternoon of telerepair near the end of isolation).
The crew felt that the entire isolation period ran very smoothly, and afterwards
they realized that they had all been very careful in their behavior towards each other.
Instead of arguing about a problem, they gave it extra thought. During and after
meals there were many animated discussions about topics ranging from Einstein’s
Lessons Learned 381
relativity theory to Dutch oysters. This proved to be a good way of letting off steam
and avoiding hurtful arguments.
Facility Design
Habitat Module: The Life Support System proved capable of quickly (circa
30 min) removing humidity from showers and odors from cooking. Habitat tem-
perature (controlled externally) took 24 hours to stabilize, making it impossible to
have a lower temperature at night than during the day. Moreover, there was a large
temperature gradient between floor and ceiling in the habitat module, causing cold
feet.
The galley was well designed for the small space available and offered good
accessibilityto all items. It was well equipped with hot plates, oven and microwave
oven and for storageof frequentlyused food. The untreated wood floor was difficult
to clean. The bathroom offered adequatespace for showers,other sanitary activities,
and storage. Doors on each side, instead of a shower curtain, would have been
preferable.
Having been designed as a diving chamber, some points were unsuitable: several
unused doors occupied space; sharp edges on metal beds and table legs caused
minor injuries; lighting was insufficient and was externally controlled. During
meals the crew could be comfortably seated at the table, unlike the situation during
ISEMSI.
Laboratory Module. Temperaturecould be changed within minutes by means

of a powerful airconditioner, to lower the temperature at night and during physical
exercise. However, the cold air being blown out along the racks on one side of the
module created a draft, which was uncomfortable during experimentsrequiring the
crew to work shirtless.The draft should have been directed towards ceiling or floor.
The rack-configuration was functional, but racks should have been better adapted
to the various types of equipment. The retractable tables in two racks would have
been useful in other racks. Loose equipment, such as chairs, bed, scales and exercise
bike, had to be moved frequently in order to provide access to racks.
Sleeping. The crew chose not to sleep all four in the habitat module (as
provided for), but to have two sleep in the laboratory module. The reasons were:
stuffy atmosphere and rising temperature; getting into and out of the top bunks was
awkward; the space was crowded during preparation for the night. An advantage
of separate sleeping was that the crew members could have two different bedtimes.
Water use. Consumption of water for personal hygiene and dish washing was
computer-logged by each person by means of a personal key. This system worked
fairly well, although water supply was cut off after incorrect operation of the key.
Breakdown of a flow sensor in the sanitary facility led to disruption of the cold
water supply for the rest of the mission. This problem was solved externally by
382 RAGNAR J. VBRNES
adding cold water to the hot water tank. This incident indicates that more tools and
spare parts should be provided to the crew for repairs.
Ground Control Center. Several comments were made by one of the ground
control crew members after the mission:
1. The offices of the Crew Interface Coordinator (CIC) and the Planner/
Replanner should have been exchanged, since access to the latter was
difficult when the CIC office was closed for operational reasons;
2. With only one external phone line, it was impossibleafter 6 pm to call outside
the isolation facility when that line was busy;
3. There should have been a microphone in the CIC office, so the CIC (the only
contact point for the chamber crew) would not have to go to the Plannerme-
planner’s oftice during a phone breakdown to communicate with the cham-
ber crew;
4. The printer should have been connected to the various computers in a
network, and a photocopier should have been on site;
5. The computer link between chamber and ground control was inefficient and
unreliable;
6. More training on the different video/audio connections between various
rooms and the chamber should have been provided;
7. All equipment manuals should be in English.
Data Handling System. The mission was heavily dependent on the use of
information technology, but software reliability was not always adequate. The
information technology support and the laptop computers supplied to the chamber
crew were greatly appreciated. However, the following comments were made by
the crew members:
1. A laptop computer for the ground control crew to log experimental results
would be helpful, particularly, if it is subsequently possible to merge the
recorded data into the timeline-based CIC log.
2. Better video routing and mixing would ease telescience and telerepair
operations. More headsets are needed for ground control operations.
3. Careful thought should be given to the information technology implemented
in a mission of this sort, so as to reinforce the mission philosophy. E.g.,
without fax or external telephone lines there could be no argument about
communication rules for the chamber crew;
4. In general, the ground crew felt that greater efficiency could be obtained by
providing an Integrated Control Station for mission control, based on the
EXEMSI experience.
V. POST-ISOLATION PERIOD
A. ISEMSl
The post-isolation period lasted 5 days and comprised the following activities:
1. press conference; 2. medical examination; 3. group debriefing; 4.individual
debriefing; 5. post-isolation testing. Like the training period, this post-isolation
period should have been longer. Especially during the first three post-isolation days
the workload for the chamber crew members was too high. Scheduling problems
persisted throughout the post-isolation period. .
The motivating effect of the interest of the media was quite similar to that after
return from a spaceflight. Psychologically this is an important boost for the crew
after two difficult periods: the boring final stage of pre-mission training, and the
final stage of the mission. On the other hand, media exposure during training can
disturb the training program, and after the mission some crew members may not
yet be mentally prepared to cope with being in the limelight.
B. EXEMSI
The post-isolation period, organized by Management in close cooperation with

