CHAPTER 10

Molecular Biology of the Gene

Chapter Objectives
Opening Essay
Describe the impact of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus.

The Structure of the Genetic Material

10.1 Describe the experiments of Griffith, Hershey, and Chase, which supported the
idea that DNA was life’s genetic material.
10.2–10.3 Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.
10.3 Explain how Chargaff’s rules relate to the structure of DNA.

DNA Replication
10.4 Explain how the structure of DNA facilitates its replication.
10.5 Describe the process of DNA replication.

The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein

10.6 Describe the locations, reactants, and products of transcription and translation.
10.7–10.8 Explain how the “languages” of DNA and RNA are used to produce
polypeptides.
10.9 Explain how mRNA is produced using DNA in prokaryotic cells.
10.10 Explain how eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus.
10.11 Relate the structure of tRNA to its functions in the process of translation.
10.12 Describe the structure and function of ribosomes. Explain the medical
significance of different ribosomes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
10.13 Explain how translation begins.
10.14 Describe the step-by-step process by which amino acids are added to a growing
polypeptide chain.
10.15 Diagram the overall process of transcription and translation, noting where each
occurs in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
10.16 Describe the major types of mutations, causes of mutations, and potential
consequences.

The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria

10.17 Compare the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles of a phage.
10.18 Compare the structures and reproductive cycles of the mumps virus and a
herpesvirus.
10.19 Describe three processes that contribute to the emergence of viral disease and
note examples of each.
10.19 Explain why RNA viruses tend to have an unusually high rate of mutation.

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 10.20 Explain how the AIDS virus enters a host cell and reproduces.
10.21 Describe the structure of viroids and prions and explain how they cause disease.
10.22 Define and compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and
conjugation.
10.23 Describe the roles of bacterial F factors. Define a plasmid and explain why R
plasmids pose serious human health problems.

Lecture Outline
I. Introduction
1. The 2009 H1N1 influenza virus
a. spread so quickly that it was declared a pandemic,
b. reached 207 countries,
c. infected more than 600,000 people, and
d. killed an estimated 20,000 people.
2. Viruses share some of the characteristics of living organisms but are generally not
considered alive because they are not cellular and cannot reproduce on their own.
3. Combating any virus requires a detailed understanding of
a. molecular biology,
b. the study of DNA, and
c. how DNA serves as the basis of heredity.
II. The Structure of the Genetic Material
A. 10.1 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material
1. Early in the 20th century, the molecular basis for inheritance was a mystery.
2. Biologists did know that genes were located on chromosomes. But it was unknown if
the genetic material was
a. proteins or
b. DNA.
3. Biologists finally established the role of DNA in heredity through experiments with
bacteria and the viruses that infect them.
4. The breakthrough ushered in the field of molecular biology, the study of heredity at
the molecular level.
5. In 1928, Frederick Griffith was surprised to find that when he killed pathogenic
bacteria, then mixed the bacterial remains with living harmless bacteria, some living
bacterial cells became pathogenic.
6. All of the descendants of the transformed bacteria inherited the newly acquired ability
to cause disease.
7. In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used bacteriophages to show that DNA is
the genetic material of T2, a virus that infects the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli).
a. Bacteriophages (or phages for short) are viruses that infect bacterial cells.
b. Phages were labeled with radioactive sulfur to detect proteins or radioactive
phosphorus to detect DNA.
c. Bacteria were infected with either type of labeled phage to determine which
substance was injected into cells and which remained outside the infected cell.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 123
 d. The sulfur-labeled protein stayed with the phages outside the bacterial cell, while
the phosphorus-labeled DNA was detected inside cells.
e. Cells with phosphorus-labeled DNA produced new bacteriophages with
radioactivity in DNA but not in protein.
f. Figure 10.1C outlines our current understanding—as originally formulated by
Hershey and Chase—of the replication cycle of phage T2.
B. 10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
1. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids consisting of long chains (polymers) of chemical
units (monomers) called nucleotides.
2. One of the two strands of DNA is a DNA polynucleotide, a nucleotide polymer
(chain).
3. A nucleotide is composed of a
a. nitrogenous base,
b. five-carbon sugar, and
c. phosphate group.
4. The nucleotides are joined to one another by a sugar-phosphate backbone.
5. Each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-containing base:
a. adenine (A),
b. cytosine (C),
c. thymine (T), and
d. guanine (G).
6. The full name for DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid, with nucleic referring to DNA’s
location in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells.
7. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is unlike DNA in that it
a. uses the sugar ribose (instead of deoxyribose in DNA) and
b. has the nitrogenous base uracil (U) instead of thymine.
C. 10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix
1. After the 1952 Hershey-Chase experiment convinced most biologists that DNA was
the material that stored genetic information, a race was on to determine how the
structure of this molecule could account for its role in heredity.
2. Researchers focused on discovering the three-dimensional shape of DNA.
3. American James D. Watson journeyed to Cambridge University in England, where the
more senior Francis Crick was studying protein structure with a technique called
X-ray crystallography.
4. While visiting the laboratory of Maurice Wilkins at King’s College in London,
Watson saw an X-ray image of DNA produced by Wilkins’s colleague, Rosalind
Franklin.
5. Watson deduced the basic shape of DNA to be a helix (spiral) with a uniform diameter
and the nitrogenous bases located above one another like a stack of dinner plates.
6. The thickness of the helix suggested that it was made up of two polynucleotide strands.
7. Watson and Crick realized that DNA consisted of two polynucleotide strands wrapped
into a double helix.
a. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside.
b. The nitrogenous bases are perpendicular to the backbone in the interior.
c. Specific pairs of bases give the helix a uniform shape.
i. A pairs with T, forming two hydrogen bonds, and
ii. G pairs with C, forming three hydrogen bonds.

