Mathematical

Tools

1.

 Mathematical Tools

Physics → Theory + Calculation

For “calculation”, we need to learn some mathematical tools.

TRIGONOMETRY
Angle :

line L 1

R1 2
1
⇒ θ line L 2
R2

q = angular gap or angle between line L1 and L2.

By definition,
Arc ( )
angle (θ) =
Radius (R)

In above diagram
1 2
=
θ =
R1 R2
The unit of angle is ‘radian’ (rad.)
Angle has two directions Anti-clockwise (positive)

Clockwise (Negative)

Example :
If we rotate line in anticlockwise direction
→ From OA to OC (semi-circle),
B
length ABC 22
θ1 = =3.141....rad =π rad ≈ rad .
length OA 7
→ From OA to OB (quarter-circle), R
arc length AB π

= θ2 = 1.57....rad
= rad .
radius length OA 2
θ1 θ2
Similarly, for complete circle,
Mathematical Tools

C A
circumference of circle R O R
angle =
Radius
θcircle =6.282....rad =2π rad .

2.
y Angle can also be measured in ‘degree’ where
180°
π rad = 180° ⇒ 1 rad = ≈ 57.3°
π
 π 
or 180° = π rad ⇒ 1° =  rad
 180 

Example :

π 180° π 180°
=
rad = 30°  and  rad
= = 60°
6 6 3 3

Trigonometric Ratio (T-Ratio) :

For a right-angled triangle,

Perpendicular (P) is that line which is just opposite to angle (q), Hypotenuse
(H) is that line which is just opposite to 90° angle while other line is base
(B).
P2 + B2 =
H2
P 1 H
=
sin θ =
; cosec θ =
H sin θ P
B 1 H B → Base
=
cos θ =
; sec θ = H P
H cos θ B P → Perpendicular
P 1 B H → Hypotenuse
=
tan θ =
; cot θ = θ
B tan θ P
B
Also,
P P /H sin θ
tan θ= = ⇒ tan θ=
B B/H cos θ

Example :

On measuring, the angle q = 37° and b = 53°

For given triangle, β

3
tan θ = while tan β =
4 cm 3 cm
5
4 3
3 4 θ
Mathematical Tools

sin θ = while sin β =

5 5 4 cm
4 3
cos θ = while cos β =
5 5

3.
 Trigonometric Identities :
P2 B2 H2
+= ⇒ sin2 θ + cos=
2
θ 1
H2 H2 H2
P2 B2 H2
+= ⇒ tan2 θ=
+ 1 sec2 θ
B2 B2 B2
P2 B2 H2
+= ⇒ 1 + cot=
2
θ cosec2 θ
P2 P2 P2
Commonly used angles and their trigonometric ratios :

Angle (q) 0° 30° 37° 45° 53° 60° 90° 180°

1 3 1 4 3
sin q 0 1 0
2 5 2 5 2

cos q 1 3 4 1 3 1 0 –1
2 5 2 5 2

tan q 0 1 3 1 4 3 ∞ 0
3 4 3

Trigonometrical formulae :
We remember values of sinq, cosq and tanq, for
q = {0°, 30°, 37°, 45°, 53°, 60°, 90°, 180°}
1
For example : sin 30° =
2
But what if someone asks to calculate value of sin 120°.
→ Then we split the given angle in terms of
{0°, 30°, 37°, 45°, 53°, 60°, 90°, 180°}
For example : sin(120°) = sin(90° + 30°) = sin(180° – 60°)
y sin(2np + q) = sinq, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……….

Example :
sin 390° = sin(2p + 30°) [ 2p = 360°]
= sin(2np + 30°) [Here, n = 1]
Mathematical Tools

= sin 30°
1  1
sin 390° =   sin 30° = 
2  2

4.
 Similarly,
y cos(2np + q) = cosq �  tan(2np + q) = tanq
y sin(p – q) = +sinq �  cos(p – q) = –cosq
y tan(p – q) = –tanq

Example :
3
sin 120° = sin(180° – 60°) = sin(p – 60°) = +sin60° =
2
Example :
1
tan 150° = tan(180° – 30°) = tan(p – 30°) = –tan 30° = −
3
y sin(p + q) = –sinq
y cos(p + q) = –cosq
y tan(p + q) = +tanq

Example :
1
sin 210° = sin(180° + 30°) = sin(p + 30°) = –sin 30° = −
2
y sin(2p – q) = –sinq
y cos(2p – q) = +cosq
y tan(2p – q) = –tanq

Example :
1
sin 330° = sin(360° – 30°) = sin(2p – 30°) = –sin 30° = −
2
π 
y sin  + θ  = + cos θ
2 
π 
y cos  + θ  = − sin θ
2 
π 
y tan  + θ  = − cot θ
 2 
Example :
π  3
sin (120°) = sin(90° + 30°)
= sin  + 30°  = +cos 30° =
2  2
Mathematical Tools

π 
y sin  − θ  = + cos θ
2 

5.
 π 
y cos  − θ  = + sin θ
 2 
π 
y tan  − θ  = + cot θ
2 

Example :
π  3
cos 30° = cos(90° – 60°)
= cos  − 60°  = +sin 60° =
2  2
y sin(–q) = –sinq
y cos(–q) = +cosq
y tan(–q) = –tanq

Example :
3
sin(–60°) = –sin60° = −
2
Maximum and minimum value

In this right-angle triangle P ≤ H and B ≤ H

P H
sin θ = P
H
P θ
 P≤H ⇒ ≤1
H B

∴ sin θ ≤ 1
Similarly, for negative angle
sin θ ≥ −1
Combining above two inequalities
−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1
B
Now, cos θ =
H
⇒ cos θ ≤ 1
Considering both negative and positive angles
−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1
Mathematical Tools

P
tan θ =
B
−∞ < tan θ < ∞

6.
 Small angle approximation :

In a right-angle triangle, if q is very small

P < < H and H  B (see the diagram)
\ We consider P as arc and H and B as radius

P
→ sin θ =
H
Arc
sin θ =
Radius
Arc
But we know that q(in radians) =
Radius
∴ sin θ = θ, if θ → 0 ⇒ ‘q’ should be in radian

Example :

sin 1° = 1 (incorrect) B sin θ

→ cos θ = → tan θ =
First convert 1° into radian H cos θ
π If q is very small then, H  B For very small ‘q’
1° = Rad sinq = q and cosq = 1
180 B
⇒ 1
H \ For small ‘q’
 π  π
=
sin 1° sin
=   θ
 180  180 ∴ =
cos θ 1, if θ → 0 tan θ = =θ
1
tan θ = θ, if θ → 0

Example :
Find value of sin 5°

Solution :
First convert 5° into radian.
π
1° = Rad
180
π π
5° = 5 × Rad = Rad
180 36
Mathematical Tools

π
Rad is a small angle
36
 π 
∴ sin5° =sin  
 36 

7.
 π
sin5° = Ans.
36
y sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
sin(A – B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB
y cos(A + B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB
cos(A – B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB

Example :
sin15° = sin(45° – 30°) = sin45° cos30° – cos45° sin30°

1 3 1 1
= ⋅ − ⋅
2 2 2 2
 3 − 1
sin 15° = 
 2 2 
sin75° = sin(45° + 30°) = sin30° cos45° + cos30° sin45°

1 1 3 1 3+1
= ⋅ + ⋅ =
2 2 2 2 2 2

3+1
sin 75° =
2 2
sin120° = sin(60° + 60°)
= sin60° cos60° + cos60° sin60°
3 1 1 3 3
= ⋅ + ⋅ =
2 2 2 2 2
cos120° = cos(60° + 60°)
= cos60° cos60° – sin60° sin60°
1 1 3 3 1 3 1
= ⋅ − ⋅ =− = −
2 2 2 2 4 4 2
sin 120°
tan 120° =
cos 120°
cos106° = cos(53° + 53°)
Mathematical Tools

