APPLIED STATISTICS (STAT 2)

CHAPTER 2: Sampling Distribution

OBJECTIVES: After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:
1. Recall concepts of sample and reasons of sampling.
2. Identify methods of obtaining sample.
3. Apply the concept of sampling distribution.
4. Construct the sampling distribution of the sample mean.
5. Apply the concept of central limit theorem.

A. CONCEPT OF SAMPLE AND RESONS FOR SAMPLING

Sampling- the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent
the larger group from which they were selected.

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths
about that population” (Field, 2005)

The sampling frame is a list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population.

Population - the larger group from which individuals are selected to participate in a study.

Target population - a set of elements larger than or different from the population sampled and to which the
researcher would like to generalize study findings.

What is the purpose of sampling?

-to gather data about the population in order to make an inference that can be generalized to the population.

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Stages in the selection of a sample:

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork

QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING

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Purpose: to identify participants from whom to seek some information

Issues:
a. Nature of the sample (random samples)
b. Size of the sample
c. Method of selecting the sample

Important issues:
a. Representation – the extent to which the sample is representative of the population
b. Generalization – the extent to which the results of the study can be reasonably extended from the sample
to the population
c. Sampling error - the chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample is not representative of the
population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
d. Sampling bias-
- Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling design creates bias in the data.
e. Three fundamental steps
- Identify a population
- Define the sample size
- Select the sample

B. METHODS OF OBTAINING A SAMPLE

TYPES OFSAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

SELECTING RANDOM SAMPLES

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- Known as probability sampling

- Best method to achieve a representative sample
- Four techniques:
1. Random sampling- selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an equal and
independent chance of being selected
• Advantages:
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
• Disadvantages:
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
• Selection process:
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. List all members of the population
4.Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
5.Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random numbers and read the appropriate
number of digits

2. Stratified random sampling - the population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according
to some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are randomly
selected from each strata.
• Advantages:
1. More accurate sample
2. Can be used for both proportional and non- proportional samples
3. Representation of subgroups in the sample
• Disadvantages:
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
  • Selection process:
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to guarantee
appropriate
representation
4. Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups

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3. Cluster sampling - the process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within the defined
population sharing similar characteristics
- Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can
be
found
Examples: Neighborhoods, school districts, schools, classrooms
• Advantages:
1. Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large geographic region
2. Convenient and expedient
3. Do not need the names of everyone in the population
• Disadvantages:
1. Representation is likely to become an issue
• Selection process
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. Identify and define a logical cluster
4. List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
5. Estimate the average number of population members per cluster
6. Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated
size
of a cluster
7. Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
8. Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster

4. Systematic sampling - Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the members of the population
• Advantage:
1. Very easily done
• Disadvantages:
1. subgroups
2. Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being included
• Selection process
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. Obtain a list of the population
4. Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample
size
5. Start at some random place in the population list
6. Take every Kth individual on the list

Example: to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your college dorm, makes a list of all the room numbers
in the dorm. For example, there are 100 rooms, divide the total number of rooms (100) by the number of
rooms you want in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This means that you are going to select every fourth
dorm room from the list. First of all, we have to determine the random starting point. This step can be done
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by picking any point on the table of random numbers, and read across or down until you come to a number
between 1 and 4. This is your random starting point. For instance, your random starting point is "3". This
means you select dorm room 3 as your first room, and then every fourth room down the list (3, 7, 11, 15, 19,
etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.

SAMPLE SIZE

- According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the rules
of thumb for determining sample size where sample size larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate
for most research, and the minimum size of sample should be 30% of the population.
- The size of the sample depends on a number of factors and the researchers have to give the statistically
information before they can get an answer. For example, these information like (confidence level, standard
deviation, margin of error and population size) to determine the sample size.

TYPES OF SAMPLING IN QUANTITY RESEARCHES

Non-probability samples
Random: allows a procedure governed by chance to select the sample; controls for sampling bias.

Non-random sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling - the process of including whoever happens to be available at the time …called
“accidental” or “haphazard” sampling
• Disadvantage: difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) results from the cause
(independent variable)

2. Purposive sampling - the process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience or
knowledge of the group to be sampled …called “judgment” sampling
• Disadvantage: potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s criteria and resulting sample selections

3. Quota sampling - the process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas
• Disadvantage: people who are less accessible (more difficult to contact, more reluctant to participate) are
under-represented

SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Researchers in qualitative research select their participants according to their:
1. characteristics
2. knowledge

The Purposeful Sampling

It is when the researcher chooses persons or sites which provide specific knowledge about the topic of the study.