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 8. In 1962, the Nobel Prize was awarded to James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and
Maurice Wilkins.
a. Rosalind Franklin probably would have received the prize as well but for her death
from cancer in 1958. Nobel Prizes are never awarded posthumously.
9. The Watson-Crick model gave new meaning to the words genes and chromosomes.
The genetic information in a chromosome is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of
DNA.
III. DNA Replication
A. 10.4 DNA replication depends on specific base pairing
1. DNA replication follows a semiconservative model.
a. The two DNA strands separate.
b. Each strand then becomes a template for the assembly of a complementary strand
from a supply of free nucleotides.
c. Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand.
B. 10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
1. Replication of a DNA molecule begins at particular sites called origins of replication,
short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides.
2. Proteins that initiate DNA replication
a. attach to DNA at the origin of replication and
b. separate the two strands of the double helix.
3. Replication then proceeds in both directions, creating replication “bubbles.”
4. DNA replication occurs in the 5´ to 3´ direction.
a. Replication is continuous on the 3´ to 5´ template.
b. DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the 3´ end of the strand, never to the
5´ end.
c. Replication is discontinuous on the 5´ to 3´ template, forming short Okazaki
fragments.
5. An enzyme, called DNA ligase, links (or ligates) the pieces together into a single
DNA strand.
6. DNA polymerases and DNA ligase also repair DNA damaged by harmful radiation
and toxic chemicals.
7. DNA replication ensures that all the somatic cells in a multicellular organism carry the
same genetic information.
IV. The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein
A. 10.6 Genes control phenotypic traits through the expression of proteins
1. DNA specifies traits by dictating protein synthesis.
2. Proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype.
3. The molecular chain of command is from
a. DNA in the nucleus to RNA and
b. RNA in the cytoplasm to protein.
4. Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA.
5. Translation is the synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA.
6. Genes provide the instructions for making specific proteins.
a. The initial one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was based on studies of inherited
metabolic diseases.
b. The one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was expanded to include all proteins.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 125
 c. Most recently, the one gene–one polypeptide hypothesis recognizes that some
proteins are composed of multiple polypeptides.
d. Even this description is not entirely accurate, in that the RNA transcribed from
some genes is not translated but nonetheless has important functions.
e. In addition, many eukaryotic genes code for a set of polypeptides (rather than just
one) by a process called alternative splicing.
B. 10.7 Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences
1. The sequence of nucleotides in DNA provides a code for constructing a protein.
a. Protein construction requires a conversion of a nucleotide sequence to an amino
acid sequence.
b. Transcription rewrites the DNA code into RNA, using the same nucleotide
“language.”
2. The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a triplet code.
3. The genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written
in DNA and RNA as a series of nonoverlapping three-base “words” called codons.
4. Translation involves switching from the nucleotide “language” to the amino acid
“language.”
5. Each amino acid is specified by a codon.
a. Sixty-four codons are possible.
b. Some amino acids have more than one possible codon.
C. 10.8 The genetic code dictates how codons are translated into amino acids
1. The genetic code is the amino acid translations of each of the nucleotide triplets.
a. Three nucleotides specify one amino acid.
b. Sixty-one codons correspond to amino acids.
c. AUG codes for methionine and signals the start of transcription.
d. Three “stop” codons signal the end of translation.
2. The genetic code is
a. redundant, with more than one codon for some amino acids,
b. unambiguous, in that any codon for one amino acid does not code for any other
amino acid,
c. nearly universal, in that the genetic code is shared by organisms from the simplest
bacteria to the most complex plants and animals.
D. 10.9 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Transcription produces genetic messages in the
form of RNA
1. Transcription of a gene occurs in three main steps:
a. initiation, involving the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter and the
start of RNA synthesis,
b. elongation, as the newly formed RNA strand grows, and
c. termination, when RNA polymerase reaches the terminator DNA and the
polymerase molecule detaches from the newly made RNA strand and the gene.
E. 10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus as mRNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
a. encodes amino acid sequences and
b. conveys genetic messages from DNA to the translation machinery of the cell.
i. In prokaryotes, this occurs in the same place that mRNA is made.
ii. But in eukaryotes, mRNA must exit the nucleus via nuclear pores to enter the
cytoplasm.