= cos53° cos53° – sin53° sin53°

3 3 4 4 −7
= ⋅ − ⋅ =
5 5 5 5 25

8.
Sine formula : B
sin A sinB sinC B
= =
a b c c
a
A A

b C
C
Example :
sin90° sin 30°
=
10 x
x=? 10 cm
1
⇒ x = 10 × = 5
2
90° 30°

45°
sin 45° sin 30°
=
10 x x
10 × sin 30°
⇒ x=
sin 45°
105°
10 × 1 / 2
= = 5 2
1/ 2 10 cm 30°

Cosine formula :

b2 + c2 − a2 A
cos A =
2bc c
b
c +a −b
2 2 2
cosB =
2 ca B
a2 + b2 − c2 C
cos C = a
2ab

Example :
100 + 75 − 25
cos θ =
2 × 10 × 5 3
Mathematical Tools

150 3
= = 5 cm 10 cm
20 × 5 3 2 3
3
cos θ =
2 θ
θ= 30° 5 3
9.
 y − a2 + b2 ≤ a sin θ + b cos θ ≤ + a2 + b2

Example :
y = 2 sinq + 3 cosq
Here a = 2, b = 3
ymax = 22 + 32 = 13

ymin = − 13

− 13 ≤ 2 sin θ + 3 cos θ ≤ 13

Example :
y = 3 sinq + 4 cosq
Find maximum value of y.

Solution :
y=
max 32 + 42
=5

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
ax2 + bx +=
c 0, a≠0
a, b and c are constants
x is variable
Number of Solutions = Maximum Power of ‘x’
Solutions of equation are values of ‘x’ which when put is L.H.S, the L.H.S.
will become zero.
Here, two solutions
−b + b2 − 4ac b
x1 = x 1 + x2 =
−
2a a

−b − b2 − 4ac c
x2 = x 1 ⋅ x2 =+
2a a

Example :
2x2 + 3x − 6 =0
Mathematical Tools

= = 3,
a 2,b =c −6
−3 + 32 − 4 × 2 × (−6) −3 + 57
= x1 =
2×2 4

10.
 −3 − 32 − 4 × 2 × (−6) −3 − 57
x2 =
2×2 4
−3
x 1 + x2 =
2
−6
x 1 ⋅ x2 = = −3
2
1) If b2 − 4ac > 0
Two real and distinct solutions or roots

2) If b2 − 4ac < 0.
Two imaginary and distinct solutions or roots

3) If b2 − 4ac =
0
Real and equal roots

y −4 = 4 × (−1) = 2 × −1 = 2 i , Where i2 = −1

y x 2
+ 2x − 8 =
 0
Expression

Same equation can be represent as x 2

+ 2x − 10
 = −2 , x 2
+ 2x
 =
8
Expression Expression

y When expression is equated with something it becomes equation.

x2 + 2x − 8 = 0 → Equation [Expression equated with 0]

x2 + 2x =8 → Equation [Expression equated with 8]

y =
y x ⇒ Equation of Parabola
2

When y = 4 y
⇒ x =
4 2

9 y = x2
⇒ x1 =
+2, x2 =
−2.
When y = 9
⇒ x2 =
9
⇒ x1 =
+3, x2 =
−3 4
Mathematical Tools

–4 –2 +2 +4 x

11.
 Origin shifting :

y = x2
2
y = (x–2)2
9
2

–3 –1 3 5 x
2

= y x2 or =
x2 − y 0

Now the graph is pulled towards right by 2 units.

Initially y was zero at x = 0 Initial equation: y = x2

But now y is zero at x = 2 x = +3
y= 9 → 1
Everywhere x will be replaced by (x – 2) x2 = −3
New equation ⇒ y = (x – 2)2
New equation: =
y (x − 2)2
x1 = +5
y= 9 →
x2 = −1

y Similarly, if curve is shifted by ‘a’ unit in left direction. Then new equation
of parabola is y = (x + a)2
Mathematical Tools

y y = x2 parabola is shifted downwards (towards negative y) by 2 units.

12.
 y = x2,
replace y with y + 2
\ (y + 2) = x2
y = x2 – 2
y=0
For y = x2
x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0

For =
y x2 − 2
⇒ x2 − 2 =0
x1 =
+ 2, x2 =
− 2
y Similarly, if parabola y = x2 is pulled in upward direction (+y) by ‘b’ units,
then new equation of parabola is (y − b) = x2 ⇒ y = x2 + b

Example :
y = x2 is pulled by 2 units towards +x direction and 1 unit toward –y direction.
Find new equation of parabola.

2
1

Solution :
= x2 → y
y = (x − 2)2 → y + =
1 (x − 2)2
 → ↓1
2
y + 1 = (x − 2)2
Mathematical Tools

⇒ y + 1 = x2 + 4 − 4x

13.
 ⇒ y = x2 − 4x + 3

y = x2 − 4x + 3 → Parabola
Checking for y = 0
0 → Quadratic Equation
⇒ x2 − 4x + 3 =
⇒ x2 − x − 3x + 3 =0
⇒ x(x − 1) − 3(x − 1) =
0
⇒ (x − 1)(x − 3) =
0
⇒= =
x 1 and x 3

Exact Graph ⇒ y

3
4x+
x2–
y=
⇐ Exact Grap
x=2
x=3 x
x=

y=–1
1

y y = –x2 y

y = –x 2

Now if above curve is pulled upwards by 4 units and towards right by 3

Mathematical Tools

units.
3
↑4  →
y = −xG → y − 4 = −x → y − 4 = −(x − 3)

14.
 y
y
y=4
y
3
4 x 2=5
x x x=3 x
x1 =1

⇒ y − 4 =−(x − 3)2 ⇒ y = 4 − (x2 + 9 − 6x) ⇒ y=−x2 + 6x − 5

y = 0 ⇒ −x2 + 6x − 5= 0 ⇒ x2 − 6x + 5 =0 ⇒ x2 − 5x − x + 5 =0
0
⇒ x(x − 5) − 1(x − 5) = 0
⇒ (x − 5)(x − 1) = =
x1 1,=
x2 5
y Roots of quadratic equation (x1, x2) represent intersection of parabola with x-axis.

BINOMIAL THEOREM
n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
(a + b)
=n
(1)an b0 + (n)an−1 b1 + a b + a b
1×2 1×2× 3

n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) n− 4 4
+ a b + ...
1× 2× 3× 4
After few terms coefficient of a( ) b( ) will become zero, then stop writing next terms.

Example :
0
2(2 − 1) 2−2 2 2(2 − 1)(2 
− 2)
(a + b)=
2
1a2 b0 + 2 a2−1 b1 + a b + a2−3b3
1× 2 1× 2× 3
Here, n = 2
(a + b)2 =a2 + 2ab + b2
3(3 − 1) 3−2 2 3(3 − 1)(3 − 2) 3−3 3 3(3 − 1)(3 − 2)(3 − 3) 3− 4 4
(a + b)3= 1a3b0 + 3 a3−1 b1 + a b + a b + a b
2 2×3 2×3×4
Here, n = 3
(a + b)3 =a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

Similarly, expansion of (a + b)4 , (a + 5)5 , (a + b)6 , ... can be written.