the two crews, lasted 15 days. It comprised: 1. baseline datacollection, 2. individual
and group debriefing, 3. data management and documentation collection, 4.
public-relations events.
Scheduling, managed with Microsoft Project as during isolation, presented no
problems. Baseline data collection, planned for 3 days, was completed in 2 days,
allowing the team a free Sunday. Although strenuous for the chamber crew, the
post-isolation period seemed to require less effort than the pre-isolation period,
probably owing to the routine acquired in the preceding 60 days and to the desire
to finish as soon as possible and relax. The schedule included many interviews and
psychological debriefing with the various investigators and with management.
With more cooperation between the various teams, the number of interviews could
probably have been reduced by consolidation.
The second post-isolation week was less tightly organized, and included the press
conference (which could not be held on the day of exit due to the ESA ministerial
conference) and various activities related to mission ‘shutdown.’The ground crew
selected, prepared, and packaged documentation kits for each principal investiga-
tor; extracted events, schedules, actions, and communications from the database;
packaged documentation for Mission Management;catalogued food; and analyzed
video and photographic material. During this week the chamber crew was to have
written a joint report with individual statements attached. This was not done,
because they did not relish repeating once again everything discussed during the
numerous debriefings, and each of them had other tasks to carry out. One crew
member reported that at the end of isolation both crews found it difficult to brace
themselves for the post-isolation activities.
3 84 RAGNAR J. VkRNES
VI. MANAGEMENT
A. ISEMSI
Although the objectives of ISEMSI were to be limited to the study of the effects
of long-duration isolation and confinement, several other issues had to be given
some consideration at various points of the study: 1. Crew selection and assignment;
2. Crew training; 3. Crew role and organization; 4. Operations; and 5. Habitabil-
i ty/Ergonomics.
Lack of resources made it impossible to achieve a proper simulation of space-
relevant conditions; often unsuitable compromises were adopted. Ways should be
found to avoid this in future studies.
The 5-member Scientific Committeeshould have played a more central role from
the beginning in the following ways:
1. The committee should have visited each principal investigator during the
planning period, and organized meetings for a thorough discussion of
procedures, time-lines and interface agreements;
2. The committee should have been directly reporting to ESA in view of the
heavy involvement of ESA-related projects;
3. The committee should have been in full-timeresidence at NUTEC during all
phases of the project, working closely with the Logistic Manager in the
mobilization phase, the crew and principal investigators in the training
period, with ground crew, Plannerhteplanner and principal investigators in
the isolation phase, and daily reporting to Management.
B. EXEMSI
This section is based on reports from crew, DLR and EXEMSI management, and
on personal interviews.
EXEMSI Management
EXEMSI involved cooperation between several different organizations with

different interests, e.g., DLR as prime contractor responsible for the facility,
European Astronauts Center (EAC) responsible for crew selection, principal inves-
tigators each responsible for a particular experiment (based on an Experiment
Interface Agreement with ESA). This complex situation led to several problems:
1. Principal investigators: their contribution depended on their motivation and

on their willingness to cooperate with other investigators. The Scientific
Committee, which was to oversee the experimental program, was unable to
do so satisfactorily.This made the taskof the Project Scientist more difficult;
Lessons Learned 385
2. Contractual problems: the contracts between crew and DLR were unclear on
matters of medical insurance, financial compensation,etc. This caused much
discussion that could have been avoided;
3. Insufficient resources in finance and manpower: although typically only 113
of the budgeted amounts were made available, serious damage to the project
was avoided by the great efforts of all major participants.
Adherence to the project schedule and its milestones was excellent throughout
the project. Certain subtasks, such as experiment integration,suffered delays, which
affected other subtasks like crew training. However, a concerted effort of all
participants prevented major project delays. This is a clear sign of the excellent
spirit and motivation of the project personnel.
Mission Management Organization
With the start of the training phase different responsibilities, functions and
assignments had to be established. This and the arrival of the crew necessitated a
transition from the early management to the Mission Management Organization
(MMO), which included both ESA and DLR. It became fully operational during
the Joint Integrated Simulation (the ‘Dry-Run’), which provided valuable experi-
ence that was incorporated without problem. The crew also felt that the organiza-
tional structure for EXEMSI was clear and sensible as implemented at the start of
isolation. However, in the course of the isolation MMO had to evolve. In weeks 1
and 2, the most hectic weeks of the isolation period, the members of MMO spent
much time in ground control, which made thecrew remark “there were more Chiefs
than Indians in ground control.”
The main aspects of the evolution of MMO are summarized here, divided in
positive and negative developments.Positive developments were:
1. Separation of system and experiment operations was successfully imple-
mented, which permitted spending the limited resources with the best
expertise.
2. The Crew Surgeon was made to report directly to the Mission Manager,
which overcame the problem of interference of medical confidentialitywith
decision making;
3. The ScientificActivity Coordinator (SCAC) was also made to report directly
to the Mission Manager. This allowed the SCAC to retain oversight of the
experimental activities and fulfill his obligations towards the principal
investigators, while benefitting from the ground crew’s first hand knowledge
of problems with experimentsand continuous availability.
Negative developments were:
1. The functions of the Experimental Program Execution Manager (EPEM) and
the Crew Activity Coordinator (MAC) could not be clearly separated with
386 RACNAR J. VARNES
the result that the mission was biased towards satisfying the chamber and
ground crews, rather than the scientific and mission objectives;
2. The strong links between ground crew and chamber crew had the negative
consequences that the ground crew did not always recognize the mission
objectives and ‘protected’the chamber crew against (sometimes unpopular)
management decisions;
3. Merging of separate functions of the ground crew (Crew Interface Coordi-
nator, PlannerReplanner, Support) made it sometimes difficult to oversee
‘who is doing what’ in ground control;
4. Ground control acquired too many tasks, which should have been delegated
to other participants;
5. The facility operations function was substantially degraded mainly due to
lack of manpower;
6. The project safety function, except that of the crew surgeon, could not be
implemented appropriately, with the result that the ‘independent’ safety
function did not have sufficient authority.
Some of these organizational changes saved time and were practical, but due to
lack of information they caused confusion among other key personnel in the project,
although this never seriously jeopardized the success of the mission. One crew
member made the following comment in his report: 1) In high technology industry
a manager usually has five persons reporting to him directly. With the commander
and four ground crew reporting upwards, only one management layer should be
necessary below the Project Manager,2) ‘Oneon one’layersof management should
be avoided, but with an EXAC and EPEM such a situation existed.
Crew comments
Members of the ground crew felt being distracted from their primary tasks due
to time and effort needed to maintain the software,especially during the early weeks
of isolation. They recommend that future ground crews should contain a software
specialist, and that the system should be thoroughly tested in the operational
environment beforehand. The chamber crew felt that independence of the Crew
Surgeon was essential and successful, and that an independent Safety Authority is
also essential.
The chamber crew felt that the project organization was inefficient:
1. Levels of authority and responsibility should have been better defined and
decision-making points better identified. The three-level structure did not
operate well;
2. Level 1, responsible for defining mission objectives and mission scenario,
provided objectives that were too general and insufficient criteria for fulfill-
ment of the responsibilities delegated to level 2;
3. Level 2, responsible for establishing operational requirements based on