Types of Purposeful Sampling

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1. Maximal Variation Sampling - It is when you select individuals that differ on a certain characteristic. In this
strategy you should first identify the characteristic and then find individuals or sites which display that
characteristic.
2. Typical Sampling - It is when you study a person or a site that is “typical” to those unfamiliar with the
situation. You can select a typical sample by collecting demographic data or survey data about all cases.
3. Theory or Concept Sampling - It is when you select individuals or sites because they can help you to
generate a theory or specific concepts within the theory. In this strategy you need a full understanding of the
concept or the theory expected to discover during the study.
4. Homogeneous Sampling - It is when you select certain sites or people because they possess similar
characteristics. In this strategy, you need to identify the characteristics and find individuals or sites that
possess it.
5. Critical Sampling - It is when you study an exceptional case represents the central phenomenon in
dramatic terms.
6. Opportunistic Sampling - It is used after data collection begins, when you may find that you need to collect
new information to answer your research questions.
7. Snowball Sampling - It is when you don't know the best people to study because of the unfamiliarity of the
topic or the complexity of events. So you ask participants during interviews to suggest other individuals to be
sampled.

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

- It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to safeguard the story teller by maintaining the understood
purpose of the research.
- The relationship should be based on trust between the researcher and participants.
- Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
- Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity, using ethical interview practices, maintaining privacy, and
cooperating with participants.
- Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical issues to consider, such as:
o reciprocity
o assessment of risk
o confidentiality,
o informed consent
o and data access and ownership.
- Qualitative researchers must be aware of the potential for their own emotional turmoil in processing this
information
- During the interview process, participants may disclose sensitive and potentially distressing information in
the course of the interview.

References:

Creswell, J., W. (2012) Educational research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4th ed.

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

C. SAMPLE STATISTICS

POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES

FINITE
POPULATION

POPULATION 7
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CHAPTER 2: Sampling Distribution

INFINITE
POPULATION

Population - a set or collection of all the objects, actual or conceptual and mainly the set of numbers,
measurements or observations which are under investigation.

Finite Population: All students in a college

• Finite populations are described by the actual distribution of its values and infinite populations are described by
corresponding probability distribution or probability density.
• “Population f(x)” means a population is described by a frequency distribution, a probability distribution or a density
f(x).
• If a population is infinite, it is impossible to observe all its values, and even if it is finite, it may be impractical or
uneconomical to observe it in its entirety. Thus, it is necessary to use a sample.
• Sample: A part of population collected for investigation which needed to be representative of population and to be
large enough to contain all information about population.
• Random Sample (finite population):
- A set of observations X1, X2, …, Xn constitutes a random sample of size n from a finite population of size N, if
its values are chosen so that each subset of n of the N elements of the population has the same probability
of being selected.
- A set of observations X1, X2, …, Xn constitutes a random sample of size n from the infinite population ƒ(x) if:
o 1. Each Xi is a random variable whose distribution is given by ƒ(x)
o 2. These n random variables are independent.
We consider two types of random sample: those drawn with replacement and those drawn without
replacement.

Infinite Population: Total water in the sea or all the sand particle in sea shore. Populations are often described by
the distributions of their values, and it is common practice to refer to a population in terms of its distribution.
SAMPLING WITH REPLACEMENT:
• In sampling with replacement, each object chosen is returned to the population before the next object is drawn. We
define a random sample of size n drawn with replacement, as an ordered n-tuple of objects from the population,
repetitions allowed.

THE SPCAE OF RANDOM SAMPLES DRAWN WITH REPLACEMENT:

• If samples of size n are drawn with replacement from a population of size N, then there are Nn such samples. In
any survey involving sample of size n, each of these should have same probability of being chosen. This is
equivalent to making a collection of all Nn samples a probability space in which each sample has probability of being
chosen 1/Nn. • Hence in above example There are 32 = 9 random samples of size 2 and each of the 9 random
sample has probability 1/9 of being chosen.

SAMPLING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT:

• Sampling without replacement: In sampling without replacement, an object chosen is not returned to the population
before the next object is drawn. We define random sample of size n, drawn without replacement as an unordered
subset of n objects from the population.