Mathematical Tools

y (99)6 = (100 − 1)6 = (a + b)n = ............

a = 100
b=–1
n=6

15.
 n(n − 1) (n−2) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) (n−3) 3
y (1 + x)n = 1n x0 + n 1(n−1) x1 + 1 x + 1 x + ...
2 2×3
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n =1 + nx + x + x + ...
2 2×3
Now, suppose ‘x’ is very small (x → 0)
⇒ x2 is very very small
⇒ x3 is very very very small
Ignoring very small terms
1 nx ⇐ Binomial approximation.
(1 + x)n =+

Example :

Gravitation m
Mass of earth = me
Radius of earth Re = 6400 km h
h = 10m
h
  is very small
 Re 
Re

Gmem Gmem
Force acting on particle of mass
= m, F =
(Re + h)2  h
2

R 1 +
2
e 
 Re 
−2
Gmem  h Gmem  h
F
= 2 1 + =  2 1 + (−2)  , (Here, x = –2)
Re  Re  Re  Re 
Gmem  2h 
F
= 1 − 
Re2  Re 
Example :
2
 1 
(0.99)2 =
(1 − 0.01)2 =
1 −  =
(1 − x)n
 100 
[1 + (−x)] n = 1 + n(−x) = 1 − nx
Mathematical Tools

1 2 98
(0.99)2 = 1 − 2 × =1− =
100 100 100

16.
 (0.99)2 = 0.98 (approx.)
(1 − x)n =−
1 nx ⇒ where x is very small (x → 0)

Example :
7
 1  1 7 93
(0.99) =  1 −
7
 =1−7⋅ =1− =  0.93
 100  100 100 100

LOGARITHM
24 =
16 ⇒ log2 16 =
4

52 =
25 ⇒ log5 25 =
2

ab =⇒
c loga c =
b

101 =
10 ⇒ log 10 10 =
1

100, 000 =
105 ⇒ log 10 100, 000 =
5
log10 1000 = 3
log4 64 = 3
log2 64 = 6

Rules :
log (m × n) = log m + log n
m
log=   log m − log n
n
log mn = nlog m
logc b
loga b =
logc a
Example :
log 4 64 = 3
log2 64 6
log 4 64= = = 3
log2 4 2
log8 64 2
=
log 4 64 = = 3
log8 4 (2 / 3)
log8 4 = x ⇒ (8)x =
4 ⇒ (8)2/3 =
4
Mathematical Tools

2
∴ x = =log8 4
3

17.
 Example :
= log 10 (5 × 1000)
log 10 (5000)

= log 10 5 + log 10 1000
= 0.6989=
log 10 (5000) + 3 3.6989

⇒ 103.6989 =
5000

Values to remember :
log 10 2 = 0.3010 , log 10 3 = 0.4771 , log 10 5 = 0.6989 , log 10 7 = 0.8450

Example :
= log 10 (5 × 5 × 100)
log 10 2500
= log 10 5 + log 10 5 + log 10 100 103.3978  2500

= 0.6989 + 0.6989 + 2
= 3.3978

Example :
loge 2500 = ??
e = 2.7 =
(2.7)x
2500 ⇒=
x ?
log2.7 (2500) = ??

loge M = 2.303log 10 M

= 2.303 × log 10 2500

loge 2500
= 2.303 × 3.3978
loge 2500

Example :
log 10 25 = log 10 52
= 2log 10 5 [log mn = nlog m]
= 2 × 0.6989
log 10=
42 log 10 (2 × 3 × 7)
= log 10 2 + log 10 3 + log 10 7
= 0.3010 + 0.4771 + 0.8450 = 1.6321
Mathematical Tools

loge 42 = 2.303 log=

10 42 2.303 × 1.6321
log 10 42 1.6321
=
log5 42 =
log5 42 0.6989

18.
  1 
log 10 1 / 8 = log 10  3  = log 10 2−3 = −3 log 10 2
2 

=−3 × 0.3010 = −0.9030

1 1
log 10=
24 =
log 10 24 log 10 (2 × 3 × 2 × 2)
2 2
1 1 1
= log=
10 (2 × 3)
3
[3log 10 2 + log 10 3] =[3 × 0.3010 + 0.4771] = 0.6901
2 2 2
1
log 10   =
− log 10 2 =
−0.3010
2
1
loge   =
−2.303 log 10 2 =
−0.693
2

SERIES

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

Common difference = d
a , a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d , a + 4d ............, a + (n − 1)d, ...........
1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th n th
term term term term term term

d = (2nd term) − (1st term) = (3rd term − 2nd term) = ......

Example:

3, 5, 7, 9, 11,......

1st term, a = 3

2nd term, a + d = 5

Common difference = 5 – 3 = 2

nth terms = a + (n – 1)d = 3 + (n – 1)2

4th term = 3 + (4 – 1)2 = 3 + 6 = 9

5th term = 3 + (5 – 1)2 = 3 + 8 = 11

1, 2, 3, 4, 5,……, n,……
Mathematical Tools

n
Sum of n terms, S
= [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

19.
 Example :
3, 5, 7, 9, 11 , ……..
Calculate sum upto 4 terms

Solution :
4
S= [2 × 3 + (4 − 1)2] = 2[6 + 6] = 24
2
Check : 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 24

Geometric progression (G.P) :

Common ratio = r
a , ar , ar2 , ar3 ............, arn−1 , ...........
1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th n th
term term term term term

2nd term 3rd term nthterm

Common
= ratio = = = ......
1st term 2nd term (n − 1)th term

Example :
1
1st term, a = 4 & Common ratio, r =
2
1 1 1
G.P.: 4, 2, 1, , , , ........
2 4 5
n− 1
1
nth term =a ⋅ rn−1 =4  
2
5−1 4
1 1 4 1
5th term
= 4 = 4 =
 =
2 2 16 4

Sum of n terms of G.P :

a(1 − rn )
S=
1−r
y For G.P. series having infinite number of terms
a
If r < 1, S∞ =
1−r
If r > 1, S∞ =
Mathematical Tools

20.
Example :
1 1 1
4, 2, 1, , , , .........∞ . Find sum.
2 4 8

Solution :
 1
Here r < 1 for this ∞ series  r = 
 2
a 4
=S = = 8
1−r 1− 1
2
S=8

CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

y
x0
P(x0, y0)

y0
x′
Q(x′, y′)

y′

x-coordinate of point P = x0 = Perpendicular distance of ‘P’ from y-axis

y-coordinate of point P = y0 = Perpendicular distance of ‘P’ from x-axis
x-coordinate of point Q = x' = Perpendicular distance of ‘Q’ from y-axis
y-coordinate of point Q = y' = Perpendicular distance of ‘Q’ from x-axis
Mathematical Tools

21.
 Distance Formula :

Distance between points P and Q y

PQ = (y2 − y 1 )2 + (x2 − x1 )2 x1 (1)

P(x1, y1)
\ Distance between two points having
co-ordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by (y1–y2 ) y1
Distance = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y 1 )
2 2
x2 (2)
Q(x2, y2)
y2
(x2–x 1)
x

Straight Line :

y
Equation of straight line ⇒=
y mx + c
C = Intercept on y-axis
m = slope = tan q
y = mx + C
where ‘q’ is angle made by line with +ve
x-axis. C

If m is positive
 x increases then y also increases θ
⇒  x
x decreases then y also decreases (0, 0)
If m is negative
x increases then y decreases
⇒ 
x decreases then y increases

Example :

Here C is positive y
when moving from A → B
x increases but y decreases ⇒ m < 0
when moving from B → A
x decreases but y increases ⇒ m < 0 A
\ Slope of given line is negative.
\ Equation of given line could be C
Mathematical Tools

y=−2x + 5
B
m = –2 (–ve) ; C = +5 (+ve)
x

22.
 Here C is negative y
when moving from A → B B
x → increases and y → increases
⇒ m > 0
when moving from B → A
x → decreases and y → decreases A
⇒ m > 0
\ Equation of given line could be x
C
y=+3x − 2
m = +3 (+ve)
c = –2 (–ve)