objectives defined at level 1, disregarded some basic aspects of fundamental
importance for credibility and relevance of the project. Some links were
missing between levels 1 and 2, and too much was left to level 2;
4. Level 3, responsible for ensuring that scientificand operational requirements
were met to the best extent possible, encountered difficulties when require-
ments coming from level 2 were inconsistent with scientific requirements.
The commander stated in his final report that communication rules were unclear
to the crew at the time of entry, causing later difficulties. The restrictions on private
use of phone and fax were never explained, an example of the definition problems.
He recommended that in future space station simulations the communication rules
for spaceflights should be used. He also mentions the problem over ‘trash-out’rules:
these were set after the beginning of isolation. Once inside, additional rules look
like special ‘torture’to the crew.
VII. CREW FUNCTION

A. ISEMSI
Ground Crew
The most important function for mission success was that of Crew Interface
Coordinator (CIC). The function rotated between three ground crew members.
Another function was that of PlannerReplanner, who kept the daily schedule of the
chamber crew. The CIC served for 25 h (active duty from 8:OO am to 10:30 pm;
after agreement with the Commander he could then retire while remaining on call);
then he was off duty for 23 hrs; followed by 9 hrs as PlannerReplanner; then 16
hrs off duty again. This schedule functioned well during the 4-week isolation
period.
Assignment. The three ground crew members should have been assigned at the
start, so they had this as their prime motivation for participating in the study. Only
the member from the European Astronauts Center (EAC) had this background; the
other two members were chamber crew back-ups. As in deep diving and space
missions, persons who are in voice communication with an isolated crew must be
aware of the communicationproblems and conflicts which may occur. This requires
proper training, which the three ground crew members did not have, so they had to
learn by trial-and-error. Another problem was the lacking definition of the CIC role
boundaries and the absence of written manuals and procedures and an updated
record of agreements and day-by-day changes.
Training. The ground crew members should have received special CIC training
in addition to, and in parallel with, the experimental training together with the
388 RACNAR J. VJRNES
chamber crew. This should have included communication training (hardware and
use of NATOACAO alphabet). Lack of special training and of a CIC manual
explains the different working styles between the CIC from EAC and the other two
CICs. For the latter two there was also a motivation problem in not having been
selected for the chamber crew. One of them left after one week of the isolation
period.
Communication. Lack of established procedures caused some uncertainty

concerning communication procedure in the first week of isolation. The rule was
that the CIC should involve PlannerReplanner and Scientific Coordinator in
deciding about an experimental matter. The last official was often unavailable (not
on shift duty), the CIC then had to bypass him and contact the principal investigator.
There should at all times be on-duty in ground control a team consisting of CIC,
PlannerReplanner and Scientific Coordinator. Since the CIC was to be the crew
contact-person,the chamber superintendent was instructed not to come on the line
when a chamber crew member called. Operative personnel would take over
communication with the chamber only in an emergency situation or when the CIC
was out of the control room.
B. EXEMSI
This section is based on crew reports, post-isolation interviews, and inputs from
EXEMSI Project Management.
General Approach
The chamber and ground crew were to form a homogeneousteam with a common
knowledge of chamber systems and experimental program, regardless of final
assignment of each subject. This would ease the task of the chamber crew. The
drawback was that the two crews formed a close relationship during their joint
training, which they attempted to maintain during isolation. This led to what
amounted to an isolation of nine instead of four persons, to a protective behavior
towards the chamber crew by the ground crew, and to some interference with the
mission organization.
Cultural Aspects
No problems due to cultural or language differences during isolation were