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 2. Eukaryotic mRNA has introns, interrupting sequences that separate exons, the coding
regions.
3. Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing before leaving the nucleus.
a. RNA splicing removes introns (intervening sequences) and joins exons (expressed
sequences) to produce a continuous coding sequence.
4. A cap and tail of extra nucleotides are added to the ends of the mRNA to
a. facilitate the export of the mRNA from the nucleus,
b. protect the mRNA from degradation by cellular enzymes, and
c. help ribosomes bind to the mRNA.
5. The cap and tail themselves are not translated into protein.
F. 10.11 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation
1. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules function as a language interpreter, converting the
genetic message of mRNA into the language of proteins.
2. Transfer RNA molecules perform this interpreter task by
a. picking up the appropriate amino acid and
b. using a special triplet of bases, called an anticodon, to recognize the appropriate
codons in the mRNA.
G. 10.12 Ribosomes build polypeptides
1. Translation occurs on the surface of the ribosome.
a. Ribosomes coordinate the functioning of mRNA and tRNA and, ultimately, the
synthesis of polypeptides.
b. Ribosomes have two subunits: small and large.
c. Each subunit is composed of ribosomal RNAs and proteins.
d. Ribosomal subunits come together during translation.
e. Ribosomes have binding sites for mRNA and tRNAs.
2. The ribosomes of bacteria and eukaryotes are very similar in function.
3. The ribosomes of eukaryotes are slightly larger and different in composition.
4. The differences are medically significant.
a. Certain antibiotic drugs can inactivate bacterial ribosomes while leaving eukaryotic
ribosomes unaffected.
b. These drugs, such as tetracycline and streptomycin, are used to combat bacterial
infections.
H. 10.13 An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message
1. Translation can be divided into the same three phases as transcription:
a. initiation,
b. elongation, and
c. termination.
2. Initiation brings together
a. mRNA,
b. a tRNA bearing the first amino acid, and
c. the two subunits of a ribosome.
3. Initiation establishes where translation will begin.
4. Initiation occurs in two steps.
a. An mRNA molecule binds to a small ribosomal subunit, and a special initiator
tRNA binds to mRNA at the start codon.
i. The start codon reads AUG and codes for methionine.
ii. The first tRNA has the anticodon UAC.

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 b. A large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit, allowing the ribosome to function.
i. The first tRNA occupies the P site, which will hold the growing peptide.
ii. The A site is available to receive the next amino-acid-bearing tRNA.
I. 10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates
translation
1. Once initiation is complete, amino acids are added one by one to the first amino acid.
2. Each addition occurs in a three-step elongation process.
3. Each cycle of elongation has three steps.
a. The anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its amino acid, pairs with
the mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome.
b. The polypeptide separates from the tRNA in the P site and attaches by a new
peptide bond to the amino acid carried by the tRNA in the A site.
c. The P site tRNA (now lacking an amino acid) leaves the ribosome, and the
ribosome translocates (moves) the remaining tRNA (which has the growing
polypeptide) from the A site to the P site.
4. Elongation continues until the termination stage of translation, when
a. the ribosome reaches a stop codon,
b. the completed polypeptide is freed from the last tRNA, and
c. the ribosome splits back into its separate subunits.
J. 10.15 Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA → RNA → protein
1. The flow of genetic information is from DNA to RNA to protein.
a. In transcription (DNA→RNA), the mRNA is synthesized on a DNA template.
b. In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus, and the messenger RNA is
processed before it travels to the cytoplasm.
c. In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm.
2. Translation can be divided into four steps, all of which occur in the cytoplasm:
a. amino acid attachment,
b. initiation of polypeptide synthesis,
c. elongation, and
d. termination.
K. 10.16 Mutations can affect genes
1. A mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.
2. Mutations can involve
a. large chromosomal regions or
b. just a single nucleotide pair.
3. Mutations within a gene can be divided into two general categories.
a. Nucleotide substitutions involve the replacement of one nucleotide and its base-
pairing partner with another pair of nucleotides. Base substitutions may
i. have no effect at all, producing a silent mutation,
ii. change the amino acid coding, producing a missense mutation, which produces
a different amino acid,
iii. lead to a base substitution that produces an improved protein that enhances the
success of the mutant organism and its descendants, or
iv. change an amino acid into a stop codon, producing a nonsense mutation.
b. Nucleotide insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides in a gene may
i. cause a frameshift mutation, which alters the reading frame (triple grouping)
of the genetic message,