•How to write the equation of given

line ?
Let, the equation of the given line is,
y = mx + c
y2 − y 1
Slope= m= tan θ=
x2 − x 1

See the triangle

y2 − y 1 5−1 4
∴ m= = =
x2 − x 1 6 − 3 3
4
m=
3
4
∴ y = x+C
3

As point (3, 1) lies on straight line, it must satisfy the equation of straight
line i.e.

when x = 3, we get y = 1

4
1= ⋅3+C
3
⇒ C =−
1 4 =−3
Mathematical Tools

4
⇒ y= x−3
3
[Point (6, 5) will also satisfy the equation of straight line]

23.
 Example

Find equation of straight line y

(1, 9)

(7, 1)

Solution :
Let, (x2 , y2 ) ≡ (1, 9) and (x1 , y 1 ) ≡ (7, 1)
y2 − y 1 9 − 1 8 −4
=
m = = =
x2 − x1 1 − 7 −6 3
y = mx + c
−4
=y x+C
3
Now, Point (1, 9) will satisfy this equation.
−4 4 31
⇒ 9= ⋅ 1 + C ⇒ C =9 + =
3 3 3
−4 31
⇒ y= x+ ⇒ 3y =−4x + 31
3 3
y Another way to write equation of straight line is
y2 − y 1
=
y − y1 (x − x1 )
x2 − x 1

Here, x1 = 7, y1 = 1, x2 = 1, y2 = 9
9−1 −4
⇒ y
= −1 (x − 7) ⇒ y −
= 1 (x − 7)
1−7 3
⇒ 3y − 3 =−4x + 28 ⇒ 3y + 4x =
31 m1
y If two lines having slops m1 and m2 are m 1 m 2 = –1
Mathematical Tools

perpendicular to each other, then

m2

24.
 ∆y
y Slope = m = tanq =
∆x
D = Change
= final value – Initial value
∆y
= = Rate of change of y w.r.t x
Slope
∆x

Example :

Slope = 2 y
∆y
⇒ = 2 ⇒ ∆y = 2∆x
∆x
If x increases by 1 then y increases by 2
2

4 ∆y y
m= = tan θ=
3 ∆x
4
∆y = ∆x
3
4
θ
3
Mathematical Tools

25.
 y If Dx is very small then
∆y dy
Slope= m= tan θ= =
∆x dx
dy
= differentiation
dx
∆y y2 − y 1 dy
y = = m= Slope= tan θ=
∆x x2 − x1 dx
= Rate of change of y w.r.t x
= Differentiation of y w.r.t x

FUNCTION
y = t2 + t
On changing ‘t’, y changes
\ y is a function of ‘t’ ⇒ y = f(t)
Conversely, on changing y, t changes
\ t is a function of y ⇒ t = g(y)
y y = x2
⇒ y = f(x) and x = g(y)
y y = sinx
y = f(x)
y y = x2 + x and x = 2t
y = x2 + x = (2t)2 + (2t) = 4t2 +2t
Here, y = f(x) and x = g(t)
Combining the two relations
y = f(x) = f[g(t)] [ x = g(t)]
y = f[g(t)] = fog(t) ← Composite function

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Mathematical Tools

∆y
= tan=
slope θ [when slope is constant]
∆x
dy
= tan=
slope θ [when slope changes]
dx

26.
 dy y
= Rate of change of ‘y’ w.r.t ‘x’
dx
Slope is
= Differentiation of ‘y’ w.r.t ‘x’
changing

y Slope at point (1) y

We can’t get correct value of slope by taking 2 dy
big interval. dx
∆y
∴ ≠ correct slope 1
∆x dy ∆x
dx
dy
= more correct slope ∆y
dx
x

dy
Similarly, by calculating at point (2), we can get slope at point 2
dx
y Changing slope = curve
Constant slope = straight line

y y = x2, calculate slope at x = 1 and x = 2

y
 dy   dy 
  <  dy
 dx x 1 =
=  dx x 2
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
x=1 x=2 x
Mathematical Tools

Example :
π
y = x2 sinx, calculate slope at x =
4

27.
 It is difficult to find by drawing graph
Newton developed formulae in calculus book.
' dy '
We will use those formulae to calculate .
dx
Formula :
dy
y=
xn ⇒ n ⋅ xn−1
=
dx

y = x2
dy y
= 2x 2−1
= [n 2] = 2x
dx
 dy  100
  =2 × 50 =100
 dx x =50 y = x2 1
dy
= m= tan θ= 100 = Slope at x = 50
dx
 dy 
  =2 × 10 =20
 dx x =10 x = 50 x

Functions Differentiation Examples

dy dy
y = xn = nxn−1 y =x7 → = 7x7 −1 = 7x6
dx dx
dy dy
y = x = 1 y =x1 → =1 ⋅ x1−1 =1 ⋅ x0 =1
dx dx
dy dy dx
y = ax = a y = 7x → = 7⋅ = 7⋅1 = 7
dx dx dx
dy
y = sin x = cos x
dx
dy
y = cos x = − sin x
dx
dy
y = tan x = sec2 x
dx
Mathematical Tools

dy
y = cosec x =
−cosec x ⋅ cot x
dx
dy
y = sec x = sec x tan x
dx

28.
 dy
y = cot x = −cosec2 x
dx
dy dy
y = ax = a x ⋅ loge a 
y =7x → =7x ⋅ loge 7 =7x n 7 ,
a =constant dx dx
e  2.7
dy dy
y = ex = ex y = ex → = ex loge e = ex ⋅ 1 = ex
dx dx
dy 1
= =
y log e x nx =
dx x
dy 1
y = sin−1 x =
dx 1 − x2
dy 1
y = sec−1 x =
dx | x | x2 − 1

dy 1
y = tan−1 x =
dx 1 + x2

Rules :
dy
y y = const. ⇒ =
0
dx
dy
y y = x ⇒ =
1
dx
y y = u + v, where u = f(x) and v = g(x)
dy du dv
y = +
dx dx dx

Example :
y = x2 + sinx
Here u = x2, v = sinx
dy du dv
= + = 2x + cos x
dx dx dx
y y = c × u, where c = constant and u = f(x)
dy du
= c⋅
dx dx
Mathematical Tools

Example :
y = 3 sinx
dy d
=
3⋅ (sin x) =
3 cos x
dx dx

29.
 Product Rule :
y y = u × v
dy dv du
= u⋅ +v⋅
dx dx dx
Example :
y = x2 × sinx
dy d d 2
= x2 (sin x) + sin x (x )
dx dx dx
dy
=x2 ⋅ cos x + sin x ⋅ 2x
dx
Quotient Rule :
u
y y =
v
du dv
v −u⋅
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
Example :
sin x
y=
x2
dy x2 ⋅ cos x − sin x ⋅ 2x
=
dx x4
Example :
ex u
=y = 3
, y
x v
d x d 3
x3 (e ) − ex (x )
dy dx = dx x3 ⋅ ex − ex ⋅ 3x2 x2 (x − 3)ex
= =
dx (x3 )2 x6 x6
dy (x − 3)ex
=
dx x4
Example :
y=
x3 ⋅ tan x , y =
uv
dy d d 3
=
x3 ⋅ (tan x) + tan x ⋅
Mathematical Tools

(x )
dx dx dx
=
x3 ⋅ sec2 x + tan x ⋅ (3x2 )
= x2 (x sec2 x + 3 tan x)