reported for either crew. All crew members spoke English fluently and were able
to communicate well with each other. The cultural diversity was found to have a
positive effect on the social climate by providing topics of conversation.
Language problems, both during training and isolation, were reported for the
interaction of the crew with the DLR project team, who were less fluent in English.
A dictionary was developed to overcome problems in communication about tech-
nical matters. If in an emergency DLR would have taken over control of the facility,
this could provide a dangerous situation (for EXEMSI there was no problem,
because the Commander was a native German speaker).
Mixed Crew
ESA policy is that ‘normally’a mixed crew will be used for manned missions.
The scientific community agreed to apply this to EXEMSI, and the psychologists
among the principal investigators recommended the gender composition of the
crew. It was a positive experience to find that male and female crew members
worked together well for an extended period under difficult conditions without any
significant problems.
All chamber crew members expressedpositive feelingson this topic. Two of them
commented that reaching an agreement about any sexual activities is an indispen-
sable condition for the success of a mixed crew. They emphasized the importance
of the fact that their female colleague was married and not ‘sexuallyprovocative.’
No romantic feelings or sexual interaction between crew members during isolation
were reported.
When asked how they thought the participation of a woman influenced the
‘atmosphere’ in the group, the crew members replied that men are more likely to
behave polite and ‘civilized’in the presence of women, and that mixed crews make
the situation more ‘normal.’Thewoman was characterized as a ‘peacemaker,’who
reduced competition and conflicts between the men. She was also characterized as
a warm and caring ‘motherly’person, e.g., she made the men sit down for meals.
The woman commented that she filled the role that she felt was expected of her.
Relations within Chamber Crew
Three members said that there had been no formation of long-lasting alliances
or sub-groups between crew members, and that the bonding had been mainly to the
whole group. However, the Commander indicated that a special friendship had
developed between G and himself already during the training-period. Before
isolation they were aware of possible negative impacts of their relationship on the
other crew members, and thus tried to “block the tendency to override other crew
members once we had a common opinion”.
All members said that there were no major interpersonal conflicts within the
group, and that the social climate was generally agreeable. No open hostility was
displayed and bad temper was infrequent. There were, however, frequent discus-
sions/disagreements about trivial issues between the males. Three crew members
explained this as a manifestation of ‘male competition.’ The woman was rarely
involved in any frictions.
Three subjects indicated subject G as the most often criticized crew member. He
was mainly criticized for having lost sight of the scientificobjectives of the mission
and for inaccuracy in experimental procedures. One subject said: “He is very
3 90 RAGNAR J.VkRNES
impulsive, likes to forget things; I was mainly criticizing him when he was
forgetting something during experiments. Not often. It happened much less then I
expected, but sometimes.”
Subject D was judged the most critical crew member. One member commented:
“He is very analytical, he doesn’t mean to be critical, but if he doesn’t understand
something, he keeps on asking and tries to find out why things are like that.”
Relations between Chamber and Ground Crew
The close relationship between the two crews developed during the joint training
program (team-oriented approach) and persisted during isolation. Occasional ten-
sions mainly concerned communication between chamber crew and outside world.
Two chamber crew members expressed disappointment about a lack of support
from certain ground crew members on this matter.
The ground crew acted as observer during chamber crew activities without
interfering in them. In week 1 there was more interaction, but usually at chamber
crew request. Occasionally the ground crew reminded the chamber crew of some
tasks, but usually the latter adhered to the schedule. When procedural mistakes were
detected, the ground crew would inform the chamber crew discretely. The ground
crew respected the commander’s role as contact point, but when a call related to a
specific crew member, the CIC contacted that person directly for the sake of time
and efficiency. It was up to that person to inform the Commander.
Relation of Crew to Project Officials
Due to the strong bond between the two crews, their relations to other project
officials (Facility Operator, Project Management, Scientific Coordinator) were
tense. The impression was that the ground crew did not respect the mission
organization as the body in charge of the mission and responsible for it. The ground
crew felt that EXEMSI was ‘their’ project, resulting in taking on activities that
should have been coordinated or delegated (e.g., contacts with principal investiga-
tors).
All crewmembers cited conflicts with the management as the major source of
frustration during isolation. Rules about trash-emptying and communication, im-
plemented after 10days of isolation, were mentioned as very bothersome. Common
opinion was that much aggression was directed towards the two persons repre-
senting management. Three subjects commented that they used management as an
‘enemy’,as an outlet for aggression,toavoid relational strain within thecrew group.
Although they reported being aware of this mechanism, it was not discussed within
the group. However, humorous remarks like “who is the enemy?’ sometimes
occurred.
Lessons Learned 391
Relation of ground crew to Facility Staff
Regarding technical support, the ground crew commented that technical prob-
lems during the mission made them realize how little they knew about the entire
system. Although the proper person could be contacted fairly fast, the conflict arose
during discussion of a solution for the problem. Communication between the
various parties was difficult and made the decision process laborious time consum-
ing. Language problems of the technical staff played a role, but also the ground
crew’s strong identification with the project. There was a strong feeling of ’want-
ing-to-do-it-all’ among the ground crew, especially when problems had to be
solved, although the organization provided sufficient and appropriate support.
Other problems were that the ground crew had difficulty understanding the
technical issues, and sometimes the chamber crew was not sufficientlyclear in their
explanation.The portable video camera proved to be very helpful in these circum-
stances.
VIII. PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

A. ISEMSI
Cooperation
Although all principal investigators had provided a telephone number for contact
in case of problems with their experiment,their availability varied greatly. A lesson
learnt was that better procedures for communication with the PIS should have been
used (including alternative phone numbers, or, preferably, an electronic mail link).
Although informed well in advance of the deadline for delivery of the instru-
ments, some vital equipment arrived too late with problems for the Logistic
Manager. Changes of procedure proposed by some principal investigators during
the isolation period affected the daily schedule of the crew.
A binding contractual Interface Agreement between management and each
principal investigator, providing sufficient details about technical and operational
aspects and integration i n the facility, is needed. Changes in the agreement shall be
handled according to a formal procedure.
Scientific Coordination
There should have been a full-time Scientific Coordinator from the beginning of
project planning. He should visit the various principal investigators, and make sure
that they fully understood the study objectives and were sufficiently prepared for
participation. Meetings with the investigators in advance would ease integration of
equipment and procedures. Unfortunately,this proposal could not be implemented
for financial reasons. Information from management to the investigators (reporting
status of project and problems) should be improved by means of periodic bulletins.
392 RAGNAR J.VARNES
Documentation
An agreement for teleoperations and bacteriology/toxicologyexperiments about