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 ii. lead to significant changes in amino acid sequence, and
iii. produce a nonfunctional polypeptide.
4. Mutagenesis is the production of mutations.
5. Mutations can be caused by
a. spontaneous errors that occur during DNA replication or recombination or
b. mutagens, which include
i. high-energy radiation such as X-rays and ultraviolet light and
ii. chemicals.
V. The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
A. 10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome
1. A virus is an infectious particle consisting of little more than “genes in a box,” a bit of
nucleic acid, wrapped in a protein coat called a capsid, and, in some cases, a
membrane envelope.
2. Viruses have two types of reproductive cycles.
a. In the lytic cycle:
i. Viral particles are produced using host cell components.
ii. The host cell lyses.
iii. Viruses are released.
b. In the lysogenic cycle:
i. Viral DNA is inserted by genetic material into the bacterial chromosome.
ii. The inserted phage DNA is called a prophage.
iii. Most prophage genes are inactive.
iv. Viral DNA is duplicated along with the host chromosome during each cell
division.
v. Environmental signals can cause a switch to the lytic cycle, causing the viral
DNA to be excised from the bacterial chromosome and leading to the death of
the host cell.
B. 10.18 CONNECTION: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants
1. Viruses can cause disease in animals and plants.
2. DNA viruses and RNA viruses cause disease in animals.
3. A typical animal virus has a membranous outer envelope and projecting spikes of
glycoprotein.
4. The envelope helps the virus enter and leave the host cell.
5. Many animal viruses have RNA rather than DNA as their genetic material. These
include viruses that cause the common cold, measles, mumps, polio, and AIDS.
6. The reproductive cycle of the mumps virus, a typical enveloped RNA virus, has six
major steps:
a. Entry of the protein-coated RNA into the cytoplasm
b. Uncoating—the removal of the protein coat
c. RNA synthesis—mRNA synthesis using a viral enzyme
d. Protein and RNA synthesis—mRNA is used to make viral proteins and for
synthesizing new viral genome RNA
e. Assembly—the new coat proteins assemble around the new viral RNA
f. Exit—the viruses leave the cell by cloaking themselves in the host cell’s plasma
membrane
7. Some animal viruses, such as herpesviruses, replicate in the cell nucleus.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 129
 8. Most plant viruses are RNA viruses.
a. To infect a plant, they must get past the outer protective layer of the plant.
b. Viruses spread from cell to cell through plasmodesmata.
c. Infection can spread to other plants by insects, herbivores, humans, or farming
tools.
9. There are no cures for most viral diseases of plants or animals.
C. 10.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Emerging viruses threaten human health
1. Viruses that appear suddenly or are new to medical scientists are called emerging
viruses. These include the
a. 2009 H1N1 influenza virus,
b. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) that causes AIDS,
c. Ebola virus, which causes hemorrhagic fever,
d. West Nile virus, spread primarily by mosquitoes, and
e. SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) virus.
2. Three processes contribute to the emergence of viral diseases:
a. Mutation—RNA viruses mutate rapidly.
b. Contact between species—viruses from other animals spread to humans.
c. Spread—viruses spread from isolated human populations to larger human
populations, often over great distances.
D. 10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template
1. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is caused by HIV.
2. HIV
a. has two identical copies of its RNA,
b. is a retrovirus, an RNA virus that reproduces by means of a DNA molecule, and
c. carries molecules of reverse transcriptase, which catalyzes reverse transcription:
the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template.
3. After HIV RNA is uncoated in the cytoplasm of the host cell,
a. reverse transcriptase makes one DNA strand from RNA,
b. reverse transcriptase adds a complementary DNA strand,
c. double-stranded viral DNA enters the nucleus and integrates into the chromosome,
becoming a provirus,
d. the provirus DNA is used to produce mRNA,
e. the viral mRNA is translated to produce viral proteins, and
f. new viral particles are assembled, leave the host cell, and can then infect other cells.
E. 10.21 Viroids and prions are formidable pathogens in plants and animals
1. Some infectious agents are made only of RNA or protein.
a. Viroids are small, circular RNA molecules that infect plants.
b. Viroids replicate within host cells without producing proteins and interfere with
plant growth.
c. Prions are infectious proteins that cause degenerative brain diseases in animals.
d. Prions appear to be misfolded forms of normal brain proteins, which convert
normal protein to misfolded form versions.
F. 10.22 Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways
1. Viral reproduction allows researchers to learn more about the mechanisms that
regulate DNA replication and gene expression in living cells.
2. Bacteria are also valuable as microbial models in genetics research.
a. Most of a bacterium’s DNA is found in a single, closed-loop chromosome.