30.
Example :
dy

= y =
2x, ?
dx
Solution :
=
y =
2x 2 ⋅ x1/2 (Here, n = 1/2)

dy d 1/2 1 21 −1 2 −21
= 2 (x ) = 2⋅ ⋅x = ⋅x
dx dx 2 2
dy 1
=
dx 2x
Chain Rule :
→ y = 4 sin(3x)
dy
=?
dx
dt
Let, t = 3x …(1) ⇒ =
3
dx
dy d
y = 4 sint …(2) ⇒= 4 (sin=t) 4 cos t
dt dt
dy dt dy
* =
dt dx dx
dy dy
⇒ = 4 cos t=
⋅ 3 12 cos t ⇒ = 12 cos(3x)
dx dx
Example :
 dy 

2
−2x
y = 4ex =  y e=
x
, ex 
dx 
dy
Find =?
dx
Solution :
dt
=
t x2 − 2x ⇒ =2x − 2
dx
dy
y = 4et ⇒ =⋅
4 et
dt
dy dy dt
= *
Mathematical Tools

dx dt dx
= 4et ⋅ (2x − 2)

= 4ex
2
−2x
⋅ (2x − 2)

31.
 Example :
dy
y = n(cos 3x) , find .
dx
Solution :
dP
P = 3x …(i) ⇒ =
3
dx
dt
t = cos 3x = cos P …(ii) ⇒ =
− sinP
dP
dy 1
y = nt …(iii) ⇒ =
dt t
dy dt dP dy
* * =
dt 
dP dx dx
Chain

dy 1
= * 3 * (− sinP)
dx t
1

= ⋅ 3 ⋅ (− sin 3x)
cos 3x
dy
= −3 tan 3x
dx
Example :

= y =
loge x (loge x)1/2

Solution :
dt 1
t = loge x ⇒ =
dx x
dy 1 −1/2 1
y = t1/2 ⇒ =⋅t =
dt 2 2 2
dy dy dt 1 1
= ⋅ = ⋅
dx dt dx 2 t x
dy 1 1

= ⋅
dx 2 loge x x

Maxima-Minima :
y = f(x)
Mathematical Tools

Maxima : Value of y at that point is greater than values of y at immediate

points in the left and right.
Minima : Value of y at minima is less than values of y at immediate points
in the left and right.

32.
 y

Maxima Maxima
y1

y2
Minima

x
x1 x2

There can be many number of maxima and minima in a single curve. That
is why it is also called as local maxima and local minima.
If on increasing x, y also increases.
⇒ dx > 0 then dy > 0
dy
⇒ >0
dx
or If on decreasing x, y also decreases.
⇒ dx < 0 then dy < 0
dy
⇒ >0
dx
Similarly, If on increasing x, y decreases or on decreasing x, y increases
⇒ dx > 0 then dy < 0 or dx < 0 then dy > 0
dy
⇒ <0
dx
Maxima :

At maxima, slope, m = 0
dy y
= 0 …(1) m=0
dx
d2 y m>0 m<0
= Double differentiation
dx2
Also as x increases, m decreases
Mathematical Tools

( +ve → 0 → –ve )

33.
 dm dy d  dy 
∴ < 0, m =⇒  <0
dx dx dx  dx 

d2 y
⇒ < 0 …(2)
dx2

Minima :

At minima, slope m = 0 y
dy
= 0 …(1)
dx
m>0
Also, as x increases, m increases
m<0
( –ve → 0 → +ve )
m=0
dm dy
∴ > 0, m =
dx dx
x

d  dy 
⇒  >0
dx  dx 

d2 y
⇒ > 0 …(2)
dx2

Example :
y = 5x2 – 2x + 1, find max/min.
Solution :

dy y
=
m = 10x − 2
dx
dy
At maxima/minima, =0
dx
2 1
⇒ 10x − 2 =0 ⇒ x= =
10 5 y = 4/5

x = 1/5 x
Mathematical Tools

1
At x = there can be maxima or minima.
5
dm d2 y
= = + 10
dx dx2

34.
 d2 y
>0
dx2
1
\ At x = there is a minima.
5
2
1 1 4
y = 5  − 2  + 1 ⇒ y =
5
  5
  5
Example :
y = x3 – 3x2, find max/min.
Solution :
dy
= 3x2 − 6x
dx
dy
At maxima or minima, =0
dx
⇒ 3x2 − 6x =
0
x= 0 → max/ min
⇒ 3x(x − 2) =
0
x= 2 → max/ min
Let’s check for maxima or minima.
dm d2 y
= = 6x − 6
dx dx2
d2 y
At x = 0 ⇒ =
−6
dx2
d2 y
< 0 at x = 0
dx2
⇒ At x = 0, there is a minima.
d2 y
At x = 2, = +6
dx2
d2 y
At x = 2, >0
dx2
\ At x = 2, there is a minima.

Example :
d2 y
y = sinx + cos(2x), find .
dx2
Solution :
Mathematical Tools

y = sinx + cos(2x)
dy d d d

= (sin x) + =
(cos 2x) cos x + (cos 2x)
dx dx dx dx 

Chain Rule

35.
 Let z = cos2x

dt
t = 2x → =2
dx
dz
z=
cos t → =
− sin t
dt
d dz dz dt
(cos 2x) = = ⋅ =
− sin t ⋅ 2
dx dx dt dx
d dy
(cos 2x) = −2 sin2x ⇒ = cos x − 2 sin2x
dx dx
Now,

d2 y d  dy  d d
= =   (cos x) − 2 (sin2x)
dx2 dx  dx  dx dx
d2 y d
2
=
− sin x − 2 (sin2x)
dx dx
Let m = sin2x

dt
t = 2x → =2
dx
dm
⇒ m = sin t → = cos t
dt
d dm dm dt
⇒ (sin2x)= = × = cos t × 2= 2 cos 2x
dx dx dt dx
d2 y
⇒ =
− sin x − 4 cos 2x
dx2

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Integration is reverse process of differentiation.

eren ti ation w.r.t x

Diff
dy
dx
y = x3 3x2
Mathematical Tools

36.
Example :
∫ x dx = ?
7

Let, ∫ x dx = y
7

dy
= x7 …(1)
dx
Let, y = ax8
dy
= 8ax7 …(2)
dx
Comparing (1) and (2)
1
1= 8 a ⇒ a=
8
x8
∴ y=
8
x8
∫ x dx =
7

8
xn+ 1
∫ x= +C ⇐ ‘C’ is constant
n
dx
n+1
But why this constant
=
y x3 + C
dy
= 3x2 + 0= 3x2
dx
∴ ∫ 3x dx =
x +C
2 3

x8
Similarly, ∫ x dx
= +C
7

8
Think that integration is reverse process of differentiation and you can
easily predict the results given below.
xn+ 1
∫ x= +C
n
dx
n+1
∫ 1dx= x+C

∫ a dx
= ax + C

∫ sin x dx =
− cos x + C
Mathematical Tools

∫ cos x dx =
+ sin x + C

∫ cosec x cot x dx =
−cosec x + C

37.
 ∫ sec =
x dx tan x + C
2

∫ cosec x dx =
− cot x + C
2

1
∫ x=
dx nx + C

∫ e dx= ex + C
x

ax
∫=
a xdx
loge a
+C

1
∫ 1 +=
x
dx 2
tan−1 (x) + C

1
∫ =
1−x 2
dx sin−1 (x) + C

1
∫|x| =
x −12
dx sec−1 (x) + C

Rules :

y ∫ a dx
= ax + C

y ∫ (u + v) dx = ∫ udx + ∫ v dx
Example :
x3
∫ + =∫ + ∫ = − cos x + C
2 2
(x sin x) dx x dx sin x dx
3
y ∫ a ⋅ f(x)dx =
a ∫ f(x) dx

Example :
x4 3 4
∫ 3x dx = 3∫ x = += x +C
3 3
dx 3 C
4 4
um+ 1
y ∫ u= +C
m
du
m+1
Example :
= ∫ sin θ ⋅ cos θ dθ
3
I
Mathematical Tools