observance of certain electrical standards and advance submission of specifications
of biomedical electrical equipment was not adequately adhered to in some cases.
Timely delivery of adequate documentation should be required in the Interface
Agreement.
B. EXEMSI
Cooperation
The agreement to involve crew members as co-investigators was not always

observed, either because the principal investigator was not aware of this or not all
crew members were motivated in this way.
Less than half of the principal investigators responded to the document ‘Guide-
lines, Requirements and Procedures for the Conduct of Experiments involving
Human Test Subjects on the Experimental Campaign for the European Manned
Space Infrastructure’, which was sent to them as most of the experimentshad to be
approved by the Medical Board.
Some principal investigators did not respond as quickly as was necessary. Some
changed their protocol after experiment approval, and others requested additional
functional objectives during the final stage of training. Obtaining an experiment
description understandable by non-specialists proved very difficult; either the
content was too specialized, or it included procedures never submitted to the
Medical Board. Availability of principal investigators was still a problem, because
the contact persons changed frequently.
Scientific Coordination
The Scientific Coordinator stated in his final report that 6 experiment proposals
with 24 functional objectives would not have passed the NASA Human Research
Policy and Procedures Committee in case of a manned space mission.
He also reports that the maximum amount of blood to be drawn during the project,
agreed to be 619 ml per crew member, had to be exceeded because of the high
hematocrit values of the crew and loss of plasma on the perspex beads used to
separatecells from plasma. This was not reported to thecrew Surgeon or the ground
crew during the mission, although this would have been mandatory during a space
mission.
The Scientific Coordinator felt that the working relation with the principal
investigatorsgenerally was good, but he made two critical remarks:
1. The information supplied by ESAnTPO on the ISEMSI experiments to be
repeated during EXEMSI contained insufficient operational information for
accommodation;
Lessons Learned 393
2. The poor response to the request for information to be submitted to the

Medical Board should not be allowed to happen in future missions.
Documentation
The ScientificCoordinator stated in his report that baseline data for physiological
and psychological experiments can best be obtained when the subjects are relaxed
and in a quiet environment,but that neither condition was satisfied. The crew was
permanently stressed, because the training period was too short and a second set of
hardware was not available. The integration of late arrived equipment during the
training period also caused significant disturbance. Nobody obtained the standard
five data points; one investigator received only one data point, and three received
no baseline data.
Some crew members were surprised that checkingof data quality during isolation
was not allowed. They felt that this is an important activity in any scientific mission,
as this allows to take corrective steps if necessary. Weekly transmission of the
digitalized scientific data obtained would have been well within the capability of a
modern communication system.
The originally assigned crew codes had to be changed because they did not
sufficiently preserve anonymity of the subjects. Since the principal investigators
were not immediately informed, three investigators received part of the data with
the old code and the rest with the changed code.
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

These conclusions and recommendations reflect not only the discussion in the
preceding sections,but also ideas collected by interviewingpersons involved in the
ISEMSI and EXEMSI projects as well as the author’s evaluation of these projects
as a project manager in ISEMSI and as a principal investigator in EXEMSI.
Success of project. Both ISEMSI and EXEMSI werejudged successful.How-

ever, it is difficult to make an objectivejudgement in the absence of clear criteria
for success, defined at the time the project objectives are formulated. Recommen-
dation: Success criteria should be defined with the experimental objectives prior
to the start of the project.
Operational experience. The experience gained during the two projects was
invaluable, and should be recorded in an ESA Handbook of Manned Mission
Procedures, so that future missions will not have to ‘reinvent the wheel’ as often
happened during EXEMSI, where operational lessons from ISEMSI were not
always made available. Recommendation: Initiate a Handbook of Manned Mis-
sion Procedures that will be expanded, revised and modified with each successive
mission.
3 94 RAGNAR J. VARNES
Ground Crew If ESA will eventually send humans into space, then there will
be a need for a supportiveGround Crew. These persons, like air traffic controllers,
suffer their own share of psychological and technological problems. It would have
been very easy to set up more comprehensive studies of this side of operations.
Recommendations:Future projects should include a study of the ground crew.
Crew selection If a strong empathy between chamber crew and ground crew
is desired, then the selection technique employed in EXEMSI should be considered
successful, although more emphasis could be placed on professional skills. How-
ever, the impression is that there was too strong a link between the two crews,
weakening the process of making ‘unpopular decisions’. Recommendation: Fu-
ture missions should train the two crews together in the objectives and procedures
of the planned experiments,but provide special ground crew training with emphasis
on a professional attitude towards the chamber crew, so as to create a ‘professional
distance’between the two crews.
Collection and use of data Data of the medical examinations are part of the
selection process. If an investigator needs any of these data, he must make a justified
request in the Human Research Protocol at the start of the project.
Regarding exchange of scientific data, a paragraph setting forth rules and rights
should be included in the “Experiment Implementation Agreement”. Data sharing
policy between investigators and crew members should be part of a separate
agreement.
For baseline data collection a dedicated set of instruments, located outside the
simulation facility, should be available. More time should be allowed so that the
crew could have performed these tests in a more relaxed manner. The health
stabilization period should be used for baseline data collection only, and no other
activities should be allowed in these period.
Regarding blood samples, there have to be mission rules for the case that the
number or volume of samples needs to be increased, and the commander must
inform Ground Control.
Principal lnvestigators Participation with an experiment in such a complex

project requires a minimum of ‘discipline’ in adhering to rules and deadlines for
supplying equipment, information, reports, and in not making unapproved and late
changes in procedures. Recommendation: Establish a procedure for excluding an
investigator from participation who has shown insufficient discipline in previous
projects.
Operational planning This was a problem area in both projects, because no