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 b. Bacterial cells divide by replication of the bacterial chromosome and then by binary
fission.
c. Because binary fission is an asexual process, bacteria in a colony are genetically
identical to the parent cell.
3. Bacteria use three mechanisms to move genes from cell to cell.
a. Transformation is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment.
b. Transduction is gene transfer by phages.
c. Conjugation is the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterial cell.
4. Once new DNA gets into a bacterial cell, by any mechanism, part of it may then
integrate into the recipient’s chromosome.
G. 10.23 Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer
1. The ability of a donor E. coli cell to carry out conjugation is usually due to a specific
piece of DNA called the F factor.
2. During conjugation, the F factor is integrated into the bacterium’s chromosome.
3. The donor chromosome starts replicating at the F factor’s origin of replication.
4. The growing copy of the DNA peels off and heads into the recipient cell.
5. Part of the F factor serves as the leading end of the transferred DNA.
6. An F factor can also exist as a plasmid, a small circular DNA molecule separate from
the bacterial chromosome.
a. Some plasmids, including the F factor, can bring about conjugation and move to
another cell in linear form.
b. The transferred plasmid re-forms a circle in the recipient cell, and the cell becomes
a donor.
7. R plasmids pose serious problems for human medicine by carrying genes for enzymes
that destroy antibiotics.

Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources

The Structure of the Genetic Material (10.1–10.3)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Understanding bacteriophage replication can be difficult for students with limited knowledge
of cell biology or genetics. Therefore, understanding the methods, results, and significance of
the Hershey and Chase experiments is even more problematic. Considerable time and
attention to these details will be required for many of your students. (10.1)
• If your class has not yet studied Chapter 3, consider assigning Module 3.15 on “Nucleic
Acids” before addressing the contents of Chapter 10. (10.1–10.3)
• Students often confuse the terms nucleic acids, nucleotides, and bases. It helps to note the
hierarchy of relationships: nucleic acids consist of long chains of nucleotides (polynucleo-
tides), whereas nucleotides include nitrogenous bases. (10.2–10.3)

Teaching Tips
• A phage functions like a needle and syringe, injecting a drug. The needle and syringe are
analogous to the protein components of the phage. The drug to be injected is analogous to
the phage DNA. (10.1)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 131
 • The descriptions of the discovery of DNA’s structure are a good time to point out that
science is a collaborative effort. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins earned Nobel Prizes due to
their historic conclusions based on the work of many others (including Franklin, Griffith,
Hershey, Chase, and Chargaff). (10.1–10.3)
• Consider comparing DNA, RNA, and proteins to a train (polymer). DNA and RNA are
like a train of various lengths and combinations of four types of train cars (monomers).
Proteins are also “trains” of various lengths but made of a combination of 20 types of train
cars. (10.2)

Active Lecture Tips

• The authors note that the structure of DNA is analogous to a twisted rope ladder. In class,
challenge your students to pair up with someone nearby to explain what the parts of the
ladder represent. Answer: The wooden rungs represent pairs of nitrogenous bases joined by
hydrogen bonds. Each rope represents a sugar-phosphate backbone. (10.3)
• See the Activity, I’m Not Sure I Liked James Watson: Using a Video to Tell the Most
Exciting Discovery in Biology, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange
in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a description of this activity. (10.3)

DNA Replication (10.4–10.5)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• The authors note that although the general process of semiconservative DNA replication is
relatively simple, it is actually quite complex. The DNA molecule is unwound, each strand
is copied simultaneously, the correct bases are inserted, and the product is proofread and
corrected. Before discussing these details, be sure that your students understand the overall
process, what is accomplished, and why each step is important. (10.4–10.5)