Solution :
du
u sin θ ⇒
= = cos θ ⇒ du
= cos θ dθ
dθ

38.
 u4 t= 5 − 2x
I= ∫u du= +C
2

4 ¬ Substitution method
sin4 θ dt dt
I
= +C ⇒ = −2 ⇒ =dx
4 dx −2
−1 dt 1
Example : I=
2 t∫ =− nt + C
2
tan5 θ
I
= ∫ cos2 θ dθ I=
1
− n(5 − 2x)
2
Solution : Substitution Method :
=
u tan θ Example :
du x
= sec2 θ dθ
= sec2 θ ⇒ du
dθ I= ∫1+x x
dx

= ∫ tan θ ⋅ sec2 θ dθ
5
I t=
1+x x =
1 + x3/2
u6 dt 3 3 −1 3
= ∫ u ⋅ du= +C
5
= 0 + x 2 =x
6 dx 2 2
tan6 θ 2
=I +C ⇒ dt = x dx
6 3
du 2 dt 2
∫= 3∫ t
y nu + C I
= = nt + C
u 3
2
Example : I= n(1 + x x) + C
3
1
=I ∫ sin θ ⋅ cos θ dθ , find I. Example :
= ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ
3
I
Solution :
= = cos θ dθ
u sin θ ⇒ du dt
=t cos θ ⇒ =
− sin θ
1 dθ
I= ∫ u ⋅ du = nu + C
⇒ dt =− sin θ dθ
=I n sin θ + C t4
I=∫ t (−dt) =− +C
3

∴ ∫ cot =
θ dθ n sin θ + C 4
cos4 θ
I
= +C
Example : 4
−3
+1
dx 1 1 x2 Example :
∫ x 2x
=
2
∫
= x −3/2dx
2 −3 + 1
+C
etdt
I= ∫
Mathematical Tools

2 1 − et
Example : x= 1 − et
dx dx
I= ∫ = 0 − et ⇒ dx =
−etdt
5 − 2x dt

39.
 dx
−∫
I= − ∫ x −1/2dx
=
x
 −1 + 1 
 x2 
I=
− +C
 −1 + 1 
 2 
I=−2x1/2 + C =−2 x + C = −2 1 − et + C

Definite Integration :
Not constant of Integration ‘C’, here limits are used.
function → y = x3
upper limit

2
x =2 2
 x4   24   14   1 15
∫x=1 = ∫1 =   =   −    = 4 − =
3
y dx x dx
 4 1  4   4   4 4
lower limit

Example :
2
= ∫ (2y + 1) dy
7
I
1

t = 2y +1
dt dt
= 2 + 0 = 2 ⇒ dy =
dy 2
dt 1 7 1  t8  1 1 8
= ∫t = ∫ t dt=  = ⋅ [t ]
7
I
2 2 28 2 8
1 2
I
= (2y + 1)8 

16 1

1 58 − 38
=
I (58 ) − (38 )=
16 16
Area Under the Curve : (Geometrical Meaning of Integration)

y = x2 y
3 3 3
 x3  1
=I ∫= ydx ∫ x=
dx =  (33 ) − (13 )
2

1 1  3 1 3
1 26
=I = (26) x
3 3 r
3 y
Mathematical Tools

I = ∫ y dx
1

= Area under y vs x curve from

1 3 x
x = 1 to x = 3 dx

40.
Example :
Find area under y = x3 + 3, with x-axis from x = 1 to x = 3.
Solution :
3 3
= ∫ y= ∫ (x + 3)dx
3
Area dx
1 1

Example :

y = sinq y
Find area under y vs from q = 0 to q = p
+1

O π 2π θ

–1

Solution :
π π
=
Area ∫ y d=
0
θ ∫ sin θ dθ
0

= − [cos θ]0 = − [cos π − cos 0] = –[(–1) – (1)]

π

Area = 2 unit

Average Value :
Example :

y = f(x) = x2 y
Find average value of y from x = 1 to y = x2
x=3
x2

∫ y dx
x1
y=
avg =
y x2
Mathematical Tools

∫ dx
x1

1 3 x

41.
 Solution :
3 3
1
∫1 y dx ∫x
3
dx 3
[27 − 1]
x3/3 
=y = 1
= = 1 3 = 26 ⇒ y =
13
[ x ]1 [3 − 1]
3 3 3
6 2
∫ dx 1
∫ dx
1

Example :
y = 2 sinq
Find average of y from q = 0 to q = p.
Solution :
π π

∫0 y dθ ∫ 2 sin θ dθ 2 [ − cos θ]0

π
2(2) 4
=y = 0
= = =
[θ]0
π π π
[π − 0] π
∫ dθ 0
∫ dθ
0

4
y =
π
VECTOR
Physical Quantities :
Definition : The quantities by means of which, we described the laws of
physics are called physical quantities.
Example : Length, Mass, Time, Force
→ Physical quantities can be measured.
→ Emotions, Feelings, Thinking, Pain are not physical quantities, because
they cannot be measured.

→ If someone asks about your mass and your answer is 60 kg, then person
is satisfied because he got the complete answer.
→ If someone asks about location (position) of your school and you only
Mathematical Tools

tell the distance of school from your current location, then person will
not be satisfied and he will ask about the direction also. Hence position
is a vector quantity.

42.
 → A block is kept on a platform and someone asks you to apply a force
of 10N on the block. You will ask the person that in which direction you
have to apply the force.

\ Force is a vector quantity because, to completely define a force

information of magnitude and direction, both are required.

Wooden
plank

L = 15 cm

Length of wooden plank is 15 cm and direction is not required to specify the

length. Hence length is a scalar quantity.
y A Physical quantity is vector, if
→ It has magnitude
→ It has direction
→ It follows rules of vector addition.
y Current is a scalar quantity.
→ Current has magnitude as well as direction but it does not follows law
of vector addition.
y Vector changes on changing its direction. Value of addition of vectors also
changes on changing direction.
Example : We apply two forces, each of magnitude 10 N in same direction
as shown in figure.

10N
Mathematical Tools

Result : Block will move

10N

43.
 Now, we apply two forces, each of magnitude 10N but in opposite directions
as shown in figure.

10N 10N Result : Block will not move

→ Result changes on changing the direction of vector.

\ Force is a vector quantity.
y Water is being filled in a bucket with the help of two pipes.

3 kg/s & 4 kg/s are mass flow rates 3 kg/s 4 kg/s

of water in pipes. Bucket is filled at
a rate
7 kg/s.
[If it was like 3 lit/s and 4 lit/s then it
is volume flow rate of water in pipe.
Bucket will be filled at 7 lit/s.]

7 kg/s

Here also, bucket is filled at 7 kg/s 4 kg/s

rate.
→ No change in result in above cases 3 kg/s
on changing the direction of flow.
\ Mass flow rate and volume flow
rate are scalar quantities.

7 kg/s
Mathematical Tools

44.
Current :

2A 3A 2A

5A
3A 5A

As there is no change in result, hence current is a scalar quantity.

Example :

Ground
y

4m
x

Ball
Pipe

Case I : Ball is given a speed of 4 m/s in x-direction.

4 m/s

Ball t=0 t = 1s

Ball will come out of pipe after 1s.

4
=
t = 1 sec
4
Mathematical Tools

Case II: Ball is given a speed of 4 m/s in x-direction and simultaneously pipe
is given a speed of 3 m/s in y-direction.

45.
 5m
3 m/s 3m

4 m/s
4m

Ball will again come out of pipe after 1s, but this time at a different location.
Ball travels 5m in 1s
\ Velocity of ball is 5m/s
→ Here ball has been given two velocities, velocity of 4 m/s in x-direction
and velocity of 3 m/s in y-direction.
→ Addition of two velocities 3 m/s and 4 m/s gives a velocity of 5 m/s in
this case.