dedicated staff for operationswas available. In both cases the ground crew assumed
this task. They were well-motivated, and performed this function as well as could
be expected without having been trained as ‘Mission Operations Support Team.’
Lessons Learned 395
Where applicable, operational rules existing for ESA space projects should be
used. An example is the transmission of messages from the crew to a principal
investigator during EXEMSI; in the absence of a rule the ground crew had to solve
the problem by contacting the investigator.Such rules existed for the SL-1 and D-2
missions and could have been used.
The project management teams in ISEMSI and EXEMSI were understaffed. It is
recommended that more manpower be allocated to such projects from the begin-
ning, which also implies the need to start such a project at an adequate funding
level.
In summary, the following conclusions and recommendationscan be formulated:
1. There was a discrepancy between the theoretical and the operational sce-
nario. The theoretical scenario had multiple aims of a different nature, even
though all were directed to the assessment of the effects of a long duration
spaceflight. The practical scenario for achieving these objectives was some-
times vague and subject to continuous change. At one point nobody had a
clear idea of what was simulated and to what extent.
2. The general nature of the scenario thus gave rise to different interpretations
at different organizational levels. A representative and well-defined opera-
tional scenario with precise requirements should have been provided.
3. The multiplepurpose of the project involved too many aspects to be properly
developed. More care was taken on some of them, while others were almost
disregarded. The overall goal of studying effects of confinement through
simulation of a space mission was sometimes forgotten in favor of specific
details. In other words, insufficient time was allowed for detailed planning
of the scenario.
4. The composition of the crew proved to be appropriate. The presence of a
woman on board had the effect of unifying the group and avoiding the
formation of sub-groups (as might happen with two men and two women).
It had also a stabilizing function, moderating eventual tensions.
5. The crew training procedure was markedly improved from ISEMSI to
EXEMSI. However, further improvementis needed to provide better training
for the ground crew and to prevent too close a relation between chamber
crew and ground crew.
6. The scientific studies involved too many ‘passive’ experiments, like ques-
tionnaires, and too few simulation operations. More psychological experi-
ments could have been based on direct observations, and the workload of a
space crew could have been better reproduced.
7. Principal investigators should adopt a responsible attitude towards such
multidisciplinary and multinational studies. If they want to participate, they
must also adhere to the schedules. For future campaigns, information meet-
ings should be performed, especially for scientists who participate for the
first time. On those meetings such “disciplinary aspects” should be stressed.
396 RAGNAR J. VARNES
Lastly, it is not only the scientific results which can be implemented in future
space missions, but all lessons learned concerning organizational and operational
aspects should provide valuable knowledge for the planning of future ESA space
missions.
REFERENCES
1. Bonting, S.L., Ed. Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 3, European Isolation and
Confinement Study, JAI Press,Greenwich, CT,1993.
2. Vapmes, R.J. General Description of ISEMSI: Technical Scenario, Selection of Candidates,
Operational Aspects, and Organization. In: Advances in Space Biology arid Medicine (S.L.
Bonting, Ed.). Vol. 3. European Isolation and Confinement Study, JAIPress. Greenwich, CT,1993,
pp. 35-58.
3. Vapmes, R.J. EXEMSI: Description of Facilities, Organization, Crew Selection and Operational
Aspects. This volume, pp. 7-38.
4. Kass, J.R., Ellmers, F., Schiemann. J.0perationalEvaluationoftheEXEMSIproject.This volume,
pp. 357-373.
INDEX
~
Adaptability, 25 1 diastolic, 139, 142, 144, 147, 149,

Adrenaline, 58, 63 151
Adrenocorticothrophic hormone, 94 systolic, 139, 142, 144-145, 149-
Aggression, 227 (see also Psycholog- 151
ical problems) Breathing, 135-136, 140, 142, 145,
Aldosterone, 58, 63, 73 147, I50
Alertness, 159, 178,202-203,207,
209,210 Calcium, 83
Alpha waves, 159, 169, 171, 177, 179 Cardiovascular measures, 6 1, 135-
ANP (see Atrial Natriuretic Peptide) 136, 139, 142, 145, 149-151,
Antarctic (see Polar missions) 153, 236 (ee also Heart rate)
Antidiuretic hormone, 63 Catecholamines, 62-63,98, 135
Anxiety, 253, 313-314, 317, 321, 328. Cave isolation, 106
(see also Psychological Chamber Crew, 20,361, 363
problems) Chorella, 343, 352
Arctic (see Polar missions) Circadian rhythm, 118, 120, 129,
Arginine vasopressin, 58 202,209
Atrial natriuretic peptide, 58, 63-64, Circadian system, 202,206,210
71 Classical group dynamic session, 25 I
Attention, 184, 198-199, 302, 306, Cognition, 134, 202, 247, 328, 334
333,337 Cohesion, 214,227,280
Auditory classification, 185, 192, 199 Columbus Systems and Project
Autocorrelation, 118, 123 Department, 14
Commander’s reports, 285-286, 289
Baseline evaluation, 258 Communication, 219, 244, 284, 366
Betaendorphin, 94, 106 Complex decision-making task, I35
Biomass, 344 Concentration, 33, 175, 179, 198,
Bioreactor, 249, 343, 353 302, 306,337
Bioregenerative system, 355 Conflicts, 227, 229
Blood pressure, 50,6 1, 72, 135-136, Contaminant monitoring task, 136,
315 312,315,317
397
398 INDEX
Cooperative activity, 12, 237,265, Dominance, 216,221