Teaching Tips
• The semiconservative model of DNA replication is like making a photo from a negative
and then a new negative from the photo. In each new negative and photo pair, the new item
was made from an old item. (10.4)
• To explain the adaptive advantage of multiple replication sites over a single site of
replication, ask the students to imagine copying, by hand, the first 10 chapters of your
biology textbook. The task would certainly go faster if 10 students each copied a different
chapter. (10.5)
• There are about 500,000 words in the Biology: Concepts & Connections textbook. The
accuracy of DNA replication would be like copying every word in this textbook by hand
2,000 times and writing just one word incorrectly, making one uncorrected error in every
1 billion words. (10.5)

Active Lecture Tips

• Demonstrate the complementary base pairing within DNA. Present students with the base
sequence to one side of a DNA molecule and have them work in pairs at their seats to
quickly determine the sequence of the complimentary strand. For some students, these
sorts of quick practice are necessary to reinforce a concept and break up a lecture. (10.4)

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 • See the Activity, I’m Not Sure I Liked James Watson: Using a Video to Tell the Most
Exciting Discovery in Biology, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange
in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a description of this activity. (10.4)

The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein

(10.6–10.16)
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Beginning college students are often intensely focused on writing detailed notes. The risk
is that they will miss the overall patterns and the broader significance of the topics
discussed. Consider a gradual approach to the subjects of transcription and translation,
beginning quite generally and testing comprehension, before venturing into the finer
mechanics of each process. (10.6–10.16)
• Consider placing the basic content from Figure 10.6A on the board, noting the sequence,
products, and locations of transcription and translation in eukaryotic cells. This reminder
can create a quick concept check for students as they learn additional detail. (10.6)
• As students learn about transcription, they might wonder which of the two strands of DNA
is read. This uncertainty may add to the confusion about the details of the process, and stu-
dents might not even think to ask. As noted in Module 10.9, the location of the promoter, a
specific binding site for RNA polymerase, determines which strand is read. (10.9)
• Mutations are often discussed as part of evolutionary mechanisms. In this sense, mutations
may be considered a part of a creative process. The dual nature of mutations, potentially
deadly yet potentially innovative, should be clarified. (10.16)

Teaching Tips
• It has been said that everything about an organism is an interaction between the genome
and the environment. You might wish to challenge your students to evaluate the validity of
this statement. (10.6)
• The information in DNA is used to direct the production of RNA, which in turn directs the
production of proteins. However, in Chapter 3, four different types of biological molecules
were noted as significant components of life. Students who think this through might
wonder, and you could point out, that DNA does not directly control the production of
carbohydrates and lipids. So how does DNA exert its influence over the synthesis of these
two chemical groups? The answer is largely by way of enzymes, proteins with the ability
to promote the production of carbohydrates and lipids. (10.6)
• The transcription of DNA into RNA is like a reporter who transcribes a political speech.
In both situations, the language remains the same, although in the case of the reporter, it
changes its form from spoken to written language. (10.7)
• The sequential information in DNA and RNA is analogous to the sequential information in
the letters of a sentence. This analogy is also helpful when explaining the impact of
insertion or deletion mutations that cause a shift in the reading frame (see Module 10.16).
(10.7)
• You may want to note the parallel between the discovery in 1799 of the Rosetta stone,
which provided the key that enabled scholars to crack the previously indecipherable
hieroglyphic code, and the cracking of the genetic code in 1961. Consider challenging your