THE SPCAE OF RANDOM SAMPLES DRAWN WITHOUT REPLACEMENT:

• If sample of size n are drawn without replacement from a population of size N, then there are ( n ) such samples.
The collection of all random samples drawn without replacement can be made into a probability space in which each
sample has same chance of being selected.

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MEAN AND VARIANCE

If X1, X2, …, XN constitute a random sample, then
n

__  x i

X = i =1

is called the sample mean and

n __

 (x i - X ) 2
2
S = i =1

n–1

is called the sample variance.

D. CONCEPT OF SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION

SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
• The probability distribution of a random variable defined on a space of random samples is called a sampling
distribution.

THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE MEAN

Estimator
• A statistic that is used to estimate a population parameter.
- For example, x, the mean of the sample, is an estimator of μ, the mean of the population.
Estimate
• A particular value of the estimator.
- For example, the mean of the sample x is an estimate of μ, the mean of the population.
Sampling Distribution of the Mean x
- Each random sample of size n drawn from the population provides an estimate of μ —the sample mean
x.
- The sampling distribution of the sample mean is a probability distribution consisting of all possible
sample means of a given sample size selected from a population.

EXAMPLE:

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• Example: Draw a sampling distribution of the sample mean from a population of X= {1,2,3,4,5,6} from a
sample of n=3 without replacement.
• Process:
- List all possible samples
- Calculate each mean of all possible samples
- Construct the distribution of the sample means 

THE EXPECTED VALUE AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE SAMPLE MEAN

Expected Value
The expected value of X,

The expected value of the sample mean,

Variance of X

Standard Deviation

• of X

• of X

E. CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

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Explain the importance of the central limit theorem.

• For any population X with expected value μ and standard deviation , the sampling distribution of X will be
approximately normal if the sample size n is sufficiently large.

• As a general guideline, the normal distribution approximation is justified when n > 30.

• As before, if X is approximately normal, then we can transform it to

Central Limit Theorem: If the population follows a normal probability distribution, then for
any sample size the sampling distribution of the sample mean will also be normal.

• If the population follows a normal probability distribution, then for any sample size the sampling distribution of
the sample mean will also be normal.

• If the population distribution is symmetrical (but not normal), the normal shape of the distribution of the
sample mean emerges with samples as small as 10.

• If a distribution that is skewed or has thick tails, it may require samples of 30 or more to observe the normality
feature.

• The mean of the sampling distribution equal to μ and the variance equal to σ2/n.

USING THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE MEAN (Sigma Known)

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• If a population follows the normal distribution, the sampling distribution of the sample mean will also follow the
normal distribution.

• If the shape is known to be nonnormal, but the sample contains at least 30 observations, the central limit
theorem guarantees the sampling distribution of the mean follows a normal distribution.

• To determine the probability a sample mean falls within a particular region, use: 

• If the population does not follow the normal distribution, but the sample is of at least 30 observations, the
sample means will follow the normal distribution.

• To determine the probability a sample mean falls within a particular region, use: 

Example: Given that m = 16 inches and  = 0.8 inches, determine the following:
- What is the expected value and the standard deviation of the sample mean derived from a random
sample of…
-
• 2 pizzas

• 4 pizzas

SAMPLING FROM A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

• For any sample size n, the sampling distribution of X is normal if the population X from which the sample is
drawn is normally distributed.

• If X is normal, then we can transform it into the standard normal random variable as:

For a sampling For a distribution

distribution of the values of X

Example: Given that m = 16 inches and  = 0.8 inches, determine the following:

• What is the probability that a randomly selected pizza is less than 15.5 inches?

• What is the probability that 2 randomly selected pizzas average less than 15.5 inches?

THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM FOR THE SAMPLE PROPORTION

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• If P is normal, we can transform it into the standard normal random variable as

• Therefore, any value P on P has a corresponding value z on Z given by

Example: From the introductory case, Anne wants to determine if the marketing campaign has had a lingering effect
on the proportion of customers who are women and teenage girls.

• Before the campaign, p = 0.43 for women and p = 0.21 for teenage girls. Based on 50 customers sampled
after the campaign, p = 0.46 and p = 0.34, respectively.
• Let’s find P (P  0.46), Since n  30, the central limit theorem states that P is approximately normal.

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