333,362 Doubly labeled water experiment,
Coping, 218, 223 59,76
Corticotrophin-releasin factor, 94 Dual-shift system, 204
Cortisol, 58,63, 105, 106, 116-117, Dual tasking, 159-160
120, 122-124, 126-127, 129, Duty cycle time, 140, 142, 145, 147,
135-136,202,210 150-15 1
Creatinine, 58, 60,63, 71, 73
Crew EEG (see Electroencephalogram)
activities and, 363, 371 Electroencephalogram, 159, 168,
chamber of, 20,361, 363 177-178, 186, 315
commander of, 363 Electrolytes, 46
comments of, 386 Electro-oculogram, I86
compatibility of, 230 Embedded figure test, 252
composition of, 73, 224 Emergency procedures, 362
conflicts of, 228, 337 Emotional expressions, 214,220,
coordination of, 12,237,265,333, 223,285
362 Endocrine system, 50, 63,94,96,
disposition of, 217, 222, 284-285, 101, 105-107
289,293 Epinephrine, 105-106
effectiveness of, 2 14, 2 17-218, 22 I , Error rate, 317,321
224,237,246 Erythropoietin, 58, 63
functions of, 20,287 Escape position, 285, 289
ideal team member of, 389 Ethological analysis, 264
operations of, 380 European Astronauts Center, 14
selection of, 18, 376, 394 Event-related potentials, 184, 187-
spacing of, 264 188, 190, 193, 196, 198
training of, 19 EXEMSI Project, 16, 30
Crew Activity Coordinator, 17 Exercise, 73, 81, 365
Cytokines, 96, 99 Experimental Program Execution
Manager, 16
Daily intake (see Nutrition)
Daily survey, 217, 221 Facility Operations Manager, 17
Data Handling System, 27, 382 Fatigue, 175, 179, 313-314, 317, 323,
Decision-making, 3 1 1, 3 17-318, 334 328 (see also Sleep
Defense mechanism inventory, 252 Food (see Nutrition)
Depression, 246 (see also Psycholog- Food and Nutritional Management
ical problems) System, 80, 82, 88
Design
of facility, 381 Gender differences, 303, 306
of galley, 88 Glucose, 59,63,73
Diving, 2, 106, 178 Glucuronide, 62
Documentation, 393 Ground control, 21,361-362,382,387
lndex 399
Group Interleukin, 96,99, 106

cohesion of, 246 Isolation, 10, 33, 106,.379
differences in, 304
dynamics of, 217,234,256 Joint Integrated Simulation, 358,36 I
evaluation of, 254 Joy-test, 298
formation of, 294
functioning of, 214, 229 Leadership, 230,237,241,244,246,
tests of, 247 (see also Crew) 285, 384 (see also Mission
Growth hormone, 58,63,96, 101, Management)
105- I07 Learning process, 304, 328
Leukocytes, 98
Habitat module, 10, 381 Light system, 204
Handbook of Manned Mission Light treatment, 207, 209
Procedures, 393 Local immune system, 116
Heart rate, 6 I, 135-136, 139, 142, Logistics, 363-364
144, 145, 149-150,236 Long Term Planning Office, I3
Hematocrit, 50,63 Long Term Programme Office, 2
Hemoglobin, 50,63 Lymphocytes, 97, 106
Homeostatic component, 210
Homeostat Test System, 234 Macronutrients, 84
Homesickness, 2 17, 223 Maltose, 343, 347, 354
Hormones, 58,63,73,96, 101, 105- Management (see Leadership)
107, 135 Matrix of Intra- and Interpersonal
Hyperbaric chamber, 106 Processes in Group
Hypokinesia, 73 (MIPG), 249
Melatonin, 202
Immune system, 94,96-97, 105-106, Memory Search, 160, 163, 178
116, 127 Metanephrine, 58,62
Individual Minerals (see Nutrition)
activities, 265 Mission Management, 16,359, 385
mood, 217,222 (see also Leadership)
strategy analysis, 298 Monocytes, 97
tests, 247
(see also Relations) Natural Killer cell activity, 96, 106
Inertia, 210 Neuroendocrine peptides, 98
Interleukin-3, 99 Neurohormones, 94
Insulin-like growth factor-1, 58,63, Neuromediators, 94
101, 106-107 Neuropeptides, 100, 107
Inter-individual distances, 267-268, Niacin, 83, 85
278-279 Noradrenaline, 58,63
Interaction. (see Communication) Norepinephrine, 105-106
Interaction Process Analysis, 2 15 Normetanephrine, 58,62
Interferon, 99, 106 Nutrition, 7 I , 80-89
400 INDEX
Objectives and selection of instru- Psychological support, 284-285, 288,