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 133
 students to explain what part of the genetic code is similar to the Rosetta stone. This could
be a short in-class activity for small groups. (10.8)
• The authors note the universal use of the genetic code in all forms of life. The evolutionary
significance of this fundamental, universal language is a reminder of the shared ancestry of
all life. The universal genetic code is part of the overwhelming evidence for evolution. (10.8)
• Another advantage to the use of RNA to direct protein synthesis is that the original code
(DNA) remains safely within the nucleus, away from the many potentially damaging
chemicals in the cytoplasm. This is like making photocopies of important documents for
study, keeping the originals safely stored away. (10.9)
• Many analogies can be developed to represent the selective expression of a gene requiring
the deletion of introns. Instructors who only assign some modules of a chapter are treating
the chapters like sections of exons and introns, portions to be read and portions to be
skipped. Alternately, students who highlight a chapter might be thought of as editing the
book into exons, portions to be reviewed, and introns, nonhighlighted sections that will not
be studied. Both analogies are imperfect but may still convey the concept of selective
reading. (10.10)
• The unique structure of tRNA, with binding sites for an amino acid and its codon, permits
the translation of the genetic code. Like an interpreter who speaks two languages, the
tRNA molecules match codons to the specified amino acid. (10.11)
• Students might wonder why the details of transcription and translation are important.
As the text notes, differences in the composition of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes
form the basis of action for antibiotics. By identifying differences, we can develop drugs
that target crucial features of prokaryotic pathogens without harming their eukaryotic
hosts. (10.12)
• Ribosomal RNA is transcribed in the nucleolus of eukaryotic cells. The ribosomal subunits
are assembled in the nucleus using proteins imported from the cytosol. These subunits are
then exported to the cytosol, where they are only assembled into a functional ribosome
when they attach to an mRNA molecule. Some of these details are not specifically noted in
the text but may be required to fill out your explanations. (10.12–10.13)
• If you use a train analogy for the assembly of monomers into polymers, the DNA and
RNA trains are traded in on a three-for-one basis for the polypeptide train during
translation. In general, this produces polypeptides that have about one-third as many
monomers as the mRNA that coded for them. (10.12–10.15)
• Students might want to think of the A and P sites as stages in an assembly line. The A site
is where a new amino acid is brought in, according to the blueprint of the codon on the
mRNA. The P site is where the growing product/polypeptide is anchored as it is being
built. To help students better remember details of translation, they might think of the
letters for the two sites as meaning A for addition, where an amino acid is added, and P for
polypeptide, where the growing polypeptide is located. (10.14)
• A simple way to demonstrate the effect of a reading frame shift is to have students
compare the following three sentences. The first is a simple sentence. However, look what
happens when a letter is added (2) or deleted (3). The reading frame, or words, is reformed
into nonsense. (10.16)
(1) The big red pig ate the red rag.

134 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 (2) The big res dpi gat eth ere dra g.
(3) The big rep iga tet her edr ag.
• The authors have noted elsewhere that “A random mutation is like a random shot in the
dark. It is not likely to improve a genome any more than shooting a bullet through the
hood of a car is likely to improve engine performance!” (10.16)

Active Lecture Tips

• See the Activity, Baking Cookies Describes the Central Dogma, on the Instructor
Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area
for a description of this activity. (10.6–10.15)
• See the Activity, Using a Food Analogy to Think About Protein Synthesis, on the
Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor re-
source area for a description of this activity. (10.6–10.15)
• See the Activity, Students Perform a Protein Synthesis Play, on the Instructor Exchange.
Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a
description of this activity. (10.6–10.15)
• See the Media Review: “Learn.Genetics” Genetic Science Learning from the University of
Utah, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology
instructor resource area for a description of this activity. (10.6–10.16)
• After translation is addressed, consider asking your students (working in small groups) to
list all of the places where base pairing is used (in the construction of a DNA molecule
during DNA replication, in transcription, and during translation when the tRNA attaches).
(10.15)
• See the Activity, Demonstrating a Frame Shift Mutation, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit
the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a description
of this activity. (10.16)

The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria (10.17–10.23)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Students and many parents with young children expect antibiotics to be used to treat many
respiratory infections, even though such infections may result from a virus. Students will
benefit from a thorough explanation of why antibiotics are inappropriate for viral
infections as well as the rising numbers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that have evolved as
a result of the overuse of antibiotics. (10.17–10.23)
• The success of modern medicine has perhaps led to overconfidence in our ability to treat
disease. Students often do not understand that there are few successful treatments for viral
infections. Instead, the best defense against viruses is prevention, by reducing the chances
of contacting the virus and through the use of vaccines. (10.17–10.23)
• Many misconceptions about AIDS exist. An excellent resource to learn more about HIV
and AIDS can be found at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website at
www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/qa/index.htm. (10.20)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 135
Teaching Tips
• Students (and instructors) might enjoy thinking of a prophage as a smudge mark on the
master copy of a class handout. The smudge is replicated every time the original is copied!
(10.17)
• As noted in Module 10.18, viruses can spread throughout a plant by moving through
plasmodesmata. This is like smoke spreading throughout a building by moving through air
ducts. (10.18)
• There is an interesting relationship between the speed at which a virus kills or debilitates a
host and the extent to which it spreads from one organism to another. This is something to
consider for a class discussion. Compare two viral infections. Infection A multiplies within
the host, is spread by the host to other people through casual contact, but does not cause its
lethal symptoms until 5 to 10 years after infection. Virus B kills the host within 1 to 2 days
of infection, is easily transmitted, and causes severe symptoms within hours of contact.
Which virus is likely to spread the fastest through the human population on Earth? Which
might be considered the most dangerous to humans? (10.19)
• Students might wonder why a person needs to get a new seasonal flu vaccination every
year. The annual mutations and variations in flu viruses require the production of a new flu
vaccine annually. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention monitors patterns of flu
outbreaks, especially in Asia (where many variations of flu viruses originate). They must
predict which strains are most likely to be dangerous in the coming year and then
synthesize an appropriate vaccine. (10.19)
• Students often do not understand the disproportionate distribution of HIV infections and
AIDS in our world. Consider an Internet assignment, asking students to identify the
regions of the world most affected by HIV-AIDS and then discuss why this uneven
distribution of disease exists. (10.20)
• Viroids can cause significant damage to plants. More than 30 million coconut palms in the
Philippines have been killed by viroids. (10.21)
• The authors note that the figures in Module 10.22 represent the size of the bacterial
chromosome as much smaller than they actually are. They note that a bacterial
chromosome is hundreds of times longer than the cell. These chromosomes use extensive
folding to fit inside the cell. (10.22)
• You might challenge students to explain why conjugation is sometimes called bacterial
sex. Students might note that two organisms cooperate to produce a new, genetically
unique bacterium. (10.22)
• The figures in Module 10.23 provide essential imagery for a detailed discussion of
bacterial conjugation. The abstract details presented in Module 10.23 are likely new to
most of your students. (10.23)
• Module 10.23 notes the possible consequences of widespread use of antibiotics. Consider
asking your students to consider the value of widespread use of antibacterial soaps
throughout their homes. (10.23)