4 m/s

Ball t=0 t = 1s

Case III: Ball is given a velocity of 4 m/s in x-direction and simultaneously

pipe is also given a velocity of 3m/s in x-direction.
Ball again comes out of pipe after 1s. This time ball travels 7 m and velocity
of ball is 7 m/s.
→ Here resultant of two velocities 3 m/s and 4m/s is 7 m/s.
→ Result changes on changing the direction of velocity.
\ Velocity is a vector quantity.

VECTOR:
Definition: If a physical quantity in addition of magnitude and unit.
→ has specified direction.
Mathematical Tools

→ Obeys the laws of parallelogram of addition.

R= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
→ And its addition is commutative i.e.

46.
    
A +B =B+ A

Geometrical representation of vector

Length of arrow : Magnitude of vector quantity. Head

B

Tail
A

Representation of vector:
Example: 3 Persons A, B and C are running on road as shown.

10 m/s 15 m/s 5 m/s

A B C W E

 10
Velocity of A, (VA / VA ) = 10m / s , towards East

 15
Velocity of B, (VB / VB ) = 15m / s , towards East

 5
Velocity of C, (VC / VC ) = 5m / s , towards West

Length of arrow represents the magnitude of vector. Direction of arrow represents the
direction of vector.
Mathematical Tools

Example :
Two persons A and B are applying forces of 50 N and 100 N respectively on the block as
shown.

47.
 
FA = Force applied by A on block.

FB = Force applied by B on block.

FA FB

Types of vector :
→ Zero vector
→ Parallel vector
→ Antiparallel vector
→ Equal vector
→ Opposite vector
→ Unit vector
→ Co-linear vector
→ Co-planer vector

Example :
Four persons A, B, C and D are applying forces on a block as shown in
diagram.
Mathematical Tools

Equal vectors: Vectors having same magnitude as well as same direction.

 
→ FA & FB are equal vectors.

48.
Opposite
 vectors
 : Vectors having same magnitude but opposite direction.
→ FA & FC are opposite vectors.
 
→ FB & FC are opposite vectors.
Parallel vectors
 : Vector having same direction but different magnitudes.
→ FC & FD are parallel.
Antiparallel vectors : Vectors having different magnitude but they are in
opposite
 directions.

→ FA & FD are antiparallel.
 
→ FB & FD are antiparallel.

Collinear vectors : Vectors along same line.

 
→ FA & FB are collinear vectors.

Co-planer vectors: Vectors on same plane. Plane of table

   
→ A,B, C, & D are co-planer.
C
B
A
D

Unit Vector :
→ A vector with magnitude of unity is called unit vector.
Mathematical Tools


 a
→ Unit vector in direction of a is, â = 
a

49.
 Example :
Two persons A & B are running along direction ‘P’ with velocities 10 m/s and
6 m/s respectively.

→ VA = 10m / s along P-direction

→ VB = 6m / s along p-direction.

Viewing from the Top


VA
V̂P =  = unit vector in p-direction
VA VA

 VA 6 
= = ˆ
VB 6.VP 6. =
 VA
VA 10 unit vector
along P 1
 
VB = 0.6VA

→ If you want to find a unit vector in any direction then

→ take a vector in that direction.
→ Divide the vector by its magnitude.
→ We are left with only direction.

Addition of Vectors :
y Angle between two vectors

B
Mathematical Tools

→ We can shift a vector parallel to itself.

→ To find the angle between two vectors we have to place them tail to Tail.

50.
 B
B Angle between
vectors A and B
θ
A

Angle between
P and Q
× θ

Methods of vector addition :

1) Triangle method
2) Parallelogram method

Triangle method :
Example :
    
Given that angle between A and B is ‘q’. Find A + B =
C?

Solution :
  
A+ B = C
1st 2nd
H
→ Draw the 1st vector as it is.
→ Shift the 2nd vector as it is and keep the tail of 2nd vector
Mathematical Tools

=C
on the head of 1st vector. A+B B
→ Join the tail of 1st vector with head of 2nd vector and it
 
will give ' A + B' T H T
A

51.
 Example :
 
Find A + B

A
B

Solution :
T A T

A+
B B

Example :
   
Angle between A & B is ‘q’ and | A |= a , | B |= b .
    B b
Value of A is a, value of B is b, Find A + B ?

a
A

Solution :

x
= cos θ ⇒ x= b cos θ
b
C
y B=
= sin θ ⇒ y= b sin θ A+ B
y = bsinθ
b b
(a + b cos θ)2 + (b sin θ)2 =c2 a
λ θ 90°
A x = bcosθ
(a+bcosθ)

⇒ a2 + b2 cos2 θ + 2ab cos θ + b2 sin2 θ = c2

Mathematical Tools

⇒ a2 + b2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) + 2ab cos θ = c2

⇒ c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ
c= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ

52.
  
Angle of B with A is ‘q’
 
Angle of C with A is ‘l’
c bsinθ
b sin θ
tan λ =
a + b cos θ
λ θ
A
(a+bcosθ)

Example :
   
Angle between two vectors A and B is 60°. = =
| A | 5,| B | 10 . Then find
 
| A +B|

Solution :
 
| A | = a = 5 , | B | = b = 10 , q = 60°
c= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ = 52 + 102 + 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 10 ⋅ cos 60°
1
c= 25 + 100 + 100 × = 175
2
 
| A + B | = c = 175
 
Angle between A & C
3 3
10 × 10
b sin θ 2 = 2 = 3
=
tan λ =
a + b cos θ 5 + 10 × 1 5+5 2
2
3
tan λ =
2
 3
λ =tan–1  
 2 
Example :
     
| A | = 4, | B | =3 and | A + B |=
5 . Find angle between A and B .
Solution :
 
Mathematical Tools

| A + B |= c = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ
c2 = 52 = 42 + 32 + 2×4×3× cosq
⇒ 25 + 24 cosq = 25 ⇒ 24 cosq = 25–25 = 0
⇒ cosq = 0 ⇒ θ= 90°

53.
 Example :      
Angle between A and B is 120°, | A |= a and | B |= a . Find | A + B | and angle
 
between C & A .
Solution :

c= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ

c= a2 + a2 + 2a ⋅ a cos 120°
A +B a B
1 C
cos 120° =–
2
λ 120°
 1
c= a + a + 2 ⋅ a ⋅ a × – 
2 2
a
 2 A

=
c a2 + a2 – a2 ⇒ c = a
a sin 120°
tan λ = ⇒ tan λ = 3 ⇒ l = 60°
a + a cos 120°
Parallelogram method :
Example :
 
Angle between A and B is ‘q’.
  
Find, A + B =
C B

Solution :

Draw the two vectors such that their tails coincide. Draw a line parallel to
  
A passing through head of B . Draw a line parallel to B passing through head

of A . Point of intersection of these lines when joined from the common tail
   
point of A and B , it gives A + B .
Mathematical Tools

54.
 C
B B= b c
A+ bsinθ
θ
λ λ θ
A    A a bcosθ

b sin θ
c= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ & tan λ =
a + b cos θ
Example :
      
| A | = a, | B | = a, Angle between A & B,=
θ 120° . Find A + B =
C

Solution :

| C |= a
 
Angle of C with A is 60°. B a
B
A+

a
°
12 0

60° A
a

Subtraction of vectors: Subtraction is also a type of addition.

Example :

   
A , B are given. Angle between A & B is ‘q’ .
   