ments, 259 292,298
Operations Psychonueroimmunology, I 16
objectives of, 4 Psychophysiological assessment,
planning of, 380, 394 134-135, 150, 153, 158, 179
scenario, 2 I Psychosocial parameters, 264
Orientation, 264-265, 275, 279
Osmolarity, 63 Reaction time, 236, 333-334
Oxygen production, 348 Recovery, 332, 335, 337
Relations
P300 commander and, 2 17,223,257
amplitude of, 195-196, 199 crew chamber and, 225
component, 188, 194 officials and, 390
latency of, 197 female team mates and, 257
reaction time of, 197 ground crew and, 226,257,390-
wave, 184 39 1
Performance, 158, 246, 333, 337 in crew chamber, 224,389-390
Performance accuracy, 189, 191-192 management and, 257
Personal profile inventory, 253 principal investigators and man-
Phase shifts, 204 agement and, 225,258
Phatic, 285 subjects and, 259
Physical conditioning (see Exercise) Relaxation, 304,306
Physical parameters, 264 Renin, 58,63-64,73
Planner/ replanner, 362 Respiration, 135-136, 140, 142, 145,
Plasma 147, 150
immunoglobin levels and, 106
proteins and, 100, 106 Salivary immunoglobin A, 122, 125,
volume and, 63 126
Polar missions, 2, 106, 214, 217, 246 Scientific coordination, 17, 392
Post-isolation interview, 218, 224 Secretory Immunoglobin A, 116, 117
Post-Isolation Period, 38, 383 Sensitivity training, 230
Posture, 264, 266,276,279 Sensory-motor skills, 306
Prolactin, 96, 101, 106 Sensory phase, 199
Protein, 63, 83, 100 (see also Sex hormone binding globulin, 58,63
Nutrition) Short-term memory functions, 176
Psychological problems, 218,223, Single-task tracking, 159
284 Sleep, 79, 209,333
aggression, 227 bedrest and 76,79, 106,209
anxiety, 253,313-314, 317, 321, deprivation of, 177, 202, 208
328 latency, 203
depression, 246 regulation of, 204
stress, 73, 127, 129, 134, 329 Social factors, 216, 223,229, 246,
tension, 227-228, 246 264
lndex 401
Sociometric questionnaires, 25 1 Thyreotropin, 104, 106-107

Space relation test, 252 Tracking, 176, 178
Speech Act Coding System, 215 Training, 332, 36 I , 378
Stress, 73, 127, 129, 134, 329 Triiodothyronin, 104, 106-107
effects of, 153
factors of, 105, 107, 246, 255 Unstable Tracking, 160, 167
resistance of, 306 Urea, 58,63, 71
(see also Psychological problems) Urine, 71,210
Style parameters, 299
Subjective states, 168, 321, 328 Vasopressin, 73
measure of, 313, 315,317 Verba test system, 236
questionnaire on, 136, 160 Vice commander, 363
Submarines, 246 Video interpersonal distance mea-
SYMLOG system, 216,220 sure (VIDM), 250
Video recording procedure, 265
Task-orientation, 216, 221, 228 Vigilance, 202,333,337
T-cell proliferation, 96 Vitamins (see Nutrition)
Team (see also Crew, Group)
Tele-Science experiment, 363, 369 Water, 71,83,381
Tension, 227-228,246 (see also Psy- Weight, 41-42, 71
chological problems) Working memory, 300,302,306
Testosterone, 107, 135 Workload, 72, 153, 209,241, 298-
Theta wave, 159, 169, 171, 178-179 300,315,316, 324,328
Thymic function, 97

(Advances in Space Biology and Medicine 5) Sjoerd L. Bonting (Eds.) - Elsevier Science (1996)

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ADVANCES IN

Editor: SJOERDL. BONTING

@ JAl PRESS INC.

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Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica

Michael Abbal Department of Immunology

Peter Achermann Institute of Pharmacology

Anne-Marie Adine NESTLE France

A.M. Allevard Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

C. Bachelard Department of Applied Psychology

C.A. Bizollon Laboratoire de Radioanalyse et

Alexander A. Borbdy Institute of Pharmacology

C. Cazes Department of Applied Psychology

1. Collet European Space Agency

).M. Cotter-Emard Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

C. Davies Aerosystem International

Bernard Decarli NESTEC Ltd., Research Center

V A . Elminov Institute for Biomedical Problems

F. Ellmers OHB-System, Space & Environmental

K.N. Eskov Institute for Biomedical Problems

A. Friederici Department of Psychology

A. W.K. Gaillard TNO Institute for Human Factors

G. Gauquelin Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

C. Gharib Laboratoire de Physiologie de I’Environmment

G. Gillor Research Center on Sport Performance

H.-Chr. Gunga lnstitut fur Physiologie

Kl. Gushin Institute for Biomedical Problems

T. Gijssow Department of Psychology

1. Hennig Department of Psychology

G.R.]. Hockey Department of Psychology

David Husson Department of Immunology

N.Kane-Toure Research Center on Sport Performance

Emmanuelle Kihm NESTEC Ltd., Research Centre

K. A. Kirsch institut fur Physiologie

C. Le Scanff Department of Applied Psychology

Bernd Lorenz DLR-Institute of Aerospace

Jurgen Lorenz Institute of Physiology

A. Maillet Laboratoire de Facult6 de M6decine

Dietrich Manzey DLR-Institute of Aerospace

Azel Mecklinger lnstitut fur Physiologie

Hubert Milon NESTEC Ltd., Research Centre

P. Netter Department of Psychology

M.A. Novikov Institute for Biomedical Problems

C. Pachiaudi Unite lnserm

J. Rivolier Department of Applied Psychology

L. Rtlcker lnstitut for Physiologie

E. Rosnet Department of Applied Psychology

Gro M. Sandal Department of Biological and Medical

I . Sauer Department of Psychology

I. Schiemann COLUMBUS System Engineeringand

Didier A. Schmitt Department of Immunology

T.A. Smirnova Institute for Biomedical Problems

F. Strollo lnstituto per la Patologia

Mathieu Tafani Service Central de Medecine Nucleeire

Carole Tafforin Centre de Reserche en Biologie du

Holger Ursin Department of Biological and Medical

Ragnar J. Vzrnes NUTEC & Institute of Biological and Medical

J.A. Veltman TNO Institute for Human Factors

A.G. Viknokhodova Institute for Biomedical Problems .

C.J.E. Wientjes TNO Institute for Human Factors

L uzian Wolf European Space Research and Technology

The workload of the crew consisted of an extensive battery of psychological and

EXEMSI: THE SECOND EUROPEAN