136 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Active Lecture Tips
• See the Activity, Collecting Student Misconceptions About the Flu Vaccine, on the
Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor
resource area for a description of this activity. (10.17–10.23)

Key Terms
adenine (A) introns ribosomes
AIDS lysogenic cycle RNA polymerase
anticodon lytic cycle RNA splicing
A site messenger RNA (mRNA) R plasmids
bacteriophages missense mutation semiconservative model
capsid molecular biology silent mutation
codons mutagenesis start codon
conjugation mutagens stop codon
cytosine (C) mutation sugar-phosphate backbone
deoxyribonucleic acid nonsense mutations terminator
DNA nucleotides thymine (T)
DNA ligase P site transcription
DNA polymerases phages transduction
double helix plasmid transfer RNA (tRNA)
emerging viruses polynucleotide transformation
exons prions translation
F factor promoter triplet code
frameshift mutations prophage uracil (U)
genetic code retrovirus viroids
guanine (G) reverse transcriptase virus
HIV ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Word Roots
anti- = opposite (anticodon: a specific sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is
complementary to a particular codon triplet on an mRNA molecule)
capsa- = a box (capsid: the protein shell that encloses the viral genome)
exo- = out, outside, without (exon: in eukaryotes, the coding portion of a gene)
-genesis = origin, birth (mutagenesis: the creation of a mutation)
helic- = a spiral (double helix: the form of native DNA, composed of two adjacent polynucleotide
strands wound into a spiral shape)
intro- = within (intron: a noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene; in eukaryotes,
a nonexpressed [noncoding] portion of a gene that is excised from the RNA transcript)
liga- = bound or tied (DNA ligase: an enzyme that catalyzes the covalent bonding of adjacent
DNA nucleotides)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene 137
lyso- = loosen (lysogenic cycle: a type of bacteriophage replication cycle in which the viral
genome is incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage)
lyto- = loosen (lytic cycle: a type of viral replication cycle resulting in the release of new viruses
by lysis [breaking open] of the host cell)
muta- = change (mutation: a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA); -gen = producing
(mutagen: a physical or chemical agent that causes mutations; mutagenesis: the creation of a
mutation)
-phage = to eat (bacteriophage: a virus that infects bacteria)
poly- = many (polynucleotide: a molecule composed of many nucleotide monomers, covalently
bonded together)
retro- = backward (retrovirus: an RNA virus that reproduces by reverse-transcribing its RNA into
DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome)
semi- = half (semiconservative model: type of DNA replication in which the replicated double
helix consists of one old strand, derived or “conserved” from the parent molecule, and one newly
made strand)
trans- = across (transduction: the transfer of DNA from one cell to another via a bacteriophage;
transformation: a phenomenon in which external DNA is assimilated by a cell; translation: the
process in which an amino acid sequence is produced by reading an RNA transcript); -script =
write (transcription: the synthesis of RNA on a DNA template)
virul- = poisonous (viroid: a plant pathogen composed of molecules of naked, circular RNA
several hundred nucleotides long; virus: an infectious agent that requires a host cell for
reproduction)

138 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.