Find A= =
– B D,| D| d b B

a
A

Solution :
   
A – B= A + (–B)
Mathematical Tools

55.
 b A
180°–θ
a
–B b
B A+ (–B)
–B
b D
a
A   

| D=| a2 + b2 + 2ab cos(180° – θ)

d=
a2 + b2 – 2ab cos θ

Polygon law :
    
A +B+C +D = E

D D
D C C
2
C B G E
E
4
4
F B
B

A 5   A   A
  
A +B =F
   
⇒ F +C +D =
E
  
F+C+G
  
⇒ G+D = E

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar (number) :

B = 2A
A In general
B = nA
If ‘n’ is positive
� magnitude becomes ‘n’ times
Mathematical Tools

� direction remains same

2A
=

If ‘n’ is negative C = –1A

B

� magnitude becomes |n| times

A
A

–1

� direction becomes opposite

=
C

56.
 Components : Resolution of a Vector :
B An B
= ⇒ An =A⋅ 
H A H
⇒ An = A cos θ
 
' An ' is component of ' A ' in 'n'
ˆ direction.
OS= A= e A cos β
 
' Ae ' is component of ' A ' in ê direction
y Meaning of component is effect.

Example :

ˆ ' direction as
A person moves by 10 m in ' a (j)
y
shown.

=
A x A cos θ a

A x A cos θˆi
=
A
C
OC= A=y A cos(90° − θ=
) A sin θ

A y A sin θˆi
= 10
m
θ A
Ay °–
90
θ
O Ax B x

•A vector can have many components.

Components of A

Component of a vector at 90° is “zero”.

Mathematical Tools

= =
A90° A cos 90° 0

57.
 Example :
If a person moves in y-direction then its x co-ordinate will not change.

θ= 90°
    
Ap = 0

Rectangular Components :

Any set of two components at 90° with each other.

= Vx V cos θ
=Vy V cos(90° −=
θ) V sin θ

⇒ Vx = v cos θˆi

=Vy V sin θ ˆj

Vy V
θ
°–
90

θ
Vx

y When rectangular components are added, we get original vector.

Mathematical Tools

58.
   
=
V Vx + Vy

=V V cos θˆi + V sin θ ˆj
  
� α + β ≠ 90° ⇒ Ve + Vn ≠ V

ˆ⊥m
n ˆ

=Vn V cos θ n
ˆ

= Vm V cos(90° − θ)m ˆ
y 
=Vm V sin θ m
ˆ
  
=
V Vn + Vm

=V V cos θ n
ˆ + V sin θ m
ˆ

90° Vcosθ
n
θ
9
Vcos(90°-θ ) 0° –
θ
V

→ “A vector can have many sets of rectangular components.”

Coordinate System :
Right handed coordinate system : x, y, z axes are selected by “Right Hand
Mathematical Tools

Rule”.
— Put your hand along x-axis
— Curl your four fingers towards y-axis
— Thumb gives direction of z-axis

59.
 Example :

z
y z

x x

3-Rectangular Components :

=
Vx V cos α

=
Vy V cos β

=
Vz V cos γ

=
OS Vx2 + Vz2

=
OP OS2 + SP2
SP = Vy

OP = Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2

V= Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2


V V cos αˆi + V cos βˆj + V cos γkˆ
=

Now,
=V (V cos α)2 + (V cos β)2 + (V cos γ )2
Mathematical Tools

=
⇒ V2 V2 [cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ ]
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

60.
Example :
 
V makes an angle 135° with x-axis write V in terms of î and ĵ

Solution :

V V cos θˆi + V sin θ ˆj , Here, =
= θ 135° y


= V V cos(135°) + V sin(135°)
V
 1 ˆ  1 ˆ
= V − i + V j
 2  2
135°
 V ˆ V ˆ
V= − i+ j x
2 2

Example :
   
A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + kˆ , draw A . Also find magnitude of A i.e. | A |

Solution :
 z
A = A xˆi + A yˆj + Azkˆ
y
= =
A x 2, A y 3,= Az 1
 1
|A|= A2x + A2y + A2z 3
= 22 + 32 + 12 2 2
Ay

 3
| A | = 14 1 A

Az
x
Ax 1 2 3 4
Mathematical Tools

61.
 Product of Vectors :

1) Vector Product (Cross Product) ⇒ Result is a vector.

2) Scalar Product (Dot Product) ⇒ Result is a scalar.

    
y Vector Product of A and B ⇒ A × B =C (vector)
   
y Scalar Product of A and B ⇒ A ⋅ B =
D (scalar)
 
A=
× B (ab sin θ) e
ˆ
 
A=
⋅ B ab cos θ
 
Where | A | = a and | B | = b
 
and ‘q’ is angle between A and B

Cross Product :
  
A ×B =C
  
� C is perpendicular to A and B .
 
C is perpendicular to plane formed by A
� 

and B .

Direction of C is given by right hand thumb
� 
rule.

  
A ×B =C

To find direction of C
Mathematical Tools

62.
  
Place your stretched right palm perpendicular to the plane of A and B in

such a way that the fingers are along A and when the fingers are closed,
 
they go towards B . Then, direction of thumb gives the direction of C .
  
OR A × B = C = AB sin θ n
ˆ
y Direction of n̂ is found out by same method.

Example :
    
=A 5m= ˆ . Angle between m
ˆ and B 6n ˆ is 37°. Find A × B =
ˆ and n C.

Solution :
  
A × B = C = AB sin θ e
ˆ n

= 5 × 6 × sin 37°e
ˆ
e
6
3
C

B
= 5×6× e ˆ
5
 37° 5 m
C = 18 e
ˆ
A

   n
A × B = C = ab sin θ n
ˆ
C
  
B × A = D = ba sin θ (−n)
ˆ
B
   
A × B and B × A have same magnitude, but θ
A
opposite direction.

   
| A × B | = | B × A | = ab sin θ
D
   
(A × B) =−(B × A) (–n)
Mathematical Tools

63.
  
| ab sin θ = Base × Height = Area of
| A × B=
Parallelogram
b H

θ
a

Dot Product :
 
A=⋅ B ab cos θ
  B
=
A ⋅ B a(b cos θ)
  b
= a * length of projection of B on A θ
  a
= a * component of B along A A
 
A=⋅ B (a cos θ)b
 
= length of projection of A on B * b

Example :

A = a1ˆi + a2ˆj + a3kˆ

B = b1ˆi + b2ˆj + b3kˆ
    
Find : 1) A × B = C 2) A ⋅ B =d

Solution :

ˆi −ˆj kˆ
 
1) | A × B | =
a 1 a2 a 3
b1 b2 b3

a2 a 3 ˆ a 1 a 3 ˆ a 1 a2
= ˆi −j +k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 )ˆj + (a 1b2 − a2b1 )kˆ

Mathematical Tools


If A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj − 2kˆ

B = 2iˆ + 4ˆj + 1kˆ

64.
 ˆi −ˆj kˆ
 
A=
×B 2 3 −2
2 4 1

= [3 × 1 − 4 × (−2)]iˆ − [2 × 1 − 2 × (−2)]jˆ + [2 × 4 − 2 × 3]kˆ

= 11 ˆi − 6ˆj + 2kˆ
 
2) A ⋅ B = d = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

If A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj − 2kˆ

B = 2iˆ + 4ˆj + kˆ
 
A ⋅ B = 2 × 2 + 3 × 4 + (−2) × 1 =4 + 12 − 2 = 14
 
y Angle between A and B
 
A= ⋅ B ab cos θ
 
A ⋅B
cos θ =
ab
 
= a |= A | and b | B |
 
A ⋅B  
cos θ =   , where ‘q’ is angle between A and B
| A | |B|

| A= | 22 + 32 + (−2)2 = 17

|B| = 22 + 42 + 12 = 21
14
cos θ = .
17 21

y When two vectors are perpendicular (θ = 90°), their dot product is zero.
 
= A ⋅ B AB=
cos 90° 0

Mathematical Tools

65.